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Does the Daily Paper Rule Britannia’:1 the British Press, British Public Opinion, and the End of Empire in Africa, 1957-60

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Does the Daily Paper Rule Britannia’:1 the British Press, British Public Opinion, and the End of Empire in Africa, 1957-60 The London School of Economics and Political Science ‘Does the Daily Paper rule Britannia’:1 The British press, British public opinion, and the end of empire in Africa, 1957-60 Rosalind Coffey A thesis submitted to the International History Department of the London School of Economics and Political Science for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, London, August 2015 1 Taken from a reader’s letter to the Nyasaland Times, quoted in an article on 2 February 1960, front page (hereafter fp). All newspaper articles which follow were consulted at The British Library Newspaper Library. 1 Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without my written consent. I warrant that this authorisation does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I declare that my thesis consists of 99, 969 words. 2 Abstract This thesis examines the role of British newspaper coverage of Africa in the process of decolonisation between 1957 and 1960. It considers events in the Gold Coast/Ghana, Kenya, the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland, South Africa, and the Belgian Congo/Congo. It offers an extensive analysis of British newspaper coverage of Africa during this period. Concurrently, it explores British journalists’ interactions with one another as well as with the British Government, British MPs, African nationalists, white settler communities, their presses, and African and European settler governments, whose responses to coverage are gauged and evaluated throughout. The project aims, firstly, to provide the first broad study of the role of the British press in, and in relation to, Africa during the period of ‘rapid decolonisation’. Secondly, it offers a reassessment of the assumption that the British metropolitan political and cultural context to the end of empire in Africa was extraneous to the process. Thirdly, it aims to contribute to a growing literature on non-governmental metropolitan perspectives on the end of empire. 3 Acknowledgements I would not have been able to begin this thesis without the support and encouragement of all of my family, the financial support of my grandparents, or the teaching, support and encouragement of my supervisor. Unfortunately, my grandfather, Brian White, did not live to see me finish this project, but it is to him and my grandmother, Melva White, first and foremost, that I owe thanks, for their utter selflessness, for placing an incredible amount of trust and faith in me, and for always believing in me (and surprising me often in this!). I also owe a huge debt of gratitude to my supervisor, Dr Joanna Lewis, without whose teaching, help and encouragement during my year as a Master’s student at the LSE I would never have had either the intellectual confidence or the ability to embark on this project. Over the course of the PhD, my family and friends have been an incredible source of support. I want to thank my mum and dad, Hilary and Patrick Coffey, brother, Alan, and sister-in-law, Catherine. Alan Coffey and Karen Seegobin helped me so many times I lost count. My parents helped me even when they had difficulties of their own. Thank you! Thank you to Karen Seegobin, Liz Gonzalez, Clare Gonzalez, Laura Brown, Rich Cotton, Alana Pritchard, Sara Pritchard, Jennie Gardner and Dr Mi Xiao. On the academic side, four journalists were exceptionally generous with their time, sharing with me their professional experiences reporting Africa at the end of empire; and I offer them my profound thanks. William Kirkman helped me so much during the initial stages, spending an afternoon with me, and kindly buying me lunch. Derek Ingram welcomed me, a complete stranger, into his home and patiently helped me with my many questions. In South Africa, Peter Younghusband devoted a considerable amount of time to replying to my questions over email. Stanley Uys also welcomed me into his home to talk to me about his experiences and kindly offered to lend me a book. I only hope that the arguments contained in this thesis correspond, in some way, to their experiences; the errors are all mine. 4 At LSE, in addition to my supervisor, I would like to thank Dr Antony Best, in particular, for the time he spent reading and commenting on my thesis and for helping me to improve my writing. For her kind help and encouragement, I want to thank Dr Erica Wald, at Goldsmith’s; and at Durham, Prof Howell Harris, who seemed to believe in my undergraduate work and whose confidence (or the memory of it) helped me so much at the start. For reading and commenting on chapters, giving me the chance to present my work, helping me with queries or generously giving up their time to enable me to discuss my work with them, I would especially like to thank Keith Somerville, Prof Saul Dubow, Prof Stuart Ward, Prof Bill Schwarz, Dr Sarah Stockwell, Dr Christine Whyte, Dr Piers Ludlow, Paul Horsler, Dr Sue Onslow, Dr Taylor Sherman, Dr Joanna Warson and Prof Alan Sked. I am also extremely grateful to Prof Diana Jeater and the anonymous readers at JSAS for helping me to improve my written work. For their guidance and for sharing their expertise, I am grateful to the staff of British Library Newspapers, Colindale; The Times Archive; Rhodes House Library, Oxford University; the Jagger Library, University of Cape Town; the William Cullen Library, University of the Witwatersrand; and the John Rylands Library, University of Manchester. The entire staff of Colindale, as well as Nick Mays, Anne Jensen, Clive Kirkwood, and Lucy McCann, I feel, went to extra lengths to help me – thank you. For enabling me financially to travel to the South African archives, I would like to thank the International History Department at the LSE, and the Royal Historical Society. Lastly, I want to thank Dr Joanna Lewis for giving me an incredible amount of her time, energy and intellectual support while I was finding my feet in the beginning and for her guidance throughout the process. I feel that if there is anything good in the thesis, it must be down to her teaching and her Africa courses, which more than anything began to open my eyes to the world beyond my own limited experience. 5 Table of Contents List of images 7 Introduction 11 Chapter One 36 Ghana’s slippery slope: Independent Ghana, 1957 Chapter Two 74 Colonial violence as necessity, white settler phenomenon, or aberration; versus the centrality of Africa’s desire for freedom: The Hola massacre and the Nyasaland State of Emergency, 1959 Chapter Three 114 African nationalism, white settler intransigence, and Britain’s future influence: Harold Macmillan’s ‘wind of change’ tour, January – February 1960 Chapter Four 157 ‘The paladins of Fleet Street’: The ‘Blantyre riot’, Nyasaland, January 1960 Chapter Five 191 African action at Sharpeville, and the intervention conundrum: South Africa, 1960 Chapter Six 230 Supporting the Belgians on the Congo, 1960 Conclusion 266 Bibliography 280 6 List of images All images of newspaper articles, photographs from newspapers, and cartoons from newspapers © The British Library Board. The Times (open access) The Manchester Guardian/Guardian (MLD) The Daily Express (MLD3) The Daily Mirror (MLD4) The Daily Herald (MLD5) The Daily Mail (MLD6) The Daily Telegraph and Morning Post (MLD7) The News Chronicle (MLD10) The Observer (MLD39) ‘WHY THERE’S FEAR IN ASHANTILAND THIS MORNING’. Article from the Mail, 4 March 1957, p. 6. (p. 72) Illingworth cartoon of Nkrumah with scales, Mail, 17 September 1957, p. 6. (p. 73) Cartoon entitled “DADDY!”, Mirror, 19 September 1957, p. 3. (p. 73) Cartoon entitled ‘GHANA’S ADVISER’, Guardian, 20 September 1957, p. 9. (p. 73) ‘Down the avenue of cheers…’. Article from the Express, 10 February 1959, p. 5. (p. 110) Cartoon entitled “Tut-tut! You’d better change the plans – or the architect”, Herald, 3 March 1959, p. 4. (p. 110) Cartoon entitled ‘BLACK DAWN’, Guardian, 3 March 1959, p. 13. (p. 110) ‘Whitehall’s Canutes CAN’T hold back this black tide’. Article and cartoon, Mail, 6 March 1959, p. 8. (p. 111) ‘I drive through howling spear-mobs’. Headline to an article in the Express, 9 March 1959, fp. (p. 111) 7 Cartoon entitled ‘Help! A plot!’, Observer, 8 March 1959, p. 6. (p. 111) Cartoon entitled ‘AFRICAN TROUBLE SPOT’, Guardian, 6 March 1959, fp. (p. 111) Cartoon entitled ‘How Does Your Garden Grow?’, Observer, 15 March 1959, p. 6. (p. 112) Cartoon entitled ‘SAD PROCESSION’, Guardian, 17 March 1959, p. 7. (p. 112) ‘This striking success’. Article in the Mail, 18 March 1959, p. 10. (p. 112) Cartoon entitled ‘-and, of course, guilty needn’t mean guilty, either’, Observer, 7 June 1959, p. 8. (p. 113) Cartoon entitled ‘BE PREPARED’, Mirror, 20 July 1959, p. 3. (p. 113) Cartoon entitled ‘POINTS OF VIEW’, Guardian, 28 July 1959, fp. (p. 113) ‘DR. BANDA AT PALACE’ cartoon, Mail, 14 August 1959, p. 4. (p. 113) ‘MACMILLAN’S DAY OF DISGRACE’ front-page spread, Mirror, 24 July 1959, fp. (p. 113) Cartoon entitled “That’s the load no one can carry for you”, Herald, 5 January 1960, p. 4. (p. 151) Cartoon entitled “IN THE NAME OF AFRICA (AHEM!) WELCOME!”, Guardian, 5 January 1960, fp.
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