Notes and References

Note: The presence of an asterisk at the end of a note indicates that the relevant quotation was originally in English, but has had to be translated back into English from the author's French text.

1 Communism and Youth

I. Ralph Talcott Fisher Jr, Pattern for Soviet Youth (New York: Columbia University Press, 1959), p. 12. 2. The International Union of Socialist Youth Organizations (IUSYO) had been founded in Stuttgart in August 1907. It had been taken over by Miinzenberg during the First World War, while its leaders were absent. Under his direc• tion, the IUS YO, renamed The International Centre of the Organizations of Socialist Youth (CIOJS), was to undergo profound structural changes. 3. E. H. Carr, The Bolshevik Revolution, 1917 to 1923 (London: Macmillan, 1952), p. 448. 4. His departure completed the total sovietization of the KIM. According to Margarete Huber-Neumann, from that time onwards Miinzenberg became aware of the danger the sovereign claims of the Russian party created for the international working-class movement. Cf. La revolution mondiale. L'his• toire du Komintern ( 1919-1943), racontee par l'un de ses principaux temoins (Tournai: Casterman 1971). 5. Miinzenberg had all the talents of a captain of industry. Within a very short time he built up, independently of the international socialist organization, a chain of publishing houses, magazines, daily papers, a film company - in short a giant conglomerate that those within the Party called the 'Konzern Miinzenberg'. Heading this enormous financial empire, he devoted himself selflessly to the promotion of communism. Through his network of organiza• tions, which stretched from England to Japan, he controlled a large number of periodicals (in Japan alone he edited, directly or indirectly, 19 publications in the 1930s), staged theatrical productions and produced films. It was through him that the products of the young Soviet film industry were distri• buted in Europe. He arranged for masterpieces such as Battleship Potemkin, Mother, Storm over Asia and other famous films of great directors such as Eisenstein, Poudovkine, Ozep and so on, to be shown in Berlin and thus revealed to an enthusiastic Western public. 6. R. H. Carew-Hunt, The Theory and Practice of Communism (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1957), p. 180. 7. 3rd Congress of the Comintern, Theses on the Structure, Methods, and Actions of the Communist Party, cited on p. 114 in Harmel, La C.G.T., 1947-1981 (Paris: PUF, 1982), p. 20. 8. Richard Cornell, Youth and Communism (New York: Walker, 1965). 9. Ibid., p. 57. 10. Jacques Varin, Jeunes comme JC, vol. 1, 1920-1939 (Paris: Editions Sociales, 1975) p. 181.

225 226 Notes and References to pp. 7-11 II. Henri Barbusse, You are the Pioneers, Being a Report of the World Youth Congress Against Fascism and War (London: Utopia Press, 1933). 12. Jacques Varin in Jeunes comme JC, op. cit., records only the anti-fascist aspect of the Congress, systematically erasing all the antidemocratic, anti• socialist and anti-League of Nations rhetoric. 13. In his work, Varin describes the Paris meeting as having taken place under the aegis of the League of Nations! 14. 'Build the united front of democratic countries against dictatorship? This is the most up-to-date manoeuvre of democratic imperialism: in reality it means the setting of one group against another, huge business wars, a flag covering a vast commercial bargaining, which will end as always in the crushing of the masses (Barbusse You are the Pioneers, op. cit., pp. II, 12). Note the slightly peculiar English of Barbusse. 15. 'The enemy is not a foreign one. It [sic] is not found in a distant land. The enemy attacks the workers' wages and conditions. It is here. It sits in man• sions and in counting houses, in palaces and in directors' board rooms. It sits in government offices', Twenty Years After. The real story of the War in Pictures (London, 1934 }, 17 pp. 16. Ibid. p. 16. 17. 'We will fight, but not for capitalism. Now we can see that the enemy is our own country. The question is to organize the fight. We reject the slogan of the Defence of the Fatherland. The fatherland of Vickers and Baldwin is not our Fatherland. We have no quarrels with the youth of foreign countries, but on the contrary we will fight in common with them', Hit Back - & Win: A call from the national youth against War and Fascism held at Sheffield on August 4th and 5th, 1934 (London: Youth Anti-War Council), p. 7. 18. I say 'seemed' because it has popularly been assumed (not least by Ribbentrop, then the obtuse German ambassador to the Court of StJames, who reported back to Hitler that the elite of British youth was riddled with pacifism) that all those who voted for that resolution were indeed pacifists. But some of those present at the debate recall that many supporters of the motion argued that 'King and Country' were indeed jingoistic and outdated concepts for which they would refuse to fight: but they would be prepared to fight for a noble cause- as indeed many of them would do when the war broke out. 19 Varin, Jeunes comme JC, op. cit., p. 153. 20. Ibid.

2 The Young Communists and the Popular Front, 1935-39

I. Annie Kriegel, Les communistes fran~ais, (Point/Poche: Seuil, 1970), p. 62. 2. See for instance the conclusion of an article on the Conference on Colonial Problems, organized in April 1939 by the World Student Organization, in World Youth Review (a monthly supplement of World News and Views) no. 6 (June 1939), p. 125. 3. Arthur Koestler, Hieroglyphics, vol. I, p. 285, quoted in Alain Brossat, Agents de Moscou (Gallimard, 1988). 4. 6th World Congress of the Young Communist International. The Day is Ours. Report of Comrade M. Woolf, October 1935 (London), 36pp, p. 8. Notes and References to pp. 11-16 227

During the Congress Michael Woolf (or Wolf) had been elected General Secretary. Michael Farkas (the name means 'Wolf in Hungarian) was a Jew born in Kosice. He had been General Secretary of the Czech Young Communists before fleeing to Moscow. He would become Hungarian Defence Minister under Rakosi. 5. Ibid. p. 9 and INPRECORR (International Press Correspondence, the organ of the Comintern, to be re-named World News and Views in 1938), 5 October 1935, p. 1271 6. INPRECORR, 17 August, 1936, p. 135. 7. Ibid. pp. 14-15. 8. INPRECORR, 12 October 1935, p. 1359. 9. Membership of the French Young Communists grew spectacularly: 4198 in February 1934, 12 430 at the begining of 1935, 23 000 in July 1935, 30 000 in December 1935, 40 000 in May 1936, 72 000 in August 1936, I 00 000 in December 1936. 10. World Youth Review, the monthly supplement of the Comintern organ World News and Views, vol. 2, no. I (January 1939), p. 2. II. At its executive meeting in Liege, it felt obliged to allow its national sections the freedom to make agreements with communist groups; but the IUSY itself refused all cooperation with the KIM. 12. See Pierre Boisson, Second Anniversary of the United Socialist Youth of Belgium, in World Youth Review, no. I (January 1939), p. 17. 13. Heinrich Eppe, The Power of Solidarity: Eighty Years of Socialist Youth International (Bonn/Vienna: IUSY, 1987), p. 62. 14. Ibid., p. 64, and Radomir Luza, History of the International Socialist Movement (Leyden: Sijhoff, 1970), p. 53. 15. George Orwell, The Lion and the Unicorn (London: Gollancz, 1941), p. 95. 16. Full name: the National Union of Students of England, Wales and Northern Ireland. Scottish students had their own organization, the Student Union of Scotland (SUS). 17. Philip Toynbee, then one of the most conspicuous communists at Oxford, was at the time secretary of the university section of the party. According to Andrew Lewis, 'he was the very archetype of the Marxist dandy, having an aristocratic life-style and a romantic identification with the masses'.* Cf. Le Rouge et le Bleu, La manufacture, 1986, pp. 91-2. 18. A film made in 1934 by Serge and Georges Vassiliev. 19. Interview with the author. 20. Activist on the Spanish Aid Committee, then Secretary of the International Youth Congress, which would be formed in London in 1941. In an interview with the author, Mrs Williams denied that she had been more than a fellow traveller. 21. General Secretary of the World Congress of Youth ( 193~2). She was the wife of the young activist Michael Wallace (son of the crime novelist Edgar Wallace), who would be killed in the Italian campaign. Her second husband was Dudley Collard, a lawyer who had taken part in the Moscow Trials and who had subsequently won further notoriety in Britain by publicly insisting that the accused had been guilty. 22. Interview with the author. 23. See note 30 on p. 228. 228 Notes and References to pp. 17-22 24. 22 March, 1932. Comintern Archives, Moscow, 533/10/341, p. 2. 25. Ibid., p. 13. 26. See the letter of Alex Massie of the London YCL to Lewis Powey at the KIM in Moscow, 4 July 1939 Comintern Archives, Moscow, 533/10/352, pp. 86 to 96. 27. Ibid., pp. 91-6. 28. Interview with the author, London, 25 February 1988. 29. Report by the Secretary to the London Labour Party Executive. Agenda for the Executive meeting of 11/6/36. Item no. 5, EC 29 (35/6). Youth Advisory Committee and London Youth Peace Assembly. 30. See Marian (Wilbraham) Slingova, Truth will Prevail, (London, Merlin Press 1968); and interview with the author. In 1941 she married the brilliant young Ota Sling (Vaclav Nosek, the future Czech minister of the interior, prepared their marriage dinner). Sling was a veteran of the Spanish Civil War; after the war he became regional secretary of the Czech Communist Party in Brno. At the time of the Slansky trial, however, he was accused of being a Zionist agent and was hanged on 3 December 1952. As for Marian Wilbraham, having lost her children and her British nationality by marrying a foreigner, she then spent nearly ten years in a Czech prison. Neither John Gollan, who had in the mean• time become secretary of the British Communist Party, nor her best friend Margot Gale could do anything for this woman, who now lives in London. 31. Interview with the author in Brighton, 23 March 1988. 32. A confidential document in the Labour Party archives, dated 10 June 1936 and addressed to Herbert Morrison of the Labour Party executive, well illus• trates the keen distrust expressed by socialists towards these new antifascist structures: 'There is evidence that the communists are pursuing their activi• ties within this Youth Peace Assembly, the local Peace Councils associated with it, and the Universal Peace Congress; and that they intend to exploit these movements on the basis of a United Front for Peace .. .' (Report by the Secretary; Agenda for the meeting of the Executive of the London Labour Party, 11/36, Item No.5 EC 29, 35/6). 33. The introduction to the minutes of the conference claimed that a Genevan press agency that specialized in 'fighting the Third International has led a campaign, as absurd as it is scandalous, against the World Congress, denouncing it as a clandestine communist manoeuvre. It puts the Federal authorities on guard against a gathering of hundreds of young bolsheviks' (Youth Plans for a New World- being the official record of the First World Youth Congress, Geneva, organized by the International Federation of League of Nations Societies, 14 A venue de France, Geneva, p. 6. 34. Ibid., p. 7. 35. She was confirmed as the permanent General Secretary at the end of the Congress. 36. In the sports park of La Courneuve. 37. The October/November 1937 issue of the Courrier Universe/ de Ia Jeunesse, the periodical of the Bureau de liaison de Ia Communaute Universelle de Ia Jeunesse, which proclaimed itself 'the international organ of information, liaison and discussion of all the youth organizations'. 38. Youth Demands a Peaceful World: Report of the Second World Youth Congress (New York and Geneva), p. 42. Notes and References to pp. 22-8 229

39. I am indebted for much of the following material to an unpublished doctoral thesis by George Philip Rawick, 'The New Deal and Youth: The Civilian Conservation Corps, the National Youth Administration, and the American Youth Congress', Wisconsin University, 1957; and for much of the material relating to Eleanor Roosevelt to her Memoirs, This I Remember (New York: Harper Brothers, 1949). I have found various works by one of her friends, Joseph P. Lash, particularly useful, e.g. Eleanor Roosevelt: A Friend's Memoir (New York: Doubleday, 1964). Last but not least, I have consulted the personal archives of Mrs Roosevelt in Hyde Park, the former summer residence of the family, which is today a museum and archive depository. 40. Richard Cornell, Youth and Communism: A Historical Analysis of the International Communist Youth Movements (New York: Walker, 1965), pp. 67-8. 41. Ibid., p. 68. 42. Leslie Gould, American Youth Today (New York: Random House, 1940), p. 25. 43. Eleanor Roosevelt, 'My Day', 9 August 1938. 44. Joseph P. Lash, Eleanor and Franklin (New York: Signet), p. 714. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid.

3 The Young Communists and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939-41

I. Fernand Claudio, La Crise du Mouvement Communiste: Du Komintern au Kominform (Paris: Maspero, 1972), supporting text, vol. I, p. 347. 2. SeeS. Coutois and D. Peschanski in Azema, Prost, Rioux, Le PCF des Annees Sombres, 1938-1942 (Point/Poche: Le Seuil, 1986), pp. 250-74; Seuil, and Annie Kriegel, Les communistes Franrais (Point/Poche: Seuil, 1970). 3. Andrew Sinclair, Le Rouge et le Bleu (Paris: Le Manufacture, 1989- French translation of a book published by Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1986) p. I 02; and Noreen Branson, History of the Communist Party of Great Britain, 1927 to 1941 (London: Laurence & Wishart, 1985), pp. 266-70. 4. See The Betrayal of the Left: an Examination and Refutation of Communist Policy from October 1939 to January 1941, with Suggestions for an Alternative, and an Epilogue on Political Morality (London: Victor Gollancz, 1941 ). This is the basic text that shows the disillusion with the Communist Party of the majority of fellow travellers such as John Strachey and George Orwell. 5. World Youth Review, no. I, p. 4. 6. This was after Poland had succumbed to the invasions by Germany and Russia. 7. Viz. the Eastern half of Poland, which she had annexed after the Pact. 8. Challenge, 7 October 1939, p. 4. 9. True to her democratic traditions, Britain, unlike France, did not ban either the Communist Party or the Young Communists and their periodical Challenge, despite certain very understandable hesitations. Only the Daily Worker was banned, on 22 January 1941. In February the cabinet rejected a proposal from Duff Cooper, the Minister of Information, to ban six other 230 Notes and References to pp. 28-32 publications, such as the Comintern organ World News and Views, as well as Challenge. See Branson, History of the Communist Party, op. cit., pp. 319-20. 10. Challenge, 4 November 1939, p. 5. II. Youth News, Aprill940, p. 13. 12. The Soviet Union had taken advantage of its Pact with Germany to attack Finland in November 1939 and that war was in its closing stages at the time of the conference. It ended ten days later, on 13 March, when the Finns ceded some of their frontier regions to Russia. 13. That is, the Finnish government 14. Letter dated 4 March 1940 in the Noel-Baker archives at Churchill College, Cambridge, ref. NBKR 4/508. 15. Noel-Baker archives; reply by Lord Lipton to Noel-Baker, 27 March 1940. 16. Youth News, Aprill940, p. 13. Also Challenge, 29 February 1940. 17. Challenge, II Aprill940. 18. He wrote many articles for Challenge. For instance, on 18 January 1940, writing about Lenin's thesis about the First World War, he condemned the Second as imperialist; and on II April he wrote in support of the independent, antiwar Labour candidate for the Battersea by-election: 'As a former National Chairman, I have known Eric Joyce for years. His action in standing as an anti-war candidate is an indication of the feeling in the LL Y' (p. 7). 19. Under the editorship of Michael Schneier, formerly press attache at the World Youth Congress, the cream of the crypto-communist youth wrote for it: Betty Shields-Collins, Gabriel Carritt, Margot Gale, Arnold Kettle, Daniel Pitt (of the National Committee of the LNUYG), Marian Wilbraham (general secretary of the BYPA), Michael Wallace (formerly of the international secretariat World Communist Youth), P. N. Hansar (General Secretary of the All-Indian Students Federation), Abott Simon (director of the legal department of the American Youth Congress), George Matthews (President of the University Labour Federation and Vice• President of the NUS). 20. Youth News, no. I, December 1939, p. I. 21. In an article entitled 'I Work in a Factory' a certain Jane Smith wrote: 'The general attitude seems to be to try and treat the girls more and more as machines and less and less as human beings with a right to life .... How can the BYPA, and youth organizations generally, help?' 22. Youth News, no. I, December 1939, p. 7. 23. Ibid., p. 15 24. 'The war of 1914-1918 was fought in the name of peace and democracy, but it brought neither: and a legacy of suffering and disillusionment.. .. We do not wish to lose our own democracy'. ibid., p. 17. 25. Youth News, no. 2, January 1940, p. 12. 26. Ibid. 27. Youth News, no. 3, 28. Youth News, no. 5, 29. Ibid., 30. Youth News, no. 6, May 1940, p. 7; emphasis in the original. 31. Ibid., p. II. In the 9th issue (September 1940), Youth News again attacked the desire of the British government to organize young people 'on the model Notes and References to pp. 32-41 231 of the Hitler Youth'; but Marshal Petain continued to benefit from the friendly attention of British Young Communists: had he not declared, in a broadcast addressed to young Frenchmen that he understood their anguish, affirmed that they were the hope of a new France and that they were the foundation of France's regeneration? And had he not promised to uphold all existing youth movements? 32. The C.U. Anti-War Movement, the C.U. Friends Society, the C.U. Socialist Society, the C.U. Labour Club and the University Labour Federation. 33. 'Cambridge University and War' (Cambridge, 1940). 34. 'War on the USSR?', produced by the University Socialist Club and printed by the University Labour Federation, London 1939 or 1940. 35. University Forward, vol. 5, no. 34 (3 November 1939). 36. Ibid. 37. D. N. Pritt, 'The October Revolution', ibid. 38. 'India fights Imperialism', by an Indian student in ibid. 39. This letter is part of a six-page dossier prepared in May 1946 by Morgan Phillips, the General Secretary of the Labour Party, to prevent the University Labour Federation (under its new name the Student Labour Federation) being received back into the socialist fold. Labour Party Archives, ref. G5/STUD/4. 40. Labour Party Archive, ibid. 41. The annual conference of the ULF had, by 49 votes to nine, with two absten• tions, condemned the imperialist war against Germany, and by 46 votes against five had expressed its support for the Soviet Union, which had been compelled for security reasons to intervene in Finland. Branson, History of the Communist Party, op. cit., p. 280. 42. 'How We Can Win the War', ULF pamphlet no. 5 (London: ULF, 1940)* 43. Students in Congress, Leeds, 1940 (London: London 1940) 44. Ibid, p. 20. 45. Brian Simon, 'The Student Movement in England and Wales in the 1930s', History of Education, vol. 16, no. 3 (1987), pp. 189-203. 46. I met George Matthews at the Communist Party headquarters, and he advised me to meet Margot Gale, Marion Wilbraham and others. 47. Youth News, April 1941, p. 14. 48. 1,100 Students in Congress (Cambridge: NUS, 1941) 49. Interview with the author. 50. For the sources of material about the American Youth Congress, see Chapter 2, note 39, p 229. 51. See Chapter 2, p. 21 supra. 52. 'Hearings before a Special Committee on On-American Activities', House of Representatives, 76th Congress, 1st session, 30 November, p. 6694. 53. Eleanor Roosevelt, This 1 Remember (New York: Harper & Bros, 1949), p. 161. 54. Ibid., p. 160. 55. New York Herald Tribune, 2 December 1939. The article was filed among the Roosevelt papers, President's Personal File #2, box 2. 56. Joseph Lash, Eleanor Roosevelt: A Friend's Memoir (New York: Doubleday, 1964), p. 783. The full text is in the March 1940 issue of Youth News: 'To the young people of the world we recall that only 18 months ago the repre- 232 Notes and References to pp. 41-5 sentatives of the youth of 52 countries met with us here in America in the Second World Youth Congress. We dedicated ourselves to work together for world peace and social justice. Barbed wire is now strung between the coun• tries of the world - barbed wired to hold back the power of common ideas, common needs and desires. But no barbed wire has the might to sunder our international fellowship or to alter the great aims which we jointly treasure. Youth is not Youth's enemy .... We affirm that Young America will not be trapped by them into the war, nor into countenancing prolongation of that war.' 57. Joseph P. Lash, Eleanor Roosevelt: A Friend's Memoir (New York: Doubleday, 1964), p. 788. 58. Ibid., p. 789. 59. Eleanor Roosevelt, This I Remember (New York: Harper Brothers, 1949), p. 205. 60. Ibid., p. 162. Her democratic spirit shows in the way in which she justified to the A YC leadership her refusal to sponsor their second Washington Pilgrimage in February 1941. She wrote that she still believed in 'their com• plete sincerity', respected 'the way in which they work for their convictions', and thought that they had every right to promote their ideas and their opin• ions; but she explained that she found herself in complete philosophical dis• agreement with them, and that she could not in decency support the actions of a group that, moreover, was not representative of the majority of young people: 'From the moment that I can no longer agree with you, I have an obligation ... not to give the impression of helping you'.* Lash, Eleanor Roosevelt, op. cit., p. 790. 61. Ruby Black, Eleanor Roosevelt (New York: Duell, Sloane & Pearce, 1940), p. 222.* 62. Niels Apeland, Communism and Youth: Communist Penetration of International Organizations (Vienna: IUSY, 1962), pp. 5, 6.* 63. Unlike the BYPA, its American and Canadian counterparts (the A YC and CYC) survived the pact. When they reverted to the antifascist line after June 1941, the American communists created a new front organization (American Youth for a Free World) alongside the A YC. The same militants (Frances Damon and so on) were active within it (see below, note 58 on pp. 235/6).

4 The Grand Antifascist Alliance, 1941-45

I. Z. A. B. Zeman, Pursued by a Bear: The Making of Eastern Europe, (London: Chatto & Windus, 1989), p. 175. 2. Ibid., p. 189. 3. Lash, op. cit., p. 790. The Canadian Youth Congress likewise straightaway sent a message of anti-fascist solidarity to British youth, Challenge, 16 August 1941. 4. Joseph P. Lash: Eleanor Roosevelt: a Friend's Memoir (New York: Doubleday, 1964), p. 770 5. Ibid. 6. British youth had of course been mobilized by the government since September 1939; but Challenge now issued its own call under the heading Notes and References to pp. 45-50 233 'Another Nail in Hitler's Coffin: British Youth Turn on the Heat'. The opening paragraph boasted that, in addition to the already impressive panoply of sailors, soldiers and airmen there must 'now' be added the youth of the country which, numerically at least, could be considered as Britain's principal weapon. Without mentioning the true reason for this call- the enor• mous danger in which the Soviet Union now found itself- the various ar• ticles in that issue led one to understand that henceforth everything would be done to mobilize British youth. 7. Youth News, November/December 1941, p. 2. 8. Kit Meredith in Students Abroad, vol. 6, no. 5, p. 16. 9. University Forward, vol. 7, no. 2, December 1941, p. 18. I 0. University Forward, vol. 8, no. 3, February 1943, p. 3. II. This expression was used by William Rust in The Road to Victory, ibid., p. 7. This William Rust is the future editor of The Daily Worker, and is not to be confused with the future President of the NUS. 12. Youth News, August 1941, p. 5. 13. 'A Report on the Development and Activities of the WFDY', FO 924/674, p.l. 14. National Archives of America (NARA), 800 4089/12-547, 5 December 1947. 15. 'Youth Against Hitler. Appeal and Report of the Youth Conference held in Moscow, 28 September, 1941 ', published by the Anglo-Russian Parliamentary Committee, Buckingham House, London. 16. Spell thus in the official brochure. Challenge of 4 October calls him Hans Muller. 17. Ibid., pp. 9-10. 18. Challenge, 4 October 1941, p. 10. 19. Interview, and Youth News, October 1941. 20. Interview with the author. 21. See the article by Lubo Havel in Jozka Pejskar, Posledni Pocta, pamatnik na Zemzele Cseskoslovenko Exultanty V letech, 1948-1981 (Switzerland: Konfrotace, 1982), pp. 144-5. This work is a biographical dictionary in Czech of the Czech victims of communism. The article has been translated by Jan Rubes. 22. Interview with the author in London. 23. Her friends had no doubt that at that time she was a Party member, and she for her part has not denied it. 24. The complete list of the Committee members is on the cover of the souvenir brochure, International Youth Rally, 11.ix.41, Grosvenor Place, London, 27pp. India had only one representative, the young communist P. N. Hansar, a regular contributor to Youth News. 25. Note the tone of Maisky's message: 'It is obvious that at this precise moment the most important sector, the most decisive battle in our common cause, lies in my country. Here our gallant Red Army, supported by the entire people, men, women, and even children ... risks everything, sacrifices its soldiers, and defends not only its motherland but also the freedom and independence of other countries ... That is why at this moment there can be no task more urgent or more important than to see the slogan 'All Help for the USSR' inscribed everywhere and translated into reality' (International Youth Rally, p. 23). 234 Notes and References to pp. 50-4 26. Betty Shields-Collins, 'International Youth Council', Youth News, November/December 1941, p. 15. See also the souvenir brochure, Inter• national Youth Rally, II October 1941, Grosvenor Place, London S.W, 27pp. 27. Shields-Collins, 'International Youth Council'. op. cit. 28. Interview with the author. 29. Douglas Cooke (ed.), Youth Organizations of Great Britain, 1944-45, (London: Jordan & Sons, 1944), p. 288. The text relating to the IYC was supplied by the IYC itself. 30. One major organization refused to join it: this was the Standing Conference of National Voluntary Youth Organizations or SCNVYO. The SCNVYO would not take part in a body it knew to be under communist control; and its struggle against front organizations will be described in Chapter 5. 31. Marian Slingova, Truth Will Prevail (London: Merlin Press, 1968), p. 24. 32. Half-dandy, half politician, the socialist-national Palacek, then aged 40, was an ideal target for the young communists. He was a former university tennis champion and former leader of the non-political International Student Confederation. He had come to London with the remnants of the Czech army in France, and presided over a Union of Czech Youth and Students in exile. He was close to Benes and to Masaryk, and worked for the Ministry of Finance in exile. He was at the time the lover of the socialist Vice-President of the NUS, Lena Shivers. In 1941 it was he who brought together the com• munist and non-communist groups who, up till then, had been enemies. 33. The French Communist Party followed the same course when the depute Fernand Grenier arrived in London and declared that the French communists wanted to join the Free French forces. 34. Interview in Brighton with the author. 35. 'International Council of Students in Great Britain: A Report of its Work from its Inauguration to its Close', (London, 1945), p. 2. 36. William Rust, 'The Road to Victory', University Forwards, vol. 8, no. 3, (February 1943), p. 15. 37. International Council of Students in Great Britain, p. 2. 38. Soviet Youth Calling, A-SYFA, 104 Wigmove Street, London WI, pp. 2-3. 39. 'Soviet Youth at War', published by Hutchinson & Co. for the Anglo-Soviet Youth Friendship Alliance, p. 3.* 40. Ralph Blumenau, The Fringe of Politics ( 1953), p. 6. 41. We learn this from a Foreign Office note, which greatly astonished her daughter, Peggy Cripps. The note says that Lady Cripps was the anonymous donor whose gift made possible the foundation of the International Youth Centre in Pont Street (FO 924/674, 19 April 1948). The Crippses organized, among other functions, a grand reception at the Czech Embassy in Grosvenor Place, in the presence of Lord Bennett of Canada, the Queen of the Netherlands, Lady Astor, and even the Queen Mother (interview between the author and Phyllis Williams). 42. On 10 June 1945 the IYC organized a mock election prior to the General Election of that year. 36 votes went 'directly' to the communists, 46 to Labour, 16 to the Liberals, II to the Conservatives, and 6 to the non-Marxist socialists. I say 'directly' because it seems certain that some of the submarines would have abstained from showing their real preference; 'Democracy at Work', in Youth News, published by the IYC in the summer of 1945. Notes and References to pp. 53-8 235 43. Private papers of Sir Stafford Cripps, Nuffield College, Oxford, Box 10. The signature on the letter is illegible. 44. Letter of 26 January 1942, Foreign Office to Sir Neville Bland, FO 371/30861. 45. Commentary of Bruce Lockhart, February 1942, in ibid. 46. War Cabinet: 'Attitude of Government Departments towards youth organiza• tions', secret memorandum by the Lord President of the Council, 19 May 1942, Ref. CAB. 66/25, copy no. 29, p. 85. 47. Ibid., p. 85. 48. Conclusions of a meeting of the War Cabinet held at 10 Downing Street on Monday 8 June 1942 at 5.30 pm. War Cabinet 72(42), 72nd conclusion, Secret, Ref. CAB.62/26, 9th decision, p. II 0. Also see letter ('most secret') from Sir John Anderson to Brendan Bracken MP, inFO 371/30861. 49. P. F. Magnelia (in The International Union of Students, University of Geneva, Thesis 184, Peninsula Lithograph, 1967) is mistaken when he writes that the World Council replaced the International Council. 50. The BBC broadcast a substantial part of the proceedings. 51. It seems that none of her biographers have pointed out that Mrs Roosevelt had once again allowed herself to be manipulated, despite her unfortunate experience with the American Youth Congress. The role of Mrs Roosevelt is confirmed by an exchange of letters between John Winant, the American ambassador to London, and the White House (US National Archives, Washington, doc. no. 58-8). 52. 'Call for Action' (pp. 10-11) and Maisky's speech in Youth and the Fight for Freedom, (London: International Youth Council), p. 19. 53. Historical section of Forward for our Future, official report of the World Youth Conference, London November 1945 (Paris: World Federation of Democratic Youth, 1946), p. 112. 54. Not only can one draw a legitimate conclusion from their respective biogra• phies (for example what their attitude had been to the Pact); but their mem• bership of the party has been confirmed to the author by their former party comrades. Other proof can be found in the biographical notes produced during the Cold War by various Western intelligence agencies, for example State Department document NARA 800 4089/12-547 (1948) relating to the Indian representative Kitty Boomla. 55. Interview with the author in Jerusalem, II December 1994. Fischel emi• grated to Israel after the Prague coup. Under the name A vigdor Dagan he has had a diplomatic career (and is also the author of many novels). 56. Interview with the author. 57. 'Youth of the World: Reports of the Tour to America' (London: World Youth Council, 1944), p. I. 58. The American Youth Congress disappeared in the course of 1942, soon to be reborn under the name of American Youth for a Free World. Cf. Youth, issued by the National Youth Commission, Communist Party, 35 East 12th Street, New York. That pamphlet is reproduced in extenso in Communist Tactics in Controlling Youth Organizations: Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws of the Committee of the Judiciary, US Senate, 82nd Congress, first and second sessions on Communist tactics in 236 Notes and References to pp. 58-61

controlling youth organizations, 12 April and 12 June 1951; 16 January, 27. 28, 29 February, 5, 24, 27 March 1942 (Washington 1942, pp. 242-61). American Youth for a Free World was a branch of the American Free World Association, likewise a crypto-communist organization, and it was intended to win over and reorganize progressive American youth. At its Congress of November 1943 it managed to involve among others the repre• sentatives of the eight most important American Jewish youth organizations as delegates or as observers. The President, Harriet Ida Pickens, came from the YMCA; but the General Secretary was a submarine from the American Communist Party- Frances Damon, a former activist in the World Youth Congress. She eventually became Treasurer of the World Federation of Democratic Youth and married one of its general secretaries, the Australian Herbert Williams. 59. Forward for our Future!, official report of the World Youth Conference. London, November 1945 (Paris: WFDY,I946), p. Ill. 60. Cf. Earl Browder's speech at the Convention, quoted in 'Report on American Youth for Democracy', investigation of un-American propaganda activities in the United States, US Congress, House Committee on Un-American Activities, Washington DC, 80th Congress, I st session, 17 Aprill947, p. 2. 61. Youth. An issue of this 'communist' magazine is quoted in extenso on p. 242 in the Report on American Youth for Democracy: Investigation of UnAmerican Proganda Acitivities in the United State, US Congress, House Committtee on UnAmerican Activities, Washington, 80th Congress, First session,Aprill71947. US GPO 1947. 62. Jacques De Launay and Claude Murat, Jeunesse d'Europe (Paris: Pion, 1948), p. 152. In France the communist appeal was the stronger for having no competitors. Apart from the Young Communists, there was practically no other political youth movement. The socialists, whose youth section had played a great role before 1939, had not been able to keep going. The move• ments on the right were barely organized: the youth of the RPF (the Rassemblement de Ia Jeunesse Fran~aise) was not a significant body. Only the Catholic and/or Christian movements were able to compete with the com• munists. L' Association Catholique de Ia Jeunesse Fran~aise, which had been founded in 1886 by Albert de Mun, was some 350 000 strong, and was made up of La Jeunesse Ouvriere Chretienne, La Jeunesse Etudiante Chretienne, and similar groups. 63. On 30 July 1944 Eisenhower sent Kutty Hookham a letter of thanks for a consignment of morphine sent by the WYC for wounded soldiers. A fac• simile of this letter is reproduced in the first (undated) of a series of newslet• ters under the letterhead of the World Youth Council. 64. National Archives of Canada, Ottawa, External Affairs Records, file No. 4554-4. 65. Eleanor Emery (Dominion Office) to lgnatiev, ibid., Ref. Z.524, secret, Dominion Office 20 March 1943. 66. 'A Report on the Development and Activities of the WFDY', 6 undated and unsigned pages, p. I. FO 924/674 67. Ibid. 68. De Launay and Murat, Jeunesse d'Europe, op. cit., p. 60. Notes and References to pp. 62-6 237 5 The Creation of the World Federation of Democratic Youth

I. Alfred Grosser, Les Occidentaux, les Pays d'Europe et les Etats-Unis de puis Ia Guerre (Paris: Points/Histoire, 1981 ), p. 71. 2. Dominique Desanti, Les Staliniens: une Experience Politique, 1944145 Verviers: Marabout, n.d., p. 19. This work has provided much of the chronology of the present study. 3. L. Kolakowski, 'Responsibility of History', Nowa Kultura, 1-22 September 1922. 4. Other front organizations included the International Federation of Democratic Lawyers, the International Organization of Journalists and the World Federation of Scientific Workers. See Fran~ois Fejto, Dictionnaire des partis communistes et des mouvements revolutionnaires, (Brussels: Casterman, 1971 ). 5. Jeunesse du Monde (WFDY), Nos. 9/10 (1980, Budapest), pp. 2-3. 6 Ibid., p. 3. 7. Exceptions are some Cold War writings such as Niels Apeland's Communism and Youth: Communist Penetration of international Organizations (Vienna: IUSY, 1962). 8. This is an important organization both from the qualitative and diplomatic point of view. The CENYC was originally the European section of the World Assembly of Youth, and from 1963 it included and represented the interests of all the European National Youth Councils with the exception of that of Finland. It was the most representative of all NGOs and was a genuine replica of the Council of Europe; and throughout the 1970s and 1980s it was the CENYC that represented the West in negotiations between Eastern and Western youth organizations. Since the collapse of commu• nism, the CENYC tends also to represent the youth of Eastern Europe. 9. East-West Handbook (Brussels: CENYC, 1989), p. 7. I 0. Ibid., p. 8. II. Forward for our Future (Official Report of the World Youth Conference, London, November 1945), FMJD (WFDY), Paris, 1946, 189pp. Report by Kutty Hookham on the activities of the IYC since its creation, p. 114. 12. Ibid., Appendix III, p. 153. 13. The Nigerian, Amachree, who represented the West African colonies; the Frenchman, Chabrun; the Secretary-General, Kutty Hookham; Shvetsov from the Soviet Union; the Mexican, Madero; and the Yugoslav Perovic. I have no information about the remaining three: Vincent from Britain, C. Z. Chen from China and Sulc from Czechoslovakia. Forward for our Future!, op. cit. Appendix IV, p. 156. 14. Ibid., pp. 54, 118, 156. 15. For its constitutional position, see ibid., p. 28; for its composition, p. I 61. 16. It had been founded in 1936 to discuss problems shared by the youth movements and to devise ways of helping them while completely respec• ting the autonomy of each movement. Notes documentaires et etudes, no. 192, 20 November 1945, serie Europeenne, XXXV, Ministry of Information, Paris, p. 7. 17. Minutes of a Meeting of the Standing Conference held on Tuesday 16th January at 11.30 at the YWCA, Great Russell Street, WC 1, p. 6. The 238 Notes and References to pp. 66-70 SCNVYO had been created by and was largely dependent on the National Council of Social Services, the coordinating body of all non-governmental British organizations. The archives of the SCNVYO form part of the archives of the NCSS, which are now in Sheffield. 18. Ibid., p. 2. 19. A note of its first meeting with Foreign Office was drawn up by one of the FO officials: PRO, document LCI729/1406/452, FO 924/205. 20. Some consider Jousselin as a naive activist; others as a sincere fellow tra• veller; others again as someone who could be easily manipulated. (Unlike the ACJF, the French Scout movement had collaborated with the Vichy authorities.) Whatever he was, in fact he showed himself throughout the 1940s to be an ally of the communists. Remy Montagne, at the time an ACJF leader, recalls: 'Jousselin was at the same time the least compromised [i.e. by collaboration with Petain] and the most senior of the French scouts. He sought left-wing credentials by allying himself with the communists' (Author's interview with Remy Montagne). 21. Cf. Central Archives of the Labour Party, London, 13/12/45. Robert Lloyd. Folder 'Socialist Youth International'. 22. 'Representatives of the socialist youth of France, Belgium, Spain, Austria and Palestine decided at a recent meeting in Paris not to participate in the London Congress.' Some socialists, including the Italian Matteotti, chose nonetheless to take part, less out of conviction than out of curiosity. '19 socialist representatives from nine other countries - Sweden, the Netherlands, Finland, Italy, Poland, Bulgaria, Romania - took part in the meeting and followed the Pole Richard Obranczka, who was assistant secre• tary of the Polish Socialist Party, in opposing any united youth organiza• tion' (Robert Lloyd, Central Archives of the Labour Party, 13/12/45). 23. Geoffrey de Freitas to Sir Stafford Cripps, 15 October 1945, Cripps Archives, Nuffield College, Oxford, File 242. See also, in the Central Labour Party Archives, file 'Socialist Youth International', the negative letter from Morgan Phillips to Erich Ollenhauer, leader of the former International Union of Student Youth, 21 August 1945. 24. Memorandum drawn up by Mrs Aitken, 16 June 1945, Reference FO 924/205. 25. Report from Mr Owen, PRO: FO 924/205. 26. Ibid. 27. FO 924/240. 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid., Circular No. 19. 30. Ibid., p. 3. 31. Ibid., p. 4 of Mrs Aitken's Memorandum. 32. Ibid. 33. Ibid. 34. Ibid., from UK delegation San Francisco to FO, No. 784. 35. Letter from Cripps to ? Donald at the Foreign Office, dated Hotel Bristol, 21.6.45; FO 924/206. 36. He had been expelled in January 1939 for having supported the idea of a Popular Front government in Britain. Although he held office in Churchill's coalition government, he was readmitted into the Labour Party only in Notes and References to pp. 70-4 239 March 1945. See Kenneth 0. Morgan, Labour in Power, 1945 to 1951, (Oxford University Press, 1984), p. 25. 37. On youth and student affairs, the State Department archives in the National Archives of the United States in Washington are not as rich as those of the Foreign Office. They are nonetheless illuminating about certain approaches that are distinctively American. 38. NARA (Washington), 800.4089/5-2445 and 800.4089/6-1945. 39. Ibid., London to Washington, 26 June. 40. National Archives, 800.4089/6-2745. 41. 'Accordingly, it would not be advisable for the President to appear to be endorsing this conference and thereby supporting any effort to alter the posi• tion of the British Government in the matter'. Memorandum from Joseph Grew to Mr Hasset, secretary to the President (NA: 800.489/6-3045). A week later, on I 0 July, the State Department finally received the result of the enquiries made by its officials in London. This in fact was a five-page telegram, signed by Winant, who summarized (rather badly) the tenets and aims of the August conference. However, while stressing the suspicions of the British Government with regard to the WYC, the embassy rather disap• pointingly declined to draw any conclusions (NARA 800.4089/7 -I 045). 42. NARA 800.4089/8-1945 43. Telegram of 30 May 1945. Federal Archives of Canada, External Affairs Records, file 4554-40, sub 6, chron 18. 44. Telegram of 31 July 1945, No. 2161. Federal Archives, ibid., sub 3, chron 2. 45. Conclusions of a meeting of the cabinet held at 10 Downing Street, SW I, on Thursday 9 August 1945 at 12 noon, Secret, CM (45), 19th conclusion, PRO: CAB 128/1, p. 18. 46. Ibid. 47. Circular No.26, 10 August 1945, 'From FO to HM's Representatives at (the 45 embassies)', FO 924/405 48. In September the WYC had once again asked Truman to send a message to the delegates in London; hence the letter from the President's secretary, William Hassett, to the officials of the State Department (letter of 25 September, FW 800.4089/9-1445). 49. Reference of the Memorandum: 25 September 1945, NA: 800.4089/9-2545. Reference of the FBI letter to the State Department, 14 November, 800.4089/11-1445. 50. Minutes of a meeting of the International Group, held on Tuesday 18 September at 11.30 pm at the YMCA, London WC I, p. I. 51. Letter from the National Youth Organiser of the Cooperative Union to Ernest Bevin, 20 September 1945, PRO. FO 924/206. 52. Minutes of a meeting of the International Group, held on Tuesday 26 October 1945 at 2.30 pm at 26 Bedford Square, London WC I. 53. Letter from F. T. R. Giles (Foreign Office) to J. H. Peck (Cabinet Office), 28 October 1945, FO 9241206. 54. Ibid. 55. Ibid. 56. They were Cripps, Chuter Ede, Hall (Colonies), Isaacs (Labour), Noel Baker, Lewis Silkin (Town and Country Planning) and Tomlinson (Public Works). 240 Notes and References to pp. 74-80 57. Cabinet Papers (45) 242, 26 October 1945, PRO: Cab.l29/3, pp. 132-3. 58. Ibid. 59. Ibid. 60. Ibid. 61. Ibid. 62. Ibid. 63. Cabinet 51 (45): Conclusions of a meeting of the Cabinet held ... on 'Thursday 8 November 1945 and I 0.45 am, PRO: Cah.I2812. 64. But, as against eight British ministers (not counting the messages from Attlce and Bevin), just one Frenchman (Rene Capitan!, Minister of Education). Forward for our Future! Official Report of the World Youth Conference, London, November /945, WFDY, (Paris: WFDY, 1946), pp. 7-9. 65. Ibid., pp. 10--12. 66. Ibid., Resolution No. I, p. 61. 67. Ibid, p. 116. 68. Forward for Our Future, op. cit., pp. 162-4. 69. A certain Horst Bratsch, who participated as an observer. Forward for our Future!, op. cit., p. 181. 70. Boom Ia, Kanuga and Sader. I know neither the names nor the organizations of the other two delegates. 71. The JGP were fellow travellers at best, as their leader Gillis confirmed during the second meeting of the National Youth Council on Monday 13 January 1947. He wrote that 'the JGP was a movement independent of the Belgian Communist Party, but had a communist ideological basis'. (p. 3). He also admitted on that occasion that 'the majority of the delegates at the World Youth Congress were communists because so many others had stayed away'. Archives of the Ministry of Education; Service National de Jeunesse; Archives du Service Jeunesse de Ia Communaute Fran~aise de Belgique, Brussels. 72. See his report to his minister, below, FO 924/206. 73. Maurice-Rene Simonnet, 'Vers une union internationale de Ia jeunesse?', Les Cahiers de notre Jeunesse, December 1945, no. 28, p. 7. 74. Gordon Patrick's report (2 pages), Federal Archives of Canada, External Affairs Records, file 4554-40, sub 8, chron 8. 75. Ibid. 76. Simonnet, Les Cahiers, op. cit, p. 125. 77. Ibid., p. 165 78. According to the very right-wing and polemical Fran~ois Buy Les etudiants seton Saint-Marx en Europe et en Afrique. Ou va La gauche universitaire? (Les editions municipales, 1967, p. I 0), Guy de Boysson is said to have written a thesis in 1943 dedicated to Marshal Petain and entitled De Ia necessite d'accorder et d'itendre les subventions aux ecoles privies. On the other hand there is no doubt that De Boysson was very active in the Resistance. He and Lord Willis were. however, the only individuals to have refused to be interviewed by the author- which may have something to do with the strategic position (President/Director-General) De Boysson cur• rently holds in the Soviet Banque Commerciale pour !'Europe du Nord. 79. He was also the only one of the three General Secretaries who was paid not directly by the WFDY, but by the Danish Youth Movement. Notes and References to pp. 80-5 241

80. Jousselin was not even elected to the Executive Committee, though he would eventually be coopted into it as the French representative. Remy Montagne, who was then leader of the French Catholic Youth (ACJF), recalls the incident: 'Jousselin was devastated. He had become aware that he had been led up the garden path, and had merely served as a democratic far;ade. He really had believed that he would succeed. He said to us, "Let us kneel and commune with one another to effect a reconciliation"'. (The ACJF had opposed his candidature). 81. Possibly a submarine of the Chinese Communist Party? 82. The two Chinese had the same name. 83. The seventh was Stefan lgnar, from the Polish Agrarian Youth. Three places on the Executive were left vacant for colonial representatives. 84. For explanations and a complete list, see Simonnet. op. cit, pp. 140-1. 85. Ibid., p. 41. 86. All biographies of her omit to mention her presence at the World Youth Conference. 87. Seep. 54 above. 88. His postwar career had opened under the best of auspices. At the time of the liberation he was an official in the foreign ministry, and he went to Berlin, with the rank of general, to lead the Czech military mission there. He then worked in Yugoslavia, and after that in Prague. When he disap• peared soon after the communist coup, many thought that he had died. In this connection a tragi-comic anecdote is worth recounting. His former London friend and NUS activist, Lena Jegers (today Lady Shivers), had been elected to the House of Commons and had accepted an invitation from the Czech Parliament to visit Prague. There, in the belief that Palacek had died, she paid a tribute to him in a radio broadcast. She was therefore greatly surprised when a few months later she received, by roundabout means from the Jachymov camp, a desperate message from Palacek saying that he was not dead. It was as a broken man that he was finally rehabilitated in 1966 by the Supreme Court; but he had sufficient strength left to become, in 1968, cofounder of Club 231, the club of for• mer political prisoners who had been unjustly sentenced under Article 231. (Information from several independent sources, notably interviews with the author). 89. Forward for Our Future, p. 144. 90. Harold J. Laski, 'Students and Politics', The Nation, New York, 21 December 1946, pp. 727-8. 91. Ibid. 92. LC 6031, Ref. PRO: 9241206. 93. Ibid.* 94. Ibid.* 95. Ibid. • 96. Ibid. A copy of this document is in the FO archives N2416, 29 November 1945. 97. Ibid. 98. Ibid. 99. Ibid. I 00. FO 924/206, 25 January 1946. 242 Notes and References to pp. 85-8 101. FO 924/384. I 02. Hand-written comment, ibid.

6 The Creation of the International Union of Students

I. Jacques Fran~ois Lefevre, L'UNEF depuis 1945, Memoire IEP. 1957-8: Lavaud Robert, Les etudiants franrais et Ia politique depuis 1945, Memo ire IEP, 1958; Alain Monchablon, Histoire de /'UNEF de 1956 i1 /968, PUF. 1981; De Ia Fourniere et Borella, Le syndicalisme etudiant, (Paris: Le Scuil.) A. Belden Fields, Student Politic in France: a Study of the UNEF (New York: Basic Books, 1970). 2. 'International Council of Students in Great Britain: A Report on its work from its Inauguration to its Close', London, 1945, p. 2 3. Founded in 1919 as the Inter-Allied Confederation of Students, it had, at its 1921 Congress in Prague, been renamed the International Confederation of Students. Twenty-two nations belonged to it. For nearly twenty years the ICS developed activities in the areas of student exchanges, travel, sport and press. Although its headquarters were in Brussels, it was in fact dominated by the UNEF, which had inspired its constitution and had imposed French as its official language. Its positive achievements included arranging World University Games and securing significant cost reductions for student travel. The negative aspects were that it was confined to Europe and even then excluded ex-enemy countries, and that only its founder members enjoyed the status of active members. Its efficacy was also reduced by excessive decentralization. Finally, because it took care to deal only with corporatist issues, it took no part in the great international debates, in colonial problems and in the deeper aspirations of students. All the same, despite its strictly non-political stance, it did appear as the principal organization of students from democratic countries: while in 1939 it had organized its own University Games in Monaco, the fascist youth movements had held theirs in Vienna, clearly showing the division of European students. The war scat• tered its leaders and broke its back. Its corporatism now seemed irrelevant: what was the point of organizing games and travel while students were killing each other? It could not stand up to fascism and it disappeared. When the Nazis occupied Brussels, the ICS was closed down and its archives confiscated. 4. The history of the international relations of the NUS is well summed up in a report of its International Committee presented to the NUS Council in 1965: 'Britain's Students in the World Today', 1965. 5. 'Report on a Conference of Students from Thirteen of the United Nations, held on March 24 and 25, 1945' (London: NUS, 1945). p. 9. 6. Interviews with Goldstiicker and Grohman. 7. Seep. 52 above. 8. Lefevre, L'UNEF depuis /945, op. cit. 9. John Courtney Murray, 'Operation University'. The article appeared on 13 April in the Catholic periodical America, and is reproduced in FO 924/384, 23 May 1946. I 0. Interview with the author. Notes and References to pp. 89-91 243

II. Muriel Jacobson, 'Report of the World Student Congress, Prague', official report to the YMCA-YWCA, December 1945, p. 7. 12. Peter T. Jones, The history of the National Student Association's relations with the IUS, 1945 to 1956 (University of Pennsylvania, 1956), p. 6. 13. Lefovre, L'UNEF depuis 1945, op. cit., pp. 12-15; Monchablon, Histoire de L'UNEF, op. cit., pp. 17-19; de Ia Fourniere et Borella, Le syndicalisme, op. cit., pp. 44-6. 14. Lavaud Robert, Les etudiants, op. cit., p. 14. 15. In 1945 the UPOE seemed still to be the only representative student organi• zation: in the beginning, according to De Ia Fourniere et Borella, 'the influence of the UNEF was minimal compared with that of the Jeunesse Etudiante Chrt!tienne and the communist students, soon to be organized as the Union de Ia Jeunesse Republicaine de France', de Ia Fourniere et Borella, Le Syndicalisme itudiant, op. cit. p. 49 16. Pierre Gaudez, Les Etudiants (Paris: Juillard, 1961 ), p. 18. 17. Pierre Trouvat, the new UNEF president, was a law student from Toulouse. He was an excellent speaker, had a dazzling personality and had been in the Resistance. The other striking member of the bureau (executive) was Charles Lebert from Rennes, who had studied first literature and then dental surgery. He was as stubborn as Trouvat, but less skilful, a militant socialist and vio• lently anticommunist. While Trouvat was the spokesman of the UNEF, Lebert was more of a technician. Paul Bouchet, president of the Student General Assembly in Lyons from 1945 to 1947, also belonged to this group. Lefevre, L'UNEF depuis /945, op. cit. 18. Lefevre, L'UNEF depuis 1945, op. cit, p. 41. 19. Monchablon, Histoire de L'UNEF, op. cit, p. 19. 20. J.P. and Cl. Bachy, Les Etudiants et La Politique (Paris, 1973), p. 127. 21. Not a single study has been devoted to the NUS, and its archives are very scanty. What there was of the latter had lain forgotten for more than 20 years in a wardrobe that was only opened and emptied when I began my research. My information therefore comes from systematically reading its publications stored in the Oxford Bodleian and from a large number of interviews with its former leaders: Margot Gale, Tom Madden, Bill Rust, Stanley Jenkins, Ralph Blumenau, Frank Coplestone etc. They have kindly let me see such documents as were in their personal possession. Jenkins, for example, had a series of the minutes of the NUS' International Committee. 22. Minutes of the NUS International Committee, 7 January 1945. Margot Gale (General Secretary of the NUS throughout the war), and J. T. All anson (NUS President 1942-44) and A. P. James (NUS President 1944-45). Their mem• bership of the communist movement has been confirmed to the author in several interviews, including those with Margot Gale. Margaret Richards, the secretary of the committee, almost certainly belonged to the communist group. I have no information about the fifth member, P. J. B. Heaf. To the best of my knowledge the first clearly noncommunist on the International Committee was Bill (Bonney) Rust, who was a member from 5 October 1945 onwards. 23. Minutes of 8 October 1945, p. 2. 24. Minutes of 10 December 1945. 25. Minutes of 31 December 1945. 244 Notes and References to pp. 92-6 26. A. Belden Fields, in his Student Politics in France, op. cit, p. 4, draws a dis• tinction between corporatist 'student-oriented organizations', revolutionary 'environment-oriented organizations', and trade-union type 'student and environment oriented organizations'. 27. Minutes 9 March 1945. 28. Information on American students come from Peter T. Jones, The history. op. cit., and from the archives of the US National Student Association (USN SA) in the Hoover Foundation at Stanford University. 29. Four from the Inter-University Council of Christian Students, four from the National Council of Catholic Students, one from the Unitarian Youth of America, one from the Assembly of American Students, one from American Youth for Democracy (the former Young Communists), one from the Association of Interns and Medical Students, one from the Young Builders, and 10 unaffiliated students representing the following universities: Harvard, Hunter, Texas, Pennsylvania, Wayne, Chicago, UCLA, North Carolina, Fisk and Wisconsin (Jones, The history, op. cit., p. 10). 30. See Maurice Lessof, 'The World Student Congress', The British Medical Students' Journal, vol. I, no. 3 (Spring Term 1947), p. 43. 31. Martin McLaughlin, 'Notes on the Prague Congress of 1946', pp. 4-5, quoted in Jones, op. cit., p. 15. 32. Thomas Madden, 'The International Preparatory Committee', The British Medical Students' Journal, vol. I, No. I (1946), p. 9. 33. Jones, The history, op. cit., p. 7. 34. De Ia Fourniere et Borella, Le syndicalisme, op. cit., p. 153. 35. The list refers to the third session of the IPC in Prague, 8-3 April 1946, and was found in the archives of COSEC at the Institute of Social History in Amsterdam, Ref: IUS/VIII 1-3. 36. Interviews with the author in Prague and Brussels respectively. 37. Madden, 'The International Preparatory Committee', op. cit. 38. According to Lefuvre (L'UNEF depuis /945, op. cit., p. 17), even Pierre Rostini, the UNEF Vice-President, did not think that the UNEF was strong enough to host the IUS headquarters. 39. FO 924/383, letter of 23 May 1946 from the Cultural Relations Department. 40. FO 924/383, 30 May 1946, Brussels Embassy to Cultural Relations Department. 41. John Courtney Murray's 'Operation University', published in the journal America and filed in inFO 924/384. 42. Ibid. 43. FO 924/384, 16 April 1946. I have found only the letter addressed to Bevin; but exchanges of letters between I 0 Downing Street, the Ministry of Education and the Foreign Office are evidence that identical letters were sent to the other two departments. 44. FO 924/308. 45. FO 924/384, confidential letter of 27 June 1946, from Martin Blake to Sir Montague Pollock. 46. FO 924/395, letter from the embassy to Bevin, 26 July, LC 3885, N 342. 47. FO 924/384, Hand-written note dated 13 June 1946. 48. FO 925/384, draft of a letter from J. P. E. C. Henniker (FO) to A. John Addis (I 0 Downing Street), 21 June. Notes and References to pp. 96-104 245

49. FO 904/384, typed commentary by Mrs Powell. 50. FO 924/385. 51. Masaryk sent a message of support from Paris; but it is curious to note that Bend abstained from taking any part. 52. Gert van Maanen, in The International Student Movement (The Hague: Interdoc, 1966, pp. 42-3) places the whole French delegation into the commu• nist camp. McLaughlin, in Operation University (Washington: National Youth Council, 194 7, p. 7) has 12 of the 20 French delegates belonging to the communist movement. Personally, I do not think that the UNEF, unlike the NUS, can be counted in the communist bloc. I tend to lean towards a different explanation. If the UNEF delegation sometimes voted with the communists, it was due as much to weakness (the UNEF was still being challenged by the communists) as to policy. In 1946 the progressives Trouvat and Lebert thought it quite legitimate to ally with the communists to make their own ideas victorious. You did not have to be a communist to be opposed to Franco or to reject the corporatist spirit of most the Western national unions. 53. IUS Archives, Prague, Ref. IUS Arch. PA 62/1002. 54. The question of the representation of India was discussed in the Gazette de Lausanne on 2, 5, 6 and 8 October 1946. 55. IUS Archives, Prague, press release, Ref. PA 62/1004. 56. 'Report of the Work of the Credentials Committee of the WSC in Prague' August 1946, IISG: IUS/VIII 1-3, doc. 6. 57. In Murray, Operation University, op. cit., p. 9 58. To me the figures appear to be the minimum, since my oral and archival researches have enabled me to identify communists, fellow travellers and/or submarines in many other delegations: that of Denmark, for example, was heavily infiltrated by the communists. 59. Robert (Bill) Ellis and Joyce Roberts, 'Report of the WSC to the National Intercollegiate Christian Council', Fall 1946, pp. 7-8. 60. Murray, Operation University, op. cit., p. 10. 61. Martin McLaughlin, 'Notes on the Prague Congress of 1946', 16 August 1946, p. I. Quoted in Jones, The history, op. cit., p. 15. 62. Final programme of the WSC (IUS) 63. Lefevre, L'UNEF depuis 1945, op. cit., p. 96 (Section V of the IUS Constitution: 'Members of the IUS, their Rights and Obligations'). 64. Ibid. 65. VanMaanen, The International Student Movement, op. cit., p. 48 66. Constitution of the IUS, Prague 1947. 67. Ibid. 68. Jones, The history, op. cit., p. 153. 69. Lefevre, L'UNEF depuis 1945, op. cit., p. 97. 70. Ellis and Roberts, 'Report of the WSC', op. cit., p. I 8. 71. Minutes of the IUS Executive, February 1947, pp. 10-11. 72. Those working in Prague were Grohman, Madden, Ellis, Vasquez, Galvez (representing Acebez from Spain), Ivanov (representing Sheljepin), Pieniazek (representing Wroblewski of Poland), Marsalova and Brickman (minutes of the IUS Executive, 12-15 May, 1947, p. 2). 73. Its members were Vimla Bakaya (AISF), Sugiono (Indonesia), Carmel Brick• man and Peter Chien (representing the anti-Kuomintang student organization 246 Notes and References to pp. /04-8 that, after the 1947 Council would replace the Kuomintang. Jacques Verges was also one of the members of the IUS Student Bureau Against Colonialism. 74. Head of the International Department of the Czech Communist Party. 75. Interview with Grohman, Prague, 16 April 1990. 76. Paul Francis Magnelia, 'The International Union of Students'. University of Geneva, thesis 184, Peninsula Lithograph, 1967. Interviews with Grohman, Rust and Jenkins. See also Francis Magnclia. p. 83. 77. Madden (NUS), Brickman (NUS), Dang (AISF), Ershova (USSR), Tomovic (Yugoslavia). Only Vasquez (Cuba) was not a communist. 78. The minutes of the council, p. 13, state: 'Number of delegates represented: 96 (one delegate, J. Grohman, representing Czechoslovakia and Guatemala.)' 79. Giovanni was the brother of Enrico Berlinguer, the future Secretary-General of the Italian Communist Party. Their father had likewise worked in a front organization, the Association of Democratic Lawyers. At the time there was no Italian national union of students; so Italy was represented by its equiva• lent of the French UJRF. 80. Declaration by Sevcov, minutes, p. 92. 81. Camille Laurin, 'Conference of the IUS held in Prague, July 31 to August 12, 1947', p. 5, NSA Archives, Box 52, Hoover Library, Stanford University, California. 82. Ibid., p. 16. 83. The periodical Students of the World turned out to be a real financial disaster. Its six editions (in French, Spanish, English, Russian, Chinese and Czech) cost Kcs I 746 379. 84. Curiously the budget proposed for 1947/48 envisaged an increased deficit. Against an expenditure of Kcs I 0 631 000 or $200 000, it anticipated sub• scriptions for that year of Kcs 6 million. The financial needs of the IUS were enormous, not least for the salaries it paid: Kcs 7000 for the President, Kcs 5000 for the General Secretary and each of the four vice-presidents, and Kcs 3000 for each of the eleven members of the Executive. In addition there were the salaries for eight people in the secretariat and 26 in different departments: the colonial bureau, the travel bureau, the bureau for intellectual cooperation (divided into two subsections for medicine. architecture, press and informa• tion, sport and so on). The majority of the national unions could not pay their contributions, though the total did rise from the Kcs 2 160 785 in 194617 to Kcs 3 916 480 in 1947/8. In the latter year Britain paid Kcs 204 598, making it the third largest contributor, ahead of the Yugoslavs (NSA Archives, Hoover Institution, Box 38).

7 The British Government's Counteroffensive Against the WFDY

I. Confidential letter (2 pp. 22 June 1948 from the Foreign Office (Cultural Relations Department) to the British Embassy (Education Office), Washington, FO 925/676. 2. Cab. 129/11, Secret, C.P. (46) 290, 22 July 1946, Copy No. 38, p. 218. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. Notes and References to pp. 108-15 247

5. Svend Seyer-Pedersen, one of the three secretaries of the WFDY, was not a communist; but on the other hand Noel-Baker underestimated the number of clandestine communists on the Executive. 6. Cabinet 74 ( 46), 'Conclusions of a meeting of the Cabinet held at I 0, Downing Street, SWI, on Monday, 29th July 1946, at II a.m.', Cab 128/6, pp. 241-2. 7. Ibid. 8. Ibid. 9. Telegram 1258 in the Cripps Papers, Nuffield College, Oxford, File 564/215. 10. Cripps to Bevin, 24.9.46, ibid. II. Telegram No. 1400, ibid. 12. Ibid. 28.9.46. 13. FO 931/65653, McNeil to Paul Mason. 14. FO 371/65653. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid. 17. Joan Bloomer, 'Towards cooperation on the US Youth Scene: the Young Adult Council of the National Social Welfare Assembly', submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for M.S. degree of at New York School of Social Work, Columbia University, 1946, p. 46. 18. FO 924/673, 'A Report on the Development and Activities of the WFDY', written by Mrs Powell(?) in March 1948 (?).The context is a six-page report on the Pedersen affaire (see pp. 127-128). 19. FO 924/385, letter from Miss Welton to the Foreign Office, 4 October 1946. 20. FO 924/674, p. 3. 21. Ibid. 22. The circular of 17 October, 'World Youth Festival- Prague, Summer 1947', is in FO 924/385. 23. In 1942 President Roosevelt had indeed asked Bill Donovan to set up the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). This body had worked closely with the British intelligence services and played an important role in North Africa, Italy, the Balkans and the Far East. Some very brilliant people were members of it, such as the historian William Langer, his brother, the psychoanalyst Walter Langer, the political analyst Walter Rostow, the future Director of the CIA, Allen Dulles, and the CIA official Tom Braden. But on 20 September 1945, against Donovan's vigorous protests, President Truman had abolished the OSS. 24. Andre Kaspi, Les Americains (Paris: Point Histoire, 1986), vol. 2. 25. NARA 700.60.4087/4-1447. 26. The International Exchange of Persons Division (IEP) to Bernard Wilkins, 17 April, NARA 800.4089/4-1847. 27. NARA 800.4089/4-2547, Laurence A. Steinhardt, World Youth Festival, 25 April 1947. 28. NARA 800.4089/4-1447, office memorandum, Cowdery to Muir, 30 April. 29. I November 1947, p. I. 30. NARA 800.4089/6-247 CS/A, Bill Ellis to Caldwell (IEP), 2 June. 31. NARA 800.4089/5-647 CS/V, secret telegram from M. Kidd (CE/Washington) to Prague, 15 May 1947. 32. Kaspi, Les Americains, op. cit, vol. 2, p. 421. 248 Notes and References to pp. 115-21 33. Congressional Record, 24 March 1947, p. A 1298. * 34. 'Report on American Youth for Democracy', Investigation of Un-American Propaganda Activities in the United States. US Congress, House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC), Washington DC, 80th Congress, I st session, 17 April 1947, United States GPO, p. I. 35. Testimony of WalterS. Steele regarding communist activities in the United States. HUAC as above. 36. NARA 800.4089/5 1647 CSTH. Kidd (CE) for the attention of Hickerson (Europe): 'Transport Facilities for Czechoslovakia organized by the State Department with the aim of assisting a communist conference'. 37. NARA 800.4089/8-2047, office memorandum, Kenneth Holland (OlE) to M. Sergeant (A-B), 6 October 1947. 38. Ibid. and the report presented by Norman Lindop to the meeting of the 18/30 Conference on 18 October 1947, in the minutes of that meeting, p. 3. 39. Article: 'After our Blood, our Sweat', in Jeunesse du Monde, a special issue of Youth Festival, summer 1947, Iskra Panona. 40. NARA 800.408917-2947, 20 August. 41. Lewand's second report to the State Department, 26 August, NARA 800.4089/8-2647, p. I. 42. Varsity, periodical of Toronto University, October 1948. 43. Lewand's first report, NARA 800.408917-2947. 44. Ibid. 45. The incident is recounted in Lewand's second report, op. cit., and by Steinhardt, NARA 860F.4089/8-2547. 46. Annex 2 of Steinhardt's report. 47. Ibid. 48. Steinhardt (Prague) to Washington, N1099, 30 August 1947, NARA 800.40.89/? (illegible), p. 2. 49. 'American participation in international youth meetings: A proposed policy'. The covering letter of this memorandum is dated 8 October 1948, NARA FW 800.4089/93448. 50. NARA 800.4098/10-2047. 51. The American students were already represented in the IUS by a vice-presi• dent, Bill Ellis; but he represented a national coordinating committee since the Americans still had no national union. If the new NSA were to join the IUS, it could expect that American representation on the executive would be formally in its name. For more details see Peter T. Jones, The history of the National Student Association's relations with the IUS, 1945 to 1956 (University of Pennsylvania, 1956), p. 6. The NSA would be based initially at Madison, but its international committee was from the start based at Hillel House in Cambridge, Mass., under the chairmanship of Douglas Cater. See Annual Report 1947--48 by Robert Smith, International Student Affairs Vice• President, in NSA Archives, Hoover Library, box 66. 52. Office Memorandum 27 October 1947 from DHE to DBC, NARA 800.4089/10-1947. 53. Ibid. 54. Ibid., Howard Trivers (CE) toM. Murphy (Eur/X), 25 November. 55. Ibid., Jack D. Neal (Foreign Activity Correlation) to Trivers (CE), 26 December. Notes and References to pp. 122-9 249

56. Quai d'Orsay: Dossier Z. (Genera lites I) Europe, No. 889/9/EU (Y234), pp. 172-8. 57. Ibid. 58. Actually in 1947 the WPDY was not yet well established in what has since become known as the Third World. According to statistics noted by the French Embassy in Prague, 90 per cent of the festival participants came from European countries. Asia, and even more Latin America, were underrepre• sented. In 1948 therefore the WPDY would make special efforts to establish itself in these areas, calling, for the benefit of Latin America, a special con• ference for the youth of the Western Hemisphere, and the Calcutta confe• rence for that of South-East Asia (see pp. 129-30). These would be a powerful weapon against colonial and anticommunist governments (Prague Embassy to Quai d'Orsay, 8 July, two pages of statistics, p. 135, Series Z, Box 23, dossier 4: international questions, vol. 76). 59. Quai d'Orsay, Dossier Z, op. cit. 60. Ibid. 61. The Times, 22 August 1947. 62. Cripps Papers, Nuffield College, Oxford, 22 August, file 524. 63. Ibid. 64. Ibid., Sir Stafford Cripps to Chester Barrat, 26.8.47, Cripps Archives.

8 The Students after the Creation of the Cominform

I. Komsomol Pravda, 30 December 1947, text reproduced and translated in PRO/PO 924/670. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid 4. 'An Open Letter to the Youth of Scandinavia from the Secretariat of the WPDY', quoted in extenso in PO 924/672. 5. Paralysed though it was at the time, the State Department did follow what was happening at the WPDY. See the telegram of M. Matthews from the American Embassy in Stockholm, 23 December, NARA 800.4089112-1547. 6. The Soviet representative on the committee that had summoned Pedersen. 7. 'A Report on the development and activities of the WPDY', by Mrs Powell (?), PO 924/673, Secret, March 1948, p. 3. 8. Student Chronicle, 10 May 1948, p. 3. 9. 'Minutes of Committee held at the National Liberal Club on Friday, 30th January, in the Oak Room', in the papers of Michael Kaser, now a distin• guished Sovietologist at Oxford, who owns the archives of the British Young Liberals. The author has interviewed both him and Raymond Legoy at length. I 0. This letter is reproduced in extenso (but without a date) in the Minutes of International Committee meeting of the National Liberal Youth League of 18 March, and is signed by Henry Spartam (President), Harold Jay (Hon. General Secretary), Patrick Nugent (Chairman of the International Committee) and Elizabeth Graham (Secretary-General). II. PO 624/670. 17 January 1948. 12. PO 924/672, Oswald Scott to E. Bevin. 250 Notes and References to pp. 129-32 13. FO 924/673. 14. 'Minutes of Committee held at the National Liberal Club on Friday 20th February 1948', p. I, Kaser Papers, Oxford. 15. Bevin's refusal in a letter to the NUS of 3 January and Attlee's of I February are in FO 924/670. 16. Letter from R. D. C. McAlpine (FO) to D. M. Nenk (Ministry of Education), 15.1.48, FO 924/670. 17. In an article about the WFDY, the diplomatic correspondent of the Daily Telegraph wrote that 'the WFDY Conference in Calcutta had as its goal the provide the communist leaders of Burma and Malaysia with an action plan for the revolt which has since been put into operation". (Quoted in WFDY lnfonnation Bulletin No. 26, 15 September 1948, p. I 0). This is also the thesis of Fran~ois Buy (Les Etudiants selon Saint-Marx en Europe et en Afrique. ou va la gauche universitaire? (Les editions municipales, 1967, p. 48), of the Sovietologist J. M. Mackintosh (Strategy and Tactics of Soviet Foreign Policy, Oxford University Press, New York and London. 1963, p. 353) and of the socialist Nils Apeland: 'The communist uprisings in Malaysia, Burma, and Indonesia took place a few months later. Such was the contribution the WFDY made to Peace in Asia' (Communism and Youth, Vienna, IUSY, 1962, p. 87). 18. Ruth T. McVey, The Calcutta Conference and the South-East Asian Uprisings (Ithaca: Department of Far Eastern Studies, Cornell University, 1958). She mentions that the WFDY /IUS had originally planned the confe• rence for Indonesia in the autumn of 194 7. 19. Notwithstanding that messages of greetings to the congress had been sent by Nehru, the Prime Minister of Burma (Thakin Nu) and Aurobindo Bose, the president of the All-India Student Congress, which supported Nehru. 20. On 23 February Aurobindo Bose announced that the All-India Student Congress was withdrawing from the Conference, together with eight other Indian organizations (the Hindustan Peasants Union, the Bengal Provincial Students' Congress, the Young Socialist League, the Indian National Trades Union Congress, the Rashtra Seva Dal, the Muslim Students' League, the Socialist Labour Bureau, and the Workers' Union) and the majority of Malay and Burmese delegates. For a full account see the report of Charles H. Derry, American Consul-General in Calcutta, to State Department, NARA 800.4089/3-1348. 21. 21 February was the anniversary of an anti-British mutiny on Indian ships in Bombay in 1946 and of anti-British demonstrations in Cairo in 1947. 22. Journal de Geneve, 2 February 1948. 23. Lefevre, L'UNEF depuis /945, Memoire IEP, 1957-8. 24. Lavaud Robert, Les itudiants fran~ais et La politique de puis I 945, Memoire IEP, 1958, p.21 25. Bill Ellis to Jacobson and Robert Smith confidential report (undated), Hoover Archives, Stanford, NSA Archives, Box 52. 26. Ibid., p. 7. 27. Ibid., p. 10. 28. Jaroslav Soucek, the Czech delegate at the WFDY, informed the readers of the WFDY's information bulletin that the SCM and the SSM had demanded the expulsion of traitors from the cabinet and the creation of a new govern• ment headed by Gottwald. Notes and References to pp. 132-7 251 29. The Czech students, writes Hubert Ripka, followed 'the tradition of their elders who, in November 1939, had risen against the Nazi terror regime. The memory of the price their predecessors had paid for their heroism did not frighten off the students of 1948' (Hubert Ripka, Le coup de Prague, une revolution prefabriquee, Paris: Pion, 1950 ). 30. Some authors put the number of dead between one and nine. SeeGert Van Mannen, The International Student Movement (The Hague: lnterdoc, 1966), p. 58. 31. Later briefly President of UNEF. 32 Gerard de Bemis, 'L'Unite lnternationale, est-elle possible?', Esprit, April 1952, p. 637. 33. According to the very anticommunist Fran~ois Buy, Grohman visited the imprisoned students 'to invite them to confess their crime so that they could win forgiveness from the people' (Buy, Les Etudiants, op. cit., p. 20.) According to De Bemis, Grohman's enquiries 'revealed the guilt of Bacilek and Kovaricek and made it impossible to ask for their release' (de Bemis, op. cit., p. 637). 34. Report of Recent Events in Czechoslovakia (Prague; 1948 IUS), pp. 1-7. 35. Ibid. 36. Ibid., pp. 9, 22. 37. Ibid., p. 10. 38. Ibid., p. 13. 39. Ibid., p. 22. 40. Ibid., p. 28. 41. L'Avant-Garde, the journal of the UJRF, rejoiced at the defeat of 'the agents of reaction acting on the orders of American billionaires' (edition of 25 February to 2 March 1948). 42. Peter T. Jones, The History of US National Student Association Relations with the IUS, 1945-1956 (Foreign Policy Research Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia 1956) 134pp. 43. According to Peter T. Jones, (The history of US National Student Association Relations with the IUS, 1945-1956, (University of Pennsyl• vania, 1956) this letter must have been dated 8 March. 44. The Danish DSF on the 14 March (report of the British Embassy in Copenhagen, 18 March 1948 FO 924/673), the Swedish SFS between 15 and 19 March (reports of the British Embassy in Stockholm, FO 924/673 and FO 924/674). 45. Ralph Blumenau, The Fringe of Politics, 1953, p. 23. 46. Student Chronicle, 5 May 1948. 47. Student Chronicle, 2 June 1948, p. 3. 48. 'Students in Czechoslovakia', Student Focus, Summer 1948, pp. 21-33. 49. In future years he liked to repeat that, in the winter of 1947, he had identified Jenkins as a future president of the NUS. Author's interviews with Rust, Jenkins and Blumenau. 50. Blumenau, The Fringe of Politics, op. cit., p. 25. 51. For the Bucharest meeting (7-17 May 1948), see the minutes of the third session of the IUS Executive; and also the four-page report of Rudolf E. Schoenfeld (American Embassy at Bucharest) to Washington, 18 June 1948: NARA 800.4089/6-1848 CS/A. 252 Notes and References to pp. 137-47

52. Ibid., p. 27. 53. The Scottish and Australian national unions came to similar conclusions. See Student Chronicle, June 1948, p. I. 54. Blumenau, The Fringe of Politics, op. cit., pp. 28-29; Student Chronicle, July 1948; and interviews. 55. Blumenau, The Fringe of Politics, op. cit., p. 288. 56. Minutes of a joint meeting of the NUS International Committee, the NUS Executive Committee, and the British Coordinating Committee of the IUS, held on Saturday 7 August 1948 at Tavistock Square, London WC I, p. I. 57. Confidential two-page letter, 22 June 1948, from the Foreign Office (Cultural Relations Department) to the Education Office of the British Embassy in Washington, FO 925/676. 58. De Bemis, 'L' Unite lnternationale', op. cit., p. 641. 59. Ibid. 60. Note for La Direction Europe, for the attention of M. Gueyraud, 8 June 1948, Archives of the Quai d'Orsay, International Questions, vol. 77. 61. Ibid. 62. Invitation to the Brussels Conference, signed S. Bogaerts, B. Vaanes, J. L. Servais, 16 August 1948, UNEF archives, box 49. 63. 4 April1948, p. 2, Hoover Library, NSA Archives, Box 53. 64. 'Report of the year (1947-48), International Activities of USNSA by Robert Smith, VP of International Student Affairs', p. 26, NSA Archives, box 66. 65. Ibid. 66. UNEF Archives, box 46. 67. 'Contribution of the AIMS to the executive Committee Report', Among Jenkins' papers. 68. Blumenau, The Fringe of Politics, op. cit., p. 50. 69. Ibid., p. 38. 70. Ibid., p. 39. The emphasis is B1umenau's. 71. Ibid., p. 38. 72. Ibid., p. 40. 73. Ibid., p. 37. 74. Ibid., pp. 40--1; also interviews with Rust, Jenkins and Blumenau. 75. Ibid. p. 41. 76. Ibid. p. 50. 77. Student Chronicle, November 1948, p. 3. 78. Blumenau, The Fringe of Politics, op. cit., p. 53. 79. See the article by Fred Jarvis, a chairman of NALSO, in Student Chronicle, May 1950, p. 2. 80. Other events at Exeter: a motion from St. Hugh's College, Oxford, for disaffiliation from the IUS was lost by 75 to 62, with 12 abstentions (Student Chronicle, June 1949, p. 3); Tom Madden was excluded from the British delegation to the forthcoming IUS council at Sofia (Student Chronicle, October 1949, p. 2). 81. Student Chronicle, June 1949, p. 2. 82. Lefevre, L'UNEF depuis 1945, op. cit., p. 101. Notes and References to pp. 148-53 253 83. For the Canadians, see 'Towards the Second World Student Congress of the IUS', Proceedings of the 4th Council Meeting (Prague: IUS, 1949), p. 27. For the Australians, see Student Chronicle, May 1949. 84. They were reminded, for instance, that more than I 0 000 young people from 42 countries had taken part in the construction of the youth railway from Samac to Sarajevo (The IUS and the Cominform, Belgrade: Central Bureau of the Yugoslav Union of Students, May 1942, p. 2). 85. Grohman told the author in an interview that the Bulgarian authorities pre• sented the IUS with a fait accompli. 86. White Book on the aggressive activities of the Soviet, Polish, Czech, Romanian and Bulgarian governments directed against Yugoslavia, (Belgrade: Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, 1951 ), pp. 222-3. 87. Student Chronicle, November 1949.* 88. 'Why the IUS has severed relations with the leaders of the Student Section of the People's Youth of Yugoslavia' (Prague: IUS, 1949), p. 3. 89. Pat Baker, 'Report of the 4th IUS council in Sofia, p. 5, NSA Archives, Hoover Library, Box 40. 90. Cf. letter from Harold Lischner (AIMS) to Jenkins, 15 February 1950, Jenkins Archives. 91. 'Delegates Disagree on IUS Affiliation', Student Chronicle, November 1949, p. 3. 92. Student Chronicle, December 1949. 93. See the article 'Stay in IUS', in Union News, Leeds University Union, 27 October 1949, p. I. 94. 'Statement on the London Conference', IUS, I December I949, reproduced in Student Chronicle, January 1950, p. 4. 95. In the Daily Worker the SLF condemned the conference as 'a threat against world-wide student unity by its intention to create a bloc against the IUS', Student Chronicle, January 1950.* 96. According to the Student Chronicle, the police had turned up on their own initiative on the grounds of articles that had appeared in the press. 97. 'Main Statement of the NUS delegation', International Student Conference, London, December I949, Appendix 3a, p. I, FO 371/86330.* 98. See Bertil Ostergren, Vem ar Olof? (Stockholm, 1984), pp. 34--6 (in Swedish). 99. 'Final Discussion', International Student Conference, p. 6, FO 371/86330. I 00. Jenkins was optimistic enough to tell the Foreign Office that Blumenau was willing to go to Prague to fill the place on the secretariat to which the NUS was entitled, but only if he was covered by Foreign Office approval. Naturally the Foreign Office replied that it could not oblige (Jenkins to the Czech desk at the Foreign Office, II January, 1950; Sir Horace Rumbold to Jenkins, I April 1950. FO 371/86 330). 101. FO 371/86330,9 January 1950, p. 2. 102. Ibid. I 03. Ibid. (illegible signature). I 04. Ibid., I6 January, signed Falla. 105. Ibid. 106. FO 371/86330. 254 Notes and References to pp. 154-9 107. Falla, 17 January; ibid. 108. Harrison (FO) to Shields Smith (HO), FO 371/86330. 109. Ibid. II 0. 15 February 1950, NARA 800.43/2-1550. Ill Blumenau, The Fringe of Politics op. cit., pp. 171-9. 112. This question relates to the original excuse made for the expulsion of the Yugoslavs from Sofia. 113. Blumenau, The Fringe of Politics, op. cit. 114. Ibid., p. 177. 115. Its communique of 23 April 1950 is reproduced in full in the Danish student magazine Studentenbladet, no. 9 (31 May 1950), pp. 11-13. 116. 'Comments on the article by Mr Grohman on his return from London. Withdrawal of membership from the International Union' 10 May, signa• ture illegible, F0371/86 330. 117. Ibid. 118. World Student News, vol. IV, no. 1-2, pp. I 7-19. 119. Ibid., p. 17. 120. A summary of the group's conclusions appeared in Student Chronicle, June 1950. They were favourable to the Yugoslav case: I. Yugoslavia could not be considered a fascist country. 2. The information provided by the IUS was thoroughly distorted. 3. Arrests had certainly taken place after the Cominform resolution: 450 students were in prison for espionage or propa• ganda. 4. A thousand students had been expelled, but 800 of them had been readmitted. 5. The condition of students in Yugoslavia were good. 121. 'There are neither Borders nor Boundaries' in Nowa Kultura, 17 September 1950, Warsaw. A translation of this article was made available to the NUS by the Central Union of Ukrainian Students (in exile), based in Munich. 122. Lefevre, op. cit., p. I 04. 123. Combat, 19 April 1950. 124. All the files bearing on youth, student and cultural matters in the year 1950 have been destroyed, with the exception of a few documents in the Research and Information Department, FO 371/86330. 125. Ibid. 126. In December 1949, on the recommendation of Erskine Childers, the Executive of the NSA had agreed to send a 13-strong delegation to the Congress. The IUS ignored this decision, preferring to set aside 12 places for the unrepresentative Committee for International Student Contacts (CISC), which had just been created by Halstead Holman and had only about 200 members. The IUS allocated only three places to the NSA on the ground that it had not sufficiently defended academic freedoms and democratic rights. Prague added insult to injury by demanding that these three delegates should not be 'government agents' (NARA 398.46122/ 5-1950). 127. Richard Cook to Childers, II June 1950, NARA 398.4612/5-1950: 128. 21 June, NARA FW 398.4612 PR/6-2450. 129. Telegram of 24 June 1950, ibid. 130. For example, see The Hague to Paris, 9 August, Quai d'Orsay (Generalites, 1944-1949, vol. 74, p. 65). Notes and References to pp. 160-7 255 131. 'Report of the NUS delegation to the Second World Student Congress, Prague, August 1950', (London: SLF, 1950). 132. See the SLF's 'Report from Prague: an Account of the Second World Congress of the IUS, August 1950', also 'Report of the NUS delegation', op. cit. 133. Henry de Lageneste, 23 August (Quai d'Orsay, Generalites 44-49, Vol.74). 134. Entitled 'Report of the Executive Committee on the Activities of the International Union of Students since the First World Student Congress in 1946, and Future Tasks in the Fight for Peace, National Independence, a Democratic Education, and a Better Future', p. 5 (Prague: IUS). 135. De Bern is, 'L' Unite International ', op. cit., p. 646. 136. IUS Executive Report, op. cit. p. 19. 137. Blumenau, The Fringe of Politics op. cit., p. 202. See also John Thompson's article in The Student, mid-February 1958, p. 14. 138. NB: he was introduced as such- not as 'North Korean'. 139. World Student News, Special Issue no. 3 (Prague), p. I. 140. The Scots had done the same. See letter to Ian Lawson, Old College University, Edinburgh, 5 August 1950: 'I am directed by Mr Secretary Bevin to reply to your letter ... in which you ask for certain information about contemporary health and social services [expenditure?] and expendi• ture on 'war purposes' in Soviet Russia ... ', (FO 371/86330). 141. Interview with Jenkins. 142. Blumenau, The Fringe of Politics, op. cit., p. 208. 143. Jenkins papers. Extensive sections of the speech in Blumenau, ibid., pp. 205-208. 144. Ibid., pp. 208-9. 145. NUS Report, op. cit., p. 12. 146. Interview. 147. Blumenau, The Fringe of Politics, op. cit., pp. 213-14; NUS Report, op. cit., p. 36. The Czech army paper, Obrana Lidu, 19 August, attacked Andersen for having defended fascist ideas from the podium. 148. De Bemis, 'L'Unite Internationale', op. cit., p. 647. But even Blumenau describes the Final Resolution as 'relatively mild' in character, op. cit., p. 216. 149. Quai d'Orsay, (see note 133), page 6. 150. 15 September, 1950, p. 5., NARA 398.4612 PR/9-1550. 151. Statement by W. B. Rust, 17 August 1950, Jenkins papers. 152. Interview with Jenkins, and 'Notes from Meetings of Western National Unions held during the IUS Congress, Prague, August 1950', in Jenkins Papers. 153. For government interest in the SUS, see a note of 4 September 1950 in the Colonial Office about a Miss Goldwater, who was in charge of colonial affairs at the SUS and who had contacted the Department shortly before her departure for Prague. PRO: CO 8761153. 154. Report by A. Schnee, 15 September, p. 4, NARA 398.4612-PR/9-1550. 155. Ibid., p. 5. 156. Report of 15 September of the American Embassy in Prague, p. 6, NARA 398.4612 PR/9-1550. 157. Lageneste, op. cit. 256 Notes and References to pp. /68-73 9 The Creation of the World Assembly of Youth

I. The ICFfU was created in London at a meeting from 28 November to 9 December, 1949. See Foreign Relations of the US, 1949, vol. v, Washington, 1981, pp. 85112. 2. See the excellent work of Pierre Gremion in Commentaires, no. 34 (86), pp. 269-86, and no. 39 (87), pp. 620-2. 3. Ibid. 4. I have treated the subject in the the thesis of which the present work is an abridgement. 5. Commentary of Mrs Powell, FO 924/670. Lady Violet, 'aware for some time of a growing communist tendency within the Council', had confirmed to The Times on 16 March 1948 that she had regretfully broken all links with the WFDY. 6. For a summary account of this meeting, see Mrs Powell's report in FO 924/675. 7. Note dated 19 April 1948 (the author is not indicated), FO 924/674, p. I. 8. Ibid., p. 4. 9. Mrs Powell's commentary, 12 April. 10. Commentary by B. MacDermot, 18 May 1947, FO 924/674. II. 23 February, 1948, FO 924/672. 12. Ibid., 30 April. 13. Handwritten manuscript, 30 April 1948, FO 924/674. 14. FO 924/674, handwritten note by Ernest Bevin. 15. FO 925/676. 16. Confidential letter from the Foreign Office to R. Metcalfe, British Ambassador to Copenhagen, 25 June 1948, FO 925/976. • 17 'Work and Leisure', International Youth Conference, Report, London 1948 to April 1949 (London: NCSS). 18. The name given to the preparatory committee of the conference. 19. International Youth Conference, held in London in 1948 under the auspices of the NCSS. Opening Session, Church House Westminster, 12 August (text in French), p. 7, in the Archives of the Conseil Fran~ais des Mouvements de Jeunesse (ref. 74 AJ 18, article 23), in the Secretariat Jeunesse et Sport. 20. Ibid. 21. 'This Conference agrees that an organization be established to continue to work of the Conference', ibid., p. 78. 22. See 'First meeting of the Council, Brussels, August I st to 7th 1949', (Brussels: WAY, 1949) 65 pp, pp. 60/61. 23. Israel, which the Secretariat had 'forgotten' to invite, from the beginning took part in the work of the Council as an observer. Ibid., p. I 0. 24. Times Educational Supplement, 12 August 1949. 25. Maurice Sauve had just finished studying economics at the London School of Economics. He had been president of the Canadian National Union of Students in 194617. He was accompanied by his wife, Jeanne (Benoit) Sauve, who in the 1980s became Governor-General of Canada. 26. The eight votes were cast for Haynes, whose name was still on the ballot paper. 27. Letter from Montagne to Sullivan, 19 April 1950, Montagne Papers. Notes and References to pp. 173-7 257 28. Ibid. 29. 'Summary of report by Don Evans, Chairman, Canadian delegation, and by Mrs C. W. Clark', WAY, Second Meeting, Istanbul. Personal papers of Maurice Sauve.

10 The International Student Conference

I. 'Mr Bertil Ostergren and Mr Olof Palme, who took part in the IUS Conference in August, as well as Mr Jarl Tranaeus ... have been for some time personally known to the Embassy. They have cooperated in every possi• ble way in letting us have documentation about the conference, as well as their personal observations'.* Confidential letter from Robert Donhauser, Cultural Officer at Stockholm, to Washington 22/1151, NARA 800.4614/ 1-2251, p. 2. 2. 'I interviewed Mr Palme on his return. He was able to give me the names of only three of the "seven or eight" Swedish communist observers. The other four or five were according to him "unknown nonentities". Here are the names he gave us, and we have added what information we have on them: Hans Goran Franck, leader of the [communist] delegation to Prague ... is President of the crypto-communist organization Clarte ... has been part of a brigade in Czechoslovakia, ... has been very active at the WFDY .. .'* Robert F. Woodward, councillor at the embassy, to Washington, 15 September 1950, 'Restricted', NARA 398.4612-PR/9-1550. In the same file there is a translation the embassy had made of an article Palme had written about the Prague Congress for the conservative Svenska Bladet (29 August 1950), which was later broadcast by the Voice of America. 3. For obvious geopolitical reasons the Finnish union (SYL) declined to co• sponsor the conference. When James D. Grant of the NSA was on his tour of Scandinavia, the SYL leaders admitted to him that they regularly consulted their Foreign Ministry on IUS-related matters. Report Scandinavia, 1950, NSA Archives, Hoover Library, box 152, p. 9. 4. 'An attack on Student Unity', 4 December 1950, IUS Press Department. 5. Confidential letter from Robert Donhauser, Cultural Officer, Stockholm, to Washington, 22/1151, NARA 800.4614/1-2251, p. 5. 6. Letter from Palme to Robert West of the NSA, 12 October 1950, NSA Archives, Hoover Library, Box 152. 7. 'Report to American Students on IUS World Student Congress, December 1950', by Robert West, NSA Archives, Box 152. 8. Ibid. p. I.* 9. Peter T. Jones, The history of the National Student Association's relations with the IUS, 1945-1956 (University of Pennsylvania, 1956), p. 79.* 10. American Embassy in Prague to Washington, 15 September 1950, p. 7, NARA 386.4612 PR/9-1550. II. Student Chronicle, November/December 1950. 12. Ibid., p. 5. 13. Ibid.* 14. Blumenau, The Fringe of Politics (1953), p. 228. 15. Student Chronicle, no. 23, November-December 1950. 258 Notes and References to pp. 177-82 16. John McNab, Jack Davies, John Thompson, Fred Jarvis. John Watkinson and James Driscoll. 17. Student Chronicle, November/December 1950. 18. Ibid., article by Ebbals. 19. C. A. Herbert, security liaison officer, to the Colonial Secretary of Trinidad, co 876/154. 20. See Gerard de Bemis, 'L'Unite lnternationale, est-elle possible?', Esprit, April 1952, Esprit, p. 652. 21. Jean-Pierre Audouit: 'Le Congres de Stockholm ne doit pas constituer un bloc occidental etudiant', Combat, 20 December 1950. 22. Tore Tallroth to Donald Cook, IEP, 27 November 1950, NARA 800.4614111-2750. 23. 12 December, 1950, NARA, ibid. 24. Those of Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Denmark, England, Scotland, Finland, France, Iceland, Italy, Norway, New Zealand, Sweden, Switzerland, West Germany, Turkey, South Africa and Yugoslavia. The last two of these participated as observers. A number of East Europeans in exile also attended as observers, among them the Czech Jaroslav Zich. 25. See the complete minutes of the Stockholm Conference, of which the only copy still in existence seems to be in the NUS archives in London. It is a typescript of close to ISO (unnumbered) pages. 26. Donhauser, ibid.* 27. Undated UNEF document, UNEF Archives, box 41. 28. 'From a strictly national point of view', runs the UNEF report, 'the UNEF has demonstrated to certain of its detractors that it remains faithful to the position adopted towards the IUS since the last Congress in Prague: to sanc• tion no rupture, but to leave the field free for collaboration on a mutually acceptable basis'. UNEF document 'La conference etudiante de Stockholm', 31 December 1950. (UNEF Archive). Even so the left-wing minority reproached Sarvonat for having taken part in the conference at all (Letevre, L'UNEF depuis 1945, op. cit., p. 112). 29. UNEF Document, 31 December 1950, UNEF Archives, Box 41. 30. Donhauser, ibid. 31. H. Eisenberg, 'Where do we stand?', April 195 I, one page in 'International Working Papers', 1951 Congress, NSA Archives, Hoover Library, Box 53. 32. Student Chronicle, March 195 I. 33. See Student News, March 195 I: an article by Fred Jarvis who was then on a visit to the United States.* 34. See Celina Bledowska and Jonathan Bloch, KGB/CIA Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence Operations (London: Bison Books, 1987), p. 40. 35. Libre Belgique, 25-26 December 1951, NSA Archive, Hoover Library, Box 53. 36. Etudiants du Monde, July-August 1951. 37. A similar invitation to rejoin was issued at that time by the World Federation of Trade Unions to the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions. The Confederation turned down the invitation because 'there could be no unity of action where there was no unity of objectives'. See Lewis L. Lorwin, The International Labor Movement (New York: Harper & Brothers, n.d.), pp. 280-1. Notes and References to pp. 183-7 259

38. Initially the idea had been to house the COSEC in Scandinavia; but this was abandoned because none of the Scandinavian countries had colonies. For that reason several national unions (Austria, Belgium, Canada, France, Switzerland and Yugoslavia) proposed Paris, but the British and the Scandinavians rejected that idea. After consultation with the Indonesian national union, which was represented by one of its former presidents, Munadjat Danuseputro, a student at Louvain, Leyden was proposed. The central position of Holland and the low cost of living there at the time were also arguments for the choice (see Informal Report on Edinburgh and Rio, February 1952, NSA Archive, Hoover Library, Box 67). 39. The Israeli National Union was founded in the spring of 1950 at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem (see the article of its president, Enzo Nitzani, in Jewish Students' Review, no. I, 12. 6. 51, Jerusalem). 40. 2 May 1952, signed by Acheson, Secretary of State since 1949, NARA 800.4614/4-2952. 41. Ibid. 42. Telegram signed Woodward, Secret Security Information, copy to CIA, NARA 800.4614/5-752. 43. 'The Embassy could discreetly put to the Swedish Foreign Ministry the advantages that such a position might have for Sweden: prestige, and the possibility of a sources of information for the Ministry•• (telegram signed Woodward, copy to CIA etc. Secret Security Information. NARA 800.4614/5-1652). 44. Letter from Jarvis to Palme, NSA Archives, Hoover Library, Box 52. 45. 21 July 1952. Eric Bourne (President), Tony Warrington (Vice-President), John Bowyer (International Secretary), Peter Morris (former President), to Morgan Phillips, General Secretary of the Labour Party, Labour Party Archives, ref. GS/NALS0/57. 46. Cf. Canadian National Archives (Royal Canadian Mounted Police) 5560-40, file 99. 47. A South African student naively proposed a vote of thanks to Grohman for the work he had done during the previous six years. In an icy voice the Chairman of the meeting refused to accept the motion, saying that the IUS was not 'an organization awarding compliments'. Interview with Grohman; also Manchester Guardian, 24 September 1952 (press cutting found in the archives of the Danish Student Federation in Copenhagen). 48. Bereanu held the post until his own dismissal ('doubtlessly because he also was of Jewish origin', according to Jiri Pelikan in S'ils me Tuent, Paris, Grassel, 1975, p. 99). Giovanni Berlinguer then became president, whilst Jiri Pelikan, as Secretary General, became the new strong man of the IUS. 49. Interview with the author in Prague, 16 April and I 0 June 1989. 50. For Geminder, seep. 104 and p. 246 n.74. He was associated with Slansky, and both men were executed during the purge of 'Titoists' in 1952. 51. Grohman was now unemployed. Fortunately the Czech national union refused to expel him, and Kohutchek, who had been in prison with him under the Nazis, found him a job in the publishing house he headed. After ten years, in 1962, when many of the victims of Stalinism were being rehabili• tated, his friend Jiri Hajek had him appointed Deputy Minister for Education. He held this post from 1962 to 1967; and was then appointed to the Czech 260 Notes and References to pp. 187-93 mission at UNESCO. But in 1976 he was arrested, probably because of his relationship with Sheljepin, who had been purged from the Soviet Politbureau the year before. Having spent five years of his life in a Nazi prison, he was to spend the next nine years in a communist one. 52. First and second sessions on 'Communist tactics in controlling youth organ• izations', 12 April and 12 June , 1951, pp. 283-306. Hearing before the Sub• committee to investigate the administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee of the Judiciary, United States Senate, Washington DC, 82nd Congress. The complete hearings on this subject are published in 331 pages by the Government Printing Office, USA, 1952.

11 The World Youth Festival of Berlin, 1951

I. Journal Officiel, 1951, p. 891. The Surete has not allowed the author access to the file. 2. The WFDY moved its headquarters to Budapest. 3. Records of the General Conference of UNESCO, Seventh Session, Paris 1952, Resolutions, p. 102, UNESCO Archives, Paris. 4. Paix et Democratie, the French-language organ of the Cominform, 3 August 1951. 5. 'Appointment in Berlin', the glossy brochure prepared for the Festival, with many photographs. Berlin 1950, p. 5. 6. Ibid., p. 8. 7. Avant-Garde, 14-30 March 1951. 8. Ibid., 7-13 March 1951. For the impressive campaign in Italy, see Vincent R. Tortora, Communist Close-Up (New York: Exposition Press, 1952). 9. Howard Jones, Acting Director, Berlin Element, HICOG, to Washington, NARA 800.4614/4-2051. 10. Henderson, HICOG Berlin to Washington, NARA 800.461417-2351. II. Ibid. 12. Howard Jones, op. cit. Ninety per cent of the American documentation of the Festival comes from NARA. Many of its documents are also printed in Foreign Relations of the US, vol. m: 1951 (Washington, 1981), pp. 1330-60, 1775-9, 2005-23. 13 Avant-Garde, 4-IOJuly 1951. 14. Telegram 3177 from Rome to Washington, 7 August 1951, NARA 800.4614/8-651. 15. Dunn (Rome) to Washington, 29 August 1951, NARA 800.4614/8-2951. 16. 'The East Berlin Student and Youth Festival', June 1950, FO 975/51, p. 8. 17. Ibid., p. 10. 18. Morris to Gwylym Williams, Transport House, 29 May 1951, Labour Party Archives, GS/NALS0/40. 19. M. Buckingham, American Consulate, Berlin, to Washington, 17 August 1951, NARA 800.4614/8-1751. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid. 22. 'Robert Downing Potter ... an atheist who frequently meets members of the atheist society .... He has openly told his grandparents and a neighbour that Notes and References to pp. 193-7 261 he was a communist and that in a war he would fight with the USSR against Australia and her allies' (John F. O'Grady, Consul at Adelaide, to the State Department, 28 June. NARA 800.4614/2551). 23. J. B. Ketcham (Colombo), I August, NARA 398.461-BFJ8-151. 24. Howard Jones, op. cit. 25. Foreign Relations of the US, op. cit., p. 2004. 26. 'Two Weeks in August: East German Youth Strays West. Background', Office of Public Affairs, Department of State, September 1951, p. 9. 27. NARA 800.4614/5-2851. 28. Charles S. Lewis (HICOG, Frankfurt) to Washington, Telegram 476, 14 August 1951. 29. McCloy had complained that the Germans had dragged their feet somewhat: they were obviously more nervous than the Americans about attracting quite so many visitors from the East. 30. HICOG, Frankfurt, 10 July 1951, NARA 800.461417-1051. 31. NARA 800.461417-2751. 32. Telegram No. 488, 3 August, Donnelly (Vienna) to Washington. 33. 'The Innsbruck Story' (London, 1951). 34. Telegram, Cunningham (HICOG, Frankfurt) 22 October, NARA 800.4614/10-2551. Also Dunn (Rome) to Washington, 29 August 1951, NARA 800.4614/8-2951. 35. 'The square witnessed an immense ovation to honour the guide of all pro• gressive humanity, the best friend of youth .... The message of greetings from German youth to comrade Stalin carried 4,145,839 signatures' (Avant-Garde, 17 August, 1951 p. 3). 36. Ibid. 37. James C. Flint, President of the August Committee, who noted this incident in a 16-page report by one of the British participants, NARA 800.4614/10-2251. 38. The American National Archives hold about a dozen reports from HICOG, Berlin on its 'Efforts to counter Soviet intentions at the World Youth Festival in Berlin, August 5 to 19, 1951 ', NARA 800.4614/10-2251. 39. HICOG Report, 23 August, NARA 800.4614/8-2351. 40. McCloy's report in Foreign Relations of the US, op. cit., p. 1334. 41. McCloy's report, 31 August 1949 in Foreign Relations of the US, 1949. Vol. III, 1951, p. 2005. 42. II page report by Gordon A. Ewing, director of RIAS. 43. Anti-Communist non-HJCOG information materials distributed in West Berlin during the WYF, telegram 661 from HICOG, Frankfurt to Washington, 27 September 1951. NARA 800.4614/9-2751. See also the humorous pamphlet Was Bringt Dir der Schuman Plan, of which the West German Government had printed 300,000 copies. 44. The Amerika Haus showed 205 films, organized a series of lectures on Europe and the United States, distributed II 250 papers and magazines and 45 420 brochures. 45. The Americans had invited Jesse Owens and the Harlem Globe Trotters, who played before 65 000 spectators, at that time the largest number of spectators that had ever watched a basketball game. 46. 'Two Weeks in August', op. cit., p. 4. 47. Flint's report, op. cit., note 37. 262 Notes and References to pp. 198-203

48. Telegram No. 256, Berlin to Washington, 16 August, NARA 800.4614/ 8-1651. 49. Telegram No. 252, Jones to Washington, 16 August, NARA 800.4614/ 8-1651. 50. Telegram No. 1785, HICOG, Berlin, to Washington, 12 September, NARA 800.4614/9-1251 .• 51. 'The result of the third World Festival of Youth and Students for Peace and the Tasks for the Strengthening of the Unity of Youth in the Fight for Peace'. report presented by Enrico Berlinguer, President of the WFDY, in Documents and Declaration of the 7th Annual Council Meeting of the WFDY, 21-24 August 1951 (Budapest, 1952). 52. McCloy (Frankfurt) to Washington, 19 August, NARA 800.4614/8-1951. 53. Note 176 from George A. Morgan, director HICOG (Eastern Element, Berlin) to Washington, 12 September 1951, NARA 800.4614/9-1251. 54. Berlin, 19 August, ibid. 55. McCloy to Washington, op. cit., note 52.

12 The Great American Counteroffensive

I. Ingram to Dentzer, 2 June 1952, NSA Archives, Hoover Library, Box 72. 2. Dentzer (International Commission) to John Haley (Vice-President Student Government), 2 June 1952, NSA Archives, box 72. 3. Mercereau and Dale to Sauve, I March 1952, Sauve papers, Montreal. 4. A Norwegian-language edition was to follow in 1953, bringing the number of languages up to eight. 5. Throughout 1952 the IUS campaigned on this issue. Its secretariat produced Documentation and proofs of the use of bacteriological warfare; World Student News published an article headed 'How I received orders to take part in the bacteriological war undertaken by American forces in Korea' (March 1953); an appeal went out to medical students and to UNESCO to protest; and so on. 6. Interview with the author. 7. Palme to West, 12 October 1950, NSA Archives, Box 152. 8. Dentzer to Ingram, NSA Archives, Box 72. 9. Ingram to Kolarek (Office of East European Affairs), NARA 800.46/4-352. 10. 13 June 1951, confidential letter from Francis J. Collingan, head of the International Exchange of Persons Division (IEP) to Kenneth Holland (Institute of International Education), NARA 800.4614/6-1351. • II. 25 May 1952, Dentzer to Ingram, NSA Archives, Box 72. 12. Interview with the author, New York, 22 December 1988. 13. 'NSA: an insidious political pressure group', American Student, vol. I, no. 10 (December 1952), p. I. 14. John Ranelagh, The Agency. The Rise and Decline of the CIA (London: Sceptre pocket books, 1987). 15. Interview. 16. Interview. See also his book Facing Reality (New York: Harper & Row, 1983), p. 10 I. 17. Richard G. Stearns, 'We were wrong', Mademoiselle, August 1967. Notes and References to pp. 204-7 263

18. Ray S. Kline, Secrets, Spies, and Scholars. Blueprint of the essential CIA (Washington: Acropolis Books, 1976), p. 102. 19. Allen Dulles had been a brilliant intelligence officer in the Swiss outpost of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS). After the war he worked as a consul• tant to the various American intelligence organs before becoming Assistant Director of the CIA in August 1951. 20. Tom Braden had been an isolationist until the German attack on Poland. In 1940, aged 20, he enlisted in the British Army. He fought with the 8th Army in North Africa and Italy. Then he joined the OSS. He was parachuted behind the French and Italian line, with the mission to finance trade union movements in their resistance to the Nazis. After the war he used both his experience of organizing clandestine operations and the contacts he had established with the trade unions: 'The control of trade unions was always a high priority for the communists. It was one of the activities on which they spent the most money. This was, for instance, the case in France. We responded with the Force Ouvriere. It was the same in Italy' (interview with the author). 21. Interview. 22. Interview. 23. Cord Mayer, Facing Reality. From World Federalism to the CIA (New York: Harper & Row, 1980). 24. Treverton, The limit of Intervention in the Post-War World (New York: Basic Books, 1987), p. 40. 25. Interview. 26. Interview. In the case of the Congress for Cultural Freedom, the money, to the tune of $800 000 to $900 000 a year, came from the Hoblitzell Foundation of Dallas. The money financed its publications in various lan• guages: Encounter in English, Monat in German, and so on. (Ranelagh, The Agency, op. cit.. p. 246). In the spring of 1951 a French branch was created. in the name of L' Association Fran9aise des Amis de Ia Liberte. The governing body of its congress included Raymond Aron, Arthur Koestler, David Rousset, Carlo Schmid and Irwing Brown. Denis de Rougemont, Pierre Corval and Pierre Debre were on its Executive. After the 'Rampart' scandal had broken (see pp. 223-4), the General Assembly of the Congress in Paris condemned 'in the most energetic manner the way in which it had been deceived by the CIA and the harm that that had done to their cause' (18 May, 1967). 27. Interview with Cord Meyer. Both Meyer and Dentzer have withheld the name of this person, though the author has reason to believe it was John Simon, NSA Treasurer from 1946-47. 28. This was almost certainly John Simon, who had been Treasurer of the NSA in 1946-47. Later he worked at the Foundation for Youth and Student Affairs (FYSA) from 1952-61, then in the Peace Corps before becoming in 1965 the executive director of the World University Service. 29. Interview with Dentzer. Lowenstein, it will be remembered, though intensely anticommunist, was one of the leading American left wingers and civil rights activists. He was murdered in 1980 by an unbalanced assassin. In 1985 Richard Cummins, in The Pied Piper (London: Grove Press, 1985, pp. 34-70) accused Lowenstein of having been a CIA agent, although Dentzer, whom Cummins had interviewed for his book, had absolutely 264 Notes and References to pp. 207-10

denied it. Dentzer is supported by all who knew Lowenstein. Eugene Groves, NSA President when CIA involvement was revealed in 1967, stated that 'the archives show that no money was received from the CIA prior to 1952' (President's Report to the 20th National Student Congress, 14 August 1967. p. 32); and indeed the accounts of the NSA prove that the NSA could not have received funds from the CIA while Lowenstein was President. 30. 'United States Youth Council Special Commission on FYSA', 27 April 1967, USYC Archives, supplement 3, box 13.

31. Years Budget in$ From CIA %from CIA

1950/51 34 845 0 1951/52 27 822 0 1952/53 69 639 55 494 79 1953/54 71495 48 265 67 1954/55 72 702 57 378 78 1955/56 106 933 92 719 86 1956/57 137 930 125 871 91 1957/58 144 594 112 842 78 1958/59 251 575 146 388 58 1959/60 260 028 121 029 46 1960/61 562 271 336 405 59 1961/62 616 429 420116 69 1962/63 727 578 570 194 78 1963/64 492 242 375 584 76 1964/65 852,055 496 519 58 1965/66 755 293 375 065 49 1966/67 624 172 38 562 0.6 Total 3 372 440 Source: Eugene Groves, President's Report, op. cit., p. 32.

32. Interview. 33. Interview. 34. The seven main contributors were as follows (amounts in florins): NSA (USA), 15,156; VDS (West Germany), 2,699; UNEF (France), 2,310; NUS (England), 2,036; YUS (Yugoslavia), 1,125; SFS (Sweden), 540; VSS (Switzerland), 484 (Statement of Accounts for the Period I August 1952 to 31 March, 1953, COSEC, Leyden, 27 August 1953, Circular No.35/1953. DSF Archives, Royal Archives of Denmark, Copenhagen, Ref. DSF #2 11.4 II). 35. Document orally communicated to the author by Tom Braden.

13 Conclusion

I. $1 300 000 between 1951 and 1959 (Tom Braden, quoted in Bledowska and Bloch, KGB/CIA, op. cit., p. 40). Marianne Lippens seems unaware of the ultimate source of these funds. In a chapter of a collective work entitled La Belgique et les debuts de La construction europeenne (Lou vain: CIACO) she Notes and References to pp. 210-I2 265 summarizes her dissertation on the European Youth Campaign (University of Ghent) and writes, 'The [European] Movement had at its disposal funds from the American Committee for a United Europe, an American organization which, drawing on contributions from American citizens, financed the European struggle'. 2. The Asia Foundation, created in 1954, was itself an offspring of the Committee for a Free Asia, which dates back to March 1951 (see Background Information, Committee for a Free Asia, 1954). Among the 24 members of the board were the cream of the Californian elite, a subtle mixture of industrialists, university figures, intellectuals, civil servants and secret agents. The chairman was Brayton Wilbur of the Wilbur-Ellis Company; the President was Robert Blum, formerly in charge of the work of the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA) in Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. The Chairman of the Finance Committee was Paul Hoffman, a former director of the ECA. There was Kenneth Holland, who was also involved in the FYSA; the presidents of the Universities of Columbia (Grayson Kirk) and Stanford (J. E. Wallace Sterling); the President of Standard Oil of California (T. S. Pedersen); and the writer James A. Michener. A more distinguished board could hardly have been put together. 3. Sigmund had been Harry Lunn's 'witty' (see note 20 below)Vice President from 1954 to 1955. He is now a professor at Princeton. 4. In the 1960s Steinem was one of the stars of New York journalism and the author of many best-sellers, including a biography of Marilyn Monroe. 5. New York Times, 21 February 1967. 6. Nikolai Yakovlev, The CIA against the USSR, (Moscow: Edition du Progres, 1983, French edition 1985). 7. Harry Rositzke, CIA: 25 ans au sein de l'Agence americaine d'espionnage, Documents Temoins (Paris/Brussels, 1973 Elsevier), p. 163. • 8. Vladimir Bukovsky, Et le vent reprend ses tours (Paris: Robert Laffond, 1976). 9. M. Heller and A. Nekritch, L'utopie au pouvoir (Paris: Calmann-Levy, 1982), p. 485. I 0. '15 Years of the IUS', published by the IUS, Prague 2, Vocelova 3, Czechoslovakia (in English). II. The Prague coup of 1948 was treated in a similarly ironic manner: 'In January/February 1948, the IUS was in great financial difficulties. Only the overthrow of the Bend regime and the inauguration of a People's Democracy in February 1948 could save the IUS from certain bankruptcy: the new Czech government was prepared to take over the financial support of the IUS. The establishment of the People's Democracy at last allowed the Czech state to reply to its enemies, including those who had acted as "stu• dents". Its riposte provoked new attacks on the IUS by the so-called defen• ders of democracy. The fact that students were wounded and arrested in their conflict with the police, without causing the slightest protest by the IUS, was exploited by the enemies of progressive democracy, including certain national student unions who were members of the IUS. These dared to claim that the IUS always hastened to protest vehemently whenever students outside the socialist bloc were being persecuted, whilst it refused to utter any condemnation of the murders, beatings, arrests, and banishments inflicted on 266 Notes and References to pp. 212-19

Czech students, the martyrs of fascism whom International Student Day commemorates' (ibid., p. 7).* 12. Internal CIA document, communicated orally to the author by Tom Braden. 13. See Le Monde libre du travail (Brussels: CISL, July 1957). 14. The two-page document carries the reference 'Secret. COSEC. DITC 1ffLIOO/C/32' and is dated 17 July 1956. It was distributed anonymously at a radical student conference in Brussels in March 1966 and was later distri• buted by the president of the Flemish student union (VVS). Investigations at COSEC led to the conclusion that the document had been sent from Vienna. There is a copy in the Report of the Executive Sub-Committee Investigating Possible CIA Subversion of the JSC, NUS, October 1967, Appendix XXI.* 15. Report of the Executive Subcommittee investigating possible CIA subver- sion of the ISC, NUS, October 1967, annexe XXI. 16. Ibid. 17. Interview. 18. Interview. 19. Interview. 20. In CIA parlance, an individual was 'witty' if he had been entrusted with precise knowledge of the source of the funding, 'unwitty' if he had not. 21. Interview. 22. On the recommendation of Her Excellency Jeanne Sauve - at the time Governor-General of Canada - and of her husband Maurice Sauve, the French National Archives have allowed the author access to File F7 15382 of the Ministry of the Interior. This file has hundreds of documents about the Bucharest World Youth festival in 1953. The keeper of the archives main• tains that this is the only file in the F7 series relating to the WFDY. The author finds this difficult to believe. 23. Series F7 15382, Note SL XI/IX No. 1656/53, 29 July 1953. Copies to Direction des Renseignements Generaux, Prefet Haut-Rhin, sous-prefet Mulhouse. Apparently none of these earlier files have been preserved in the archives. 24. The second IUS Congress was to take place there immediately after the Bucharest Festival. 25. Ibid., Note SL XIII/VIII, No. 1631/53, 28 July. 26. Ibid., Note SL 111/XI, No. 1520/53, 18 July 1953. Copies to Prefect, Direction des Rensiegnements Generaux, Paris (3); Prefect of Haut-Rhin, Sub-Prefect of Mulhouse. 27. Ibid. Origin: Service departemental des RG de Nancy, Registration no. 4.5.34, Date 8 December 1953. Copies to (i) M. le Prefet, directeur des RG (4eme section), (ii) Le Prefet, Meurthc-et-Moselle, (iii) Archives. Subject: photographs taken during the Bucharest Festival. Date 8112/53. Value: very good. 28. Interview, 23 May 1988, Paris. 29. Ibid. 30. They all acknowledged this in a joint declaration (25 February 1967) to the twentieth congress of the NSA when the story broke. See The CIA and the Kiddies, a summary of the best articles and papers relating to the ISC/CIA connection, in the NUS archives. Notes and References to pp. 220-4 267 31. Dagens Nyheter, 23 February 1967. Translated from the Swedish (into French) by Malene Hilden. 32. The American government played a part in persuading the NSA, the American Youth Congress and the ISC to approach the young nationalists of Algeria. The FYSA used the ISC to finance the Union Generale des Travailleurs Algeriens (UGTA) and provided a scholarship scheme for young Algerians (see a letter requesting help from the Secretary of the UGTA to the American Youth Congress, in the latter's archives (suppl. 3, Box 15). As Denis Shaul, NSA president in 1962/3, wrote, 'It was vital in the late Fifties ... to work with the leaders of the Algerian independence struggle -even though the State Department's official position was, at least impli• citly, to back our ally France .... It would have been obviously impossible at that time for the Government to support openly an organization that was attempting to work with progressive, often very left wing, groups abroad' (Dennis Shaul, 'We were right', an article in Mademoiselle, August 1967, which was printed in parallel with one by Richard Stearns, entitled 'We were wrong'). 33. New York Times, 21 February 1967. 34. Time, 27 February 1967. 35. The New Republic, 'Playing it Straight. Who did what and why for the CIA?', 4 March 1967, editorial, p. 4. 36. John Kennedy followed what the NSA was doing, as is shown by a letter he wrote to its President, Dennis Shaul, in 1963, at the time of its annual con• vention. Robert Kennedy opened the fifth Assembly of the WAY at Amherst in 1964; Ted Kennedy its Assembly at Liege in 1969. John and Robert Kennedy were aware of the CIA's clandestine operations with youth and student movements. Robert Kennedy expressed delight at the subversive operations carried out by the CIA during the Helsinki Festival in 1962. Author's interviews with Cord Meyer; see also Cord Meyer, Facing Reality: From World Federalism to the CIA (New York: Harper and Row, 1980) p. 89. 37. NSA Archives, box 293. 38. On the other hand, it condemned the treatment of the Jewish community in the USSR. 39. After the defeat of the French in Vietnam, the Geneva Conference had left the North of Vietnam under communist control and the South under a pro• Western government. 40. Resolutions of the 12th CIE Conference at Nairobi, 1966, Leyden 1966, Resolution No. 86. 41. New York Times, 25 February 1967. 42. New York Times, 6 March 1967. • 43. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 it was revived, and it is now, as it used to be, widely representative of the different national youth committees throughout the world. Index

Note: Only the most important items from the Notes and Reference section have been included in this index.

Acebez (Spanish student leader) 245 Association de Ia Jeuness Catholiqe de n.72 Ia France (ACJF) 66,241 n.80 Acheson, Dean 184, 193f,203,219 Association of Interns and Medical Action Committees 132ff, 137f Students (AIMS) 143, 149f, 166, Addis, John 96 187 Adenauer, Konrad 192 Astor, Nancy 234 n.41 Aitken (Mrs) 67, 69 Attlee, Clement 56, 73f, 76, 95, 109, Albert Hall Rally 48ff 129,240 n.64 Aliane, B. A. 216 Au Sik Ling I 03, I 05 Allanson, J. T 243 n.22 Auriol, Vincent 140 All-India Student Congress (AISC) 78, 92, 130, 142, 152, 157, 250 Bacilek (Czech student) 133, 251 n.20 n.33 All-India Student Federation (AISF) Bakaya, Vimla 142, 245 n.73 36,57, 78,92,98, 142,130,152, Baker, Pat 149f 157, 186 Bangou (French student leader) 158 Amachree (from Nigeria) 237 n.13 Barbie, Klaus 206 American Committee for a United Barbusse, Henri 6f Europe 210 Barrat, Chester 123 American Federation of Labor (AFL) Bauer, Gustav 20 206 Belhradek, Jan 76 American Young Communist League Ben Bella 212 60 Benes, Eduard 44, 49ff, 57, 94, 132, American Youth Congress (A YC) 245 n.51 22ff, 31, 39ff, 45, 58, 115, 232 Bennett (Lord) 234 n.41 n.63, 235 n.58 Bereanu, Bernard 156, 186, 259 n.48 American Youth for a Free World Beria, Lavrenti 44 58, 115f, 235 n.58 Berlinguer, Enrico 190, 192, 198, American Youth for Democracy 60, 246 n.79 115f, 118f Berlinguer, Giovanni 105, 150, 155f, Andersen, Stig 149, 164 246 n.79, 259 n.48 Anderson, John 55f, 68 Bernal, J.D. 164 Anglo-Soviet Youth Friendship Bernstein, Leonard 76 Alliance 47, 53ff Bevan, Aneurin 8, 53 Anti-Imperialist League 5 Bevin, Ernest 18, 50, 56, 72ff, 95, Apeland, Nils 237 n.7 96, 107, 109f, 129, 169ff, 240 Arens (Mr) 187f n.64 Aron, Raymond 263 n.26 Beyer-Pedersen, Svend 57f, 60f, 80, Ascarate, Luis 150, 155 112, 127ff, 169,247 n.5 Asia Foundation 210, 265 n.2 Beyer-Pedersen (Mrs) 127f

268 Index 269

Blake, Martin 95 Carillo, Santiago 12f, 17 Blum, Leon 26f Carnegie Foundation 206 Blum, Robert 265 n.2 Carr, E.H. 3 Blumenau, Ralph 54, 136, 143, 145f, Carrel, Andre see Horschiller 150, 155f, 157, 162f, 165, 177, Carritt, Gabriel (Bill) !Sf, 18f, 22, 253 n.100, 255 n.l48 26, 29f, 33 Bodmer (Swiss student leader) I 05 Casanova, Danielle 22 Bogatyrev, Vasili 52, 57, 127 Cassin, Rene 50, 57 Boissieras (French student leader) Cater, Douglas 248 n.51 139, 158 Catherwood Foundation 210 Bonham-Carter, Mark 47,49 Cavanagh, J. Garvan 207 Bonham-Carter, Violet 49, 69, 76, Cazalet, Victor 50 123, 169,256 n.5 Cecil, David 22 Boomla, Kitty 57, 80, 240 n.70 Celler, Emanuel 70 Bose, Aurobindo 250 n.l9 and 20 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) Boucek, Jaroslav 250 n.28 182, 199, ch. 12 passim, 21 Off, Boucher, M. 57 217f, 220ff Bouchet, Paul 90, 93, 243 n.17 Chabrun, J.F. 57, 237 n13 Boulier (Abbe) 164 Chamberlain, Neville 26f Braden, Tom 200, 203, 205f, 215f, Charpentier, Jean 127 247 n.23, 263 n.20 Chautemps, Camille 21 Bratescu, G. 142 Chen, C.K. 80 Bratsch, Horst 240 n.69 Chen, C.Z. 80, 237.n.13 Brickman, Carmel 91, 93, 98,245 Chien, Peter 245 n. 73 n.72 and 73, 246 n.77 Childers, Erskine 159, 254 n.126 Brignoli, Mary 21 Churchill, Winston 26, 50, 56, 68, British Broadcasting Corporation 71, 171 (BBC) 55, 159, 172,235 n.50 Chuter Ede, J. 71, 74f, 107ff, 239 British Council 85, 95 n.56 British Medical Students Association Clark (Mrs) 84 (BMSA) 91 Clay, Henry J. 207 British Youth Co unci I 172, 224 Clews, John 154 British Youth Peace Assembly (BYPA) Collard, Dudley 227 n.21 16, 19, 28, 30ff, 51,57 Collett, Edith 177 Britten, Benjamin 76, 171 Collins, Elizabeth see Shields-Collins Brown, Irwin 263 n.26 Collins, David 33 Bruijns, Morzer 141 Colonial Office 159, 177 Bucevic, Jaksa 155f, 176 Cominform (Communist Information Bukovsky, Vladimir 211 Bureau) 125, 148, 152, 159, Burgess, Guy 14 165, 190 Busbey (Congressman) 116 Comintern (Communist International): Butler, R. A. 50, 69 Third Congress 1921: 2; 3, 7, 9; Seventh Congress 1935: !Of; 26, Calcutta Conference ( 1948) 129 44; dissolved 59 Caldwell, Oliver 114 Comite Europeen des Conseils Canadian Youth Congress (CYC) Nationaux de Jeuness (CENYC) 232 n.63, 232 n.3 64,237 n.8 Capitant, Rene 89, 240 n.64 Comite Fran~ais de Ia Jeunesse Carew-Hunt, R. H. 4 Democratique 139 270 Index

Committee for International Student Davies, Jack 257 n.I6 Cooperation (CISC) 150, 162, Davis, Chester 166 165f, 254 n.l26 Davis, David 207 Confederation Generale du Travail Davis, Walter 146 (CGT) 204 De Bernis, Gerard 133, 140, 148, Confederation Internationale des 158f, 160, 164, 178 Etudiants (CIE) 86f, 242 n.3 De Boysson, Guy 65, 76, 80, 81, 240 Congress for Cultural Freedom 168, n.78 205f, 215, 223, 263 n.26 De Brouckere, Louis 21 Congress of Industrial Organizations De Vleeschauwer 50 (CIO) 114, 168, 206 De Freitas, Geoffrey 66 Connors (Mr) 187 De Gasperi, Alcide 192 Conseil Fran~ais de Ia WAY (CFAMJ) De Launay, Jacques 61 172,201 De Rougemont, Denis 263 n.26 Cooper, Duff 229 n.9 Debre, Pierre 263 n.26 Coordinating Secretariat (COSEC) Dejean, Maurice 50 182f, 200,208, 213ff, 219f, 259 Dentzer, Bill 182, 185, 200ff, 207, n.38 215,219,221,223 Corval, Pierre 263 n.26 Derry, Charles 130 Council of European National Youth Desanti, Dominique 62 Committees 210 Deuxieme Bureau 215 Cox, M. E. 153 Dies (Congressman) 40 Craxi, Bettino 182 Dimitrov, Giorgi II Cripps, Dorothy 49, 54, 76, 81, 169f, Dizdarevic (Yugoslav student leader) 234 n.41 150 Cripps, Peggy 234 n.41 Donovan, Bill 247 n.23 Cripps, Stafford: supports front Driscoll, James 258 n.I6 organizations 41, 43, 47, 49, Du Maurier, Daphne 171 53ff, 56ff, 60, 65ff, 69ff, 76, 81f, Dulles, Allen 204ff, 247 n.23, I 07ff, 114, 123f, 234 n.41, 238 263 n.I9 n.36, 239 n.56; changes position Dutt, Palme 26 (1948) 169,213 Croasdell, Gerald 34f EAM-ELAS 78 Cummings, Richard 219 Ebbals, Tom 156, 176 Cummins, Frank 177 Economic and Social Council of the Czechoslovak coup and IUS (1948) United Nations (ECOSOC) 131 to 138, 144 107ff, 172 Eden, Anthony 68, 171 Daladier, Edouard 26 Ehrenburg, Ilya 164 Dale, Helen 173, 200 Einstein, Albert 6, 7 Dalton, Hugh 170 Eisenberg, Herbert 175, 179, 181 Damon (Williams), Frances 65, 78, Eisenhower, Dwight 60, 206, 236 n.63 80, 115, 193,236 n.58 Eisenstein 225 n.5 Dang (Indian student leader) 246 n.77 Eisler, Paul 20 Danish Student Federation (DFS) Elizabeth (Princess) 170 141 Ellis, Bill 99, 103f, 114, 121, 131, Danish Youth Federation (DUF) 223, 133f, 136, 150, 248 n.51 240 n.79 EPON 78, 80, 118 Danuseputro, Munadjat 259 n.38 Erlich, Henri 44 Index 271

Ershova (Soviet student leader) 246 Franck, Hans Goran 257 n.2 n.77 Free German Youth (FDJ) 19, 78, EUREKA Youth League 60 190ff, 194, 196ff European Youth Campaign 182, 210 Fuoc, Henri 217 Furse, Katherine 50 Fadeyev, Alexander 44 Falta, Otto 20 Gabor, Peter 62 Farkas, Michael see Woolf Gale (Kettle; Carritt), Margot 14ff, Farrar, Curtis 176 19,21,26,38~46,49,52,57,66, Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) 81, 86, 91, 108,228 n.30 60, 72, 113, 115 Gallego, Ignacio 80 Federation Franyaise des Etudiants Gallo, Gregory 223 Catholiques (FFEC) 90 Galvez (Spanish student leader) 245 Fedorov,Eugene 48,59 n.72 Ferrari, Frank 221 Gauntlett, Raymond 29 Festivals: Prague (1947) ch. 7 passim, Geminder I 04, 187, 259 n.50 212; Budapest (1949) 148, 173; George VI 50, 74, 76, 170 Berlin (1951) 183f, ch. II passim, Georgieva, Raina 155 200f, 210,212, 216; Bucharest Gillis (Belgian student leader) 240 (1953) 212, 216f, 224; Warsaw n.71 (1955) 212; Algiers (1957) 212; Girl Guides 172 Moscow (1957) 211f, 224; Vienna Godard, Marcel (or Pollack, Erwin) 20 (1959) 211 ff; Helsinki (1962) Goldschmidt, Guido 19 212; Moscow (1985) 224 Goldstein, Israel 76 Fierlinger, Zdenek 132, 160 GoldstUcker, Eduard 20, 47, 49, 51f, Finnish National Union of Students 65,81,88 (SYL) 257 n.3 Gollan, Elsie see Maidland Fischel, Viktor 58 Gollan, John 8, 15, 16ff, 27f, 228 Flemish Student Union (VVS) 266 n.30 n.l4 Goodman, Jerome 193 Fontaine, Andre I Gottwald, Klement 97, 132, 160 Force Ouvriere 204, 263 n.20 Gould, Leslie 23 Forces Unies de Ia Jeunesse Graham, F. P. 175 Patriotiques 89 Graves, Elsa 80 Ford Foundation 201,206 Greenwood, Arthur 35f Foreign Office 55; and World Youth Grenier, Fernand 234 n.33 Conference (1945) 67ff, 83ff; and Grew, Joseph 71 Prague Congress ( 1946) 94ff; and Grohman, Josza 17, 58, 88, 93, 95, Prague Youth Festival (1947) 107, 103ff, 129, 133, 137, 142, 153, 109, 110, 112; 123, 127f, 139; and 155f, 160f, 176, 190,245 n.72, IUS London Council (1950) 150, 251 n.33; fall (1952) 186, 259 152, 154, 157; and IUS Prague n.47 and 51 Congress (1950) 159, 162, 166, Groupement des Etudiants RPF 147, 168; and WAY (1948) 169ff; 178 and Berlin Festival (1951) 192f; Groves, Eugene 263 n.29 253 n.IOO Gruszynski, Krysztof 157 Foundation for Youth and Student Guha, Ranjit 142 Affairs (FYSA) 207f, 219f, 221, Guyot, Raymond 9, 12, 17, 22, 26, 223, 267 n.32 65 272 Index

Hajek, Jiri 20, 80, 259 n.51 International Confederation of Free Halifax (Lord) 30, 45 Trade Unions (ICFTU) 168, Halter, Victor 44 205, 212, 224, 258 n.37 Hansar, P. N. 230 n.l9, 233 n.24 International Council of Students in Haynes, George 17lff Great Britain (ICS) 15, 52 Haywood, J. 166 International Exchange of Personnel Hayworth, Rita 119 Division of the State Department Heaf, P. J. B. 243 n.22 (IEP) 114, 121 Henderson (ofHICOG) 192 International Federation of Democratic Henniker-Major, J.P. E. C 96 Lawyers 237 n.4 Herriot, Edouard 22 International Federation of Democratic High Commission in Germany Women (IFDW) 63, 81, 97, 189 (HICOG) l92ff, 199 International Institute for Youth Hinckley, William 23 Affairs (IIYA) 210 Hitler, Adolf 25ff, 44, 54, 212, 228 International Labour Organization n.l8 (ILO) 172 Hoblizell Foundation 263 n.26 International Organization of Hoffman, Paul 201, 265 n.2 Journalists (IOJ) 168, 23 7 n.4 Holbrook, William 165, 175 International Organizations Division Holland, Kenneth 207, 265 n.2 (IOD) 205 Holman, Halstead l49f, 166, 187f, International Research Service (IRS) 193,202,254 n.l26 210 Home Office 55, 67ff, 154, 213f International Scouting Bureau 172 Honecker, Erich 190, 197f International Student Conference (ISC) Hookham, Kutty 17, 26, 4 7f, 50, 54, Ch. I 0 passim, 200, 202, 207ff, 58,61,65,67,69, 77,80, 108, 212ff, 217' 221 ff 112, 114, 124 International Student Conference Hookham, Maurice 47,48 Coordinating Secretariat Hoover, J. Edgar 115 (ISC/COSEC) 166, I 68, 183, Hopkins, Harry 42 208,210,213,221,224 Horschiller (Carrel), Andre 21, 22 International Student Day 52 Houghton, M 207 International Student Service (ISS) House On-American Activities 42 Committee (HUAC) 40, 42, International Union of Socialist Youth 113, 115f, 119 (IUSY) 12, 223f Howe!, Ernest 221 International Union of Students (IUS) Hughes Parry (Dr) 66 17,63,86;London!Prague Hunt, E. D. 31 Constituent Congress 1945: Ch. 6 Huxley, Julian 50, 171 passim; 126; Prague Council, 1947 104, 105; 107, 116, 121. Ibarruri, Ruben Ruiz 48 125, 126, 130, 131; and the Ignar, Stefan 241 n.83 Prague Coup ( 1948) 132ff; Paris lima, Viola 22f Council (1948) 140, 142ff, 151; Independence Foundation 210 Bucharest Executive ( 1948) Indian Youth Council 210 140, 142, 147, 148; Sofia Council Ingram, A vrea 182, 200ff, 221 ( 1949) 149ff, 152; London International Confederation of Executive (1949) 152ff, 157; Students 86f, 242 n.3 Moscow Executive (1949) 158, Index 273

Prague Congress (1950) 158ff, Kaspi, Andre 112 166f, 168, 174f, 179f, 182; Kawan 20 Warsaw Congress (1951) 182, Keegan, Pat 172 183, 185f, 217; Bucharest Council Kennan, George 204 (1952) 186, 187, 189f, 195,200, Kennedy, Edward 220,267 n.36 208, 2 IOff, 223f Kennedy, John F. 220f, 267 n.36 International Union of Young Christian Kennedy, Robert 220, 223, 267 n.36 Democrats 2 10 Kettle, Arnold 15,46 International Youth Council (IYC) Kettle, Margot see Gale 17, 50ff, 55ff, 234 n.42 KGB 80,213 International Youth Hostel Federation Khrushchev, Nikita 211 172 KIM (Young Communist Isaacs, George 239 n.56 International) 2f, 5f, 8ff, 17, Ivanov (Soviet student leader) 245 22f; dissolved 48, 59; 130 n.72 King, Mackenzie 31 Kirk, Grayson 265 n.2 James, A.P. 243 n.22 Kirkpatrick (Mr) 95 James, Tony 65 Klugmann, James 17, 32 Janicek, Michal 119 Knevitt (Miss) 163 Jarvis, Fred 182, 258 n.l6 Koestler, Arthur 13, 16, 263 n.26 Jebb, G. Ill Kohutchek 259 n.51 Jegers (Shivers), Lena 47, 234 n.32, Kolakowski, Leszek 63 241 n.88 Kolarek, Joseph 201 Jenkins, Stanley 137, 138, 143, 145f, Komar, Slako 57, 80 151ff, 157, 160, 162ff, 176f, 179, Komsomol (League of Young 18lf, 184,251 n.49, 253 n.IOO Communists) 2, 48, 213 Jeunes Gardes Populaires (JGP) 78, Koo, Wellington 50 240 n.71 Korean War 160ff Jeunesse Ouvriere Chretienne (JOC) Korn, Alexander 221 219 Kovaricek (Czech student) 133,251 Johnsen, Torill 64 n.33 Johnson, Alan 176 Krajina, Y. 134 Johnson,Lyndon 221 Kreibich, Karel 20 Joliot-Curie (Prof.) 164 Kriegel, Annie 10 Jones, Penry 80, Ill, 123 Krop, Paul 216 Josephs, Stanley 137 Kundera, Milan 63 Jouhaux,Leon 204 Kuo Tai Chee 50 Jousselin, Jean 66, 80, 238 n.21, 241 n.80 La Guardia, Fiorello 21 Joyce, Eric 230 n.l9 La Passionaria 48 Judd (Representative) 117 Labour League of Youth (LL Y) 17f, 30 Kam Buk 162 Labour Party 18f, 30, 35f, 46, 66, 70, Kanuga (Indian student leader) 240 185, 193 n.70 Lacek, Mita 119 Kartin, Bernard 187 Langer, Walter 247 n.23 Kaser, Michael 54, 221 Langer, William 247 n.23 Kasimour, Jan I 04 Laski, Harold 8, 82 274 Index

Lasky, Mel 206 Mary (Queen Mother) 234 n.41 Laurin, Camille I 05 Masaryk,Jan 49,58,94,112,245 Laursen, Fenn 141 n.51 Le Pen, Jean-Marie 178 Mason, Paul Ill League of Catholic Women 172 Massey, Vincent 60,71 League of Nations Youth Group Massie, Alex 17f (LNUYG) 19, 29 Matteotti (from Italy) 238 n.22 League of Young Communists 16 Matthews, George 38f Lebert, Charles 90, 147, 150, 243 Matthewson, Lemuel 199 n.l7 McCarthy,Joseph 40,203,206,218 Lefevre, Jacques Fran~ois 103 McCarthyism 115, 120, 175, 181, Legoy, Raymond 128 202f Lenin, V.I. 2ff, 26 McCloy,John 193f, 197f,261 n.29 Leon, Abraham 76 McLaughlin, Martin 99 Lewand, J. 117, 119, 120 McLean \05 Liang Ken 150 McNab, John 258 n.l6 Lidice 113, 117 McNeil, Hector 47, 96, 107, I \Of Lindop, Norman Ill McVey, Ruth 130 Lippman, Walter 23, 41 Meert, Louis 93, I 03, \05 Login, Estelle 47 Mercereau, Paul 173, 200 London School of Economics (LSE) Meyer, Anthony 153, 159 84,91, 176f Meyer, Cord 203, 205 Lovestone, Jay 206 Ml5 55, 108, IIOf, 213 Lowenstein, Allard 175, 179ff. 203, Ml6 see Secret Intelligence Service 207, 263 n.29 (SIS) Lown, Bernard 92, 13, 187 Michener, James A. 265 n.2 Lunn,Harry 208,215,218~221 Michoels, Salomon 45 Mihailovic, Draza 44 MacDermot B. 170 Mikhailov, Nikolai 48, 80, 198 Macmillan, Harold 171 Ministry of Information 55 Madden, Tom 17, 91, 93, 95, 98f, Modica (Bulgarian student leader) \03ff, 129, 131, 133, 135, 137f, 150 142, 149f, 156, 176, 245 n. 72, 246 Moley, Raymond 23 n.77, 252 n.80 Molotov, Vyacheslav 212 Madero, E. 57, 237 n.l3 Montagne, Remy 172, 200, 241 n.80 Magnussen, lb 155f Montgomery, Bernard 171 Mahler, Hans 48 Morales, David Francesco see Turner Maidland (Gollan), Elsie 15f, 21 Morgan, George 199 Maisky, Ivan 44, 50,69 Morley, Louise 57 Mann, Heinrich 7 Morris, J.P. 193 Mao Tse Tung 35, 168, 196 Morrison, Herbert 18f, 55f, 68, 71 f, Margaret (Princess) 170 74, 76,109,192,213 Marquesee, John 166 Mounier, Emmanuel 21 Marsalova (Czech? student leader) Mundt (Congressman) 117 245 n.72 Mundt-Smith Act 113, 120 Marshall Plan 125, 143f, 160, 194, Munger, Robert 203 221 Miinzenberg, Willi 2, 5f, 26, 225 n.4 Martin, Paul 83 and 5 Marx, Karl 50 Murphy, Richard 219, 223 Index 275

Murray, Frank 221 Office of Strategic Services (OSS) Muslim Student Federation 92 204f, 215, 247 n.23 Mussolini, Benito 25 Olson, Thomas 221 Ondrus (Czech student leader) 133 National Association of Labour Orwell, George 13, 171 Student Organizations (NALSO) Ostergren, Berti! 257 n.l 146, 185f, 193 Otone, Emesto 63 National Council of Social Services Owen (Mr) 67, 69f (NCSS) 84, 170ff, 238 n.17 Owens, Jesse 261 n.45 National Federation of Canadian Oxford Union 8, 38 University Students (NFCUS) Ozep 225 n.5 105, 210 National Student Association of Pakistani Student Federation 92 America (NSA) 92, 116, 121, Palacek, Vaclav 49, 5lf, 57ff, 65, 76, 130, 141, 143, 149, 159, 165ff, 80f, 114, 116, 234 n.32, 241 n.88 175f, 179ff, 184, 200ff, 207ff, 210, Palme, Olof 152, 157, 165, 174, 176, 215, 218, 220f, 223, 254 n.126 178f, 182, 184,201,219,257 n.l National Union of Students of and 2 England, Wales and Northern Panella, Marco 182 Ireland (NUS) 14, 19, 28, 34, Partisans of Peace 161f 36; Leeds Congress, ( 1940) Patrick, Gordon 79 36; Cambridge Congress ( 1941) Pauker, Anna 142 38; 47, 51, 52, 86f, 91, 93, 95, Pavitt, Laurie 18 98, 107, Ill, 129, 135; Leicester Pax Romana 210 Congress ( 1948) 135f; Oxford Pedersen, Svend see Seyer-Pedersen Council (1948) 137f, 146, 139, Pedersen, T. S. 265 n.2 140f; Manchester Council ( 1948) Peel (Simon), Joan 17, 20f, 28, 32, 146; Exeter Council (1947) 146; 49 149; London Council (1949) 150, Pelikan, Jiri 93, 132f, 259 n.48 I 51, 153, !54; Cardiff Council Perlin, Marshall 18 (1950) 156f, 157, 160, 165f, 168; Perovic (from Yugosalvia) 237 n.l3 Liverpool Council (1950) 176f, Pesljak, Misha I 04 180; Southampton Council ( 1951) Petain, Philippe 32, 231 n.31 181, 182, 185f, 213,215 Peter of Yugoslavia 50 Navratil (Czech student leader) 132f Pfeiferova, Karla 20 Nazi-Soviet Pact II, 25ff, 38, 44, 49, Philby, H. A. R. (Kim) 14, 215 212 Phillips, Morgan 18, 66, 170, 185 Nehru, Jawarhalal 78, 98, 250 n. 19 Pickens, Harriet Ida 236 n.58 Nejedly, Z. 160 Pieck, Wilhelm 190, 196 Noel-Baker, Philip 29, 107f, 239 Pieniazek (Polish student leader) 245 n.56, 247 n.5 n.72 North Atlantic Treaty Organization Pieralli, Piero 217 (NATO) 168 Pirie, Dick 149 Norton, Ann 166 Pitt, Daniel 230 n.l9 Nosek, Vaclav 20 Pleven Plan 190 Pollack, Erwin see Godard, Marcel Obranczka, Richard 238 n.22 Pollitt, Harry 26 Office of Policy Coordination (OPC) Pollock, Montagu 68, 73, 95, 96 204,206 Popoca, Manuel 80 276 Index

Popular Front 7, 10, 53 Rust, William Bonney 136, 138, 143, Potter, Robert 260 n.22 145f, 150, 152, 154, 157f, 163, Poudovkine 225 n.5 165, 176, 243 n.22 Powell (Mrs) 83ff, 95f, 129, 170 Priestley, J. B. 54 Sader. A. 92, 98 Pritt, D. N. 34, 36 San Jacinto Foundation 210 Sarvonat, Jean 178, 180, 182 Quai d'Orsay 122, 152, 159,201 Sauve, Jeanne 256 n.25 Queuille, Henri 189 Sauve, Maurice 172, 200, 256 n.25 Schachter, Ruth 221 Rabb Foundation 210 Schaffer, Albert 121 Raczkiewicz, Wladyslaw 50 Schmid, Carlo 263 n.26 Radio in American Sector (RIAS) 197 Schneiders, Frits 141 Rajk, Laszlo 62 Schneier, Michael 230 n.l9 Rakosi, Matyas 186 Schumacher, Kurt 197 Rampart 222 Schuman Plan 168, 198 Rassemblement Democratique Africain Schwartz, Eugene 165,175 216 Scottish Union of Students (SUS) 139 Raveau, Regine 216 Scout Movement 66, 84 Redgrave, Michael 76 Second Front 52f, 57 Rensdorf, Emil l33f, 136 Secret Intelligence Service (SIS or Reuter, Ernst 194 Ml6) 213, 215 Ribbentrop, Joachim 212,226 n.18 Section Fran,.:aise de I'Intemationale Richards, Margaret 243 n.22 Ouvriere (SFIO) 12 Ripka, Hubert 50, 69, 134 Semichastny, Vladimir 213 Rockefeller Foundation 201,206 Senate Un-American Activities Roger, Joseph 93, 106 Committee 187, 202 Rokossovsky, Konstantin 76, 77 Senk,Doris 78, 113,115f Rolin, Henri 21 Service de Documentation Exterieure Rolland, Romain 7 et de Contre-Espionnage Roosevelt, Eleanor: supports A YC (SDECE) 216 22ff, 40f; breaks with A YC 42, Sevcov 105 45f, 232 n.60; supports World Shaul, Denis 267 n.32 Youth Council57f, 60, 69, 235 Sheljepin, Alexander 80, 103f, 142, n.51; supports World Youth 150, 163, 165, 186,213,245 n.72, Conference 76; supports WFDY 259 n.51 81, 114f; 123, 170, 175 Shevtsov, Orest 237 n.l3 Roosevelt, Franklin 21, 23, 41 f, 45f, Shields, Elizabeth see Shields• 81,247 n.23 Collins Rosenberg, Julius and Ethel 217 Shields-Collins (Wallace), Elizabeth Rositzke, Harry 211 16,21,47,49,54,58 Ross, Michael 207 Shivers, Lena see Jegers Rostini, Pierre 90, 244 n.38 Sigmund, Paul 210, 218, 220f, Rostow, Walter 247 n.23 265 n.3 Rousset, David 263 n.26 Sikorski, Wladyslaw 50 Ruckacki 196 Silkin, Lewis 239 n.56 Russell, Bertrand 171 Silver, Joy 187, 193 Rust, William (Editor of The Daily Simmonet, Maurice-Rene 79 Worker) 233 n.ll Simmons, Tony 143ff Index 277

Simon, Abott 230 n.l9 Student Section of the People's Youth Simon, Brian 17, 20, 26, 32,38 of Yugoslavia (SEJPY) 155f Simon, Joan Sugiono (Indonesian student leader) Simon, John 207, 263 n.27 and 28 245 n.73 Sinatra, Frank 76 Sulc (from Czechoslovakia) 237 n. I 3 Sinclair, Andrew 8 Sullivan, Donald 173 Sinclair, Archibald 69 Surete 216 Slansky, Rudolf 104, 259 n.50 Swedish Federation of Students (SFS) Sling, Ota 20, 228 n.30 152, 157, 174, 184 Slingova, Marian see Wilbraham Szatler (Polish student leader) 156 Smith, Jim 133f Smith, Robert 141 Tanbunyen,S. 57,81 Sonkup, Mijimir 119 Thakin Nu 250 n.l9 Special Operations Executive (SOE) Theroux, Eugene 220 215 Thompson, John 181 f, 185, 258 n.l6 Spender, Stephen 13, 171 Tito, Josip Broz 97, 148, 157 Springhal, Douglas 26 Tomlinson, George 129, 239 n.56 Stalin, Josef 8, 10, 25, 26, 44f, 59, Tomovic (Yugoslav student leader) 118, 119, 125, 148, 160, 163, 168, 149, 246 n.77 196,204,212 Toynbee, Philip 15, 227 n.l7 Standing Council of National Trades Union Congress (TUC) 70, Voluntary Youth Organizations 168 (SCNVYO) 66, 68, 72f, 78, 83, Tranaeus, Jar! 185, 257 n.l 86, 95, Ill, 201, 234 n.30, Trotsky, Leon 2 238 n.l7 Trouvat, Pierre 90, 93, 101, 103, State Department: and World Youth 138f, 140, 142, 147, 150,243 n.l7 Council (1945) 69ff; and Prague Truman, Harry S. 71ff, 76, 113, 115, Festival (1947) 113f, 116, 119ff, 204, 247 n.23 127, 154; and IUS Prague Tsouderos, Emmanuel 50 Congress ( 1950) 159, 166; and Turner (Morales), David Francesco lSC ( 1950) 174, 178f, 184; and 72 Berlin Festival (1951) 193, 200ff; and CIA 206, 208 Uhl, F. 134 Stearns, Richard 203 Union de Ia Jeunesse Republicaine de Steele, Walter 116 France (UJRF) 60, 91, 93, 98, Steinem, Gloria 210, 220, 265 n.4 148, 149, 191,217 Steinhardt, Laurence 114, 117, 120 Union des Etudiants Juifs de France Sterling, Wallace 265 n.2 (UEJF) 90 Stettinius, Edward 70, 76 Union des Etudiants Patriotiques Stockholm Peace Appeal 158, 161, (UEP) 89,90 164 Union des Grandes Ecoles 176 Strachey, John 8 Union des Travailleurs Algeriens Strauss, George 53 Progressifs (UTDAP) 216 Student Christian Movement (SCM) Union Generale des Travailleurs Ill, 129,136,139 Algeriens (UGTA) 267 n.32 Student Labour Federation (SLF) 91, Union Nationale des Etudiants 146, 149, 151, 160, 163, 175, 185 Fran~ais (UNEF) 86, 88f; Dax Student Mutual Assistance Programme Congress (1945) 90; Grenoble (SMAP) 180, 182 Congress ( 1946) 90f, 98, 13 I; 278 Index

UNEF cont. Waugh, Evelyn 171 Nice Congress (1948) 138f, 140, Wells, H.G. 36 141; Le Touquet Congress (1949) Welton, Violet 95, I 12, 173 147, 149; Arcachon Congress Werth, Alexander 54 (1950) 158, 166, 176, 178, 180, West, Robert 165, 175,201 182; and Nancy Conference Wilbraham (Slingova), Marian 16, (1951) 182,183,201,223,245 19, 22, 26, 32, 49, 228 n.30 n.52 Wilbur, Brayton 265 n.2 Union Patriotique de 1a Jeunesse Wilhelmina (Queen of the Fran~aise (UPOJ) 66, 86, 90, 173 Netherlands) 234 n.41 Union Patriotique des Organizations Wilkinson (Mr) I 53 Etudiantes (UPOE) 89f, 93, 243 Wilkinson, Ellen 72,95 n.15 Williams, Frances see Damon United Nations Economic, Cultural Williams, Gwylym 193 and Social Organization Williams, Herbert 65, 80, 236 n.58 (UNESCO) 172, 180, 189, 194 Williams, Phyllis 16, 26, 49, 50, 58, United States Information Agency 227 n.20 (USIA) 113 Willis, Ted 17, 18, 30, 240 n. 78 University Labour Federation (ULF) Wilson (of the SCNVYO) 73 18~30,34f,38,46,52,91,231 Winant, John 57, 70, 71 n.41 Wise, Stephen 76 Wisner, Frank 204 Vansittart, Robert 39 Wood, Duncan 143ff Vasquez (Cuban student leader) 104, Wood, Michael 222 245 n. 72, 246 n. 77 Woodford, Harris 118 Vassalo (French student leader) 147, Woolf (Farkas), Michael II, 227 n.4 150 World Assembly of Youth (WAY) Vassiliev, Serge and Georges 227 42,64, 73,107,157, 167,ch.9 n.l8 passim, 184f, 200, 21 0, 212, 220f, Verband Deutscher Studentenschaften 223f (VDS) 157, 174 World Federation of Democratic Youth Verges, Jacques 163, 246 n.73 (WFDY) 17, 21, 61, ch. 5 Victor, Andre 20 passim, 88f, 92, 95ff, 1OOf, I 03, Vienna Document 213f 106ff, I 13, I 16, 123ff, 132, 139; Villedieu, Emmanuel 88, 90 Warsaw Congress (1948) 146, Vincent (from Britain) 237 n. I 3 148, 151, 169, 171, 173, 189f, Voice of America I 13 198, 210, 212, 223f, 260 n.2 Voivona, Lydia 126 World Federation of Liberal and Radical Youth (WFLRY) 128, Wagner, Robert F. 70 172 Wallace, Edgar 227 n.21 World Federation of Scientific Wallace, Elizabeth see Shields- Workers 237 n.4 Collins World Federation of Trade Unions Wallace, Henry 58,203 (WFTU) 63, 81, 84, 97, 101, Wallace, Michael 20, 31, 54 168, 189, 205,258 n.37 Wallerstein, Immanuel 221 World Federation of Young Israelite Walter, Fritz 19, 57 Associations I 72 Wang Shih-Chieh 76 World Peace Council 189 Watkinson, John 258 n. 16 World University Service 210 Index 279

World Youth Conference (London, Young Women's Christian Association 1945) 65, 69, 74, 76ff, 82ff, 87, (YWCA) 172, 210 94,96, 106,108,170 Youth Anti-Fascist Committee 48, World Youth Congress: in Geneva, 125 1936 20; at Vassar, 1938 21; Youth Railway 113, 117, 253 n.84 in London, 1940 31; 57 Yugoslav Union of Students (YUS) World Youth Council (WYC) 20f, 148 43, 56, 58ff, 65f, 68ff, 73, 77, 79, Yugoslavia, expulsion from IUS 81, 83, 108 l48ff, 154ff Wroblewski (Polish student leader) 245 n.72 Zacharieva (Bulgarian student leader) 149 Yakovlev, Nikolai 211 Zapotocky (Czech President) 160 Young Communist League (YCL) Zemla, Roy 146 17f, 30 Zenkl (Dr) 76 Young Cooperative Movement 18, Zhdanov, Andrej 125f 28 Zich, Jaroslav I 04, 258 n.24 Young Liberals Ill, 128 Zik, Joseph 166 Young Men's Christian Association Zilliacus, Konni 157 (YMCA) 31, 114, 172 Zinoviev, Grigori 2