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POLITICS TODAY series editor Bill Jones THE POLITICS TODAY COMPANION TO WEST EUROPEAN POLITICS

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood

Manchester University Press Manchester Copyright © Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood 2003

The right of Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood to be identified as the authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Published by Manchester University Press Altrincham Street, Manchester M1 7JA, UK www.manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk

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Typeset by Carnegie Publishing Ltd, Lancaster Contents

Preface page vii Spain General 163 The transition to democracy 163 Section 1 Events, groups and developments Elections and changes of government List of entries 1 163 Smaller democracies 164 Europe Section 2 Biographies Integration 164 General 167 List of entries 77

Section 3 Abbreviations Section 5 Data relating to political systems General abbreviations 143 The countries of Western Europe Political parties 143 Austria 169 European and cross-national organisations Belgium 170 147 Denmark 172 Miscellaneous 147 Finland 172 France 174 Germany 176 Section 4 Chronologies Greece 177 Iceland 178 United Kingdom Ireland 179 General elections and changes of Italy 180 government 149 Luxembourg 181 General 150 Malta 182 France The Netherlands 183 The Fourth Republic 152 Norway 184 The transition to the Fifth Republic and the Portugal 185 Algerian issue 153 Spain 186 The Fifth Republic: general 153 Sweden 187 The Fifth Republic: elections and changes Switzerland 188 of government 154 United Kingdom 189 Germany International organisations in Western Bundestag elections, changes of Europe government and election of federal Council of Europe 191 presidents 155 European Union (EU) 191 The division and reunification of Germany North Atlantic Treaty Organisation 157 (NATO) 192 General 159 Italy General 160 Elections and changes of government 161 Selected references 193

Preface

Generally politics textbooks lack other important organisations which sufficient space to provide full details of play (or have played in the recent past) important political actors or of particular a significant political role, together with political events or crises. They may well the names of those organisations. refer to political leaders or events, such Where appropriate these are given in as Konrad Adenauer or Olaf Palme, the English translation and in their ‘home’ Suez crisis or Poujadism, but usually language. The fourth section is a set of only in passing and not in sufficient chronologies, divided into groups based detail to inform the reader adequately on particular countries or groups of about the political careers of these countries. As well as a general politicians, or the origins, course and chronology for each country or group of consequences of the events. As countries, specialised chronologies of co-authors of the textbook: European major developments are supplied, Politics Today, we are aware that which cover, for example, the students need a background in the reunification of Germany and the contemporary history of European transition to democracy in Spain. The countries in order to understand the fifth section is a set of political data significance of the political relating to the political system of each developments which we trace in that country in Western Europe. textbook. We have therefore Of course difficult choices had to be endeavoured to write an accessible and made concerning what to include and relevant guide to the kind of background what to leave out. Generally speaking, information which students will need in the time-frame is from the start of the order to get to grips with the political Second World War onwards (with systems of Western European countries December 2001 as the ‘closing date’). and the changes taking place in those We have selected the Second World political systems. War as a starting point, as this turned This Companion to West European out to be an important watershed in the Politics has five sections. Sections 1 and development of societies and political 2 provide, in the style of a dictionary, and economic systems in most Western (a) explanations of significant political European countries. We have, though, events, groupings and developments, included occasional references to some and (b) details of the political careers of earlier developments and events where significant West European politicians, these have been especially relevant to especially those who have been head of post-war developments, such as the their country’s government or head of Spanish civil war and nazism. state. Entries in both sections contain, Geographically, the book is confined to where appropriate, cross-references to Western Europe. Special emphasis has other entries in those two sections: for been placed on the United Kingdom, instance, the entry for Mitterrand has a France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the cross-reference to cohabitation, and that political system of the European Union, for the Suez crisis has cross-references to reflect the relative size and political to Eden and Macmillan. The third importance of those political systems, as section consists of lists of abbreviations well as the fact that they constitute the (or short names) of political parties and focus of most courses in West Preface

European politics in universities and The authors hope that students will colleges. We have, though, been careful find this book useful as a supplement to to include politicians and events which their textbooks, and that teachers and have proved decisive for smaller and other readers will make use of the book less familiar European democracies, and as a reliable source of information and which have often impacted upon larger reference. countries and the European Union. In Preface the first section, covering events and The authors wish to express their developments, no attempt has been thanks to Ian Gillan, Jill Lovecy, Elisa PREFACE made to provide coverage of general Roller and Alasdair Young for their political science concepts, such as valuable advice and suggestions. Full viii presidentialism or opposition. Only responsibility for the work remains, of where a concept has special relevance course, with its authors. to Western Europe has it been included. Examples are: cohabitation, consociationalism, grand coalition and Geoffrey K. Roberts, Manchester new politics. Patricia Hogwood, Glasgow Section 1 Events, groups and developments

LIST OF ENTRIES Campaign for Nuclear European Defence Disarmament (CND) Community (EDC): Pleven acquis communitaire ‘cash for questions’ affair Plan Action Directe chancellor democracy European enlargement additionality church tax European Free Trade Additional Member System citizen initiative groups Association (EFTA) (AMS) citizens in uniform European Unit of Account adversary politics civil society (EUA) [See: European Aegean Sea dispute Clause Four Currency Unit (ECU)] Algerian conflict (1954–62) ‘clean hands’ operation euro-sceptic Alternative Vote System (AV) [See: Mani pulite] Eurosclerosis Amsterdam Treaty clientelism Events of May (1968) animal rights co-determination [See: May Events] anti-capitalist riots ‘cod wars’ Évian Agreements antifa groups [See: cohabitation Exchange Rate Mechanism anti-fascism] Cohesion Fund [See: (ERM) anti-fascism Economic and Social extra-parliamentary anti-Semitism Cohesion] opposition (APO) Armed Forces Movement Cold War (Portugal) collaboration Falklands War asylum Colonels’ coup (Greece) fascism Atlanticists and Gaullists Common Agricultural Policy Felipeism (Felipismo) ausserparlamentarische (CAP) final solution Opposition (APO) [See: consociationalism Finlandisation extra-parliamentary constitutionalism First-past-the-post system opposition] constructive vote of no (FPTP) Aussiedler confidence Flick Affair Austrian State Treaty corporatism [See: floating voter Autonomen (the neo-corporatism] Fundis [See: Realos and Autonomous) Crichel Down Fundis] cumul des mandats Baader-Meinhof group G-7 [See: Group of Eight] Bad Godesberg Programme democratic deficit G-8 [See: Group of Eight] [See: Godesberg denazification Gang of Four Programme] détente Gastarbeiter Barschel Affair GCHQ case Basic Law economic miracle German question Basic Treaty (1972) Economic and Monetary Gibraltar Basque separatism Union (EMU) glasnost Belgrano Affair [See: Economic and social Godesberg Programme Falklands War] cohesion Good Friday Agreement Benelux empty chair crisis Grabenwahlsystem Berlin airlift [See: Berlin Enosis (Germany) blockade] ETA (Euskadi ta Askatasuna; grand coalition Berlin blockade Basque Nation and green card system (of Berlin uprising 1953 Liberty) immigration) Berlin Wall eurocommunism green movement Beveridge Report (UK) European Central Bank (ECB) Group of Eight (G-8) Bizonia European Coal and Steel Guillaume Affair Bonn Republic–Berlin Community (ECSC) Gulf War Republic transition European Currency Unit Bundesbank (ECU) Hallstein Doctrine List of entries

Helsinki Agreement Ombudsman Spanish coup attempt (1981) historic compromise Ostpolitik Spiegel Affair (Italy) spin doctor Historikerstreit (historians’ paedophile scandal Stability and Growth Pact dispute) (Belgium) [See: Economic and Holocaust pantouflage Monetary Union] List of entries peaceful revolution (East Stalin Note immigration Germany) Stammheim trials [See: informateur perestroika Baader-Meinhof group] International Brigades Petersberg Agreements Stasi Irish Republican Army (IRA) (Germany) Stormont pillarisation streitbare Demokratie judicialisation political asylum [See: Structural Funds [See: asylum] Economic and Social Kiessling Affair Politikverdrossenheit Cohesion] Kopp Affair poll tax subsidiarity popular front Suez crisis Lib–Lab pact populism Loi Defferre postmaterialism Tangentopoli Lombardy League [See: Potsdam conference terrorism Northern Leagues] Poujadism Treaties of Rome Lomé Convention privatisation Treaty of European Union EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Luxembourg compromise Profumo Affair (TEU) [See: Maastricht 2 proportional representation Treaty] Maastricht Treaty Treaty of Nice mafia quango Treuhandanstalt Mani pulite (‘clean hands’ Trizonia [See: Bizonia] operation) radicals’ decree two-ballot electoral system maquis Realos and Fundis ‘Two plus Four’ talks Marshall Plan Rechtsstaat May Events (1968) Red Army Faction (Germany) Vergangenheitsbewältigung Médiateur [See: Red Brigades (Italy) (coming to terms with the Ombudsman] resistance groups past) Mezzogiorno reunification of Germany Vichy regime Modell Deutschland (the Rhineland model Voeren dispute (Belgium) German model) Round Table Volkspartei Mogadishu Affair Morgenthau Plan Saarland question Waldheim Affair Schengen Agreement ‘Wende’ NATO twin-track decision Schleyer Affair West Lothian question nazism Secret Army Organisation winter of discontent neocorporatism (OAS) women’s movement new politics Single European Act (SEA) new social movements Single Transferable Vote xenophobia Northern Leagues (STV) Nuremberg tribunal social capital Yalta conference social market economy Youandé Convention [See: Oder–Neisse line South Tyrol question Lomé Convention] oil crisis Spanish civil war Young Turks’ revolt Events, groups and developments

Related entries are listed at the end of to some extent, to have restructured an entry by ‘[See also: . . .]’. An asterisk their national legal, policy and indicates a cross-reference to Section 2, administrative frameworks to ‘Biographies’. For example, the entry for accommodate it prior to entry. Colonels’ coup (Greece) has at the [See also: Amsterdam Treaty; end ‘[See also: Enosis; Papandreou*]’. Maastricht Treaty; Single European Act; The entry for Enosis is in this section; Treaties of Rome; Treaty of Nice] that for Papandreou is in Section 2. Action Directe acquis communitaire A French anarchist/Maoist terrorist group The French term: acquis communitaire founded in 1979, Action Directe played (sometimes called Community an active role in European terrorist patrimony) refers to the constantly networks until it was neutralised by a evolving rights and obligations deriving police operation in 1988. It had links from European Union (EU) treaty with the Basque separatist movement agreements, laws and regulations ETA and with Middle Eastern concluded by member states since the pro-Palestinian groups. The group Treaties of Rome establishing the attacked public and government European Economic Community entered buildings. Two prominent members, into force in 1958. Together, these Jean-Marc Rouillan and Nathalie agreements are held to represent the Ménigon, were arrested in Paris in constitutional basis of the EU. Amongst September 1980, but were other aims, the Single European Act controversially released under an (1987), the Treaty on European Union amnesty declared by Mitterrand when (TEU: the Maastricht Treaty) (1993) and he took office as President. Action the Treaty of Amsterdam (1997) have Directe then began a bombing attempted to revise and rationalise the campaign against US and Israeli targets acquis communitaire by simplifying and and was banned by the French consolidating the existing Treaties of the government. The now illegal group split Union. The acquis is now understood to into factions. In January 1985 the comprise not only a strict definition of ‘internationalist’ section led by Rouillan Community law, but also all acts began a joint action with the West adopted under the second and third German Red Army Faction (RAF), pillars of the European Union and, more announcing the formation of a united importantly, the common objectives laid urban politico-military front in Western down in the treaties. The acquis can Europe, with NATO as its main target. therefore be understood to cover both That month Action Directe shot dead the judicial decisions and the policy General Audran, the government programme of the EU. The concept has minister responsible for French arms played a major role in discussions sales, and in April 1986 tried to kill Guy concerning the enlargement of the EU Brana, Deputy President of the to countries of Central and Eastern employers’ federation CNPF. In July Europe. These countries are expected 1986 the group bombed the offices to accept the acquis communitaire and, of the French police anti-terrorist unit Action Directe Additional Member System (AMS)

and in November killed the Chairman of separate, votes: one for the candidate Renault. Four founder leaders of the in a constituency contest, one for a group were arrested in February 1987 party list, with that party list vote used and sentenced to life imprisonment in to determine overall allocations of January 1989, by which time the other seats. Many of the German Länder also members had been arrested and the use AMS in some form to elect their group had collapsed. Land legislatures. Italy combines [See also: ETA; Red Army Faction] election of three-quarters of its lower Action DirecteAdditional Member System (AMS) chamber of the legislature with election of the remainder from party lists. The additionality Scottish Parliament and Welsh The European Union’s (EU) cohesion Assembly were both elected by means policy is a regional policy which sets of versions of the Additional Member out to reduce economic and social System in 1999, using two votes. The disparities between richer and poorer overall degree of proportionality regions of the EU. The financial attained in AMS elections depends to a instruments used to effect cohesion large extent on the ratio of directly policy are termed the structural funds. elected legislators to those chosen from The additionality rule was introduced top-up lists, and whether a national, EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, during a major reform of the structural regional or only a more local top-up list 4 funds of 1988 and maintains that EU procedure is utilised. funds for regional development must be [See also: Grabenwahlsystem allocated in addition to, rather than (Germany)] instead of, member state funds. The European Commission monitors adversary politics member state compliance with additionality rules when structural funds A political process in which two are implemented. opposed political parties, or blocs of [See also: Economic and Social parties, debate and decide upon Cohesion] political issues by presenting competing arguments, representing radically opposed positions or derived from Additional Member System (AMS) opposed ideologies, and the issue is An electoral system based on the settled by majority adoption of one of principle of proportional representation, these arguments. Adversary politics but which combines election of contrasts with consensus politics, in candidates from (usually which controversies concerning political single-member) constituencies with issues are resolved by adoption of some form of reserve or ‘top-up’ list, in generally acceptable compromises. The order to produce an overall result that term ‘adversary politics’ was applied is more closely proportional to the particularly to the British House of percentages of votes which parties have Commons in the post-Second World received than if constituency-based War period, where the Labour and election were used alone. The electoral Conservative parties opposed each other system in use to elect the Bundestag in on issues such as state control of the Federal Republic of Germany since industry, comprehensive education and 1949 has been based on the ‘additional housing policy (e.g. the iron and steel member’ system, at first using a single industry was twice nationalised and vote to count for election of the twice returned to private ownership). candidate and for the party list of that Adversary politics has been regarded as candidate, but since 1953 using two, a product of the ‘first-past-the-post’ adversary politics Aegean Sea dispute electoral system, which encourages the explorations of the area. Turkey again more extreme proponents of a policy to sent a research ship and warships to gain power in a party and thus in the area and a conflict was only governments, leading to sub-optimal avoided through NATO calls for policy outcomes, lacking continuity and restraint. The seriousness of the crisis consistency. The term was publicised by led the then Greek and Turkish Prime S. Finer in the book edited by him: Ministers, Papandreou and Özal, to Adversary Politics and Electoral Reform conduct a number of secret negotiations (London, Antony Wigram, 1975), in in Davos, Switzerland, in 1988, in which which he advocated electoral reform in they agreed to avoid hostilities and to Britain as the way to avoid the negative pursue confidence-building measures consequences of adversary politics. between their two countries. [See also: First-past-the-post system] adversary politics Aegean Sea dispute Algerian conflict (1954–62) Aegean Sea dispute The Algerian conflict brought about the Greece and Turkey have been in transition from the French Fourth dispute over the rights to territorial Republic to the Fifth Republic under de waters and the continental shelf in the Gaulle, the former leader of the Free Aegean Sea since the early 1970s. While French during the Second World War. DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, 5 Greece has traditionally argued for the The Algerian conflict began in resolution of the matter by the November 1954 with the anti-colonial International Court of Justice, Turkey struggle of the Algerian nationalist has argued for the bilateral negotiation movement, the National Liberation Front of a fair solution. In February 1974, the (FLN), founded by Ben Bella. The conflict escalated when oil was French Algerian territories had a discovered within Greek territorial population of some nine million waters off the island of Thassos. In May indigenous Muslim Algerians who were 1974, Turkey underlined its subordinate to a colonial population of counter-claim to these waters by one million French settlers, the ‘pieds sending a survey ship and 32 warships noir’. The FLN started anti-French riots to patrol the western limits of the area. and launched a spate of co-ordinated At this time, the dispute became attacks on French soldiers and police. entangled with a similar one over As the violent conflict escalated to airspace jurisdiction in the Aegean and involve atrocities against activists and with a controversy over arrangements civilians alike, the French army for Greek reintegration within the developed strong sympathies for the military structure of NATO. An French settlers and were enraged by agreement between Turkey and Greece the French government’s apparent to establish a commission to investigate inability to bring the situation under the sea dispute lapsed during the control. On 12 May 1956 a new Turkish military dictatorship of 1980–83. government was formed under Pflimlin, When the Turkish government who made known his intention to recognised the newly declared Turkish negotiate a cease-fire with the FLN. The Republic of Northern Cyprus, Greece following day, the army in Algiers took suspended all direct negotiations with power, set up a military government, Turkey. In 1987 the Greek Socialist the Committee of Public Safety under government took steps to nationalise General Massu, and called for de Gaulle the North Aegean Petroleum Company to form a national government capable (NAPC) and to have the state-owned of maintaining a French Algeria. On 17 Public Petroleum Corporation extend May, the French Parliament awarded Algerian conflict (1954–62) Alternative Vote System (AV)

the Pflimlin government emergency distributed among the other candidates. powers to try to resolve the conflict. This elimination and redistribution Meanwhile, a rival government was procedure, using second, third and later established in Algiers and on 24 May a preferences if necessary, continues until Committee of Public Safety took power one candidate secures an absolute in Corsica. On 28 May the French majority. No West European state uses President, Coty, intervened by asking de this system, though it has been Gaulle to form a ‘government of proposed as a replacement for the national safety’. De Gaulle was simple-majority first-past-the-post British confirmed as Prime Minister by system, either by itself or – as the Parliament on 1 June and proceeded to Jenkins Commission on the Electoral erode the army’s political power by a System proposed – in conjunction with combination of institutional reforms and local ‘top-up’ lists. key appointments. Between 1958 and [See also: Additional Member System; 1962, reciprocal terror campaigns were Single Transferable Vote] conducted by the FLN and the rival pro-French Algerian Secret Army Amsterdam Treaty Organisation (OAS) led by General Jouhaud and General Salan. In 1959 de The Amsterdam Treaty of the European EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Gaulle granted self-determination to Union (EU) was signed on 2 October 6 Algeria, a measure which was roundly 1997. The Treaty had two central aims: approved by referenda both in France to revive popular interest in the EU by and Algeria. The Évian Agreements of making it appear more relevant and March 1962 gave full independence to accountable; and to prepare the EU for Algeria in exchange for guarantees to the planned enlargement to incorporate protect the rights of the pieds noir. new members from Central and Eastern However, resentment by extremist Europe. The Treaty encompasses six Algerian Europeans fuelled widespread main areas: freedom, security and violent conflict with militant Muslims justice; the Union and its citizens; and by the end of 1962 some 800,000 external policy; the Union’s institutions; European settlers had fled to France. co-operation and flexibility; and the [See also: Évian Agreements; Secret simplification and consolidation of the Army Organisation; Coty*; de Gaulle*; existing Treaties of the Union: the Pflimlin*] acquis communitaire. The Treaty Algerian conflictAlternative (1954–62) Vote System (AV) negotiations were marred by a general unwillingness by member state Alternative Vote System (AV) governments to make concessions to An electoral system using the Union; growing divisions between single-member constituencies, where large and small member states; and a voters place the candidates in order of rocky period in the Franco-German preference, using the numbers 1, 2, 3 . . . relationship. As a result, the Treaty is an etc., rather than place a cross by the unwieldy document which experts fear name of one candidate. A candidate will not serve its stated aims well. securing more than 50 per cent of ‘first [See also: acquis communitaire; preference’ votes is elected. In democratic deficit; Maastricht Treaty; constituencies where no candidate has Treaty of Nice] obtained that absolute majority of first preferences, the candidate with the animal rights lowest number of first preference votes is eliminated, and the second In Western European countries, preference votes of that candidate are campaigners for animal rights have animal rights anti-capitalist riots formed organisations to protect animals December 2000 and in Genoa, where from abuse and to promote their the G-8 was meeting in July 2001. These welfare. Ongoing animal rights riots followed a number of earlier campaigns have included calls for a ban instances of violent demonstrations in on the use of animals in scientific London and elsewhere by anti-capitalist experimentation, particularly in medical groups. research and in the production of [See also: Group of Eight] toiletries, where the concept of ‘cruelty-free beauty’ has attained mass antifa groups [See: anti-fascism] popularity in recent years. Similarly, animal rights campaigns against anti-fascism intensive and inhumane farming methods have dovetailed with A general term denoting opposition to environmentalist and consumer fascism, including nazism. More concerns for ‘safe’ foods to reach a particularly, it has been employed as a mass public. Animal rights campaigners legitimising principle and integrative have also regularly targeted blood idea by communist organisations and sports. Although most groups campaign regimes, including the Soviet occupation peacefully, extremist movements such regime in Germany and the GDR, based as the UK’s Animal Liberation Front on the idea that fascism had been DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, 7 (ALF) have been active since the early defeated primarily by the USSR and 1970s. These engage in more militant communist resisters elsewhere. In the protests, even terrorist activity, including GDR, non-communist political parties attacks on animal testing sites, on staff and social organisations such as the of companies engaged in animal testing, trade union and youth associations and on shops selling luxury animal were linked to the SED (the communist products, particularly furs. party) through membership of an animal rights anti-capitalist riots ‘anti-fascist bloc’. A number of ‘anti-fascist’ (‘antifa’) anti-capitalist riots groups were formed throughout Between 30 November and 3 December Germany at the end of the Second 1999, demonstrations against the World World War, to act as organisations for Trade Organisation (WTO) brought the the purging of Nazis from public life and retail centre of Seattle to a standstill. to provide an organisational basis for Militant, non-violent protesters tried to the regeneration of political and social block access to the meeting. Over life in devastated German towns and 40,000 workers, students and cities. These were chiefly made up of environmental activists took part in a socialists and other trade unionists. In legal march organised by the AFL-CIO. the Soviet zone of occupation, the These peaceful demonstrations were autonomy of these groups was usurped by small groups of perceived as potentially dangerous to self-proclaimed anarchists, who, dressed the claims of the Communists to be the in black, smashed windows. The police ‘leading party’, and they were swiftly responded with anti-riot measures and disbanded by the Soviet authorities. running battles took place between [See also: fascism] police and protesters on the street. Those arrested in the police action anti-Semitism became known as the Seattle 580. Such protests were then emulated in Western The term in its literal sense means European countries, for example during hostility towards ‘Semites’: people from the European Union summit in Nice in the Middle East defined by their use of anti-Semitism Armed Forces Movement (Portugal)

the Semitic language. It has, since the military officers in March 1975 prompted nineteenth century, come to refer to a shift to the left in government policy. hostility towards the Jews, though such The organs of the MFA were dissolved hostility predates the use of the term, and a Supreme Revolutionary Council since anti-Jewish rhetoric and was created. The promised persecution date back to the first constitutional democracy was century AD. Such anti-Jewish sentiment introduced in 1976, and, after free has been based on two main strands: elections, the army Chief of Staff the biological – that the Jews were an General Eanes was selected as inferior race and had the capacity by President by the Parliament. In 1982, a inter-breeding with non-Jewish races to substantial constitutional review harm the qualities of other races, and a removed the direct political influence of socio-economic and cultural strand – the army by effectively replacing the that Jews sought domination in areas of Council of the Revolution with an finance and commerce, that they sought explicitly civilian Council of State; it also to constitute themselves as a social elite reduced the powers of the presidency, and that they posed a threat to still occupied at this time by Eanes. A indigenous culture. Both strands further revision of 1989 removed contributed to anti-Semitism as defined Portugal’s constitutional commitment to EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, and fostered by the Nazi regime, and Marxist principles. 8 which culminated in the Holocaust. [See also: Eanes*; Salazar*] Since the Second World War anti-Semitism has been evident in other asylum countries, especially the former USSR and, since the downfall of communism, The countries of Western Europe allow in Russia and some other former individuals who claim political communist states. persecution in their own country to [See also: final solution; Holocaust; cross their national borders and apply nazism; xenophobia] for political asylum. While the asylum anti-SemitismArmed Forces Movement (Portugal) principle is upheld in the Geneva Convention of 1949, asylum entitlement Armed Forces Movement (Portugal) is regulated by each country’s national A right-wing dictatorship had been laws or constitution. Belgium, Sweden, established in Portugal by Salazar in Switzerland and West Germany were 1932, led by Caetano from 1968. On popular destinations for asylum seekers 24–25 April 1974, this regime was because of their generous asylum overthrown by a military group, the policies and good employment Armed Forces Movement (MFA), in a prospects. Since the 1980s, claims for bloodless coup known as the ‘revolution asylum have rapidly escalated to a scale of carnations’. A military administration which causes problems for Western led by General de Spínola, the European governments. Between 1981 Committee of National Salvation, was and 1991 the annual number of asylum established as a temporary measure applications to European countries pending a return to democracy. increased five-fold, exceeding half a Although democratic reforms were million in 1991. Numbers have risen introduced, there followed a period of because of continued population uncertainty as the MFA split into left and growth, economic weakness, and unrest right factions. Spínola resigned in in the developing countries of Africa September 1974 and was succeeded by and Asia. Also, in the late 1980s, the General da Costa Gomes. An political transitions from communism in unsuccessful counter-coup led by senior Central and Eastern Europe created asylum Atlanticists and Gaullists widespread economic uncertainty and a as well as the CSU and some in the rise in nationalist feeling, spilling over CDU. into civil war in the former Yugoslavia. [See also: Adenauer*; Strauss*] These pressures sent thousands of asylum seekers and illegal immigrants ausserparlamentarische Opposition to nearby western borders, particularly (APO) [See: extra-parliamentary to Germany and, to a lesser extent, to opposition] Austria and Sweden. Many asylum claims are ruled by the authorities to be Aussiedler unfounded and ‘false’ asylum seekers are increasingly used as scapegoats for A German term meaning: a person who social problems in Western European is resettled. It is a technical term within countries. Western European countries German law relating to immigrants, have begun to amend their asylum referring to those migrating into the legislation to restrict applicants to those Federal Republic who can claim who genuinely face political persecution German nationality by virtue of former in their home countries, rather than residence in German territory or in those who are looking for better certain other states (mainly of Eastern employment prospects and a better Europe) before 1945. It especially standard of living. applied to ethnic Germans deported DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, 9 [See also: immigration] from former German territories in asylum Atlanticists and Gaullists Poland, Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union. Such persons had privileged Atlanticists and Gaullists status in the Federal Republic with Terms used to designate groups within regard to the right to reside there and the West German CDU which differed receive social benefits, compared with regarding the priority which the other immigrants or asylum seekers. Adenauer and Erhard governments [See also: immigration] should give to relations with the USA (the Atlanticists) or relations with Austrian State Treaty France and other West European allies (the Gaullists). The Atlanticists warned Following the Second World War, against following French policy although democracy was restored in concerning especially security and trade Austria in 1945, that country remained too slavishly, while the Gaullists played under the occupation of the four on fears of American dominance in victorious Allied Powers: the USA, the military and foreign policy, and wished Soviet Union, Britain and France, each to further the ‘European integration with its own zone of occupation. The project’, building on the Franco-German capital, Vienna, was subject to Treaty. Neither group went as far as four-power control. As the Cold War proposing disregard of the policies of developed, there were fears that Austria the USA or France. The Atlanticists might be lastingly divided into included Erhard and his Foreign pro-Western and pro-Soviet part-states Minister, Schröder, and were supported in the same way as post-war Germany. by most of the CDU, the SPD, the FDP, However, on 15 May 1955 the Allied the trade unions and economic elites Powers signed the State Treaty with and most of the mass media. The Austria, ending the occupation. The Gaullists had the support of Adenauer, Treaty recognised Austria as a Strauss (leader of the CSU) and sovereign, independent and democratic Gerstenmaier, a prominent and state. Moreover, it recognised the respected ‘elder statesman’ in the CDU, regime of the second Austrian Republic. Austrian State Treaty Baader-Meinhof group

It banned political or economic union 1970s. On 14 May 1970 the members of between Austria and Germany and also the Baader-Meinhof group founded their required Austrian neutrality by banning political organisation, the Red Army the country from aligning itself with Faction (RAF), as an urban guerrilla either of the two Cold War alliances liberation group. The ideology of the which formed around the USA and the Baader-Meinhof group was set out in Soviet Union. In a constitutional law of four papers written in 1971 and 1972, 26 October 1955, Austria declared its one by Horst Mahler and three by Ulrike permanent neutrality, but chose to Meinhof. These papers identified the interpret this stance actively rather than RAF as anti-imperialist and anti-fascist, passively. Austria joined the UN in and sought to justify the need for an December 1955 and has frequently ‘armed struggle’ against what they participated in UN peace-keeping perceived as the oppressive political operations. In 1956, the country allowed system of the FRG. The authorities’ refugees from the Hungarian uprising to handling of the Baader-Meinhof trials cross its borders to safety. and conditions of imprisonment was [See also: Cold War] criticised by some as heavy-handed. Austrian State TreatyBaader-Meinhof group The deaths of Holger Meins following a hunger strike and Meinhof through

EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Autonomen (the Autonomous) suicide appear to have been the catalyst

10 The German Autonomen are an for the ‘Offensive ’77’ launched by the alienated group of anarchists who take ‘second generation’ of the RAF. When part in demonstrations (irrespective of the Offensive failed to secure the the specific aims of these) to confront release of the original RAF members their enemy, the police. While they from prison, they attempted suicide. appear to have no links with terrorists, Andreas Baader, Gudrun Ensslin and in the late 1980s, the federal office for Jan-Carl Raspe succeeded. The fourth the protection of the constitution member, Irmgard Möller, survived her estimated that of the 6,500 active suicide attempt and was eventually Autonomen, some 1,500–2,000 were released from prison on 1 December militants prepared to use force. They 1994. made a sinister impression in their [See also: Red Army Faction; ‘uniform’ of masks, black helmets and Schleyer Affair] black clothes. In June 1985, the federal Parliament passed a bill to prohibit the Bad Godesberg Programme [See: wearing of masks (except during the Godesberg Programme] annual Carnival). The bill also made it a criminal offence to carry ‘protective’ Barschel Affair weapons, or to refuse a police order to disperse if a demonstration turned Barschel, the leader of the violent. In November 1987, two Schleswig-Holstein Christian Democrats, policemen were killed by an was accused of initiating a series of unidentified perpetrator at a small ‘dirty tricks’ against his Social Democrat demonstration at Frankfurt airport, at opponent, Engholm, in the 1987 Land which Autonomen were present. election campaign. These included investigation of Engholm’s private life, and spreading rumours about Engholm’s Baader-Meinhof group evasion of taxes. Barschel insisted at a The Baader-Meinhof group was an press conference that he had nothing to extreme left-wing terrorist organisation do with such improper actions. active in West Germany in the early However, when evidence was offered Barschel Affair Basic Treaty (1972) that seemed to implicate him, Basic Treaty (1972) Barschel resigned as Prime Minister of the Land government, and days An important part of the Ostpolitik of later was found dead in a Swiss hotel the Brandt government, the Basic Treaty room, apparently having committed was a treaty-like agreement between suicide, though this has been the topic the Federal Republic of Germany and of speculation. In May 1988 the SPD the German Democratic Republic. It won an overwhelming victory in a new was deliberately not given the status of Land election. Engholm was later an international treaty because the damaged by admissions that he had not Federal Republic of Germany would not revealed everything he knew about the recognise the German Democratic affair when questioned by an Republic as a foreign state. The Basic investigatory committee. He resigned as Treaty, ratified and taking effect from SPD leader and Land Prime Minister in 1973, bound the partners to promote 1993. good relations between the two German [See also: Engholm*] states, recognised the inviolability of the Barschel Affair Basic Treaty (1972) border between them, and renounced the use or threat of force in their Basic Law mutual relations. Both states accepted The name given to the constitution of the restriction of their claim of DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

the Federal Republic of Germany drawn sovereignty to their territories within their 11 up by the Parliamentary Council in own borders, and explicitly stated 1948–49 and promulgated in May 1949. their mutual respect for the internal and This name (Grundgesetz in German) external independence of both German was deliberately chosen rather than the states (which paved the way for their term: constitution (Verfassung) to admission to the United Nations emphasise the expectation of the Organisation and other international Parliamentary Council that Germany organisations). Supplementary protocols would soon be reunited, and that regulated free access for journalists therefore this constitutional provision within both German states, easier travel was temporary until such time as all between the two states, better Germans could freely choose their own conditions for reuniting families and constitution: an expectation embodied other such measures. in the Preamble to the Basic Law An attempt by refugee organisations and in its concluding Article (Art. 146), and the Christian Democrats in the which provided for its termination when Federal Republic to have this treaty such a constitution for a unified declared unconstitutional (on the Germany came into force. In fact the grounds that it improperly diluted the Basic Law not only lasted for 41 years constitutional principle of national unity) until the reunification of Germany; it failed. The Constitutional Court rejected was then retained as the constitution for a case brought by Bavaria, and stated reunified Germany (with only minor that the treaty fell within the obligations revisions and adjustments) by decisions of the state to promote German of the legislatures of the two German reunification. states. A Joint Commission of the two [See also: Ostpolitik] chambers of the legislature of the Federal Republic to consider whether Basque separatism further changes were desirable following reunification reported in 1993. The Basques are a distinct ethnic, As a result, a small number of changes cultural and linguistic group found in a were adopted in 1994. cross-border area of Spain and France Basque separatism Benelux

equated by Basques with ‘Euskadi’, the Benelux historic Basque homeland. Although an independent Basque state has never In 1956, to help promote economic existed, the Spanish Basque provinces recovery after the Second World War, had a semi-autonomous relationship Belgium, Luxembourg and the with the Spanish Kingdom until the Netherlands formed a treaty community nineteenth century. After the Spanish known as the Benelux economic union. civil war most of the Basque regions In fact, the treaty was a formal were harshly treated by the victorious recognition of an existing arrangement. nationalist forces as punishment for Plans for a customs union between the their support for the republicans. three countries had been drawn up in However, government policy to stamp 1944 and had come into operation out the distinctive Basque language and in 1948. By 1956 practically all trade culture backfired. The existing regional between the countries was tariff-free. identity was consolidated by a new The Benelux union provided for free sense of grievance over the movement of persons, goods, services community’s treatment as an alienated and capital between the member states; minority. The traditional nationalist the co-ordination of national economic political groups and movements were policies; and a common trade policy EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, supplemented by new radical and towards other countries. The Benelux

12 militant separatist forces, of which the model strongly influenced the European group Basque Nation and Liberty (ETA) Economic Community (1958), of which is the most notorious. The containment Belgium, Luxembourg and the of tensions in the Basque region was Netherlands were founder members. one of the main challenges facing Spain in its transition to democracy in the late Berlin airlift [See: Berlin blockade] 1970s and early 1980s. In 1980 the Basque region was granted its own Berlin blockade autonomous government with potentially more far-reaching powers The closure by the USSR occupying than any other region of Spain. power of the road, rail and inland However, there have been constant waterway access from the western disagreements between the region and zones of occupation to West Berlin. This successive central governments about commenced in June 1948, after a the interpretation and implementation of period since April 1948 of harassment of Basque autonomy. Local Basque military and civilian transport to and nationalist parties compete alongside from West Berlin. The reasons for the Spanish parties in elections and include blockade were the steps being taken by the traditional Christian Democratic the Western occupation powers (a) to PNV, founded in 1895; the Basque Left introduce a new, more stable currency (EE), a workers’ movement founded in to their zones (a currency which had 1976 to work peacefully for been offered to the Soviet zone also, independence; and Herri Batasuna but refused because of conditions (HB), founded in 1978 as ETA’s political attached to that offer) and (b) to wing. promote the founding of a – temporary [See also: ETA; Spanish civil war] – West German state pending a peace Basque separatism Benelux treaty and the reunification of Germany. The USSR sought in this way to force Belgrano Affair [See: Falklands War] West Berlin to accept USSR control in return for food, fuel and other necessities. The blockade was broken Berlin blockade Berlin uprising 1953 by the Berlin airlift, by means of which military forces, the GDR regime would the basic necessities were flown into not survive. It also provoked a harsher West Berlin from West Germany, and regime of surveillance and control of gradually stockpiles were built up and the population in the GDR than existed the West Berlin economy enabled to in many other states of the Soviet bloc. operate reasonably effectively. Air corridors from West Germany to West Berlin Wall Berlin had been guaranteed by four-power agreements, unlike surface A wall erected in August 1961 by the transport routes. The success of the German Democratic Republic, with airlift and thus the failure of the the encouragement of the USSR. It was blockade constituted a propaganda intended to control more absolutely defeat for the USSR, and strengthened movement of individuals from one part the determination of West Berliners to of Berlin to the other, following a period reject any negotiations or compromises in which increasing numbers of East with the Soviet occupying power. The Germans were migrating from the GDR blockade was lifted in May 1949, and to the Federal Republic through Berlin the airlift concluded in September 1949. (where border controls were more lax [See also: Cold War] than elsewhere between the two parts Berlin blockade Berlin uprising 1953 of Germany). The Berlin Wall came to DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

consist of the concrete wall itself, and a 13 Berlin uprising 1953 cleared area on the East Berlin side of A general strike and public street protest the wall which was floodlit, mined and against policies imposed by the patrolled. Many East Germans, wishing communist government of the GDR to escape to West Berlin by crossing the which involved longer hours and Wall, lost their lives or were wounded increased production by workers but by gunfire from the border guards. without compensating increased wages. Controls were relaxed on 9 November A strike by East Berlin construction 1989 in the period of crisis leading to workers on 16 June was followed by a the collapse of the communist regime general strike which spread from East in the GDR a few weeks later, and soon Berlin to nearly 400 other localities in afterwards the Berlin Wall was the GDR. Economic demands of the physically demolished by individuals on protesters were soon supplemented by both sides of the Wall and by the GDR demands for political reforms, such as government. Only a few remnants have free elections, the release of political been preserved in situ, though other prisoners and the reunification of sections are in various museums. Germany. A state of emergency was [See also: Cold War; reunification of declared by the Soviet military Germany] command, and martial law was imposed. Demonstrations were Beveridge Report (UK) prohibited; ringleaders were arrested; Soviet tanks and troops occupied the A government report on the social streets. The communist leadership of services produced in 1942, whose author the GDR explained the uprising as was Sir William Beveridge, an ‘fascist provocation’ engineered by West economist, a former Director of the German leaders. Critics of the repressive London School of Economics and at the policies of the USSR military leadership time the master of University College, and the GDR government were Oxford. The Report recommended a punished. The uprising did show clearly comprehensive and universal system of that without the support of Soviet social insurance, a national health Beveridge Report Bonn Republic–Berlin Republic transition

service and family allowances. It government of the enlarged Federal became the source of ideas for policies Republic. Prior to reunification, Bonn relating to the welfare state, especially was the seat of government, though those of the Labour government which Berlin was always regarded as the came to power in 1945. Beveridge was capital of the German state, a fact that given a peerage in 1946. was confirmed in the Treaty of BeveridgeBonn Republic–Berlin Report Republic transition Reunification. The issue of whether to retain Bonn Bizonia as the seat of government or to move The term applied to the merged British most or all of the governing institutions and US zones of occupation from 1 located in Bonn to Berlin was settled in January 1947, formally known as the principle by a vote in the Bundestag on United Economic Area (Vereinigtes 20 June 1991. 338 Members of the Wirtschaftsgebiet). A set of institutions Bundestag voted for Berlin, 320 for was developed to bring West Germans Bonn. Those in favour of the move to themselves into the decision-making Berlin emphasised the advantages process, including initially an indirectly which Berlin could offer because of its elected Economic Council, an Executive size and status, and its role in fostering Committee (a kind of cabinet) consisting the integration of Germany because of EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, of one representative from each Land in its more easterly location, close to the

14 the two zones, and a set of Directors, to ‘new Länder’. Those arguing that Bonn manage policy sectors such as transport should remain the seat of government and agriculture. These institutions were stressed the role which Bonn had revised in 1948, to give more political played in the development of a freedom to the West Germans, peaceful, prosperous Federal Republic especially the Länder. These institutions and its proximity to places such as served as models upon which the Brussels and Luxembourg, symbolic of Parliamentary Council which drafted the European integration. The costs and Basic Law could draw in constructing a disruption involved in moving to an political system for the Federal Republic already crowded Berlin were also of Germany. emphasised. On 26 June 1991 the Bizonia improved the economic government instituted a working group situation of the two zones of of senior civil servants to prepare for occupation, and was used as the the move to Berlin. On 5 July 1991 the instrument for the introduction of the Bundesrat decided to remain in Bonn, Deutschmark in the currency reform of though retaining the right to reconsider 1948 and for the groundwork for the that decision in the light of ‘economic miracle’: the rapid growth of circumstances. In December 1991, the the economy of the Federal Republic in federal government announced that the 1950s and 1960s. The French zone some ministries would remain in Bonn, of occupation joined the Bizonia while others would have parts of their scheme (which then became ‘Trizonia’) organisation in Bonn though their main in April 1949, a few weeks before the activities would be located in Berlin. Federal Republic came into being. The year 2000 was taken as the target [See also: Basic Law; economic miracle] date for completing most of the move to Berlin. Certain federal institutions would move from other parts of Bonn Republic–Berlin Republic Germany to Bonn, and the government transition would make efforts to attract European The reunification of Germany involved Community and other international decisions concerning the seat of organisations to Bonn. Bonn would also Bonn Republic–Berlin Republic transition Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) receive subsidies to off-set the loss of Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament income and employment until the year (CND) 2004. On 23 November 1998, the first institutional transfer took place when Founded in 1958 to promote the cause the office of Federal President Herzog of unilateral nuclear disarmament by moved to Berlin. The former Reichstag the United Kingdom, CND developed was renovated and is now used as the into a large and influential movement in location of the Bundestag. In the 1960s, of which prominent Labour recognition of this institutional transfer Party politicians such as Foot, Kinnock and of other subtle changes in the and Blair (all future party leaders) were FRG regime since reunification, members at some time. Briefly, the commentators refer to the Labour Party officially adopted unilateral post-unification FRG as the Berlin nuclear disarmament as official policy Republic. following a party conference resolution [See also: reunification of Germany; in 1960, but the government of Harold Herzog*] Wilson refused to implement such a Bonn CampaignRepublic–Berlin for Nuclear Republic Disarmament transition(CND) policy. In opposition after the Conservative election victory of 1979, Bundesbank CND again developed influence within The central bank of the Federal the Labour Party. Electoral defeat in DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

Republic of Germany, located in 1983 under Foot’s leadership led many 15 Frankfurt (Main). It was created in 1957 in the Labour Party to blame CND for on the basis of a Law implementing the Party’s unpopularity. CND has provisions of Art. 88 of the Basic Law, become politically impotent since the and replaced the Bank of the German downfall of communism and the end of Länder, which from 1949 had the Cold War, though it did sponsor co-ordinated banking activity in the demonstrations following the terrorist Federal Republic. The Bundesbank attack on the USA in September 2001. acted independently of the federal [See also: Blair*; Foot*; Kinnock*] government to protect the value of the currency of the Federal Republic, using ‘cash for questions’ affair interest rates, intervention in currency markets and control over the money A parliamentary scandal arising from supply as instruments to this end. This accusations that certain MPs had independence sometimes led to accepted payments from private conflicts between the government and interests in return for them tabling the bank. A notable example concerned questions (whose answers would be the proper rate of exchange of East beneficial to those who made the German Marks for Deutschmarks when payments) to be raised in the House of currency union was introduced Commons at Question Time. The between the two German states in July Sunday Times in 1994 used subterfuge 1990. An amendment to Art. 88 of the to demonstrate that two MPs were in Basic Law in 1992 provided for the fact prepared to accept payment for this Bundesbank to transfer its duties to a activity. Another MP, Neil Hamilton, was European Central Bank, once such a accused later of this same practice, and bank was created and in position to act threatened to sue the Guardian for independently to protect the value of reporting that accusation. Hamilton the currency. decided not to go through with the [See also: Pöhl*] court case, and in the 1998 general election was defeated by an Independent candidate, the former ‘cash for questions’ affair chancellor democracy

television news reporter Martin Bell. The formal consultation in the cabinet or Labour and Liberal parties declined to with his parliamentary party group. The present their own candidates to development of the Chancellor’s Office enhance Bell’s chances of victory. The (bearing some resemblance to the US affair contributed to the creation of a White House staff ) also was a factor in Commission under Lord Nolan to the growth of ‘chancellor democracy’, inquire into ‘Standards in Public Life’. as has been the general trend for the The Nolan Report in 1995 made several mass media to personalise the reporting recommendations designed to reduce of politics. Adenauer’s control of the likelihood of improper links government meant that he was able to between MPs and private interests. restrict the independent powers of his ‘cash for questions’ chancelloraffair democracy Party (the Christian Democratic Union: CDU), which anyway in those early days chancellor democracy of the Federal Republic was little more A term applied at first to describe than an organisation to elect the Adenauer’s interpretation and utilisation chancellor. His electoral victories, of the office of chancellor in the Federal especially the absolute majority he Republic of Germany, then by extension obtained in 1957, reinforced his used to refer either to the system of personal authority. EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, government of the Federal Republic of His successors could, on the one

16 Germany generally, or to the assertive hand, draw on the precedents set by style of certain chancellors in particular. Adenauer, but several, on the other Adenauer used the constitutional hand, lacked his personal qualities or a powers afforded the chancellor by the desire to govern in the dominating style Basic Law to exert his supremacy over adopted by Adenauer. The growth in his own cabinet, the whole of the the power of the Party (particularly of government and the political system the CDU after it went into opposition in more generally. These powers included 1969) and the increasing assertiveness the authority to set general guidelines of the Free Democrats (FDP) as a for the government coalition partner – already apparent in (Richtlinienkompetenz: Article 65), the the Adenauer period: e.g. the ‘Young power of the chancellor to nominate Turks’ revolt’ in 1956 and the Spiegel and remove ministers, the lack of Affair in 1962 – also restricted the political powers of the federal president autonomy of the chancellor. Erhard and the inability of the Bundestag to could not escape from the shadow of remove the chancellor except by a Adenauer, who remained as party constructive vote of no confidence Chairman for much of Erhard’s period which provided a majority for a named as chancellor; Kiesinger was limited by successor. The fact that at first the the special constraints of the grand Federal Republic did not have foreign or coalition; Brandt, though a very assertive defence policy competence also chancellor, did not seek to mimic buttressed the authority of the Adenauer’s patrician style; Schmidt was chancellor. Indeed, in 1951 Adenauer hampered by his own left wing and by became his own Foreign Minister when the fact that he was not party leader. the restrictions imposed by the Only Kohl came close to reinventing the occupation authorities were removed, style of Adenauer in terms of most of its retaining that post until 1955. Thus attributes, and he had to accept to a Adenauer was able to impose his considerable degree the autonomy of authority in any and all the policy areas Genscher (FDP) as Foreign Minister. in which he had an interest, often However, Kohl did dominate his party, taking key political decisions without was able to resist challenges to his chancellor democracy citizen initiative groups authority from Strauss and the Christian affecting a local community, especially Social Union, was personally responsible decisions relating to environmental for key decisions concerning German issues. Citizen initiatives were common reunification and European integration, in the Federal Republic of Germany in and, like Adenauer, was the party’s the 1970s and many of their members chief electoral asset. Schröder, now that were later active in the Green Party. he is also party leader, may also come [See also: green movement] to exert a very personal and dominant style of government, though his coalition citizens in uniform partners, the Greens, act as a constraint in some policy areas. The concept at the heart of the revived [See also: constructive vote of no post-war armed forces of the German confidence; Spiegel Affair; Young Turks’ Federal Republic. There was revolt; Adenauer*; Brandt*; Erhard*; considerable conflict within the Federal Genscher*; Kiesinger*; Kohl*; Schmidt*] Republic concerning the decision of the chancellor democracycitizen initiative groups Adenauer government, in association with the USA and its West European church tax partners, to revive the military. Those A supplementary income tax imposed in who did support such a decision (in the the Federal German Republic to help to context of the Cold War) were aware of DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

finance religious organisations. After the the criticisms which had been made 17 income tax of a person is assessed, a of German armies before 1945: supplement of between 8 and 10 per especially the unthinking obedience and cent of the tax payable is added, and strong military discipline which that extra tax is passed on to the characterised the armed forces. church to which the taxpayer belongs Consequently, it was decided that a (if only nominally). This form of taxation democratic state should possess a was found in the constitution of the democratic military, and that in future Weimar Republic, and is now based on members of the military should be Art. 140 of the Basic Law of the Federal regarded as ‘citizens in uniform’, which Republic. The product of the church tax meant two things. First, they were still is very high, and means that the main in possession of all the rights of other denominations in the FRG are very citizens of the Federal Republic, wealthy. Taxpayers can ‘opt out’ of the including those fundamental rights listed church tax, but have to take action to in the Basic Law. Such rights could only do so. Such opting-out may have be modified or restricted by explicit consequences if the taxpayer then legislative provision, when necessary for wishes to have church ceremonies for the effective operation of the armed weddings, christenings or funerals. services. Examples of such restrictions are: freedom of speech and expression within barracks and overt support for citizen initiative groups political parties or causes in certain Citizen initiative groups emerged in situations. Second, members of the Western Europe in the late 1960s as armed forces were personally informal, voluntary and usually responsible for their actions with regard temporary associations of citizens to their morality and legality. They could outside the established political parties not abandon responsibility behind the and interest groups, whose aim was to excuse of ‘only obeying orders’. Of influence policy makers on a specific course, disputes about interpretation of issue. Initially they were largely these principles have occurred, involving preoccupied with planning decisions for example the rights of soldiers to join citizens in uniform civil society

trade unions and the extent of freedom counteract both the egotism of private of speech in the Military College. But interests and the tyrannical potential of these have not called into question the the modern state. In practice, this principles themselves. mediating sphere is the associational An important constitutional innovation activity comprising local is the creation of an Inspector-General self-government, parties, churches, the of the Armed Services media and public opinion. Work of (Wehrbeauftragter) who is appointed by sociologists such as Durkheim and the Bundestag and reports to the Simmel developed the notion of civil Bundestag on matters relating to the society as associational activity founded armed forces. Any member of the on social infrastructures. However, armed forces can direct a complaint during the twentieth century, previously directly to this official, by-passing the apparently stable social and economic normal ‘chain of command’ and the structures in Western European Inspector-General has unconditional countries began to change under rights (subject only to requirements of pressures such as globalisation, state security) to information from the technological change and post-Fordism. Ministry of Defence and the armed In response, political scientists and services. This official is sometimes sociologists have continued to EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, referred to as the ‘military Ombudsman’ reconceptualise the state–citizen

18 in Germany. relationship. They tend to present a citizens in uniform civil society picture of an educated and self-aware civil society progressively disenchanted civil society with traditional forms of representative The term: civil society is used in many government. different ways. At its loosest, it means simply ‘the citizenry’ or even ‘the Clause Four public’. In democratic theory there is a tension between the state as the source Clause Four of the constitution of the of authority and civil society as the Labour Party in its 1918 version embodiment of popular sovereignty. The committed the party to the pursuit of concept of a civil society distinct from policies which would lead to the that of the state first emerged with the common ownership of ‘the means of Enlightenment, when civil society was production, distribution and exchange’. viewed as a guardian against the All members of the party had to agree authoritarian potential of the state. Major to accept this pledge as a condition of structural economic upheavals in joining the party. It tied the party to European life brought about a reversal radical policies of extensive in the way philosophers conceptualised nationalisation, in theory far beyond the the state–citizen relationship. With the nationalisation policies implemented by progressive differentiation of society the Attlee government of 1945–51. Such which accompanied the transition to policies were not acceptable to market economies, civil society came moderate social democrats such as to be seen as consisting of competing, Gaitskell nor likely to be supported by selfish interests. Thinkers such as Hegel the electorate if brought forward in a looked to the state to regulate civil Labour Party electoral manifesto, so society. De Toqueville identified a Gaitskell sought to remove that clause sphere of civil organisation between from the party’s constitution, but was economy and state, now referred to as defeated by his party’s left wing. ‘political society’. For de Toqueville, the Though the proposed policies were function of political society was to never included in party election Clause Four clientelism programmes, Clause Four was undermined the development of an considered to be symbolic of the effective democratic opposition in Italy. Labour Party’s commitment to [See also: Mani pulite; Mezzogiorno; socialism. However, Blair, once elected Tangentopoli] as party leader, undertook as part of his campaign to modernise the party an co-determination intensive and skilful campaign to substitute a new statement of party Arrangements in industrial policy principles for the old Clause Four, and whereby employees (or their succeeded in doing this in 1995 whilst representatives) are provided with still retaining the support of most of his institutionalised means of participating party. in decision-making by a firm or other [See also: Blair*; Gaitskell*] employing organisation (such as a Clause Four clientelism school or hospital), on topics which directly affect employee interests, such ‘clean hands’ operation [See: Mani as mergers, personnel policies or safety pulite] issues. Such arrangements were developed in the Federal Republic of clientelism Germany, first in the coal and steel The term refers to the practice of industries, then in other industries; the DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

offering favours to groups and detailed arrangements depend upon the 19 individuals in return for political support. size and legal status of the firm. It is to In democratic countries, there are laws be found in other countries in Western to restrict or prohibit clientelistic Europe (such as Austria), and it has practices as these are seen to distort been proposed that the system should the democratic process. Clientelism is be extended to member states of the both informal and particularistic: these EU under social policy arrangements. characteristics conflict with democratic principles of equality and regulated ‘cod wars’ access to the political system. In some Western European countries, though, The conflicts between the United clientelism – legal or otherwise – Kingdom and Iceland in the period remains a significant feature of political 1972–76 concerning the territorial limits life. The worst affected has been Italy, for fishing in the Atlantic ocean claimed particularly the southern regions of the by Iceland. Fearful that fishing boats Mezzogiorno. The Italian term from other countries were depleting partitocrazia (‘partyocracy’) refers to the stocks of cod and other fish, upon way in which the country’s political which much of the Icelandic economy parties have not remained separate depended, Iceland unilaterally declared from other social and economic a 50-mile limit within which no foreign institutions as is desirable in a vessels would be permitted to fish. A democracy, but have come to penetrate series of clashes involving fishing boats and influence all areas of state and from the United Kingdom and naval social life. The parties have used vessels from Iceland and the UK led to clientelism to build up power networks, a negotiated settlement in 1976, which and, in the process, corruption has largely accepted Iceland’s claims. become endemic. Moreover, collusion between the parties in maintaining their cohabitation networks of relationships and in ensuring the free flow of favours had, A term applied to the pattern of by the early 1990s, seriously executive government in the French cohabitation Cold War

Fifth Republic where the president and and foreign policy under the assumption the prime minister come from opposed that war with the other side was a likely party blocks. It has occurred so far future event. They engaged in a three times: twice when Mitterrand competitive arms race, and sought (Socialist Party) had to appoint a through cultural, economic and Gaullist prime minister (Chirac in 1986 diplomatic means to influence other and Balladur in 1983), and once when countries in their favour, especially Chirac (a Gaullist president) in 1997 had countries whose geographic location or to appoint Jospin (Socialist Party) as natural resources (such as oil) could be Prime Minister. The situation arises of crucial significance in affecting the because the constitution of the Fifth outcome of such a future war. Republic allows the president to appoint The Cold War was based on each the prime minister, but the prime side’s perceptions of the other as minister still needs the confidence of a ideological enemies whose intentions, parliamentary majority in order to pass whether declared or denied, would be legislation and a budget. The to expand territorially and to weaken constitution also – if at times slightly and eventually overcome the other side. ambiguously – provides the president The West could point to the USSR’s and prime minister with separate and hegemony in Eastern Europe after the EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, autonomous spheres of responsibility. Second World War, its communisation

20 When the president and prime minister of its zone of occupation in Germany are from the same party or party block and its support for communist groups in there is no problem, but, because the Western countries and for anti-Western president and National Assembly are groups in third world states such as elected at different times (and until Egypt and Cuba. The USSR regarded the 2001 the president has been elected for West as a group of countries which had seven years, the National Assembly for a failed to eradicate fascist and imperialist five-year term), it can happen that tendencies in their countries, whose changes in the mood of the electorate reliance on capitalism protected the produce a parliamentary majority propertied classes and exploited the opposed to the president. The president working class, and which, because of has powers of dissolution, so if a imperialism, sought to retain or extend president is elected at a time when the its powers in Africa, Asia and Latin National Assembly has a majority America. The failure of the USSR and opposed to the president, a dissolution the Western occupying powers in can be arranged immediately after the Germany to agree on policies for the president takes office. treatment of Germany after the war cohabitation Cold War both exacerbated the situation of mutual distrust and provided each side Cohesion Fund [See: Economic and with propaganda to use against the Social Cohesion] other side. Some would include Asian communism and the reaction of the Cold War West to the crises in Korea, Vietnam A ‘Cold War’ was so called because a and Afghanistan within their definition state of armed conflict had not yet arisen. of the ‘Cold War’. The term is applied to the situation whereby It is difficult to put a precise date on the Western powers on the one side (in the commencement of the Cold War. particular the USA and its NATO allies) Some date it to the 1920s or the 1930s and the USSR and its satellite states on when Stalin came to rule the USSR. the other side, regarded each other with Others consider the start of the Cold hostility. They therefore directed military War to date from the Potsdam Cold War Colonels’ coup (Greece) conference, the Berlin blockade or the military coup was carried out in Greece creation of two separate states in in April 1967 by a group of officers, led Germany in 1949. Most would agree that by Colonel Papadopoulos. This military it ended – at least in its European junta – which claimed, falsely, to have version – in or around 1990, with the the support of King Constantine (who reunification of Germany and the had come to the throne on the death of commencement of transitions to his father, King Paul, in 1964) – democracy in the USSR and its former declared a state of emergency, satellite states. This termination owed suspending the constitution and much to the reform policies of abolishing civil liberties. Parties were Gorbachev, but also to the realisation in persecuted, and many politicians communist states that economic and imprisoned. The failure later that year of technological backwardness and a a counter-coup instigated by King failure to afford to keep pace with Constantine led to the King going into Western developments in armaments exile. In 1973 an attempt to develop a meant that the communist camp had more democratic form of regime was ‘lost’ the Cold War. crushed by the military. In 1974 a failed [See also: Berlin blockade; glasnost; attempt to secure the union of Cyprus perestroika; Potsdam conference; with Greece, which provoked an reunification of Germany] invasion of northern Cyprus by the DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

Cold War Colonels’ coup (Greece) Turkish military, led to withdrawal of 21 the military from government and the collaboration transfer of political power to a The term: collaboration is applied to government of national unity. Free those governments, groups and elections took place in November 1974. individuals who actively co-operated In December 1974 a referendum voted with Nazi occupying forces in European by a large majority to abolish the countries during the Second World War. monarchy. The term originated in France, where [See also: Enosis; Papandreou*] General Pétain of the Vichy government announced that he would ‘enter into Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) the way of collaboration’ in October 1940. After the liberation of France in The Common Agricultural Policy 1944 the tide turned against played a key role in the negotiations collaborators. It was rumoured that over between the founder members of the 100,000 were executed, although European Economic Community (EEC) estimates now suggest a figure of some which came into being in 1958. At this 10,000. There was no thorough purge of time some 20 per cent of the workforce public officials needed to lead France’s was engaged in agricultural production reconstruction after the war, nor of and France in particular wanted to commerce and business. In spite of the establish a scheme for agricultural anti-collaborator policy, some Vichy co-operation which would protect its officials were even elected to smaller-scale farmers. The principles of Parliament after 1945. the CAP were established in Articles [See also: Resistance groups; Vichy 38–47 of the EEC’s founding Treaty of regime] Rome. The fundamental objectives of the policy are (originally Article 39, now Article 33, EC Treaty) to increase Colonels’ coup (Greece) agricultural productivity, thereby Following a series of centre-left ensuring a fair standard of living for governments in Greece in the 1960s, a workers in agriculture; to stabilise Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) constitutionalism

markets; and to ensure the availability constitutionalism of food supplies at reasonable prices. The CAP proved to be an enormous Constitutionalism is a liberal democratic drain on the resources of the EU – in doctrine. It dates from the bourgeois 2002 it cost about 42 per cent of the revolutions in European countries which EU’s budget. The policy’s intervention brought absolutist government under mechanisms tended to encourage legal control. Designed to prevent over-production, resulting in the arbitrary government, it encompasses scandals of the EC ‘wine lake’ and principles such as commitment to the ‘butter mountain’. Reforms in 1992 on rule of law; standard procedures of beef and cereals did little to alleviate government; and ‘balanced’ the problem. Further reforms were government, where institutions of proposed by the Commission in Agenda government check each other’s 2000 (July 1997) to enable EU authority so as to avoid a concentration enlargement to countries of Central and of power. Constitutionalism requires that Eastern Europe, which have large governments and legislatures defer to a agricultural sectors. In response, a body of superior rules, in practice reform package was adopted in 1999 codified in a constitution. A constitution for the period 2000–06. The reforms upholds the legality of the state and EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, reinforce the 1992 measures, moving guarantees the individual citizen respect

22 away slightly from the CAP’s traditional for his or her liberties. Constitutionalism focus on pricing policy towards an implies that respect for the emphasis on food safety; environmental constitutional order is the foundation of directives; sustainable agriculture; a country’s political consensus and greater price competitiveness; direct stability. The fascist regimes in Italy and income support for farmers; and a Germany during the inter-war period genuine integrated rural development revealed the vulnerability of European policy. political systems to non-liberal, arbitrary [See also: Treaties of Rome] government. Following the Second Common Agricultural Policyconstitutionalism (CAP) World War, political elites have looked to constitutionalism as a means of consociationalism strengthening their democratic systems. Consociationalism is a principle for There is a growing belief that all governance designed for ‘segmented’ government acts must conform to societies: that is, societies which are constitutional law to be considered deeply divided according to sectional legitimate. Western democracies have loyalties such as religion, language, taken steps to standardise individual culture, etc. There are four main liberties and civil rights through principles behind consociationalism: international treaties and implement executive power-sharing by the sectors them through national and international in a grand coalition; a high degree of courts. The Charter of the United autonomy for each sector in the Nations of 1945 and the 1948 Universal management of its own concerns; the Declaration of Human Rights were proportional representation of the followed in 1953 by the European sectors in representative and Convention for the Protection of Human policy-making institutions; and veto Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. At a rights for each sector over domestic level, there has been a policy-making. Elements of ‘judicialisation’ of politics, in many consociationalism can be found in the countries promoted by the work of a political systems of Austria, Belgium, the constitutional court. Netherlands and Switzerland. [See also: judicialisation] constructive vote of no confidence Crichel Down

as a case of ministerial resignation on constructive vote of no confidence grounds of policy disagreement with the A device included in the Basic Law of cabinet. the Federal Republic of Germany (Art. When the Crichel Down land was 67) which restricts the power of the returned to private ownership, it was Bundestag to remove a chancellor from done by invitation, rather than the office to cases where it can required tendering process. This was simultaneously provide a different criticised by the opposition, and an chancellor with a majority. The inquiry was held which exonerated the constructive vote of no confidence minister and civil servants from any requires that a vote of no confidence in charges of corrupt behaviour, but which the chancellor be combined with the did confirm the failure to abide by nomination of a successor chancellor. If agreed rules. The then Minister of this motion receives a majority, the Agriculture, Sir Thomas Dugdale, made chancellor is compelled to resign in a speech on 20 July 1954 in Parliament favour of the named successor. It has outlining the situation, but announced been employed twice in the history of his resignation at the end of that speech. the Federal Republic: without success in 1972, when the Brandt government had

cumul des mandats DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, lost its majority due to defections to the

opposition by some Members of the A French term, meaning ‘cumulation of 23 Bundestag, and successfully in 1982 offices’, which refers to the practice in when the liberal Free Democratic Party France of politicians holding several had abandoned their coalition with the elected offices (e.g. being SPD and promised to support the simultaneously a member of the nomination of Kohl, the Christian National Assembly and a local mayor or Democratic nomination for chancellor. town councillor). Though there have The device is a deliberate scheme to been some advantages from this improve on the ‘simple’ vote of no practice, such as strengthening confidence which was frequently used – representation of local interests at or was threatened to be used – against national level, it has also been criticised chancellors in the Weimar Republic. for its potentially corrupting effects and This would bring about the downfall of its inefficiency. Since a law was passed a government without imposing on in April 2000, legally politicians may not those who voted in favour any hold more than two public elected requirement to ensure that a majority offices. for an alternative government was available. democratic deficit [See also: chancellor democracy] constructive vote of no confidenceCrichel Down The term reflects concerns about the institutions and operation of the corporatism [See: neo-corporatism] European Community, now the European Union (EU), concerns which Crichel Down have been mounting since the 1980s. It An area in southern England which was is suggested that powers of compulsorily acquired by the state, but decision-making which are binding on later returned to private ownership. It is European populations are being famous as an apparent case of a transferred from the member state ministerial resignation on grounds of national Parliaments to EU institutions civil service errors, though this is not which are not sufficiently democratically clear, and some commentators view it accountable. One aspect of the problem democratic deficit denazification

is that institutional checks on EU the intended measures had to be decision-making are seen as abandoned or diluted. The occupation inadequate. Within the EU, executive authorities in West Germany found that and legislative functions are not divided they could not administer their zones or between a government and a local areas without the assistance of Parliament respectively, as is the case in Germans, most of whom had – of national politics in most European necessity or by choice – been members countries. Instead, they are largely of the Nazi Party, and the questionnaire shared between three EU institutions: procedure proved too much of an the Commission, the Council of administrative burden to carry out in a Ministers and the European Parliament. comprehensive and equitable manner. As the EU has no single ‘executive’, it is One adjunct to denazification was the difficult to control by the traditional policy of ‘education for democracy’, means of parliamentary scrutiny or a involving the reshaping of the German constitutional court. Many decisions are educational system to emphasise made behind closed doors and it has democratic values. Others included the been left to the media to expose major political resocialisation of the citizenry to problems of fraud, mismanagement and develop a democratic electorate, and corruption. This view is encouraged by the process of licensing of political EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, the complexity of decision-making parties, trade unions and other

24 processes within the EU. Further, there associations, and the mass media, to is a widespread public perception of EU ensure that they were free from any politicians and bureaucrats as being taint of nazism. elitist and out of touch with the realities In the Soviet zone of occupation, of life in the member states. The denazification was pursued very Amsterdam Treaty (1997) attempts to vigorously, and became combined with address part of the problem by the policy of creating a communist providing for an extension of the society in that zone. Consequently many powers of the European Parliament and persons were imprisoned or even for providing a regular flow of executed, often without any proper information to national Parliaments. judicial process, and the Soviet [See also: Amsterdam Treaty] occupation authority was able to democratic deficit denazification proclaim in February 1948 that denazification had officially been denazification successfully completed in that zone. One of the core policies agreed upon by [See also: fascism; nazism; the Allied powers at the Potsdam Nuremberg tribunal; Potsdam conference in July–August 1945. It came conference; Vergangenheitsbewältigung] to involve the total dissolution of the Nazi Party and all its auxiliary and détente associated organisations and the removal of members of the Nazi Party A term generally applied to relations from public office. It also required the between the Western nations and capture and trial of suspected war communist states in the Cold War. It criminals and the process of refers to the condition of decreased investigation of all citizens (for example, international tension, resulting from by means of questionnaires) as a foreign and defence policy decisions. It means of determining what, if any, can be applied to various periods in the sanctions should be imposed on them Cold War (and there is no logical before they could resume a normal reason why the term should not be existence as citizens. In fact many of applied to periods in relations between détente economic miracle other sides in a situation of international by the first government of the Federal tension, such as between India and Republic, under Chancellor Adenauer Pakistan concerning Kashmir, or and his Economics Minister, Erhard, Western powers and post-Shah Iran). from 1949 onwards. Production, exports However, it is more commonly applied and personal incomes grew rapidly for to the period in the 1970s when the several years, and the Deutschmark USA and West European states became the strongest currency in deliberately sought to develop improved Europe. relations with the USSR and China. This The term has also, by extension, involved steps such as Nixon’s visit to been applied to rapid economic China and formal diplomatic relations expansion in some other countries, such between the USA and China in as Italy, whose miracolo economico President Carter’s term of office. between 1958 and 1963 produced an Germany’s Ostpolitik (policy towards annual average growth rate of 6.6 per Eastern Europe) developed especially by cent. the government of Chancellor Brandt, [See also: Bizonia; Marshall Plan; and the Helsinki accords (1975), also Adenauer*; Erhard*] made a contribution, though the failure of the USSR and its bloc partner states

Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, to observe the human rights provisions

of those accords and renewed Economic and Monetary Union was the 25 international interventions (for example process of transition from existing in Angola and Afghanistan) by the USSR national currency areas to a single led to a deterioration in relations with currency area encompassing 12 the West. The accession to power of member states of the European Union Gorbachev in the USSR produced (EU). Under EMU, the 12 member states another period of détente which lasted come under the authority of the until the replacement of communism by independent European Central Bank democracies in the USSR and Eastern (ECB), whose main task is to maintain European states. price stability. EMU is provided for in [See also: Helsinki Agreement; the Treaty on European Union (TEU: the Ostpolitik; Brandt*] Maastricht Treaty), which came into détente economic miracle force in November 1993. Steps towards EMU took place in three stages. Stage economic miracle one (1 July 1990–31 December 1993) A term applied to the rapid growth of concerned the free movement of capital the post-Second World War economy in between member states, closer West Germany. The Germans used the co-ordination of economic policies and word Wirtschaftswunder to refer to this closer co-operation between national growth period, which resulted especially central banks. Stage two (1 January from a reform of the currency, by which 1994–31 December 1998) involved the the new Deutschmark was exchanged convergence of the economic and for the old occupation currency, and the monetary policies of the member states. stimulus of aid supplied through the Stage three (from 1 January 1999) Marshall Plan (officially known as the required the establishment of the European Recovery Programme), which European Central Bank, the fixing of received the approval of the US exchange rates and the introduction of Congress in 1948. The ‘economic a single currency. The single currency, miracle’ owed much to the social the Euro, became the participants’ sole market economy policies developed by legal tender on 28 February 2002. The the Economic Council of Bizonia, and TEU established entry criteria for Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) Economic and social cohesion

prospective members of EMU to ensure Fund of the European Union (EU) was the system’s credibility: (i) an inflation established in 1994 under the terms of rate not to exceed that of the three best the Treaty on European Union performing member states by more than (Maastricht Treaty). This fund is used to 1.5 per cent; (ii) an interest rate not to part-finance environmental and exceed the average of the three best transport infrastructure projects in performing member states by more than economically underdeveloped member 2 per cent; (iii) a two-year membership states to help them meet the of the ERM, without a devaluation, is to convergence criteria for Economic and precede entry into EMU; (iv) the Monetary Union (EMU). The Cohesion deficit-to-GDP ratio must not exceed 3 Fund was negotiated to persuade the per cent; (v) the debt-to-GDP ratio of all poorer member states – Greece, levels of government must not exceed Ireland, Portugal and Spain – to 60 per cent. The Stability and Growth support EMU during the negotiations Pact agreed at the European Council in of the Maastricht Treaty. From 1994 to Dublin in 1995 aims to ensure that 1999, the funding of economic and member states continue to exercise social cohesion was the Community’s budgetary discipline now that the single second largest budget item (after the currency has been introduced. The Pact CAP), costing around 35 per cent of EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, offers the Council the potential to the budget. With the prospect of EU

26 sanction member states which fail to enlargement, expected to bring in take appropriate action to reduce a new and relatively poor countries in large budgetary deficit. EMU is now Central and Eastern Europe, the considered part of the EU’s acquis Community’s structural policy was communitaire (existing body of law) reformed in 1999 to improve its and applicant states must be prepared effectiveness. Its budgetary allocation to accept its terms on joining the Union. was increased from EUR 208 billion Nevertheless, some existing member to EUR 213 billion for 2000–2006, states have qualms about exchanging including EUR 195 billion for the their traditional currencies and Structural Funds and EUR 18 billion independent monetary control for a for the Cohesion Fund. common scheme, and it remains [See also: additionality; Common uncertain whether the UK, Denmark Agricultural Policy; Economic and and Sweden will subscribe to EMU at all. Monetary Union; Single European Act] [See also: acquis communitaire; European Central Bank] empty chair crisis Economic andEconomic Monetary and Union social (EMU) cohesion In July 1965, France precipitated a crisis Economic and social cohesion in the European Economic Community Economic and social cohesion became by walking out of the Council of a Communities objective with the Ministers and the Committee of Single European Act (1986). It aims to Permanent Representatives. This create a balanced and sustainable blocked the decision-making processes development, reducing structural of the Community until the crisis was disparities between regions and resolved with the Luxembourg member states and thereby securing compromise in January 1966. The equal opportunities for all European French delegation had objected to a citizens. Cohesion policy is Commission proposal: to link a financial implemented through a variety of provision for the Common Agricultural funding processes, principally through Policy (CAP) with an institutional reform the Structural Funds. The Cohesion which would increase its own power empty chair crisis ETA (Euskadi ta Askatasuna; Basque Nation and Liberty) and that of the European Parliament. nationalist party, the PNV. The France was in favour of supporting the movement was formed in the context of CAP, but not of increasing the power of the active repression of the Basque the ‘supranational’ institutions of the culture and language by the Spanish Community. The French also objected state, and of regional autonomy in to the introduction of majority voting in general, under the Franco regime. the Council of Ministers, which, Although heavily factionalised and prone according to the terms of the Treaty of to divisions over tactics, the movement Rome, was due to come into effect in shares a rationale of armed struggle January 1966. The final outcome was as with the Spanish state. ETA has carried follows: a temporary funding scheme for out kidnappings, assassinations and the CAP was adopted; the proposed bombings. It has targeted individuals it institutional reform was deferred; and sees as representative of the Spanish the Luxembourg compromise adopted state and has also engaged in more the principle of majority voting in the indiscriminate violence, such as the Council of Ministers, but acknowledged bombing of tourist areas in Spain. In the right of any member state to require December 1973 the group killed unanimous decision-making on issues Franco’s appointed Prime Minister, concerning its own special interests. Admiral Luis Carrero Blanco. In 1978 [See also: Common Agricultural the political party Herri Batasuna (HB) DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

Policy; Luxembourg compromise; was founded as ETA’s political wing. 27 Treaties of Rome] Governments of democratic Spain have emptyETA chair (Euskadi crisis ta Askatasuna;Nation and Liberty)Basque attempted to negotiate a cease-fire with ETA leaders, but, although temporary Enosis cessations of violence have been A movement originating in the 1930s in achieved, the movement remains an Cyprus to bring about union between active terrorist threat. By 1988 the main Cyprus and Greece. It attracted much parties of the Spanish Parliament had support in the 1950s, especially the signed an anti-terrorist pact with all of EOKA (the underground organisation of the Basque parties except HB. In 1992 Cypriot nationalists) and the religious police operations managed to prevent leader, Archbishop Makarios. Terrorist ETA from disrupting the Barcelona outrages against the British colonial Olympic Games and tensions began to government of the island became emerge between ETA and HB as the frequent. The United Kingdom gave political wing believed that continued Cyprus its independence in 1960, but ETA terrorism would damage their the demand of Greek Cypriots for union electoral base. Several of ETA’s leaders with Greece continued. An attempt to were captured in 1994, but the violence declare unilateral union with Greece led continued. In April 1995 Aznar, leader of to the partition of Cyprus, because the the christian democratic People’s Party Turkish minority invited the Turkish (PP), narrowly avoided death in a car military to come to their aid as bomb attributed to ETA; in July 1997 the protection against such union. group kidnapped and later shot dead a [See also: Makarios*] local PP councillor, Miguel Angel Blanco, when the government refused to meet demands that ETA prisoners be ETA (Euskadi ta Askatasuna; Basque transferred to the Basque country to Nation and Liberty) serve their sentences. This incident ETA was formed in the late 1950s as a provoked massive popular radical and militant breakaway demonstrations against ETA. In 1998 movement from the traditional Basque ETA declared an end to its military ETA (Euskadi ta Askatasuna; Basque Nation and Liberty) European Central Bank (ECB)

activity, but has since resumed the monetary policy for the single currency armed struggle. area. Now that the ECB has come into [See also: Basque separatism; Aznar*; operation, the member states’ existing Carrero Blanco*; Franco*] central banks will function as ‘regional’ ETANation (Euskadi and Liberty)European ta Askatasuna; Central BasqueBank (ECB) central banks. Together with the ECB, they form the European System of eurocommunism Central Banks (ESCB). The ECB makes A term applied to the reformist policy through its Governing Council, strategies pursued by several West composed of the governors of the European communist parties (especially member state central banks and the those of Spain and Italy) in the 1970s, ECB’s six-member executive board. The and given formal expression in a joint ECB is accountable to the European statement by the leaderships of the Parliament, and is based in Frankfurt, Spanish and Italian Communist parties Germany. in 1975. This strategy emphasised [See also: Economic and Monetary independence from the ideological Union] leadership of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, acceptance of European Coal and Steel Community parliamentary multi-party political

EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, (ECSC) procedures and emphasis on legislative

28 reform at the expense of revolution as a The first supranational institution in method of promoting communist goals. Europe after the Second World War, Democracy, pluralism and tolerance and a forerunner of the European were accepted as features of the Union. The ECSC was formed as a political system within which response to the unresolved problem communist parties should function, and posed by West Germany’s coal and the existing constitutional arrangements steel industries, which were to be were respected. However, relatively little controlled by some form of international electoral benefit resulted from adoption authority as a guarantee that they would of eurocommunist principles, and the not be a resource for future German significance of this development tended aggression. The Schuman Plan (1950) to fade away, until the reforms of set out a proposal to combine the coal Gorbachev in the USSR made the notion and steel productive resources of superfluous. several states under international [See also: historic compromise] control. The intention was to ensure that France and Germany would not be able to go to war with each other in the European Central Bank (ECB) future, because of this mingling of their The European Central Bank of the coal and steel resources, and to European Union came into operation promote European co-operation more during stage three of the plans outlined generally. Germany and France were in the Maastricht Treaty on Economic joined by Italy and the Benelux and Monetary Union on 1 January 1998. countries to form a six-state group, It took over from the European which signed the Treaty of Paris in 1951 Monetary Institute (EMI). The ECB is an to initiate the ECSC in 1952. A Council independent body with sole of Ministers supervised a supranational responsibility for formulating and executive (the High Authority), and both implementing the EU’s single monetary a legislative assembly consisting of a policy. It pursues price stability, ensuring selection of members of national noninflationary money supply and parliaments, and a court to adjudicate monetary growth and conducting on disputes, were included in the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) European Defence Community (EDC): Pleven Plan

Treaty. A levy on sales of coal and iron the threat of Soviet conventional military and steel products provided the ECSC superiority in Europe. The EDC was with its financial resources. The success launched by a treaty signed on 27 May of this scheme and the pattern of 1952 in Paris by Belgium, France, Italy, institutions which had been devised led Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West directly to the Treaties of Rome, Germany. The UK supported the EDC creating for the same six states a but refused to join on account of European Economic Community (EEC) conflicting commitments outside and EURATOM. Together with Europe; Denmark and Norway opposed EURATOM (the supranational atomic the project. By this time, though, energy authority) the ECSC and EEC Western European leaders were were merged into the European growing less convinced of the need for Community (EC) in 1967. full political and defence integration and [See also: Monnet*; Schuman*] conflicts over the creation of a common European(ECSC)European Coal Defence and Steel Community CommunityPleven (EDC): Plan army prevented the further development of the EDC. The EDC collapsed when European Currency Unit (ECU) the French Parliament refused to ratify The European Currency Unit (ECU) the Paris Treaty in August 1954. By this functioned as the currency of the time, the Soviet threat in Europe European Communities (EC) prior to the appeared to have receded. Stalin had DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

introduction of the Euro. It was used to died, the Korean war had ended and 29 calculate the Communities’ accounts, the Soviet Union seemed content to replacing the European Unit of Account consolidate its hold on its existing (EUA) when the European Monetary satellites. In 1955 a number of European System (EMS) was established in 1979. countries formed the Western European The EC budget was represented in ECU, Union (WEU), a defence organisation as were grants received from the EC or based on a far less integrated model of fines levied by the European Court of co-operation than the EDC. West Justice. Also, each member state German military forces were participating in the Exchange Rate incorporated into NATO. Mechanism (ERM) had a bilateral exchange rate against the ECU. On 1 European enlargement January 1999, the ECU was replaced by the Euro on a one-for-one basis in all Enlargement refers to the four contracts. successive waves of new membership [See also: Economic and Monetary acceding to the European Communities Union] in addition to the six founder members: Belgium, France, (West) Germany, Luxembourg, Italy and the Netherlands. European Defence Community (EDC): The first enlargement took place in 1973 Pleven Plan and brought in Denmark, Ireland and Shortly after the Second World War, the UK as members. In 1981, Greece there was an attempt to create the joined, and, in 1986, Portugal and Spain. European Defence Community as a Austria, Finland and Sweden joined in Western European defence structure 1995. Countries applying to join the EU with a common army and a common include Turkey, Cyprus, Malta and many European political authority, the of the countries of Central and Eastern European Political Community (EPC). Europe (CEEC). In June 1993 the The scheme was first proposed by the European Council in Copenhagen French Prime Minister, René Pleven, on recognised the right of the CEEC to join 24 October 1950 as a way of meeting the EU on condition that they met European enlargement European Free Trade Association (EFTA)

political and economic criteria set down soon became almost irrelevant to its by the EU and incorporated the acquis member states, and Austria, Finland and communitaire. This demand was later Sweden also joined the EU (as it had detailed in the ‘accession partnerships’ become) in 1995. EFTA is now a very set out in the Commission’s document: small and relatively insignificant trading Agenda 2000. These are pre-accession organisation. framework agreements made bilaterally between the EU and each applicant European Unit of Account (EUA) [See: country setting out priorities and a European Currency Unit (ECU)] timetable for the adoption of the Community acquis. With the opening of euro-sceptic membership to CEEC, the European Union faces its most ambitious phase of A term applied to those – principally in enlargement. It is widely acknowledged Britain, Denmark, Sweden and some that further enlargement on the scale of the applicant countries – who now proposed must be accompanied by support the idea of European integration institutional reform if the EU is to in general terms, but who question function effectively in future. Institutional either specific key policies of the EU reform with respect to enlargement was (such as the common currency EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, addressed in the Amsterdam Treaty enterprise), or the degree of detailed

30 (1997), the document: Agenda 2000 control exercised by the European adopted by the Commission in 1997 and Commission in areas such as weights in the Treaty of Nice (signed 2001). and measures, norms and standards, [See also: Amsterdam Treaty; Treaty social and cultural policies or civil of Nice] rights, or the extension of harmonisation EuropeanEuropean enlargement Free Trade Association (EFTA) to new areas of policy. Euro-sceptics challenge the economic, political and European Free Trade Association social assumptions made by those who (EFTA) favour greater integration, especially An organisation created as an with regard to the effects this would alternative to the European Economic have on national economies. However, Community by seven countries which euro-sceptics do not support British had not become members of the EEC. withdrawal from the EU. It was initiated under the Treaty of Stockholm in 1960, signed by the UK, Eurosclerosis Austria, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland and Portugal. Finland and During the 1970s, the European Iceland joined later. It was an Community (EC) was afflicted by a arrangement to promote free trade period of ‘Eurosclerosis’ when it among its member states, but without seemed incapable of effective the common external tariff or the management and decision-making. At a supranational institutional arrangements procedural level, an increasing workload which were to be found in the EEC. and the need for unanimity in the However, changes of policy direction Council of Ministers slowed the especially by the British government decision-making processes of the EC under Macmillan and Wilson meant that and contributed to a serious loss of the UK and Denmark, two of the most confidence in its institutions. Between important EFTA member states, left to 1973 and 1974 the European economy join the EEC in 1972, and Portugal also came under intense pressure from the joined the EEC in 1985. Despite closer first oil crisis, in which the price of oil trading arrangements with the EC, EFTA quadrupled. Unable to reach agreement Eurosclerosis Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) on a joint EC response to the energy stability between the member states in crisis, they became increasingly the context of fluctuating national protectionist. Alarmed by the lack of exchange rates. The ERM allowed the political leadership within the EC, member states’ currencies to shift in President Giscard d’Estaing of France value in relation to one another only and Chancellor Schmidt of West within predetermined parameters. The Germany proposed regular summit UK joined the ERM in 1990, but was meetings between the heads of forced out on 17 September 1992, along government of the member states. The with Italy. Similar to the original ERM summits were intended to provide a (ERM I), ERM II regulates the valuation forum for economic planning and policy of the Euro in relation to other development within the EC. In 1974 this (non-EMU) member state currencies. forum became known as the European [See also: Economic and Monetary Council and in 1987 it gained formal Union] recognition under the Single European Act (SEA). extra-parliamentary opposition (APO) [See also: Luxembourg compromise; Single European Act; Giscard d’Estaing*; The German term APO Schmidt*] (Ausserparlamentarische Opposition) EurosclerosisExchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) referred to a loose alliance of radical DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

democrats and Marxists in the Federal 31 Events of May (1968) [See: May Events] Republic of Germany (FRG), which had a strong influence on the development Évian Agreements of radical politics in the FRG. From 1966 A set of agreements signed in Évian in to 1969, the government coalition in the March 1962 between the French FRG comprised the two main parties, government and representatives of the the christian democratic CDU/CSU and Algerian independence fighters, which the social-democratic SPD, which had brought an end to the state of war previously opposed one another. The between the independence movement only parliamentary party left outside the and France in Algeria, and paved the coalition was the small, liberal FDP, too way for Algerian independence, marginal a force to act as an effective following referenda in France. These parliamentary opposition. In this context, referenda produced majorities the APO emerged, arguing that opposition supporting Algerian independence, had to be exercised from outside though the OAS (the ‘secret army’) Parliament. The APO saw itself as part continued by violent means to oppose of a world revolutionary movement. It independence. opposed the USA’s involvement in [See also: Algerian conflict; Secret Vietnam and supported the protests Army Organisation; de Gaulle*; comprising the May Events in France Soustelle*] (1968). The APO was dominated by the Socialist German Student Association (SDS), a group debarred from the SPD Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM) because of its radical extremism. The The Exchange Rate Mechanism was APO pressed for reforms to the the central tool of the European outmoded system of higher education Community’s European Monetary and also for radical reforms to the state System (EMS). The EMS, in operation institutions. It was particularly opposed from March 1979 to the introduction of to the use of emergency laws and the Euro, was a scheme designed to anti-radical loyalty tests for state preserve a reasonable level of price employees. It found support from extra-parliamentary opposition (APO) fascism

university students and from some of the fascism citizen initiative groups, but its failure to secure much support amongst the A name first used by Mussolini for his working class and trade unions led to nationalist and authoritarian movement the fragmentation of the movement from which later took power in Italy. It was 1969. It collapsed after the government then applied to other movements or introduced reforms in higher education. political parties whose ideologies shared Some APO members decided to work many of the principal characteristics of within the system, joining the SPD or the Italian fascism, especially the Nazis in civil service: an approach termed the Germany, but also Franco’s Falange ‘long march through the institutions’. movement and radical right-wing parties Others retained a radical approach, in France, Britain and several other turning to environmentalism or even European countries in the 1930s. terrorism – the Baader-Meinhof group There remain deep disputes had its roots in the APO. concerning the definition and the [See also: Baader-Meinhof group; May applicability of the term: fascism. For Events] communists, it is equivalent almost to extra-parliamentary opposition (APO)fascism anti-communism, and anti-fascism has been used – by the USSR in its zone of

EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Falklands War occupation in Germany and in the

32 The military conflict in 1982 in the Eastern European states over which the Falkland Islands, a British colony in the USSR exercised hegemony – to south Atlantic, provoked by the mobilise the population in favour of Argentinean invasion. Argentina had communism and against perceived long disputed the right of the British to enemies of communism. Definitions exert sovereignty over the islands, and focus upon several distinguishing negotiations concerning the islands had features of fascist ideology. These taken place under United Nations include belief in a charismatic leader, auspices for some years, without result. such as Franco, Hitler and Mussolini; The British military force sent to the active promotion of nationalism, in islands by sea and air eventually defence against alien immigration or compelled the surrender and racial integration, and perhaps involving withdrawal of the Argentinean invasion territorial expansion and military force. Mrs Thatcher and her strength; and hostility to liberal Conservative government benefited from democracy as a political system based popular support for her actions, and her on divisive pluralism and effete party won a resounding victory at the tolerance of views and interests hostile general election the following year, due, to the nation or race. Fascism also according to many experts, in large often includes acceptance of ideological measure to ‘the Falklands factor’. pronouncements, especially from the Currently the Falkland Islands remain leader, as scientifically irrefutable. under British sovereignty, in conformity However, the variations found in Nazi with the wishes of the inhabitants. Germany, Franco’s Spain and A long-running controversy concerned Mussolini’s Italy, as well as among the circumstances under which the fascist parties and movements in Argentine cruiser ‘Belgrano’ was sunk countries where fascism has not been by a British submarine. Claims were the ideology of the government, and made that, when sunk, it was outside the necessary differences in details of the exclusion zone (an area of the sea policy to be found among parties and surrounding the Falkland Islands) movements which emphasise – imposed by Britain. different – nationalisms mean that it is fascism Finlandisation difficult to form a generally accepted Finlandisation definition of fascism. It is unhelpful to apply the term indiscriminately to all A polemical term describing those radical right-wing or nationalist political policies of Finland which were adjusted parties, some of which are little more to take account of the interests of its than populist in their doctrines and dominant neighbour, the USSR, policies. especially in relation to foreign affairs [See also: anti-fascism; anti-Semitism; and security policy. By extension, the nazism; populism; Spanish civil war; term is sometimes applied to other xenophobia; Franco*; Haider*; Hitler*; small, independent states, when these Le Pen*; Mussolini*; Schönhuber*] appear to be arranging their policies, fascism Finlandisation particularly concerning security matters, to accommodate the interests of a more Felipeism (Felipismo) powerful neighbour. In the case of A term applied in Spanish politics to Finland, defeat in war against the USSR refer to the style and approach of the and threat of occupation by the USSR PSOE and its leader, Felipe Gonzalez. encouraged such a policy stance. A This approach to party politics involved treaty between Finland and the USSR in the abandonment of class-based 1948 seemed to give formal expression politics by the party, with emphasis to this stance. After the collapse of the DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

placed on the dominant leadership USSR, Finland declared itself to be no 33 style of Gonzalez and a modernised, longer bound by that treaty, and centrally directed and professionally negotiated a treaty with Russia signed in managed party organisation. The term 1992 which contained no terms that was applied as criticism by the could deserve any continued application opponents of the PSOE, to emphasise of the term: Finlandisation. the tendency of Gonzalez and his government to by-pass Parliament and First-past-the-post system (FPTP) the lack of transparency of that government in its policy-making. Some An electoral system, usually but not of the characteristics of ‘Felipismo’ necessarily based on single-member match the defining features of constituencies, in which the candidate ‘catch-all’ parties, as analysed by with the most votes is elected. Variants Kirchheimer. of the system, such as that used in [See also: Gonzalez*] France, may require that a candidate secure an absolute majority (more votes than all other candidates) to be elected final solution on the first ballot; if that condition is not The term used to refer to the policy of fulfilled, a second ballot, with a limited Hitler’s Third Reich to eliminate the number of candidates, is then held, in Jewish population from Europe. The which a simple majority is required for specifics of this policy were presented election. Elections to the British House to the ‘Wannsee conference’ on 20 of Commons use the FPTP system, as January 1942 by Heydrich, Himmler’s do British local council elections. Most closest associate, to participants which ‘Additional Member Systems’ utilise included Adolf Eichmann. The measures FPTP voting to elect a part of the involved the deportation and murder of legislature (the Federal Republic of Jews in a systematic fashion, and this Germany and Italy, for instance, as well conference is regarded as the signal for as in elections to the Scottish and the commencement of the Holocaust. Welsh devolved assemblies). Used [See also: Holocaust; Eichmann*] without the election of additional First-past-the-post system (FPTP) floating voter

members, the FPTP system is likely to election, sometimes switching from one provide a very disproportional result in party to another at successive elections. terms of the percentage of seats a party It is generally accepted that over the obtains and the percentage of votes it past two decades the proportion of has secured. The FPTP system does floating voters has increased (even if in have advantages of simplicity and fact some do vote for the same party as transparency, and enables elected at the previous election). representatives to develop close links with their constituencies. Fundis [See: Realos and Fundis] [See also: Additional Member System] First-past-the-post system (FPTP)floating voter G-7 [See: Group of Eight] Flick Affair G-8 [See: Group of Eight] A scandal concerning party financing in the Federal Republic of Germany. The Gang of Four Flick concern, a large industrial company, had sold a large holding of The name associated in British politics shares in the Daimler-Benz company in with four former Labour Party ministers: 1975, reinvesting most of the proceeds. Roy Jenkins, David Owen, Bill Rodgers EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, The Ministers of Economics (Friderichs, and Shirley Williams, who resigned

34 then later Lambsdorff ) certified as from the party in 1981 to form the required by law that the reinvestment Social Democratic Party (SDP). They did was beneficial to the country’s so because of concern about the economy, and so these funds escaped leftward direction of the party under its profits tax. It later came to light that a new leader, Foot, and its hostility to series of secret donations by the Flick British participation in the progress of company to political parties (including European integration. The SDP had the Free Democrats, to which Friderichs hoped to attract a substantial number of and Lambsdorff belonged) could have Labour MPs and peers, but few others influenced the decisions of these joined the ‘gang of four’. To avoid ministers. Lambsdorff resigned as splitting the centre-left vote at the minister in 1984 when charges were general election of 1983, the SDP brought against him. Charges of bribery formed an electoral alliance with the were not pursued due to lack of Liberal Party, and in that election the sufficient evidence, but in 1987 Alliance secured the highest third-party Lambsdorff, Friderichs and the agent of share of the vote since the Second Flick, von Brauchitsch, were found World War (25.4 per cent, just over 2 guilty of tax evasion (since the per cent behind the Labour Party) and donations had improperly escaped for a time in late 1981 and early 1982 taxation) and fines were imposed. A the Alliance was more popular than the series of constitutional court cases on Conservatives or the Labour Party in party financing and reforms of the Party opinion polls. The SDP had over 55,000 Law relating to donations were direct members for most of its existence. consequences of the Flick Affair. Though the Alliance did moderately well in the 1987 general election (22.5 per cent), it had failed to displace the floating voter Labour Party as the chief opposition Voters who do not admit to long-term party in Britain. A decision was identification with a particular political therefore made by the two Alliance party, and who are prepared to assess parties to merge into a single party. their likely voting decision at every Though Owen and a small number of Gang of Four GCHQ case

SDP politicians remained outside this The staff lost their case as it was merged party (as did a small number of deemed to be against the interests of Liberals), the merger, supported by national security for them to be unionised. membership ballots following decisions Nevertheless, it was ruled that a by each party’s delegate conference, decision taken under prerogative powers took place in early 1988. Owen and his may be the subject of judicial review. small group of supporters continued as [See also: judicialisation] an independent political force for two years, but with no success. German question Gang of Four GCHQ case In general terms, the ‘German question’ Gastarbeiter has referred to issues of Germany’s A German term (meaning identity as a nation and boundaries as a ‘guest-worker’) which refers to the state, and thus also to its status in foreign employees brought to the international politics and its relations Federal Republic of Germany, originally with other states, especially its on the basis of a short period of neighbours. Thus even prior to German residence, to be followed by a return to unification in 1871, the ‘German the home country and the entry of question’ arose in the diplomatic replacement workers on a kind of settlements following the Napoleonic DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

rotation system. However, large wars and in the debates in the Frankfurt 35 numbers of such workers stayed on in Parliament (1848–49), for example. the Federal Republic, many of whom Following the creation of the Second have married and had children in Empire by Bismarck in 1871, the Germany, which leads to issues ‘German question’ was a factor in the concerning naturalisation. Originally causes of the First World War and the brought to the Federal Republic to meet peace settlement that followed its labour shortages, guest-workers are the conclusion. The territorial losses and target in times of unemployment of humiliating terms of the Versailles racial abuse and campaigns for their Treaty (1919) provided political repatriation. ammunition for Hitler and contributed to his rise to power and to the expansionist policies of Germany GCHQ case leading to the Second World War. Since In 1984, the Government 1945, the Potsdam conference, the Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) occupation of Germany, Germany’s case established an important precedent: division, the Oder–Neisse and Saarland that the UK government could no longer issues, and the diplomacy which led to be considered immune from a legal the reunification of Germany were all challenge on the grounds of the ancient caused by, or affected, the ‘German prerogatives of the Crown. The UK question’. If ever it could be claimed government had debarred staff of GCHQ, that the ‘German question’ has been who dealt with highly confidential resolved, it would appear to be so now, government matters, from trade-union following the treaties in 1990 which membership. GCHQ staff challenged the established the diplomatic and territorial ban on the grounds that it had been status of reunified Germany. made without consultation. In defending [See also: Cold War; Hallstein its action, the UK government claimed Doctrine; Oder–Neisse line; Ostpolitik; that prerogative powers could not be Potsdam conference; reunification of reviewed by the courts and that their Germany; Saarland question; ‘Two plus decision was therefore unchallengeable. Four’ talks] Gibraltar glasnost

first of Stalin, then even of Lenin, the Gibraltar main founder of the Soviet state. Gibraltar forms a peninsula on the Previously banned works by authors Spanish coast. It is of strategic such as Solzhenitsyn, Shalamov and importance as it allows control of the Koestler were openly published for the Gibraltar straits which link the Atlantic first time. Together with perestroika and the Mediterranean seas. Under (reconstruction), the term glasnost Spanish control since 1462, it was taken entered into common currency also in by the British navy in 1704, became a Western Europe, symbolising the new British possession in 1713 and a Crown approach to government and Colony in 1830. After a counter-claim by international relations promoted by Spain, Gibraltar was awarded Gorbachev. The two concepts self-government in 1964. Negotiations galvanised a reform process throughout between Britain and Spain followed, but Central and Eastern Europe and broke down in 1966. In a referendum in eventually helped to overthrow 1967, a 95 per cent majority voted Communist rule in these countries and against becoming part of Spain. In in the Soviet Union itself. response, General Franco closed the [See also: perestroika] border in 1969. The issue resurfaced in EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, the 1980s with Spain’s application to Godesberg Programme

36 join the EC. In order to gain the UK’s support for its membership, Spain The new basic programme of the West allowed some border traffic from 1982 German Social Democratic Party, and reopened the border in 1985. approved in 1959 at the party’s congress Gibraltar glasnost in Bad Godesberg (near Bonn). It replaced the then-valid Heidelberg glasnost Programme (1925), which still bound Glasnost (openness) was one of the the SPD to a Marxist, class-based innovative principles adopted by collection of policies and attitudes, out Gorbachev after his appointment as of place in the rapidly modernising General Secretary of the Communist post-war society of the Federal Republic Party of the Soviet Union in 1985. of Germany. The Godesberg Programme Gorbachev believed that the Soviet accepted the market economy, whilst Union was stagnating as a superpower emphasising the continuing role of the because of the decline of discipline, state in regulating the economy. It order and morality. He saw greater abandoned phraseology which seemed openness as both a desirable end in to attack the churches. It accepted the itself and as a means of reviving an need for German contributions to its inert society. Problems should be faced own defence and membership of openly and honestly and not denied as regional defence organisations such as had been the practice under past Soviet NATO. The party in fact had already leaderships. Debate began on formerly been operating as a more modern and ‘closed’ issues such as the role of less class-related party, and this women in Soviet society, the Programme, the product of a long environment (particularly after the period of discussion within the party, accident at the Chernobyl nuclear was as much a means of bringing the power station in Kiev on 26 April 1986) programmatic basis of the SPD in line and the problem of crime in the Soviet with its actual attitudes and policies as it Union. The notion of glasnost widened was a significant reformist document. to encompass freedom of speech and Following the acceptance of the of publication. Criticism was tolerated, Godesberg Programme, the SPD gained Godesberg Programme Good Friday Agreement

2–3 per cent at every federal election Ireland (where 94 per cent voted in until in 1972 it overtook the Christian favour on a 56 per cent turnout) and in Democrats for the first time and became the Irish Republic (71 per cent in favour the largest single party in the Bundestag. on an 81 per cent turnout). This was largely due to the extension of Implementation of the Treaty has proved its electoral appeal to groups beyond the problematic, mainly because of working class and trade union disagreements concerning the timing members. It thus became, like the and modalities of decommissioning of Christian Democrats, a ‘catch-all party’. armaments. A number of brief Godesberg ProgrammeGood Friday Agreement suspensions of the Assembly have been imposed by the British government to Good Friday Agreement allow time for talks to be held to resolve The Treaty of 22 May 1998 which such disputes. Conflicts concerning formed the basis for a peaceful traditional parades and terrorist activity settlement in Northern Ireland. by paramilitary organisations which Following nearly two years of talks were not parties to the agreement have involving the various parties and also proved disruptive to the ‘peace political groups in Northern Ireland, as process’ since 1998. well as the British and Irish [See also: Irish Republican Army; governments, an agreement was Adams*; Paisley*; Trimble*] DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

reached on 10 April 1998. The core of 37 the Treaty resulting from that agreement Grabenwahlsystem (Germany) was a consensus that ‘reaffirms total and absolute commitment to exclusively An electoral system which institutes a democratic and peaceful means of ‘ditch’ (‘Graben’) between seats won resolving differences on political issues’. under a first-past-the-post electoral It involved changes to British law and system and those awarded through the Irish constitution to ensure that the proportional representation. The name future status of Northern Ireland could was applied to the proposed revision in only be settled by the consent of the 1956 of the two-vote proportional people of Northern Ireland. It provided a representation system of election used basis for the creation of a legislative in the Federal Republic of Germany, assembly with devolved powers which under which the allocation of seats on a would represent proportionally the proportional basis would be confined to various Northern Irish parties, and a the 50 per cent of Bundestag seats power-sharing executive government drawn from party lists, and would not based on that assembly. Cross-border (as the Electoral Law of 1953 had structures would provide for provided) take into account in such co-operation between Northern Ireland allocation any constituency seats won and the Irish Republic, and a by a party. Since small parties tend in British–Irish Council would link the Irish Germany not to win constituency seats, government to the government of the this would have, in effect, halved their United Kingdom and the devolved Bundestag representation compared to Scottish, Welsh and Northern Irish the existing two-vote system. For authorities. Prisoners with paramilitary example, if the Free Democratic Party status would be released over a 3-year (FDP) secured 10 per cent of list votes, period, and there was a commitment to they would expect to win about 50 decommission armaments held by seats in the pre-reunification Bundestag non-state organisations. (10 per cent of 496 seats). The fact that The Good Friday Agreement was the party won no constituencies would confirmed by referenda in Northern be irrelevant. Under the Grabenwahlsystem (Germany) green card system (of immigration)

Grabenwahlsystem, the 10 per cent Western European countries, based on would be calculated only for the 248 list practices in the USA. Amongst would-be seats available, giving the party only immigrants, highly skilled and about 25 seats. The larger parties would well-qualified individuals are selected by win their proportional share of list seats, host state immigration procedures for plus the constituency seats they had special ‘fast-track’ entry. In March 2000, won. Thus the Christian Democrats, Chancellor Schröder of Germany with, say, 47 per cent of list votes (their proposed to meet a shortfall of vote-share in the 1965 Bundestag specialists in Germany’s industrial election) would get about 116 list seats technology sector by giving temporary (47 per cent of 248); since they also work permits to as many as 30,000 won 154 constituency seats, they would foreign computer experts. In March 2002 have had 270 seats, providing an a law was passed to allow up to 1.5 absolute majority, rather than the 242 million skilled workers to migrate to seats which they were in fact allocated. Germany. The proposal met with Though the idea was floated by criticism from trade unions and Christian Democratic politicians in 1956, opposition christian democrats. In a it was soon abandoned, especially after report of February 2001, EU Commission strong opposition from the FDP. President Romano Prodi distinguished EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, [See also: Young Turks’ Revolt] between mass immigration and a

38 Grabenwahlsystemgreen card system (Germany) (of immigration) programme of co-ordinated admission of skilled workers, arguing that the EU grand coalition would need at least 1.6 million new A coalition composed of the two largest ‘qualified immigrants’ to achieve its goal parties in a party system, usually parties of becoming the world’s most which would normally be in direct competitive economic area by 2010. opposition to each other. A grand [See also: immigration] coalition could also include one or more smaller parties, though this would green movement not normally be necessary to provide a majority, so such a coalition would be The green movement was one of the over-sized. Austria was governed by new social movements which, from the grand coalitions consisting of the 1960s to the 1980s, challenged the christian democratic People’s Party and post-war consensus in Western the Social Democrats from the end of European countries. The green the post-war occupation regime until movement began with specific ecologist 1966, and from 1986 until 1999, and the or environmentalist campaigns at the Federal Republic of Germany was local level. It then extended its governed by a grand coalition of the organisation to the national level in Christian Democrats and Social order to strengthen its political impact, Democrats from 1966 until 1969. Grand beginning with the formation of coalitions have also sometimes been umbrella organisations of green activists formed at Land level in the Federal in the early 1970s. Concern over the use Republic of Germany. They are of nuclear energy helped to consolidate generally criticised for removing the green movement. After the 1970s oil effective opposition in Parliament. crisis, many European governments decided to expand their civil nuclear energy programmes. Green activists green card system (of immigration) found this alarming, both because of The term ‘green card’ refers to a the potential for accidents and the controversial new policy trend in chance that civil nuclear capacity might green movement Group of Eight (G-8) later be diverted to military uses. In the EU is represented by the Economics late 1970s, these concerns were Commissioner, the president of the compounded by the NATO twin-track European Central Bank and the finance decision on intermediate nuclear forces minister of the country holding the and the eventual stationing of cruise presidency of the EU at the time (who missiles and Pershing II in Western might also be attending as a national Europe. In many countries, peace representative, if that country is one of activists and environmentalists joined the G-8 states). At meetings of heads of forces over the issue of nuclear power, governments, the president of the EU creating a broad-based movement with will attend. links with other countries. In the early 1980s, most green movements tried to Guillaume Affair persuade the socialists or social democrats in their national Parliaments In April 1974 it was discovered by the to take up their proposals. Whereas German secret service that Günter some socialist factions were prepared to Guillaume, a member of Chancellor promote anti-nuclear or environmentalist Brandt’s personal staff, was in fact an issues, they could not support the agent of the GDR Stasi, who had greens’ more radical demands, entered the FRG as a refugee and had particularly calls for limits to economic acquired employment on the staff of the DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

growth to secure sustainable Social Democratic Party. He had been 39 development. The established political promoted in 1970 to a position on parties have always seen constant Brandt’s staff in the Chancellor’s Office, economic growth as the key to and had then used this opportunity to improving the quality of life of the pass secret government information to population and thereby to maintaining the GDR. Brandt took personal their support at elections. Finding their responsibility for this embarrassing efforts blocked, many of the European scandal, and resigned as Chancellor green movements decided to set up (though he retained his post as party their own parties to pursue their specific leader). Guillaume was sentenced to interests. thirteen years’ imprisonment, but was [See also: NATO twin-track decision; released in 1981 as part of an exchange new social movements; Fischer*; Kelly*] of prisoners, and returned to the GDR, green movement Group of Eight (G-8) where he was decorated for his espionage achievements. Group of Eight (G-8) [See also: Brandt*] The name given to meetings of finance ministers and heads of central banks of Gulf War the economically most important states and the EU. These meetings are to The war between military forces of the settle issues relating to the state of the UN and Iraq, following Iraq’s attempted global economy, exchange rates and forceful annexation of Kuwait in August financial issues affecting particular 1990. Iraq had long claimed that Kuwait countries. The countries involved are: really belonged to the territory of Iraq, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and disputes concerning oil production the United Kingdom, the USA (the levels, as well as Saddam Hussein’s ‘Group of Seven’: G-7), and, since 1991, territorial ambitions, led to the Iraqi Russia. It can also be applied to summit invasion. A UN resolution requiring Iraqi meetings of the heads of government of withdrawal and the imposition of those states. Depending on the agenda, economic and diplomatic sanctions at meetings of the finance ministers the failed to produce an Iraqi withdrawal, Gulf War Helsinki Agreement

so a military invasion of Iraq took place security, East–West economic in January and February 1991 from co-operation and human rights. It did bases in Saudi Arabia and from ships in not have the status of an international the Gulf. British and French military treaty, but was rather a statement of forces were involved; Germany supplied joint commitment and political intent. only non-military resources. Iraq The signatories included all the accepted UN resolutions and withdrew European states (except Albania), the from Kuwait, but Iraqi refusal to destroy USA and Canada. The Helsinki chemical and nuclear weapons resulted Conference also established the in the imposition of sanctions by the UN Conference on Security and and a long-running dispute concerning Co-operation in Europe (CSCE), which UN inspection of suspected weapons until 1990 was the only forum in which facilities. both the capitalist and communist Gulf War Helsinki Agreement European states, together with the USA and Canada, met to discuss common Hallstein Doctrine concerns. In working towards the Arising from the claim by the FRG that Helsinki Agreement, the member states it alone was the legitimate of the European Communities representative of Germany, since, unlike co-ordinated their foreign policies EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, the government of the GDR, its through the mechanism of European

40 government had been freely elected, the Political Co-operation (EPC) for the first Hallstein Doctrine (named after its time. The human rights provisions of the author, Walter Hallstein) was included Helsinki Agreement were used both in in Adenauer’s ‘Government declaration’ dialogue between the superpowers and on 23 September 1955. It stated that the increasingly within the Soviet Union to FRG would not have diplomatic legitimise protest against the system. relations with any state (the USSR President Carter of the USA used the excepted) which gave diplomatic Helsinki Final Act to spotlight human recognition to the GDR. The dilemma rights abuses in the Soviet Union, for many states, especially those which particularly those concerning the were neutral in the Cold War, was that treatment of dissidents. Throughout the the trade and development aid which late 1970s and early 1980s, those the FRG could supply were often very Russian dissidents who attempted to advantageous, and the gains from monitor the Soviet Union’s fulfilment of diplomatic relations with the GDR were the human rights clauses in the Helsinki limited, so it proved an effective Agreement were jailed. diplomatic instrument for the Adenauer government. The Hallstein Doctrine lost historic compromise (Italy) its validity with the onset of the Ostpolitik, which produced a degree of The historic compromise refers to the détente between the FRG and the GDR decision of the Italian Communist Party and other communist states. (PCI) to try to enter effective [See also: Cold War; Ostpolitik; parliamentary politics through Hallstein*] collaboration with other political parties. Since the Second World War, the PCI had been marginalised in Italian politics Helsinki Agreement through the successful tactics of its rival, The Helsinki Agreement (also called the the christian democratic DC. The PCI Helsinki Final Act) was drawn up by 35 had retreated into a stance of nations which took part in the Helsinki fundamental opposition and alignment Conference of 1975, on European with the Soviet Union. After the Soviet historic compromise (Italy) Historikerstreit (historians’ dispute) invasion of Hungary in 1956, though, the centre-right arguing for relativisation and party adopted an independent, those of the centre-left arguing against. Eurocommunist position which aimed to [See also: nazism] achieve socialism within the existing democratic framework. The party’s Holocaust leader, Berlinguer, established the strategy of historic compromise in 1973. A term applied to the actions taken by His efforts established the PCI as a the Nazi government in the Third Reich mainstream party and eventually as a to physically eliminate the Jewish de facto party of government. In 1976 population, first in Germany, then in the PCI tolerated DC Prime Minister territories occupied by Germany during Andreotti’s coalition government, the war, by processes of mass killings, abstaining from parliamentary votes to especially in concentration camps such preserve the government. After the as Auschwitz and Treblinka. It has been murder of Aldo Moro, the PCI even estimated that as many as 6 million voted with the coalition, although it was Jews were killed by the policy of never formally a part of the government. genocide adopted by the Hitler The strategy failed through the government. There has been a long and opposition of other parties who objected continuing debate concerning whether to the collaboration of the country’s two the Holocaust should be regarded as a DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

largest political forces, the DC and the unique event in history, unable to be 41 PCI. PCI leaders became disillusioned compared to any other occurrence in with the strategy when it failed to bring any country of the world, or whether it added electoral support, and Berlinguer can be classed alongside policies of dropped it in 1980. mass extermination instigated in Stalin’s [See also: eurocommunism; Soviet union, Pol Pot’s Cambodia or, Andreotti*; Berlinguer*; Moro*] more recently, in parts of Africa such as historicHistorikerstreit compromise (Italy)(historians’ dispute) Rwanda. [See also: anti-Semitism; Historikerstreit (historians’ dispute) Historikerstreit; nazism; Nuremberg The bitter dispute which erupted tribunal] between rival schools of historians in West Germany between 1986 and 1987 immigration centred around the question of whether it is admissible to relativise the atrocities Immigration concerns the entry of of the Third Reich (as suggested by the foreign-born people into a ‘host’ state, historian Ernst Nolte), or whether these with the intention of living and/or must be set apart as incomparable in working in that state on a temporary or historical experience (as argued by the permanent basis. Since the Second historians Ernst Jäckel and Hagen World War, long-term immigration has Schulze and by the philosopher Jürgen been steadily changing the national, Habermas). This debate was perceived ethnic and cultural balance of Western as having a direct bearing on questions European populations. European states of German identity and moral integrity differ in their attitudes to and policies as a nation. In short, it posed the on immigration, but since the mid-1970s question as to whether the Germans all popular host countries have tried to could ever recover from the taint of restrict immigration. Legal entry falls nazism. The debate developed from an into the following main categories: academic dispute to a nationwide temporary labour migrants, family concern. It took on a party political slant, reunion (e.g. of spouses and children of with representatives of parties on the immigrants already working in the host immigration Irish Republican Army (IRA)

country), asylum-seekers claiming the struggle for Irish independence, then political persecution in their own in protest at the 1922 partition of country, and refugees seeking entry on Ireland. It did this by raids on arms humanitarian grounds. With increasing depots and bomb attacks, in Northern restrictions on legal labour entry, host Ireland and on the British mainland. It countries have experienced an increase was proscribed as an illegal organisation in the ‘abuse’ of asylum provision, with by the Irish government on several many asylum claimants suspected of occasions before the Second World entering the country not primarily out of War. During the war it engaged in fear of political persecution, but in the pro-German actions. After a period in hope of finding work. There has also the immediate post-war years when it been an increase in illegal immigration, was more or less dormant, from the often supported by ‘trafficking’ in mid-1950s it initiated sporadic raids on immigrants by criminal gangs. military targets in Northern Ireland and [See also: asylum] the British mainland. The immigration Irish Republican Army (IRA) commencement of civil rights protests in Northern Ireland gave the IRA a new informateur opportunity to engage in terrorist A politician, often an elder statesman, activities, though a split concerning EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, appointed by a head of state to make strategy led to the formation of an

42 inquiries concerning which coalition of Official IRA and a Provisional IRA: the parties might most probably command a latter became the terrorist organisation majority and be able to form a coherent which focused on securing a and stable government. Informateurs are withdrawal by British troops from employed, for example, in Belgium and Northern Ireland. A series of bomb the Netherlands. This procedure enables attacks in Britain led to the Irish the head of state to be detached from government again denouncing the the political process of coalition organisation. The IRA consented to a formation. cease-fire agreement in 1994, and, following the 1998 Good Friday Agreement, its political arm (Sinn Féin) International Brigades became a partner in the all-party The International Brigades were government formed by Trimble in 1998. composed of volunteers who supported However, the refusal of the IRA to give the Republican cause in the Spanish up its arsenal of weapons has been a civil war of 1936–39. The volunteers sticking-point in the promotion of a were communist and republican system of peaceful and democratic sympathisers from Europe and the politics for Northern Ireland. A United States who viewed the Spanish breakaway group, the ‘Real IRA’, struggle against General Franco’s continued terrorist bombings in 2000 Nationalist forces as part of a more and 2001. general battle against European fascism. [See also: Good Friday Agreement; In 1996, the surviving members of the Adams*; Paisley*; Trimble*] International Brigades were awarded Spanish citizenship. judicialisation [See also: fascism; Spanish civil war] Western European countries have experienced a ‘judicialisation’ of politics: Irish Republican Army (IRA) a development in which political debate An organisation which was formed in and decision-making are becoming 1919, to take action first in relation to more strongly influenced by legal norms judicialisation Kopp Affair and court rulings. A process linked to a commission of inquiry which criticised constitutionalism, judicialisation has in the state security services for partiality many countries been promoted by the in its investigations. work of a constitutional court. Constitutional courts have begun to Lib–Lab pact exert a significant influence over legislation and policy-making. Their The pact between the Labour rulings can set a precedent not only for government headed by Callaghan and future court rulings, but also for the Liberal Party from March 1977 to decisions of the legislative and May 1978. It resulted from the loss by executive branches of government. For the Labour government of its overall example, a court ruling may incorporate majority through by-election defeats. detailed guidelines regarding the Steel, on behalf of the Liberal implementation of a piece of legislation parliamentary party, offered to support which in practice channel future the government in return for being legislative and executive decisions in a consulted on key policies and obtaining particular direction. This role of the a promise of a free vote on proportional courts as ‘policy makers’ is a representation for European Parliament controversial one. elections (the proposal was defeated). [See also: constitutionalism] The Liberals did not receive any DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

judicialisation Kopp Affair ministerial posts, so the pact fell short 43 of a formal government coalition, Kiessling Affair though an inter-party Consultative General Kiessling was a senior officer in Committee was formed to NATO headquarters. On the basis of institutionalise cross-party co-ordination. intelligence reports accusing him of There was opposition to the pact in homosexuality and thus indicating that both parties, and disappointment for the he would be a security risk, he was Liberals regarding the timing of the sent into compulsory retirement in 1983 general election and policy decisions. by the Defence Minister of the Federal Republic of Germany, Wörner. When Loi Defferre these reports were shown to have been erroneous, Wörner offered Chancellor The ‘Defferre Law’ (named for the Kohl his resignation, but Kohl refused to Interior Minister in Mitterrand’s first accept it. Kiessling was unconditionally government) which in 1982 created a reinstated in 1984. legislative basis for a series of other [See also: Wörner*] laws extending decentralisation in France. This decentralisation programme involved transferring powers Kopp Affair from the prefects of the Departments to A scandal in Switzerland, involving the presidents of elected regional first woman ever appointed as a assemblies and various formerly minister in the Swiss federal centrally controlled field services were government. Elisabeth Kopp was also put under the authority of the accused of using her position to inform regional councils. A new corps of local her husband about possible links civil servants was established, equating between a company with which he was their status with the central civil service. concerned and investigations into Prefects were replaced by laundering of drug money. She was Commissioners, and changes were acquitted on all charges in 1990. made in the planning process to the Repercussions from this affair included advantage of regional and local Loi Defferre Luxembourg compromise

government. Other measures, such as veto power for any member state which local electoral reform and restriction of declared that its vital national interests multiple office-holding, were designed would be adversely affected by a to promote local political participation proposed decision. It resulted from the and foster greater democratic rejection by France in 1965 of proposals accountability. for reform of financing of the Common Loi Defferre Luxembourg compromise Agricultural Policy and for extension of majority voting in the Council of Lombardy League [See: Northern Ministers. France refused to attend Leagues] meetings of the Council of Ministers until some compromise on these issues Lomé Convention had been reached. The main effect of Based on the requirement in the this compromise was to prevent Preamble to the Rome Treaty obligating large-scale reform of the Community for member states of the EEC to maintain many years, and, by emphasising the and foster links with their former inter-governmental aspects of the EEC, colonial possessions, the EEC in 1963 delayed extension of supranational concluded the Youandé Convention policies. with 18 such former colonies, providing [See also: empty chair crisis] EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, privileged arrangements for exports

44 from those states to countries of the Maastricht Treaty EEC. The entry of the UK to the EEC meant that a new arrangement, The Maastricht Treaty (formally known covering the many former British as the Treaty on European Union colonial possessions and former (TEU)), which came into force in 1993, dominions, had to be developed. This established the European Union (EU). It was the Lomé Convention of 1975, provides for an EU based on three providing for free trade between 44 ‘pillars’: the European Communities (the such countries and the EEC. The EEC, ECSC and EURATOM); a Common number of states covered by the Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP); and Convention (which has been renewed co-operation in the fields of justice and at intervals since 1975) is now over 77. home affairs (JHA). While foreign and These countries also benefit from security policies remain under the subsidies, loans on specially favourable authority of national institutions, the terms and development aid from the Maastricht Treaty requires systematic EU. The Lomé arrangements have led co-operation among EU member states to disputes with GATT concerning their on matters of concern in this area, compatibility with global free trade including immigration and asylum arrangements; the ‘banana disputes’ by policy; police co-operation to combat which bananas from Lomé states are drug trafficking and other serious crime; given privileged access compared to and judicial co-operation. The Treaty Latin American bananas, is an example. provisions on CFSP and JHA are Lomé V (also known as Cotonou) of open-ended, allowing for future moves June 2000 features political towards integration in these areas. All conditionality and aims to create a free member states except the UK agreed to trade area by 2020. co-operate over social and economic policy under the Social Chapter. The Treaty consolidated the Single European Luxembourg compromise Act (SEA) by setting a strategy and An agreement among member states of timetable for implementing Economic the EEC in 1966 which allowed national and Monetary Union (EMU). It also Maastricht Treaty Mani pulite (‘clean hands’ operation) created the Cohesion Fund: a regional Mani pulite (‘clean hands’ operation) fund to channel financial support for the improvement of transport infrastructures In 1992 it was found that the Milan and for environmental upgrading in the branch of the Italian Socialist Party poorer member states. (PSI), a traditional party of the left, had [See also: Economic and Monetary broken the party finance laws. This Union; Economic and Social Cohesion; discovery launched a thorough Single European Act] investigation into party and government MaastrichtMani puliteTreaty (‘clean hands’ operation) affairs known as the mani pulite, or ‘clean hands’ operation. Mani pulite was mafia the initial investigation which Originally linked specifically with snowballed in 1993 as ‘Tangentopoli’ eighteenth-century Sicily, the term: (bribe city), becoming a national mafia is now used to refer generically to investigation of corruption amongst organised crime in the southern Italian Italian political elites. Mezzogiorno. The mafia is no longer [See also: Tangentopoli] believed to be a single organisation with an integrated structure, but rather a maquis network of criminal groups with local organisations, bound by strong personal A name given to sections of the French DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

connections and family ties. The resistance in the Second World War, 45 network extends to Italian communities usually those located in rural areas in other countries, such as the USA. The especially of southern France. The word groups within the mafia network derives from the scrubby undergrowth sometimes clash violently, but usually found especially in the mountainous respect each other’s status within the areas where they had their bases. overall hierarchy and sphere of [See also: Resistance groups] influence. Mafia members operate the principle of omertà (the ‘anti-law’ of Marshall Plan silence) and vendetta (revenge), making it difficult for the authorities to penetrate A plan proposed by US Secretary of the organisation. The network has State General George Marshall in June infiltrated and entrenched corrupt 1947 to revive the war-devastated relationships with the police, local economies of Europe by offering government and the courts throughout financial and other forms of economic the Mezzogiorno, through which it offers aid to those countries. It was initiated patronage. In spite of violent reprisals because the USA feared that the against informers, a series of physical destruction and economic ‘maxi-trials’ involving large numbers of dislocation of European economies mafia began in 1986 on the basis of might both lead to increased support for inside evidence. The network is so communist parties in Europe and significant in Italian politics that at the hamper the recovery of world trade, to national level there is a High the disadvantage of US commerce. Commissioner responsible for the fight European states were to propose their against the mafia. The extent of the own plans for utilising US aid (the mafia’s involvement with Italy’s political European Recovery Programme). The and administrative elites was one of the USSR, though invited to participate, main reasons for the collapse of the rejected the conditions required, traditional political parties in the including publication of economic data, Tangentopoli scandal of 1992–93. and anyway could not view such [See also: Mezzogiorno; Tangentopoli] external aid as congruent with its tightly Marshall Plan Mezzogiorno

controlled centralised economic Mezzogiorno policies. This rejection led to the self-exclusion of other East European The term: Mezzogiorno is applied to the states from the scheme. An southern regions of Italy: Abruzzi; organisation, the OEEC, was created to Basilicata; Calabria; Campania; Molise; administer and co-ordinate Marshall Aid Puglia; Sardinia and Sicily. The (as US assistance under the scheme Mezzogiorno has remained significantly came to be known), and sixteen less developed than the rest of Italy in countries benefited from the food, raw socio-economic terms and as such materials, investment goods and represents a major problem for the financial aid supplied by the USA from national government. Several factors 1948 onwards. Marshall later received help to account for the north–south the Nobel Peace Prize for his role in the divide. The hotter, drier climate and scheme. the mountains in much of the Marshall Plan Mezzogiorno Mezzogiorno have restricted the development of agriculture, road and May Events (1968) rail communications, and services to The May Events were a series of strikes support larger settlements. Moreover, and demonstrations culminating in riots the area is prone to earthquakes. EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, which took place in France in May The regime history of the Mezzogiorno

46 1968, producing a situation so volatile was more repressive than that of as to threaten the French Fifth other areas of Italy, which experienced Republic. The events began with a wider range of government styles in student protests in Paris over the the past. The mafia, the notorious outmoded system of higher education network of organised crime, has its and the lack of facilities for study. stronghold in the Mezzogiorno to this Radical student leaders saw the day, where it has infiltrated local protests as the basis for a full-scale government structures and represents social and political revolution and the an important (and illegal) source of demonstrations escalated into riots. patronage for the area. In political When the police took violent terms, the south is more reactionary counter-measures, the rioting spread and pro-monarchist than the north; from Paris to the provinces of France. also, national political leaders are more The unions called a one-day strike to likely to be recruited from the northern express solidarity with the students, but regions. The term: Mezzogiorno was lost control of the action which also applied in unified Germany in the developed into a general strike. The early 1990s, when some economists protests collapsed when President de drew speculative parallels between Italy Gaulle enlisted the support of the army, and the new Germany concerning the but a conciliatory approach was then prospects for future economic adopted by Prime Minister Pompidou, development. They feared that, as for who promised education and economic the Italian Mezzogiorno, the new reforms. The May Events inspired eastern Länder (formerly the German similar student actions in other Democratic Republic, GDR) of unified countries, particularly Germany, and Germany might become permanently were later judged to have damaged the dependent on subsidies from the authority of de Gaulle. wealthier western Länder, those of the [See also: de Gaulle*, Pompidou*] former Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). [See also: mafia; reunification of Médiateur [See: Ombudsman] Germany] Modell Deutschland (the German model) Morgenthau Plan

Treasury, which was adopted by the UK Modell Deutschland (the German and USA at the 1944 Quebec model) conference as a basis for the treatment The ‘German model’ is the term used to of Germany once the Second World indicate the system of political economy War came to an end. Starting from the in Germany with its emphasis on social premise that Germany had been to consensus and political regulation of the blame for the war, and that the country market economy. The success of this had been dangerous because of its system, especially in the twenty years industrial strength as well as because of from 1960 to 1980 when the West its aggressive leadership, the Plan German economy became dominant in proposed severe reduction of Germany’s Europe, led other countries to consider industrial capacity, turning the country adopting elements of its structures. into an agricultural region. The Plan was Co-determination, legal regulation of abandoned in 1945 because of the trade unions and industrial relations severity of these proposals, and (but with guarantees for the status and assessment of the effect which the role of the trade unions), the short-lived Plan’s restriction of manufacturing and ‘concerted action’ system of tripartite therefore on Germany’s export trade discussion about economic parameters would have on the ability of the and, more recently, the ‘Alliance for Germans to feed themselves. DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

Jobs’ (Bündnis für Arbeit) which has 47 renewed that system of tripartite NATO twin-track decision discussions have been significant elements of the ‘German model’. The A policy pursued by NATO, based on a term is very similar in its meaning to decision by the NATO Council in 1979. the ‘Rhineland model’. It involved simultaneously (a) making [See also: co-determination; attempts to foster détente by negotiation Rhineland model] with the USSR and (b) ensuring by Modell Deutschland (the MorgenthauGerman model) Plan means of the stationing of medium-range nuclear missiles in Mogadishu Affair Western Europe that the USSR would In 1977 the Red Army Faction (RAF) be deterred from nuclear attack on hi-jacked a West German plane, forcing Western European states. Despite it to land at Mogadishu airport in protests in many West European states, Somalia. The hostages were rescued by those missiles were put in place. a daring raid on the plane by a special [See also: détente] unit of the West German border guards. The failure of the hi-jacking (which had nazism been intended to secure their release) led Baader and Meinhof to kill The ideology of the Nazi Party and themselves in their cells in Stammheim movement founded by Hitler after prison. the First World War, and applied as [See also: Baader-Meinhof group; Red state policy during the Third Reich Army Faction] (1933–45). There is dispute concerning which features are distinctive to nazism, and Morgenthau Plan which belong to more general A plan (formally: the ‘Programme to categories such as fascism or Prevent the Initiation of a Third World totalitarianism. However, it is generally War by Germany’) proposed by Henry agreed that three core elements were at Morgenthau, US Secretary of the the heart of Nazi ideology. First was the nazism neocorporatism

belief in the racial superiority of the neocorporatism Aryan (and especially the German) people, and consequently the racial Neocorporatism is a system of inferiority of Slavs, Jews and other functional representation, that is, races – as set out in Hitler’s book: Mein representation according to Kampf (My Struggle). Second was the socio-economic interest or sector. Under absolute authority of the leader (the neocorporatism, organisations which Führer) and, through him, of the Nazi each represent a distinct Party and its organisations. Third, the socio-economic interest have benefit of what the Nazis understood by institutionalised representation within ‘community’ and the harm done, as the government and key decision-making Nazis perceived it, by political parties bodies. In Western European and other ‘divisive’ organisations to that democracies, neocorporatist structures sense of unifying community. From supplement the channels of these ideas derive other elements, such representation effected by plural as the threat to civilisation posed by elections and competing political communism, the need to ‘correct’ the parties. It is clearest in the close and penalties and humiliations imposed on formalised collaboration between Germany by the Treaty of Versailles, government and major socio-economic EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, and the right of Germany to expand interests such as employers’ federations

48 territorially: first to take in other areas and trade unions which takes place in regarded as rightfully ‘German’ (such as countries such as Austria and the Austria, parts of Poland and Scandinavian countries. Czechoslovakia, and Alsace-Lorraine), nazism neocorporatism then to expand into Eastern Europe to new politics acquire ‘living space’ (Lebensraum) for the German people. ‘New politics’ or ‘new paradigm politics’ The methods used to attain refers to a major shift in social attitudes these goals involved the imposition of and values which distinguishes a totalitarian state apparatus, which Europeans growing up after the Second involved genocide, terror, the forced World War from previous generations. inclusion of all social associations and Writers in the ‘new social movement’ institutions within the Nazi movement school generally agree that, in the (from churches to trade unions) and the post-war period, the increased militarisation of German society. economic development and prosperity Though nazism in this sense of advanced Western industrialised terminated with the destruction of societies have transformed the basic Hitler’s regime at the end of the Second value priorities of succeeding World War, some extreme right-wing generations of people. The ‘old politics’ groups – within but also outside of the years immediately following the Germany – adopt some of the Second World War encompassed values ideological elements of nazism and may such as sustained economic growth; cherish the symbols and memories of law and order; rigorous national the Hitler period. These groups are security; and traditional, family-based sometimes called ‘neo-Nazi’ groups. lifestyles. These were the values However, not all European extreme embodied by and represented by the right-wing groups possess this link to established political parties of Western nazism. Europe. The characteristic values of [See also: anti-fascism; anti-Semitism; ‘new politics’ are environmental quality; denazification; fascism; Holocaust; social equality; alternative lifestyles; Nuremberg tribunal; Hitler*] minority rights; and participation in new politics Northern Leagues political decision-making. These new Northern Leagues issue demands initially manifested themselves in the new social A number of political organisations movements of the 1960s to the 1980s. formed in the north of Italy from 1979, [See also: new social movements] to press for greater autonomy and a new politics Northern Leagues reduction in the economic burden imposed on the more prosperous new social movements northern areas of Italy in order to Social movements can be described as subsidise the poorer southern regions. a conscious attempt to bring about a Allegations of corruption in the central change in the established power government and in southern regions structures and dominant norms and such as Sicily, the perceived preference values in society and to have these new in public service appointments values reflected in national politics: a apparently given to southerners and the political challenge which attracts some heavy tax burden on small businesses mass support. The ‘new social were other complaints of the supporters movements’ were active across Western of these Leagues. The most successful Europe from the late 1960s to the early of the Leagues was the Lombard 1980s. The ideologies and issues which League, led by Bossi, which in 1990 prompted their protest action included won a substantial share of the vote in DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

feminism, nuclear disarmament and regional elections. Following the 49 peace, and environmentalism (the creation in 1991 of an umbrella ‘green’ movement). The new social organisation (the Northern League), movements challenged their states at further electoral successes, in local and various levels. They shared a common national elections, followed. For a time, ideological outlook which was critical of the Northern League participated in the customary liberal democratic order Berlusconi’s right-wing coalition and processes. They also challenged the government. The Northern League now values and policy consensus of the wants a federal basis for the Italian 1950s and 1960s. They demanded a state, in which the northern, central and radical new interpretation of democracy. southern areas would be responsible They tried to promote individual autonomously for many areas of participation in political decision-making domestic policy. Some of the more in place of ‘ritual’ political activity, which extreme supporters of the League want was often in practice limited to voting. an independent northern state: Padania. This effectively challenged the principle [See also: Berlusconi*; Bossi*] of representative democracy, which rests on established channels of Nuremberg tribunal representation through parties and parliaments. At the height of their An international court created in 1945 to activity, the new social movements put leading German war criminals on sometimes posed a threat to public trial. It was set up as a result of order through their unconventional discussion among the Allies from 1943, protest tactics. The green movement as one of the methods by which became established as a new partisan denazification would be promoted. family of political parties in Western Judges were appointed by the British, Europe. The other movements did not French, American and Soviet Union translate to comprehensive party governments. The tribunal sat from organisations in the same way. November 1945 until it delivered its [See also: Green movement; new verdicts in October 1946. Leading Nazi politics; women’s movement] politicians, military leaders and others Nuremberg tribunal Oder–Neisse line

who occupied leading positions in the the Cold War and the division of Nazi state were accused of various Germany, it seemed that a peace treaty crimes, including ‘crimes against would never be negotiated, and Poland humanity’, and twelve were sentenced came to claim the Oder–Neisse to death (including Goering, who boundary as permanent. The German committed suicide before he could be Democratic Republic signed a treaty executed, Himmler and General Jodl), with Poland in 1950 which officially seven to periods of imprisonment recognised this boundary between the (including Doenitz and Hess, who died two states. The German Federal in prison whilst serving a life sentence) Republic, however, claimed that the and three were found not guilty and boundary could not be accepted by the released. Other trials of lesser-known Federal Republic nor be recognised in war criminals and organisations international law until such a peace involved in Hitler’s military and racial treaty was signed, though in the policies subsequently took place. Ostpolitik treaties it renounced any The Nuremberg tribunal in particular intention to use force to change existing was criticised for lacking a firm basis in boundaries. This attitude, though based international law and for the clear on constitutional requirements included political basis of some of the verdicts, in the Basic Law, was regarded EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, especially by the Soviet Union judge. especially by states in the communist

50 However, it did attempt to elevate bloc as ravanchist, since it seemed to standards of law above political imply that a reunited Germany might expediency and emphasise that even claim back what had become de facto war was subject to certain international Polish territory. In fact, the Two plus standards of behaviour. It also served as Four talks and the agreements resulting a symbol of the Allies’ determination to from these made clear that a reunified eradicate nazism from German society. German state would abandon all claims The tribunal also set a precedent, which not only to territory east of the has been followed, for example, in the Oder–Neisse line, but anywhere in attempts to bring before an international Europe. court war criminals who were involved [See also: Ostpolitik; Potsdam in the Yugoslavian conflicts. conference; ‘Two plus Four’ talks] [See also: denazification; nazism] Nuremberg tribunal Oder–Neisse line oil crisis Oder–Neisse line The first, and best-known, oil crisis The post-war settlement concerning occurred in 1973–74. The Arab Germany reached at the Potsdam oil-producing states used their control conference included a supposedly over a large proportion of the world’s oil provisional agreement on the borders of production to cut off supplies to states Poland. As compensation for the which had been in the forefront of territory formerly belonging to Poland support for Israel in the Arab–Israeli war which the Soviet Union had retained at which had commenced in October the end of the Second World War, part 1973, and by reduction of output of the former German state, east of the increased the world price of oil very rivers Oder and Neisse, was placed considerably. This had a shock effect on under Polish administration pending a the economies of most developed peace treaty with Germany which states, many of which experienced a would officially terminate the Second period of negative economic growth. World War and define Germany’s future Unemployment increased, and boundaries. With the intensification of remained high for several years and oil crisis oil crisis inflation also increased, in some others dependent upon oil for countries (including the United their commercial activities were Kingdom) to very high levels at times. directed, with good reason, more at Developing states and those in the governments because of levels of communist bloc also suffered taxation on oil fuels than at increases economically. in producer prices. There was A second oil crisis, similarly produced justification for this, since such by Arab states limiting oil production, producer price increases constituted took place in 1979 following the only a small proportion of the total overthrow of the Shah of Iran. While the price of petrol and diesel. price of oil had quadrupled in 1973–74, oil crisis oil crisis it more than doubled again in 1979–80, Ombudsman though this price increase was relatively short lived, since Iran and Iraq, at war A Swedish word, the title of an with each other, were forced to export independent official responsible for more than their quota to produce receiving and investigating grievances revenue to pay for the war. submitted by citizens relating to The oil price increases, based upon maladministration by government agreed production quotas, were made officials. The office was originally possible by the authority of the founded in 1809. It has been adopted as DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

Organisation of Petroleum Exporting a means of protecting the citizen against 51 Countries (OPEC), founded by five maladministration in other countries states in 1960, but which by 1973 had such as Denmark, Spain, Italy (at the twelve member states. The price regional level) and Austria. Such officials increases encouraged states to reduce are generally appointed by, and report their reliance on oil as a fuel, to to, Parliament. The United Kingdom has promote energy conservation and to several such officials; as well as the intensify the search for economic Parliamentary Commissioner for alternative fuels. The fact that states Administration, others exist for health such as Norway and the United service and local government matters, Kingdom were able to produce oil for example. Germany has an Inspector outside the quotas set by OPEC buffered General of the Armed Forces the effect which such quotas would (Wehrbeauftragter) to investigate otherwise have had on national complaints by members of the military. economies, and by the 1990s oil In France, where the office was created production by OPEC states accounted in 1973, the mediator (médiateur) is an for less than half of total production official who reports to the president. outside the communist bloc. The médiateur seeks an equitable There was talk of a third oil crisis in solution to conflicts between citizens 2000, when oil producers, who had and the bureaucracy, on matters such experienced a decline in the price of as entitlements to pensions and oil (and thus their revenues) throughout subsidies. the 1990s, attempted with some success to engineer an increase in the Ostpolitik price of oil by limiting production. However, though the world market Literally: ‘policy concerning the East’. price of oil did increase, this was The term refers to the innovative policy nothing like as large an increase as had approach adopted by the coalition occurred in the two previous crises. government of the Social Democrats Demonstrations and protests in Western (SPD) and the liberal Free Democrats states by farmers, lorry drivers and (FDP) in the Federal Republic of Ostpolitik Ostpolitik

Germany following the 1969 Bundestag coalition its majority by 1972. election. To some extent, Ostpolitik built Chancellor Brandt survived a upon developments which had already constructive vote of no confidence in occurred in the period of the ‘grand April 1972, but this did not resolve the coalition’ (1966–69), in which Brandt, problem of not being able to put the Chancellor of the SPD–FDP through legislation. So a premature government from 1969, had served as Bundestag election was held in Foreign Minister. November 1972, which resulted in a The Ostpolitik set out to replace safe majority for the Brandt coalition. confrontation with the communist bloc Brandt himself was awarded the Nobel states of Central and Eastern Europe (a Peace Prize in 1971 for his diplomatic policy stance typified by the ‘Hallstein initiatives in relation to Ostpolitik. Doctrine’) with a policy focused upon [See also: Basic Treaty; constructive diplomatic acceptance of the status quo vote of no confidence; the German in relation to state boundaries (especially question; Hallstein Doctrine; the Oder–Neisse boundary between the Oder–Neisse line; Brandt*] German Democratic Republic (GDR) Ostpolitik Ostpolitik and Poland) and de facto, though not de paedophile scandal (Belgium) jure, recognition of the GDR as a EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, separate state. It also included efforts to The Belgian paedophile scandal

52 encourage trade, cultural exchanges and challenged the judicial establishment in other contacts with those states in an Belgium and the ruling Dehaene atmosphere of peace. Ostpolitik government. In August 1996 a senior included within it ‘Deutschlandpolitik’: magistrate uncovered a paedophile ring policy towards the German Democratic based in Belgium which practised the Republic, where progress depended very kidnapping and murder of young girls. obviously upon the consent of the His dismissal from the case in October leadership of the Soviet Union. 1996 led to accusations of police In its own terms, ‘Ostpolitik’ could be incompetence and official corruption. regarded as successful. In particular, The revelations prompted strikes and four treaties were concluded which public demonstrations, notably the permitted improved relations between ‘White March’ of October 1996, in the Federal Republic of Germany and which some 300,000 people took part communist bloc states: the treaties with to call for reforms to the police and the USSR and Poland (both in 1970), an judicial system. In April 1997, a Agreement concerning the status of parliamentary commission Berlin to which France, the United recommended the establishment of an Kingdom, the USA and USSR – the four integrated national police force, but in former occupying powers – were February 1998 the government opted signatories (1971), and in 1972 a instead to recommend voluntary treaty-like Basic Agreement between agreements for co-operation between the two German states (which was not the country’s police services. In April called a ‘treaty’ because the Federal 1998 claims of police incompetence Republic always refused to regard the were underlined by the temporary GDR as a foreign state). Because the escape from custody of the man coalition only had a small majority in accused of heading the paedophile 1969, and because a number of FDP network. The Commander of the and SPD Members of the Bundestag national police, the Minister of the refused to support ‘Ostpolitik’ and in Interior and the Minister of Justice all some cases transferred to the resigned in the aftermath of this opposition, this policy had cost the incident. pantouflage perestroika

and eventually helped to overthrow pantouflage communist rule in these countries and A French term referring to the practice in the Soviet Union itself. Gorbachev in the French political system of civil applied the perestroika principle to carry servants resigning to take up more out institutional restructuring in the profitable employment in the private Soviet Union, but did not at first attempt sector. a thorough economic reform. Economic pantouflage perestroika policy remained heavily centralised and led by the 1986–90 Four Year Plan, and, peaceful revolution (East Germany) in place of the anticipated upturn, the The peaceful revolution of 1989 took Soviet Union’s economic problems place in the former German Democratic worsened dramatically. The Communist Republic (GDR) and proved to be the Party factionalised around Gorbachev’s first step in the process of German programme, and he was soon under unification. It took the form of attack from all sides. Economic reform large-scale, peaceful weekly was finally introduced in January 1989, demonstrations in urban centres but by this time farmers had begun to throughout the GDR. The establish their own means of demonstrations gathered strength from distributing their produce for profit. The late September 1989. Initially the institutional reform process continued – DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

demonstrators demanded the reform of a partly competitive election for the 53 the socialist state under the leading Parliament, the Congress of People’s Communist Party, the Socialist Unity Deputies, was held in 1989 – but Party (SED), at least in line with the opposition to Gorbachev mounted. By liberalisation achieved in Central and 1990 Gorbachev had acknowledged that Eastern European countries. However, reform of the existing system was not when the party leadership failed to enough. He now advocated a respond to popular demands and even comprehensive transformation, including resisted calls for reform from Mikhail the introduction of fully competitive Gorbachev, General Secretary of the elections and a free market economy. Soviet Communist Party, the In August 1991 there was an attempted demonstrators became disillusioned and coup by right-wing elements and on some demanded reunification with the Christmas day 1991 Gorbachev resigned. Federal Republic of Germany. The following day, the Soviet Parliament [See also: reunification of Germany] dissolved the Soviet Union. [See also: glasnost] perestroika Petersberg Agreements (Germany) Perestroika (reconstruction) was one of the innovative principles adopted by A set of agreements between the Mikhail Gorbachev after his appointment Western Allied occupation authorities as General Secretary of the Communist and the Adenauer government signed Party of the Soviet Union in 1985. on 22 November 1949 in the hotel on Together with glasnost (openness), the the Petersberg (near Bonn) to revise term: perestroika entered into common some of the terms and conditions currency also in Western Europe, constraining the sovereignty of the new symbolising the new approach to Federal Republic of Germany. The government and international relations Federal Republic was permitted to have promoted by Gorbachev. The two consular representation in other concepts galvanised a reform process countries. Its foreign policy remained a throughout Central and Eastern Europe responsibility of the occupation Petersberg Agreements (Germany) Politikverdrossenheit

authorities, though the Federal Republic since the 1970s, the apparent inability of could become a member of certain politicians to deal effectively with international organisations (including the perceived problems such as Council of Europe). The Agreements immigration, unemployment and affected other matters such as limitation criminality, the tensions created by of dismantling of industrial production reunification in 1990 and the long and restrictions on the merchant navy. period in office of the ruling Christian The Agreements clarified several Democrat–Free Democrat coalition are ambiguities in the occupation statute among the factors blamed for this and the occasion was used by phenomenon. It is also related to the Adenauer as a symbolic gesture to unusual degree of penetration by assert the independent status of the political parties into the economic and Federal Republic. social spheres within German society. Petersberg AgreementsPolitikverdrossenheit (Germany) pillarisation poll tax A translation of a Dutch term A form of local taxation to provide (verzuiling), which refers to the social finance for local government authorities, and political structures in the introduced by the Thatcher government EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Netherlands by which the major in Scotland in 1988 and in the rest of

54 groupings in society (especially Britain in 1990. Officially termed the Catholics, Protestants, socialists and ‘community charge’, it replaced an liberals) control a proportion of political out-moded system of taxes (the rates) and social institutions, and individuals based on historic valuations of homes, utilise the institutions related to their shops and other premises. This system social grouping, such as schools, of rates was inequitable, since it took newspapers, broadcasting stations, no direct account of either aggregate churches and trade unions. These household income or the number of proportions reflect the weight of social earners in a household. It was not even groups within society. Modernisation of based on up-to-date assessments of the economy and society (and the property values. The community charge consequent erosion of deep-seated class was based upon the number of conflicts) and the decline in affiliation to income-earners in a household, so was religious groups and religious-based or fairer in that respect, but took no ideologically-based political parties have account of levels of income. It was also meant that pillarisation is no longer as intended to link payment of local taxes relevant in present-day Dutch society. to levels of spending by local councils, and thus act as an electoral restraint on high-spending councils, where political asylum [See: asylum] previously those who benefited from costly levels of services often escaped Politikverdrossenheit any payment towards them through the Literally: alienation from politics. The rating system. Protests against the term became fashionable in the early inequity of the new system were 1990s in Germany to refer to a set of immediate and became violent, coupled developments, ranging from with a campaign of non-payment of the much-reduced electoral turnout to charge. It was asserted that the new declines in party membership and system would benefit the wealthier activism, from distrust of politicians and sections of local communities. The the political process to criticism of poll tax damaged the image and particular policies. A series of scandals popularity of both the Prime Minister, poll tax populism

Mrs Thatcher, and her party, and was a sector of society against those of other factor in her replacement as Prime sectors, but instead try to unite a whole Minister by John Major. Major society behind them. In the late 1950s abandoned the poll tax, and instead and early 1960s, the French Gaullist introduced a different system of local Party adopted a populist approach, taxation: the council tax, based on appealing to the nation to support the property values, with concession for personal leadership of General de single-person households. Gaulle. De Gaulle saw himself as above poll tax populism politics, and did not align himself with any of the traditional ‘tendencies’ popular front (political divisions) in French party The term: popular front referred to competition. The contemporary Gaullist alliances of communists, socialists and Party has modernised its approach. It no liberal democrats which overcame their longer campaigns on a populist differences to fight fascism in Europe platform, instead competing with other between 1935 and 1939. Popular front sectoral parties for the vote of a movements were brought about by a centre-right electorate. A more extreme directive of the world communist populist approach is found, for example, movement, the Communist in European political parties of the International, which reversed a previous extreme right. DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

policy of non-co-operation with other [See also: de Gaulle*] 55 partisan groups to permit collaboration with other pro-democratic parties. postmaterialism Popular front governments formed in Spain and France in 1936. In Spain, the Postmaterialism is a concept associated narrow victory of Azaña’s Popular Front with the ‘new politics’ which developed government in the context of a deeply from the students’ movements of the divided society precipitated the outbreak late 1960s. Postmaterialism is linked to of the Spanish civil war. In France, the the values of the new politics: government, led by Léon Blum, tried to environmental quality; social equality; introduce social and economic reforms alternative lifestyles; minority rights and including the introduction of a 40-hour participation in political working week, paid holidays and decision-making. It is typically found in collective bargaining. However, it faced the first generation to be born after the difficulties in paying for the reforms in Second World War in Western Europe conjunction with a sharp rise in military and especially amongst the middle expenditure. The Communist Party of classes: people who are well-educated France had refused to join the Popular and who have grown up without the Front government, but upheld its direct constraints of war, hunger or majority in Parliament. However, the poverty. In particular, it criticises the ‘old Communists withdrew their support politics’ values which prioritise material over Blum’s policy of non-intervention in satisfaction, even to the point of the Spanish civil war. material excess, above other life values [See also: Spanish civil war] such as spirituality and leisure. Postmaterialism has been expressed in electoral politics through populism environmentalist and ecologist Populist parties do not operate movements (the latter is the more according to the pluralist principle in radical expression) and through the democratic politics. They do not seek to Green parties which developed in represent the interests of a particular Western Europe from the late 1970s. postmaterialism Poujadism

Greens argue that constant economic Poujadism growth is neither essential nor desirable: because of this they believe that they Poujadism, named after its founder are fundamentally different from Pierre Poujade, was a reactionary Western Europe’s traditional parties. political movement which gained [See also: citizen initiative groups; electoral support in France in the Green movement; new politics] mid-1950s. Poujadism was anti-state postmaterialism Poujadism (particularly anti-taxation), anti-socialist, anti-intellectual and anti-European. Its Potsdam conference members were drawn largely from The conference involving the USSR, shopkeepers and the petit-bourgeoisie. USA and United Kingdom heads of The movement’s political arm was the government held in Potsdam (near Union for the Protection of Businesses Berlin) in July 1945, immediately after and Craftsmen (UDCA). Initially a small the end of the Second World War. It sectoral group, the party soon took on a confirmed or asserted the principles wider protest role, attacking aspects of upon which Germany should be modernisation including foreign governed by the occupation regime, influences in France, republicanism, including denazification, demilitarisation, bureaucracy, Paris and urbanisation. In EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, removal of all cartels, democratisation 1955 Poujade formed a new political

56 and decentralisation of administration. party, the Union and Fraternity of the Germany was to be treated as a single French (UFF) and conducted major economic unit, with its industry to be so rallies throughout France. In the 1956 controlled that its people enjoyed a elections, the UFF won 52 seats in the living standard below that of other parliament, the National Assembly, but European states. An agreement on declined from 1958 under the French reparations – in money and in plant Fifth Republic with its modernising ethos. and machinery – was reached. Parts [See also: Poujade*] of eastern Prussia were placed under Polish and USSR administration privatisation pending a peace conference to decide on Germany’s future borders (which The transfer of ownership of economic gave rise to the Oder–Neisse border enterprises, such as water supply or issue concerning Poland’s borders). telephone services, from the state or As with the Yalta conference, differing other public authorities to private interpretations of often rather ownership. One of the first instances ambiguously worded decisions led to was the denationalisation of the iron the division of Germany and and steel industry by the Conservative intensification of the Cold War. government in 1953 (though it was Because the United Kingdom held renationalised by the Wilson Labour a general election at about this time, government in 1967) but the policy in Churchill took Attlee with him to Britain is especially associated with the the conference, and, when the Thatcher government from 1979 election results showed that Attlee onwards, when the public utilities and was to replace Churchill as Prime other state-owned commercial assets Minister, Churchill withdrew from the were transferred to private ownership. conference. This policy was imitated by several [See also: Cold War; denazification; West European countries for at least German question; Oder–Neisse line; some of their state-owned assets Petersberg Agreements; Yalta (especially telecommunications, power conference] supply and aviation) and, though in a privatisation proportional representation different context, by states of the former can calculate the percentages of votes Soviet bloc following the collapse of which each party has received, and communist rule. thus compare that with the percentages privatisation proportional representation of seats for each party. [See also: Additional Member System; Profumo Affair Single Transferable Vote] John Profumo was a minister in Macmillan’s cabinet. He resigned in quango disgrace from his government post and as an MP in 1963 after admitting that he The word is a short form of ‘quasi had earlier lied to the House of non-governmental organisation’. A Commons concerning a relationship quango differs from other with Christine Keeler. Ms Keeler was non-governmental organisations because associated with, among others, a it is usually founded by a government, diplomat from the Soviet Union, which and is wholly or largely financed from raised fears concerning breaches of government sources, though such an security by Mr Profumo. The scandal organisation operates independently was a factor in weakening support for (within regulatory parameters). This the Conservative government, which form of organisation can be found in the narrowly lost the 1964 general election. USA as well as in Western European DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

states. Quangos include: public sector 57 broadcasting authorities such as the proportional representation British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), In the context of parliamentary and the political party foundations such as other public elections, any electoral the Konrad Adenauer Foundation (KAS) system designed to reflect the in Germany, organisations concerned proportion of votes cast for a particular with public funding of scientific research political party in the proportion of seats and university education, agencies with obtained by that party. Proportional a quasi-judicial function such as labour representation systems vary in the relations tribunals, and institutions details of their operation. Some are concerned with racial or gender based on fixed party lists of candidates, discrimination. Some political scientists so that the elector votes for a party prefer to emphasise the role of the state directly. Others allow electors to in creating and maintaining these influence the order of the list, and thus institutions, rather than their which candidates are elected. The independent operation, so instead use German system (imitated by New the term: ‘quagos’ (quasi governmental Zealand, Scotland and Wales, for organisations). example) uses an ‘additional member system’ to combine local constituency radicals’ decree representation with overall proportionality. Many political scientists A joint decision in 1972 by the claim the Single Transferable Vote (STV) governments of the Länder and the system to be one of proportional federal government concerning the representation. Under STV, though, the application of standards of political vote of any single elector cannot be loyalty to those wishing to enter the easily identified as being a vote for a public service in the German Federal particular party since that vote may be Republic. These standards included the significant in electing the second or readiness ‘at all times’ to defend third or later preference candidate. It is actively the democratic and therefore difficult to see how anyone constitutional principles embodied in radicals’ decree Realos and Fundis

the Basic Law (the constitution of the rotation in office and quotas among Federal Republic), and avoidance of any office-holders. The ‘Realos’ have been appearance of toleration or support of dominant in the national and regional extremist groups or movements which parties since the unexpectedly poor might be regarded as critical of the results secured by the Greens in the constitutional order. Though the Bundestag election of 1990. Since then, utilisation of this decree in fact resulted the Greens have modified their in a very small minority of applicants for organisational rules to become more employment in the public service being like orthodox political parties, and have rejected, it was nevertheless criticised participated in several Land coalition strongly particularly by left-wing governments. Many ‘Fundis’ have left opponents as amounting to an the party, though several are still very anti-democratic ‘ban on pursuit of a active in the environmental movement. profession’ (Berufsverbot), the more so The terms: ‘realos’ and ‘fundis’ have as in the Federal Republic of Germany been applied to factions in Green various types of career, such as parties in other countries. teachers, university professors, some [See also: Kelly*] postmen and even railway employees, were classified as ‘civil servants’. The

EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Rechtsstaat fact that many more applicants were

58 rejected because of association with A German term to refer to a state based extreme left-wing, rather than on the rule of law, anchored in the right-wing, groups, also gave rise to constitution, as contrasted to a state criticism. based on ideology, dictatorship or some radicals’ decree Realos and Fundis other principle. The Rechtsstaat incorporates values of liberal Realos and Fundis constitutionalism, including: the Opposed factions within the German separation of powers, the equality of all Green Party. The terms are shortened persons under the law, the supremacy versions of the German words for of the constitution over other legislation ‘realists’ and ‘fundamentalists’. The or regulations, and the guarantee of ‘Realos’ pursue a pragmatic political personal liberties (such as freedom of strategy, and are willing to compromise speech) especially vis-à-vis the organs in order to secure desired political of the state. The Basic Law, the changes. They have participated as constitution of the German Federal junior coalition partners in Land and Republic, includes all these attributes. national governments as a means of Article 3 refers to equality before the securing such changes. ‘Fundis’ have law, and Article 28 refers to the state taken a more radical and and its component Länder being based uncompromising stance, regarding many on the principles of a republican, issues, especially those relating to the democratic and social state based on environment, as matters of principle and the rule of law. as non-negotiable, even though that [See also: constitutionalism] stance may well prevent any progress being made by governments towards Red Army Faction (Germany) goals desired by the Greens generally and the ‘Fundis’ in particular. Some, The West German Red Army Faction indeed, will not co-operate with ‘old was originally founded by members of paradigm’ parties at all. Such factional the Baader-Meinhof group in 1971. The conflicts have also extended to matters ‘second generation’ RAF, the successors of Green Party organisation, such as of the original Baader-Meinhof group, Red Army Faction (Germany) Red Army Faction (Germany) became active from the mid-1970s. In announcing its formal dissolution. The their terrorist activity, the second statement may speak for only a faction generation was more ruthless even than within the group: jailed hard-liners such their forerunners, and have been as Brigitte Mohnhaupt, Christian Klar and described as the most serious threat to Adelheid Schulz have always argued the internal security of the FRG to date. against dissolution. Further, in 1995 a In the spring of 1977, the second new extremist organisation, apparently a generation RAF embarked on their further successor organisation to the ‘Offensive ’77’, apparently with the main RAF, became active under the name of aim of releasing their RAF comrades the Anti-Imperialist Cells (AIZ). from prison. The ‘Offensive ’77’, which [See also: Baader-Meinhof group; ran until the end of 1978, was directed Mogadishu Affair; Schleyer Affair] at first against ‘representatives of the Red Army FactionRed Army (Germany) Faction (Germany) system’. It involved taking prominent Red Brigades (Italy) personalities as hostages, some of whom were killed. Among the victims of During the 1970s, Italy suffered terrorist the Offensive were Chief Public attacks by extremist groups of both the Prosecutor Siegfried Buback; Jürgen right and the left. The most notorious of Ponto, head of the Dresden Bank and the left-wing groups were the Red uncle of one of the RAF members, Brigades (Brigate Rosse – BR) founded DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

Susanne Albrecht; and Hanns-Martin by Renato Curcio in Milan in 1970. The 59 Schleyer, president of the West German Red Brigades at first kidnapped their employers’ federation and president of victims without physically harming the Federal Association of German them. However, after Curcio was jailed Industry. There were plans also to in 1976, the group’s tactics became kidnap the FDP leader Genscher and more violent. From 1977 to 1978, they NATO commander Haig. In an attempt adopted a ‘strategy of annihilation’, to increase pressure on the West targeting ‘servants of the state’ including German government, Palestinian policemen, magistrates and journalists. associates of the RAF took a Lufthansa On 16 March 1978, the BR kidnapped plane hostage at Mogadishu. The the former Prime Minister Moro. When hostages, a group of tourists, were freed the government refused to accede to by the West German commando unit their demands, the group ‘tried’ him GSG-9. The Offensive prompted the and killed him. The incident lost the BR introduction of increased security and their public support and launched an anti-terrorist legislation in what was later anti-terrorist campaign. Sixty-three referred to as the ‘German autumn’. In members of the BR were tried in 1982, the second generation RAF 1982–83 and 32 received life sentences published their tract the ‘May paper’, for the murder of Moro. These included which depicted various forms of military Mario Moretti, who was believed to and political uprisings as evidence of a have directed the kidnapping, and world-wide anti-imperialist front with Prospero Gallinari, one of the group revolutionary potential. A late victim of thought to have carried out the murder. the RAF was Rohwedder, head of the By the end of the 1970s the activity of privatisation agency for East Germany, the BR had declined, but isolated killed in 1991. In January 1992, the attacks continued into the 1980s. In ‘Kinkel initiative’ headed by the Federal December 1981 a senior NATO officer, Minister of Justice Klaus Kinkel, paved US Brigadier-General Dozier, was the way for a ‘reconciliation’ between kidnapped, but was later freed by police the state and the RAF. On 20 April 1998, unharmed. In 1985 a new BR faction the RAF issued an eight-page statement emerged, the Union of Fighting Red Brigades (Italy) reunification of Germany

Communists (UCC), which carried out a Democratic Republic (GDR) as a result number of murders. The UCC was of the Cold War, merged on 3 October believed to have links with other 1990 to become a single state. The European left-wing extremist groups, process was made possible by the notably Action Directe in France and the events of the second half of 1989, when Red Army Faction in Germany. A further citizen protests in the GDR relating to splinter group, the Fighting Communist fraudulent local council election results Party (PCC), claimed responsibility for in May and the migration of large the murder in 1988 of one of Prime numbers of GDR citizens through the Minister de Mita’s chief advisers, Ruffili. border between Hungary and Austria [See also: Action Directe; Red Army during the summer led to further Faction; Moro*] protests and demonstrations, and to the Red Brigades (Italy)reunification of Germany formation of new political groups, such as New Forum. The celebrations of the resistance groups fortieth anniversary of the founding of The resistance was the popular term for the GDR in October were an occasion the organised opposition to Germany’s for further demonstrations, and soon Nazi regime, both within Germany itself afterwards the GDR communist leader, and in those European countries Honecker, was compelled to resign his EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, occupied by Germany during the offices. Krenz, the new party leader, was

60 Second World War. The resistance widely distrusted and was unable to movements engaged in guerrilla warfare introduce political reform swiftly enough and sabotage against Nazi Germany and to satisfy protesters and dissidents. collaboration governments. They also Efforts to introduce a more liberal set of prepared plans for reform in Europe for arrangements for travel outside the GDR when the war was over. From January led to the opening of the Berlin Wall on 1942, the Free French began to organise 9 November. By the end of 1989 the resistance groups and in May 1943 the communist regime had been displaced maquis liberated Corsica. By 1945 by a provisional government, ruling in resistance groups were active conjunction with a ‘Round Table’ on throughout Europe, but were often which dissident groups and established divided on ideological grounds. After the political parties and other organisations war, political parties whose members were represented. Democratic elections had been active in the resistance to the People’s Chamber (Volkskammer), initially gained an electoral bonus with originally scheduled for May 1990, were the voters and in some countries brought forward to March because of communist parties were viewed for the the economic and political situation in first time as responsible and electable the GDR. That election gave victory to on account of their resistance record. the right-wing electoral alliance led by The participation of resistance leaders in the Christian Democrats, whose leader, the foundation of new political systems de Maizière, formed a coalition in post-war Europe initially helped to government which aimed at introducing promote the ideal of a united Europe. currency union with the Federal [See also: maquis; nazism] Republic without delay. This was achieved on 1 July 1990, but by then it was obvious that a political union would reunification of Germany soon have to follow. Following The process whereby the two former negotiations, it was agreed to merge the German states, divided from each other GDR with the Federal Republic, using in 1949 by the creation of the Federal the route offered by Article 23 of the Republic of Germany and the German Basic Law of the Federal Republic, reunification of Germany Rhineland model which permitted ‘other parts’ of economy and a democratic political Germany to join the Federal Republic. system, combined with a complex and This meant that the Basic Law was comprehensive system of social welfare retained as the constitutional foundation provision, as provided by Erhard’s social of the enlarged Federal Republic, rather market system. Globalisation, than using the mode envisaged in Article privatisation of formerly state-owned 146 of the Basic Law, by which a totally enterprises and greater emphasis on new constitution for reunified Germany shareholder interests are all tendencies would have had to have been designed which recently have eroded the and presented to the public for distinctive structure of the Rhineland ratification by referendum. The former model. GDR was divided into the five ‘new’ [See also: social market economy] Länder, plus East Berlin, which merged with West Berlin to form one Land. Round Table Some authorities prefer to use the term: ‘unification’ to indicate the merger Several ‘round tables’ have occurred in of the two German states, on the recent history, providing relatively grounds that there never was a informal modes of discussion involving ‘Germany’ which only consisted of the representatives of conflicting groups. territories of the Federal Republic and The most famous is that created in DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

GDR, therefore they could not be December 1989 in East Berlin, which 61 re-unified. However, the existence of an played a role in the transition of the earlier ‘unification of Germany’ (in 1871) GDR from a communist dictatorship to means that there could be ambiguity if a multi-party democracy. It arose from the term were used also to describe the an appeal on 21 November 1989 by the events of 1990. new citizen movement group: [See also: Berlin Wall; Bonn ‘Democracy Now’ to all parties to join in Republic–Berlin Republic transition; Cold a series of discussions about the War; German question; Round Table; desperate political and economic Stalin Note; Honecker*; Krenz*; de situation of the GDR and possible paths Maizière*] of development in the future. It was to reunification of GermanyRhineland model serve as a democratically based forum at a time when the institutions of party Rhineland model and state in the GDR had lost all Alternatively known as ‘Rhineland legitimacy, and a democratically elected capitalism’, this term is applied to the parliament had not yet been created. system of political economy developed Several parties, including the Socialist in the Federal Republic of Germany, at Unity Party and its former associated least until German reunification, and, ‘bloc parties’, accepted the formal some would assert, even to the present invitation issued by the Protestant and day. It is distinguished from the Catholic churches on 30 November Anglo-Saxon model of political economy 1989, and a first meeting was held on by its emphasis on corporate structures 7 December 1989. There was a balance which encourage consensus among the of representatives from, on the one principal economic actors (the hand, the SED, its affiliated communist government, the trade unions, owners organisations and the former bloc of business enterprises, the banks, etc.). parties, and newly formed citizen Unlike economic systems in other parts movement organisations on the other. of the world which also emphasise Two clergy served as impartial chairs of corporatist consensus, this model the meetings of the Round Table. requires the existence of a market Several key issues were discussed, Round Table Schengen Agreement

such as the future of the State Security Schengen Agreement Service, the draft of a new, democratic, constitution for the GDR and the An agreement entered into by the economic situation. The Round Table Benelux countries (which already was instrumental in bringing forward enjoyed open borders with each other), the planned May date for new elections Germany and France to remove border to the Volkskammer (the GDR controls on persons and goods moving Parliament) to 18 March, because of the from one of those states to another. It increasing crisis situation of the GDR. was originally agreed at a meeting in However, once the Volkskammer 1985 of delegates from the signatory election had been held and it was clear states in Schengen, a Luxembourg town that German reunification was on the Moselle across the river from inevitable in the near future, the Round Germany. It was not implemented until Table was dissolved, having no longer a 1994, and even then some limitations useful role. on its application still existed. The [See also: reunification of Germany; limited number of states which signed Stasi] the Schengen Agreement did so Round Table Schengen Agreement because it was clear that the introduction of open borders between

EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Saarland question all member states of the EU under the

62 The Saarland is a territory in south-west terms of the Single European Act would Germany bordering France and not occur in the foreseeable future. A Luxembourg. Because of its strategic Declaration accompanying that Act location and its large coal reserves and provided for retention of border controls steel production capacity, it has been of where required to combat immigration great significance in conflicts involving from countries outside the EU, Germany and France. After the First terrorism, crime, drug trafficking and World War it was ceded to France for a smuggling of works of art. The United period of fifteen years under a League Kingdom, in particular, stood firm of Nations mandate, with rights to against opening its borders to intra-EU extract minerals in that period. The traffic. Later all other states of the EU plebiscite at the end of that term, which (together with Iceland and Norway as took place in the period of Hitler’s associate signatories) with the exception dictatorship, led to a majority of over of the United Kingdom and Ireland, 90 per cent voting to rejoin Germany. At joined the Schengen arrangements. A the end of the Second World War, complex system of co-operation on France was again given control of the matters such as cross-border pursuit of Saarland. As it became clear that the criminals, extradition and the treatment Federal Republic of Germany was of asylum-seekers has developed under becoming much more prosperous than the umbrella of this Agreement. The France or the Saarland, opinion among terms of the Schengen Agreement were Saarland residents was strongly in incorporated into the Treaty of favour of inclusion in the Federal Amsterdam (1997), allowing states to Republic. Attempts by France to repress adopt or not adopt the conditions of the opposition to French rule and to place Schengen Agreement. the Saarland under some form of [See also: Benelux] international control came to nothing. In 1957, following a plebiscite, the Schleyer Affair Saarland became a Land of the Federal Republic. Dr Hanns-Martin Schleyer was a victim [See also: Young Turks’ revolt] of the ‘Offensive ’77’ conducted by the Schleyer Affair Secret Army Organisation (OAS) extreme left-wing terrorists, the West devised the settlement, but failed. When German Red Army Faction (RAF). the independence referendum was President of the West German confirmed by 75 per cent of the vote, employers’ federation and president of Muslim nationalists took revenge on the the Federal Association of German OAS. On 5 July 1962 over 100 Industry, Schleyer was targeted by the Europeans were killed in Oran. Soon group as a ‘representative of the system’ afterwards, some 500 Europeans and was taken hostage by the group in suspected of being OAS sympathisers an attempt to pressurise the West were kidnapped: some were tortured German government into releasing and released, others disappeared. imprisoned RAF members. When [See also: Algerian conflict; de Gaulle*] Schleyer was kidnapped, his four companions were killed. In an attempt Single European Act (SEA) to increase pressure on the government, Palestinian associates of the RAF took a The central aim of the Single European Lufthansa plane hostage at Mogadishu. Act (SEA), which came into force in The hostages, a group of tourists, were 1987, was to improve the economic freed by the West German commando efficiency of the EC by creating a single unit GSG 9. Hours later, the RAF took European market (SEM) between revenge by murdering Schleyer. member states by 1992. In 1957, the DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

[See also: Baader-Meinhof group; Treaties of Rome had removed tariff 63 Mogadishu Affair; Red Army Faction] barriers among the member states. In Schleyer AffairSecret Army Organisation (OAS) practice, though, non-tariff barriers continued to restrict trade, reducing the Secret Army Organisation (OAS) competitiveness of the EC in world The Organisation de l’Armée Secrète trade. The SEA provided for tighter (OAS) was an extreme pro-French control of EC economic policy and nationalist organisation of French related areas. It formally expanded the Algerian settlers led by General Jouhad EC’s policy competences to include and General Salan. The group was environmental policy, research and founded in 1961 and conducted technological development and reciprocal terror campaigns with the regional policy (termed ‘economic and rival Algerian nationalist National social cohesion’). It established new Liberation Front (FLN). The OAS wanted legislative procedures to improve the to retain the French colonial control of efficiency and control of Algeria and did not accept the French decision-making in specific policy areas government’s decision to award Algeria (the ‘co-operation’ and ‘assent’ self-determination with the prospect of procedures) which gave the European independence. Once it became clear Parliament slightly more influence in EC that they had lost their cause, the OAS decision-making. reacted with an unsuccessful revolt in [See also: Economic and Social Algiers and with a spate of terrorist Cohesion; Treaties of Rome] bomb attacks in Algeria and metropolitan France. The French public Single Transferable Vote (STV) turned against the movement and several large anti-OAS demonstrations An electoral system utilising preferential took place. Some 1,200 OAS members voting, in which voters indicate their were arrested and Jouhad and Salan preferences by placing numbers: 1, 2, were sentenced to life imprisonment. 3, . . . etc., by the names of candidates. The movement made two attempts to Unlike the otherwise similar Alternative murder General de Gaulle, who had Vote System, STV must be used in Single Transferable Vote (STV) social capital

multi-member constituencies, usually of social capital up to about 5 seats. Larger numbers are possible, but involve increased A term applied to the network of complication of the counting procedure voluntary associations in a political and increased length of the ballot system, with reference to the political paper. Ireland uses constituencies resources which such a network electing 3–5 members each. Candidates contributes to a democracy. The are elected if they receive a quota of hypothesis underlying the use of the votes. This quota is the lowest number term is that groups such as sports clubs, of votes which will elect the required trade unions, churches, professional number of candidates, but no more. As organisations, charitable groups and a formula: the Quota = the number of leisure-based groups such as dramatic valid votes cast, divided by the number societies and choirs, contribute to of seats to be filled plus one, and one is democracy in various ways. On added to that sum; so Q = V/(S+1) + occasion, they may act as pressure 1. Votes in excess of the quota for a groups to promote policies candidate are redistributed according to advantageous to the group or its clients indicated next preferences, and, where (such as working mothers or candidates are eliminated because they pensioners). Moreover, even if a group EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, have fewest votes, the next preferences never becomes engaged in political

64 of votes they have received are also activity directly, its members learn skills redistributed until sufficient candidates of participation, activist involvement are elected. (such as office-holding) and leadership. Though not an electoral system Therefore a society where membership designed to produce a close of such groups is low or declining may correspondence between a party’s share have a less robust democratic base than of the vote and its share of seats, the one where membership of such groups STV system does give results which are is high and rising. Some studies of much closer to proportionality than non-participation in elections have first-past-the-post systems such as that found a link between propensity of an used in House of Commons elections in individual to vote in an election and Britain. The principal advantage of the membership of that individual in such system is that it provides the voter with voluntary organisations. great freedom of choice as to the Single Transferable Vote (STV)social capital criteria the voter uses to select social market economy candidates, and greatly reduces wasted votes. A voter may choose to vote for all The label applied to the system of the candidates of one party first (but political economy developed in the even then can exercise choice among Federal Republic of Germany by Erhard them), for candidates irrespective of (Minister of Economics in Adenauer’s party who support or oppose some government). The system sought to particular policy issue, for candidates on combine production and sales based the basis of personal qualities such as upon the principle of the free market, gender, occupation, age or place of qualified by protection against cartels residence, or whatever other criteria the and monopolies and by regulatory voter wishes to employ. As well as legislation concerning health and safety Ireland, Malta uses STV for its legislative in the workplace, with provision of elections, and Northern Ireland uses it social welfare, based upon the for the election of its representatives to insurance principle, to provide the European Parliament. employees with adequate pensions, [See also: Alternative Vote System] unemployment and sickness benefits social market economy South Tyrol question and other payments. This system speakers in Germany (though only a depended upon the co-operation of the small number were transferred). After trade unions and business the Second World War, a degree of organisations. Such co-operation was protection for the German-speaking made easier by the introduction after population was provided in the 1948 the Second World War of a system of Italian constitution. However, actions by industrial trade unions, in which the Italian government to repress the employees, of whatever trade or skill, German-speaking inhabitants by in, say, the chemical industry were all merging the area into a larger area so members of the Chemical Workers’ that Italian-speakers would be in a Union – in contrast to the United majority led to increased support for Kingdom, where each factory could the South Tyrol People’s Party, to mass contain employees in a dozen or more demonstrations and even violence and different trade unions. Legislation terrorist activity. An agreement was promoting co-determination in industry, negotiated which was embodied in a at first in the coal and steel sectors, treaty in 1971, guaranteeing proportional then from 1976 in medium- and provision of resources to both the large-sized firms in all sectors of Italian-speaking and German-speaking industry, also played a role in communities in the area, and in 1992 developing the social market economy. the region (in Italian: Alto DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

The system of workers’ councils, whose Adige-Trentino) was given special status 65 representatives were elected by within the system of regional employees, and the short-lived system government in Italy. of tripartite discussions on economic and industrial policy known as Spanish civil war ‘Concerted Action’ (konzertierte Aktion) or the new version called ‘Alliance for Spain’s democratic Second Republic Jobs’ (Bündnis für Arbeit) introduced in was founded in 1931 by centre-left 1998 by the Schröder government to political forces, but the regime was not focus especially on reduction of fully acceptable to the country’s unemployment are other examples of reactionary elements. In July 1936 a policy initiatives designed to promote military uprising against the leftist the social market economy. ‘Popular Front’ government led by The term has been used in other Manuel Azaña led to a bitter civil war countries to describe either actual or between the Republicans and the desired economic systems, but the opposition Nationalists which lasted German version is the most developed until 1939. The Republicans were example of such a system. supported by organised labour, regional [See also: Erhard*] nationalists and secular forces in social market economySouth Tyrol question society. The Nationalists based their support on the Catholic church (except South Tyrol question in the Basque country), the business South Tyrol is an area in north Italy community and landowners, the consisting of a mainly German-speaking peasantry, most of the military and population. Previously part of the traditional monarchists. The Nationalists Austro-Hungarian empire, it was given won the civil war, aided in their to Italy as part of the peace settlement military campaign by the country’s after the First World War. Mussolini armed forces and by subsidies from took measures to suppress the German Nazi Germany and fascist Italy, more language and culture of the region, and substantial than those provided to the agreed with Hitler to resettle German Republicans by Stalin. The Nationalists Spanish civil war Spiegel Affair

were able to ban and disperse political Spiegel Affair parties, movements and trade unions which did not support their stance. In October 1962 the Hamburg news The civil war cost between 75,000 and weekly, Der Spiegel, published a report 200,000 lives and caused of recent NATO military manoeuvres major economic problems. The which criticised the performance of the victorious Nationalists established a German military in those exercises. A repressive authoritarian state under fortnight later the federal state General Franco, which continued to prosecutor ordered the arrest of persecute those forces which had Augstein (the publisher), Ahlers (chief supported the Republican cause. It editor), and several other staff on was not until Spain’s transition to charges of treason and bribery, since it democracy from the mid-1970s that was suspected that members of the Spanish society began to recover from military had sold secret information to this war. the magazine. Police occupied the [See also: fascism; nazism; Franco*] editorial offices of the magazine in Spanish civil war Spiegel Affair Hamburg and Bonn and copies of the magazine were seized. This Spanish coup attempt (1981) high-handed and seemingly EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Spain’s current constitutional monarchy anti-democratic action was severely

66 was established in 1978, but many criticised by the mass media and the powerful interests remained suspicious public, as well as by politicians from the of the new democratic regime. On 23 liberal Free Democrats (coalition partner February 1981, reactionaries in the army to the governing Christian Democrats) were alarmed by moves towards and the opposition Social Democrats. regional autonomy and mounting The way in which action was taken, at terrorist action, so attempted a coup night and without warning, as well as against the democratic state. A the dubious procedures concerning the paramilitary Civil Guard unit led by arrest of Ahlers, who was on holiday in Lieutenant-Colonel Tejero Molina broke Spain, were compared to methods used into the Cortes, the parliament building, in the Hitler regime against opponents. and took the elected MPs hostage. It was revealed that the Minister of There was no agreement amongst the Defence, Strauss, had been largely army officers involved as to the desired responsible for initiating the action outcome: some, like Tejero, wanted a against the magazine, and that, in a Chilean-style coup, while others wanted debate in the Bundestag, he had made a ‘soft’ coup leading to the formation of misleading statements about his a national government. King Juan Carlos responsibility for what had occurred. acted quickly to restore the status quo. Adenauer’s own position was affected He contacted those military leaders not by opposition criticism and the threat of involved in the coup to assure them that the FDP to resign from his government. he did not support it. He told the coup To avoid having to dismiss Strauss, leaders that he was not prepared to Adenauer reshuffled his cabinet, abdicate or to leave the country and excluding some FDP ministers and would rather be shot than accept the some other Christian Democrat take-over. He then made a television ministers from the previous cabinet, as address to the nation to declare that the well as Strauss. The affair was a factor Crown would not tolerate the coup. The in Adenauer’s decision to resign as coup collapsed and the captured MPs Chancellor in 1963, finally fulfilling his were released. promise made at the time of the [See also: Juan Carlos*] formation of the coalition in 1961. Spiegel Affair Stalin Note

Neither charges of treason against to the reunification of Germany, Stalin Augstein and Ahlers, nor a constitutional made an offer (the ‘Stalin Note’) on 10 court complaint by Der Spiegel March 1952 to the Western Allies. This concerning the government’s breach of proposed that a German state should be the constitutional guarantee of press created within the borders of Germany freedom, were successful. The FDP as they were at the end of the Second insisted that Strauss be excluded from World War. This new German state Erhard’s cabinets in 1963 and 1965, would be neutral, but would be allowed though he returned as a minister in the to possess its own defence force. A grand coalition. However, the FDP peace treaty would be signed by the managed also to prevent Strauss gaining Allies and Germany, following which the Foreign Ministry in 1982 and 1983, free elections would be held. As this which meant, since Strauss would take Note was communicated during no lesser post, that after 1969 he never negotiations for Germany’s membership again became a federal minister. in a European Defence Community, it [See also: Adenauer*; Strauss*] was regarded in the West as a delaying Spiegel Affair Stalin Note tactic, so its offer was not pursued. Some historians consider the offer to spin doctor have been genuine, and its rejection A term applied in recent years to those therefore a missed opportunity for early DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

public relations advisers in politics reunification. Others, however, consider 67 whose function is to put the best it to have been only a tactical possible interpretation (or ‘spin’) on manoeuvre, which Stalin would not events relevant to the government or have permitted to have led to German party which they serve, and to try to reunification. Certainly a large majority ensure that stories favourable to their of West Germans supported rejection of party or government appear Stalin’s proposals in opinion polls at the prominently and at the best times in the time. press or the broadcasting media. In [See also: Cold War; European Britain Peter Mandelson and Alistair Defence Community; the German Campbell have been among the most question; reunification of Germany] prominent ‘spin doctors’ for the Labour Party, and were held to have Stammheim trials [See: Baader-Meinhof contributed considerably to the Labour group] Party victory in the 1997 general election. The US president and other US Stasi politicians have employed the services of ‘spin doctors’, and the campaigns of A German term, an abbreviation of German and French politicians in recent ‘Staatssicherheitsdienst’ (state security years have also laid emphasis on the service), referring to the secret police work of ‘spin doctors’. employed by the Ministry for State Security in the GDR and beyond its borders for purposes of spying on its Stability and Growth Pact [See: own citizens and foreign visitors, for Economic and Monetary Union] gathering intelligence and other activities required by the government of Stalin Note a totalitarian system. It was regarded as Following initiatives in 1950 and 1951 an essential mechanism by which the from the Prime Minister of the German GDR communist party (the SED) could Democratic Republic, Grotewohl, retain power. When the SED lost its offering all-German negotiations leading monopoly of political power in late Stasi streitbare Demokratie

1989, the public sought to occupy the streitbare Demokratie offices of the Stasi, and – though many files and other forms of data were A German term (translatable as destroyed – a large number of files ‘combative’, ‘militant’ or ‘aggressive’ were rescued and passed into the democracy) which refers to custody of the reunified Federal constitutional, legislative and Republic, which created a special administrative provisions in the political agency (called the ‘Gauck agency’ after system of the Federal Republic of its first Director, Joachim Gauck, an East Germany by which the democratic German associated with the citizen political order is able to defend itself movement in 1989) to manage the against its potential enemies. This is in archive of files and regulate access by contrast to the Weimar Republic which, individuals to those files. lacking those devices, through its own Stasi streitbare Demokratie democratic tolerance allowed the enemies of democracy to threaten, Stormont pervert, destabilise and eventually The name of the location of the overthrow the constitutional democracy legislature of Northern Ireland, and of that Republic. Instruments of thus, by extension, applied to the ‘streitbare Demokratie’ include: the EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, legislature itself. This legislature was provision in the constitution which

68 created by the Northern Ireland Act allows the Federal Constitutional Court 1920, and, following the first elections to prohibit the existence of political in 1921, consisted of two chambers: a parties which are themselves internally Senate and a House of Commons. undemocratic or which seek to Following a revival of civil unrest in overthrow the democratic regime; a Northern Ireland in the 1960s, the constitutional provision to permit the British Parliament passed a law in 1972 minister of the interior to ban suspending the powers of the Northern organisations (other than political Ireland legislature. Attempts were made parties) which pursue criminal or from time to time to reach a settlement unconstitutional ends; an explicit listing among the conflicting factions within of civic rights in the forefront of the Northern Ireland, which would have constitution and an effective resulted in an agreed basis for an constitutional court which can protect elected legislature; indeed, elections for those rights, but which can suspend or a constitutional convention were held in deny some of them by due process to 1975 and for an Assembly in 1982, but those who engage in activity opposed to with no lasting effect. It was not until the constitutional order. Federal and the Good Friday Agreement in 1999 Länder Offices for the Protection of the produced a more settled agreement, Constitution investigate and produce validated by a referendum, that information concerning groups elections could be held for an considered to be extreme and Assembly and a devolved form of potentially dangerous to democracy. government could be established There is an emphasis on the obligation based on that Assembly, though even of state employees to defend the then the new Assembly at Stormont constitutional order at all times (which faced an uncertain future because of a led to the formal codification of this failure by the IRA to comply with obligation in the so-called ‘radicals requirements to abandon their arsenals decree’, requiring that applicants for of weapons. posts in state employment with a record [See also: Good Friday Agreement; of association with anti-constitutional IRA] groups or parties should be refused streitbare Demokratie subsidiarity appointment). Critics of some of these protocol on how the principle of measures claim that their application subsidiarity should be applied within sometimes necessitates undemocratic the EU. actions, so in themselves they may pose [See also: Amsterdam Treaty; a danger to democracy. Thatcher*] [See also: radicals’ decree] streitbare Demokratie subsidiarity Suez crisis Structural Funds [See: Economic and The Suez canal linking the Social Cohesion] Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea and thus to the Indian Ocean was jointly subsidiarity owned by British and French Subsidiarity is a concept applicable to shareholders. In July 1956, one month federal political systems or to those after the withdrawal of British troops which operate in a similar way, such as stationed in the Canal Zone under the the multi-tiered political system of the terms of a Treaty between Britain and European Union (EU). It is a Egypt, the canal was threatened by constitutional principle which holds that nationalisation by the Egyptian policy decisions should be taken by the government of President Nasser. This lowest tier of government possible threat was in retaliation for withdrawal DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

within the territorial hierarchy. If a of development funding by the USA and 69 policy matter cannot be dealt with Britain for Egypt’s Aswan Dam project. effectively by the lowest tier in the The Suez canal was of vital commercial territorial hierarchy, say, local and military importance to the Western government, then it should be passed to powers. the next tier up, say, regional In response to this threat, Britain and government, until it arrives at an France colluded with Israel in order to appropriate level of government. The produce a legitimate excuse for invasion subsidiarity principle can enhance the of the ‘Canal Zone’, which would lead accountability of decision-making and to their assumption of the direct can also help to avoid problems of operation of the Suez canal. France and government overload at higher levels of Britain had been victims of Nasser’s government. The concept has been anti-Western and anti-colonial policies widely used in discussions about the (such as aid for Algerian nationalist development of the EU, but was at first groups). Israel, suffering from a naval rather ambiguous. In a speech in blockade by Egypt, invaded Egyptian Bruges in September 1988, the UK territory at the end of October 1956, the Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher used British and French took military action a the concept to promote decision-making few days later (as they claimed: to at the level of the member state protect the canal’s viability) and Egypt national governments rather than by the retaliated by sinking ships to block the supranational institutions of the EU. canal. The British and French were Other proponents have used the forced to withdraw their invasion forces concept to promote an enhanced role by US diplomatic and financial threats. for local and regional government. The The canal was nationalised. Israel was Edinburgh European Council (December compelled to withdraw from Egyptian 1992) provided a working definition and territory. The crisis contributed to the laid down guidelines for interpreting collapse eighteen months later of the Article 5 (formerly Article 3b) on Fourth Republic in France. In Britain, subsidiarity in the EU. The Amsterdam Prime Minister Eden, who had seen Treaty (1997) produced a further Nasser as a new version of Hitler, Suez crisis Tangentopoli

resigned following deep divisions over Italy’s five traditional parties, which his policies and actions in connection were either seriously weakened or were with the crisis, and was replaced in forced to reinvent themselves as ‘new’ January 1957 by Macmillan. The crisis parties, having undergone damaging acted as a deterrent to British military splits. The parties and party system involvement overseas for many years. remain in a state of flux. [See also: Eden*; Macmillan*] [See also: clientelism; Mani pulite; Suez crisis Tangentopoli Andreotti*; Cossiga*; Craxi*] Tangentopoli terrorism The term: Tangentopoli (‘bribe city’) refers to a major corruption scandal Terrorism involves the deliberate and which was uncovered in Milan in early systematic use of physical or 1992 and which challenged some of the psychological violence to intimidate highest office-holders in Italian politics, others. In Europe, it has been used by eventually resulting in the collapse of various groups in an attempt to resolve the traditional party system and in calls political conflicts in their favour. for a major constitutional review. By the Although typically only very small end of the 1980s, political corruption in numbers of people have engaged in EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Italy, based on party clientelism, had terrorism, it has been a recurrent

70 become systemic and routine. On 17 problem for the countries of Western February 1992 Mario Chiesa, the Europe and has at times caused the Socialist head of an old people’s home widespread disruption of social and in Milan, was arrested for taking a working life. Terrorists in Europe have 7 million lire bribe from the owner of a been motivated by three general causes: cleaning company. Chiesa was a extreme ideologies of the left and right; ‘business politician’: a type familiar in centre–periphery or regional conflicts; the Italian politics of the 1980s as and single issue conflicts. Terrorist high-living, corrupt fixers involved in actions have included arson, bombings, politics only for personal advantage. kidnappings, hijackings and killings. Chiesa’s confession implicated many [See also: Baader-Meinhof group; others who were then obliged to ETA; Irish Republican Army; Red Army confess corrupt dealings of their own. Faction; Red Brigades; Secret Army This uncovered a vast network of illicit Organisation] dealings between the political parties and economic interests in Milan. The Treaties of Rome crisis soon spread far beyond Milan. By the end of 1993 251 members of In 1957, two separate treaties, together Parliament were under judicial known as the Treaties of Rome, investigation, including four former established the European Communities prime ministers, five former party (the European Economic Community leaders, and seven members of the (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy governing Amato cabinet. Amongst Community (EURATOM)), taking effect those implicated were the Christian in January 1958. The Treaties of Rome Democrat (DC) President Cossiga who established a customs union amongst resigned early in 1992; Craxi, the leader the six founder states (Belgium, France, of the Socialist Party (PSI) who resigned Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and in February 1993; and Andreotti (DC), West Germany). This entailed a phased one of the country’s most influential programme to remove all tariffs and politicians of the 1970s and 1980s. quotas from trade between the member Tangentopoli thoroughly discredited states while setting a Common External Treaties of Rome Treuhandanstalt

Tariff (CET) on imports from outside the by the GDR government on 1 March EEC. Common policies, notably in 1990 to acquire and administer agriculture and transport, were economic enterprises (with the introduced to promote trade within the exception of certain utilities such as the EEC. A common social policy was railways and postal service) which had designed to offset hardship suffered in previously been owned by the state, the transition to a more open market. with the task of preparing the GDR The Rome Treaties established a set of economy for monetary union with the governing institutions: a supranational FRG, preparations which involved Commission; a Parliamentary Assembly; privatising the almost entirely a Court of Justice; and a Council of state-owned economy. So the Ministers made up of government Treuhandanstalt had to investigate the representatives of the member states. financial situation of economic [See also: Common Agricultural enterprises, undertaking restructuring Policy; European Coal and Steel where advisable, and, following a law Community] passed by the GDR Parliament on 17 Treaties of Rome Treuhandanstalt June 1990, disposing of them to private ownership. It became clear that many Treaty of European Union (TEU) [See: of these enterprises were unviable in an

Maastricht Treaty] DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, open and competitive economy, so

about one-third of them had to be 71 Treaty of Nice closed down, causing unemployment The Treaty of Nice was concluded at and economic and social dislocation. the European Union summit of 7–11 Following reunification, the processes of December 2000 and was signed on 26 restructuring, sale and closure February 2001. A target deadline for accelerated, but a variety of problems member state ratification of the Treaty confronted the agency, including has been set for December 2002. The accusations of favouring certain bidders Treaty proposes extensive reform of EU in sales of businesses and the high institutions to cater in particular for costs of restructuring. A process that enlargement to the east. The ‘big five’ had been hoped would produce a member states (Germany, UK, France, surplus for public funds ended by Italy and Spain) have agreed to reduce costing the German taxpayer several their allocation of EU commissioners billion Deutschmarks. The second from two to one. Otherwise, though, the Director of the Treuhandanstalt, proposed institutional reforms on Rohwedder, was assassinated in 1991 qualified majority voting (QMV) and the by terrorists in protest against the post-enlargement composition of the economic hardships resulting from European Parliament would generally closures in eastern Germany. The strengthen the power of the large Treuhandanstalt terminated its member states. Policy areas to be operations in 1994. added to those in the QMV category [See also: Rohwedder*] include trade policy in services; some immigration and asylum matters; and Trizonia [See: Bizonia] the appointment of the Commission president. two-ballot electoral system A system of election in which voters Treuhandanstalt may cast two ballots, separated in time, A German term meaning: trustee in order to elect representatives. Such a agency. This was an institution created system is used for elections to the two-ballot electoral system ‘Two plus Four’ talks

National Assembly and to elect the in Paris and Moscow. The Paris president in the French Fifth Republic. meeting also involved representatives of For National Assembly elections, Poland, since that meeting discussed single-member constituencies are used. the issue of the borders of reunified If a candidate wins more than 50 per Germany, including the Oder–Neisse cent of votes in the first round of border with Poland. The Moscow balloting, he or she is elected. In meeting in September 1990 produced a constituencies where no candidate Treaty between the four powers and secures that absolute majority, a second the two German states which round is held two weeks later. Only amounted to a post-Second World War those candidates who secured on the peace treaty, including as it did first round votes equal to at least acceptance of the right of Germany to 12.5 per cent of the registered electorate be a member of the North Atlantic (not just of those who turned out to Treaty Organisation. vote) are eligible to participate in the [See also: Cold War; German second round. In fact, for reasons of question; Oder–Neisse line; reunification political strategy, usually only two of Germany] candidates present themselves: one from the right-wing and one from the

EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to left-wing party blocs. In the second terms with the past)

72 round, the candidate with the most votes is elected, irrespective of whether A German term used to describe the an absolute majority is secured or only problems and processes connected with a relative majority. The system to elect Germany’s ability to deal with its the president is similar. The differences especially turbulent recent history. It are that only the two candidates with was originally applied to dealing with the highest first-round votes contest the the Nazi period: how and why Hitler second round, and the interval between came to power; the totalitarian policies the two rounds is one week. of the Third Reich; the aggressive two-ballot electoral system‘Two plus Four’ talks foreign policies of the Hitler regime; and especially the genocidal policies against ‘Two plus Four’ talks the Jewish peoples of Europe. It could In preparation for the reunification of be applied to other countries, such as Germany, a series of international post-war France in relation to the Vichy conferences took place in 1990 regime and with Algeria. More recently, involving representatives of the two it has also been applied to the problems German states and of the four former raised by the collapse of the Communist occupying powers (the USA, France, the regime in the GDR and reunification, United Kingdom and the USSR). No concerning the policies and activities of peace treaty had been concluded after the state and the ruling Communist the Second World War, so the previous party in the GDR, such as the ‘shoot to occupying powers had retained kill’ orders relating to those seeking to responsibilities for Berlin and, though in flee across the border, or the crimes of a very restricted and formal manner, for the secret police (the Stasi). Methods the rest of Germany. The consent of employed to foster the process of these four former occupying powers ‘coming to terms with the past’ include was essential before reunification under the denazification procedures conditions of complete sovereignty introduced by the occupation powers could come about. Four meetings took after the Second World War (including place between February and September the Nuremberg tribunal), re-education 1990, two in Germany and one each policies, historical programmes on Vergangenheitsbewältigung (coming to terms with the past) Voeren dispute (Belgium) radio and television, publication of north-eastern Belgium, passed from memoirs by those involved in the Third French-speaking Liège to Reich or the GDR regime, the Flemish-speaking Limburg, launching Bundestag Commission on the repeated clashes between the two activities of the Communist regime in linguistic groups. José Happart, a the GDR, and speeches of the federal militant French speaker, was elected president (whose functions include mayor of Voeren in 1986, but his such moral interpretations of the nomination was rejected by the Flemish country’s history). Chamber of the Council of State [See also: denazification; Nuremberg because he refused to take a tribunal; Stasi] competency test in Flemish, which was Vergangenheitsbewältigungterms with the past)Voeren dispute (coming (Belgium) to by now the official language of the villages. Happart’s repeated re-election Vichy regime obliged Belgian Prime Minister Wilfried When France capitulated following its Martens to resign in October 1987 and invasion by Germany in 1940, the call an early general election. In armistice agreement allowed for a rump December 1988 Happart agreed not to state to be governed by the French, stand as mayor of Voeren again in rather than be occupied as was the exchange for a place on the remainder of France. This government French-speaking Socialist Party electoral DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

of this state, in southern France, was list in the June 1989 European elections. 73 known as the Vichy regime (the town of Vichy being the seat of government). Volkspartei The government was led by President Pétain, a First World War hero, who A German term (literally: ‘people’s presided over a government that party’) referring to parties which seek to collaborated with the German attract voting support and membership authorities on matters such as the from many or all of the different groups deportation to Germany of Jews and in society, instead of being confined to recruitment of French workers for a particular set of supporters (e.g. trade forced labour. Following the landing of unions, farmers or Catholics), utilising Allied troops in Normandy in June 1944, policy programmes and electoral the Vichy regime territory was occupied manifestos which are sufficiently diffuse by the Germans and its leaders sent to to appeal to a broad spectrum of the Germany. After the war Pétain was electorate, rather than emphasising sentenced to death by a French court ideologically derived political aims. Such for treason, but his sentence was parties must, almost by definition, commuted to life imprisonment. He possess sufficiently large electoral died in 1951. Pétain’s Prime Minister, support to be able to lead a Laval, was executed after the war for government, alone or as principal treason. partner in a coalition. The Christian [See also: Vergangenheitsbewältigung] Democrats and Social Democrats in Germany and Austria are obvious examples of the Volkspartei type. The Voeren dispute (Belgium) decision of the SPD to adopt its Bad The Voeren dispute became a symbol Godesberg Programme in 1959 is a of the tension between linguistic clear example of a party seeking to communities in Belgium. In 1962 the become a Volkspartei after being very administrative authority for much a working-class party in earlier Voeren/Fourons, a largely years. French-speaking group of villages in [See also: Godesberg Programme] Waldheim Affair West Lothian question

1970s. The West Lothian question refers Waldheim Affair to a constitutional anomaly which exists Dr Kurt Waldheim was President of Austria where only part of the United Kingdom from 1986 to 1991. During his presidential possesses regionally devolved powers. campaign, he was accused of having In such a case, pointed out Dalyell, MPs been implicated in atrocities committed in the House of Commons would be by the Nazis in the Balkans in 1942–45. prevented from debating or voting upon When he took office, the allegations laws affecting education in West surrounding his wartime activities led Lothian (and other parts of Scotland), him to be barred from entering the but would still be able to vote on laws United States. During his incumbency, affecting education in West Bromwich relations between Austria and many (and other parts of England). So a other states, particularly Israel, became Scottish MP could vote on educational strained. In 1988 an international matters for England, but neither that MP commission of historians concluded that nor any English MP could vote on Waldheim must have been aware of the educational matters for Scotland, since atrocities at the time they were taking that would be one of the policy areas place. He refused to stand down as devolved to a Scottish parliament. President, but did not seek re-election This potential has become a reality EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, when his term of office came to an end. since the opening of the Scottish

74 [See also: nazism; Waldheim*] Parliament in 1999. There is no Waldheim Affair West Lothian question equivalent parliament for England as such, though some have suggested that ‘Wende’ there should be such a parliament, or A German term meaning ‘change of else that the House of Commons when direction’. It has been utilised in two dealing with matters parallel to those different political contexts. (a) The term devolved to the Scottish parliament was applied to the strategy of Helmut (such as education) should sit without Kohl and his coalition when he became Scottish MPs being allowed to vote. This, Chancellor in 1982. The change of though, could mean that a government direction he promised was especially to possessing a parliamentary majority do with restrictions on public dependent upon Scottish MPs would be expenditure (especially social welfare outvoted by the opposition on such payments and subsidies) and, in English policies. Others maintain that the consequence, of the rising levels of anomaly really does not have much public debt. (b) It is also applied to the effect on policy, and that few members situation in the GDR in 1989–90, and to of the public are aware of its existence. German reunification. Here it refers to the downfall of the communist regime winter of discontent in the GDR, its replacement by a multi-party democracy, and then to its A phrase from Shakespeare’s Richard III, incorporation in the Federal Republic of applied to the winter of 1978–79 in Germany. Germans refer to events or Britain, when trade union action developments in eastern Germany as eventually made the Labour government occurring ‘before’ or ‘after’ the ‘Wende’. so deeply unpopular that it suffered a heavy defeat in the May 1979 general election. It was caused especially by the West Lothian question combined effects of high levels of The Scottish MP Tam Dalyell is credited inflation and a restrictive incomes policy with raising the West Lothian question by the Wilson and Callaghan in debates on Scottish devolution in the governments, which had reduced the winter of discontent women’s movement standard of living of many employees. with promoting gender equality; that is, First strikes in the private sector the same rights as men to work and produced pay increases of 17–20 per participate in society. They tried to cent. Then a series of strikes by public secure political reforms largely by sector employees, especially manual traditional methods, often working workers employed in local government, through political parties and trade unions. caused great inconvenience and In contrast, the women’s liberation hardship to the general public, closing movement adopted the idea of gender schools and hospitals, leaving refuse to difference. Their aim was to develop a pile up in the streets, and even, in the feminist counter-culture. For them, most publicised case, preventing burials influencing the political establishment of the dead. The Labour government took second place to changing women’s was hampered by its close financial attitudes. The women’s liberation connection to the trade unions and by a movement was organised at the lack of legislation to prevent strikes. grassroots level and their campaigns This was especially the case in key were conducted through mass protests. public services, where the closed shop The women’s movements have existed (meaning that all employees succeeded in creating an ongoing public had to be members of the trade union, debate on women’s role in society, even and were subject to sanctions by that if their values have been accorded DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS,

trade union if, for example, they refused rather limited recognition within national 75 to strike) and there were sometimes politics. One substantive area of success questionable practices concerning strike has been in their demand for easier ballots. When the Conservative access to legal abortion. Mainstream government won the election, it political parties have adopted a broadly introduced legislation to restrict the supportive, if unspecific, stance on powers of trade union leaders. The women’s issues, and European Labour Party started to question its governments have introduced a range of reliance on the trade unions, leading state bodies to promote gender equality. eventually to reforms within the party However, some feminists feel that initiated by Kinnock, John Smith and parties are only paying lip service to Blair. women’s issues, are using feminist ideas [See also: Blair*; Callaghan*; for their own purposes, or have failed to Kinnock*; Smith J.*] reflect their ideas accurately. winter of discontent women’s movement women’s movement xenophobia The feminist movement that emerged in Literally: fear of strangers. Xenophobia Western Europe in the 1960s to 1970s was has been regarded as a cause of race divided into two branches: the women’s hatred and as an element in the politics rights movement and the women’s of the extreme right-wing, manifesting liberation movement. The women’s rights itself as hatred of foreigners (especially movement had its historical roots in the immigrants) and their culture. It is suffrage movement at the turn of the therefore found especially in societies twentieth century, which secured where either a sudden influx of women’s right of access to education immigrants occurs, immigrants whose and to professional qualifications. In the cultural separateness makes them 1960s and 1970s, this branch of the difficult to integrate into the host feminist movement was particularly society, or in societies where contact successful in France and Britain. The with foreigners has been very restricted, women’s rights activists were concerned such as the GDR before the fall of the xenophobia Young Turks’ revolt

Berlin Wall. After reunification, some of idea of a revised form of proportional the worst acts of violence in Germany representation in which only half the against foreigners occurred in the area Bundestag (rather than all its of the former GDR. membership, as was then the case) [See also: anti-Semitism; immigration] would be elected on the basis of xenophobia Young Turks’ revolt proportional representation with the remainder being elected in Yalta conference constituencies on the basis of ‘first past One of a series of wartime conferences the post’ but not taken into account among leaders of the Allies in the when seats were distributed Second World War. The conference at proportionally among parties: the Yalta (in the Crimea) was held in Grabenwahlsystem (meaning two February 1945, at a time when it was systems of election separated by a obvious that Germany would soon be ‘ditch’). This would have greatly defeated. It therefore focused on the diminished the number of FDP post-war treatment of Germany. candidates elected to the Bundestag Decisions reached included the division and would very likely have eliminated of Germany into three zones of their role as a coalition partner. The occupation (it was later agreed that FDP sought to dissuade the Christian EVENTS, GROUPS AND DEVELOPMENTS AND GROUPS EVENTS, France should also have a zone of Democrats from proceeding with this

76 occupation – in territory originally idea. In the largest Land: North allocated to British and American Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), the FDP occupation), confirmation of a policy of withdrew from their coalition with the unconditional surrender of Germany and Christian Democrats and instead joined its total disarmament, acceptance of the a coalition government led by the Social Atlantic Charter and the founding of the Democrats. This had the effect of United Nations Organisation, and the switching votes to the opposition from declaration of war on Japan by the the Christian Democrats in the upper USSR. Differing interpretation of the chamber (the Bundesrat, where the decisions reached at Yalta (as well as Länder governments had veto powers those reached at the Potsdam over certain types of legislation), making conference) contributed to the Cold it more difficult for Adenauer to govern. War and the division of Germany. Because many of those involved in this [See also: Cold War; the German coup in the NRW FDP, such as Weyer, question; Potsdam conference] Döring and Scheel, were relatively young, it became known as the Young Turks’ revolt. The principal Youandé Convention [See: Lomé consequences were that the Convention] Grabenwahlsystem idea was dropped, but a break-up of the coalition in Bonn Young Turks’ revolt followed. This forced Adenauer to In 1955–56 discussions took place within govern with the aid of a number of the parties in the Federal Republic of renegade FDP Members of the Germany concerning revision of the Bundestag. In the Bundestag election in Electoral Law, ahead of the scheduled 1957, which took place under very 1957 Bundestag election. Because much a similar electoral system to that Chancellor Adenauer had had a number used in 1953, Adenauer obtained an of conflicts with his coalition partner, absolute majority for his party, and did the Free Democratic Party (FDP), over not need the FDP as a coalition partner. issues such as the Saarland question, he [See also: Grabenwahlsystem; permitted some in his party to float the Saarland question] Section 2 Biographies

List of entries Dutschke, Rudi Kennedy, Charles Kiesinger, Kurt Georg Adams, (Gerry) Gerard Eanes, General António Kinnock, Neil Adenauer, Konrad Eden, Anthony Kohl, Helmut Andreotti, Giulio Eichmann, Karl Adolf Kreisky, Bruno Arias Navarro, Carlos Engholm, Björn Krenz, Egon Ashdown, Paddy Eppelmann, Rainer Attlee, Clement Erhard, Ludwig Lafontaine, Oskar Auriol, Vincent Erlander, Tage Lambsdorff, Otto Graf Aznar López, José María Laval, Pierre Fabius, Laurent Lemass, Sean Francis Bahr, Egon Fini, Gianfranco Leone, Giovanni Bahro, Rudolf Finnbogadóttir, Vigdís Le Pen, Jean-Marie Balladur, Edouard Fischer, Joschka Lubbers, Ruud Barre, Raymond Fitzgerald, Garret Lübke, Heinrich Barzel, Rainer Foot, Michael Bastian, Gerd [See: Kelly, Fraga Iribarne, Manuel Macmillan, Harold Petra] Franco, Francisco de Maizière, Lothar Baudouin, King of Belgium Major, John Bérégovoy, Pierre Gaitskell, Hugh Makarios, Archbishop Berlinguer, Enrico de Gasperi, Alcide Marchais, Georges Berlusconi, Silvio de Gaulle, Charles Martens, Wilfried Bevan, Aneurin Genscher, Hans-Dietrich Mauroy, Pierre Bevin, Ernest Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry Mendès France, Pierre Bildt, Carl Goldsmith, James Mitterrand, François Blair, Tony González Márquez, Felipe Modrow, Hans Bohley, Bärbel Grass, Günther Mollet, Guy Böll, Heinrich Grimond, Jo Monnet, Jean-Marie Bossi, Umberto Gysi, Gregor Moro, Aldo Brandt, Willy Mussolini, Benito Brundtland, Gro Harlem Hague, William Haider, Jörg Ollenhauer, Erich Callaghan, James Hallstein, Walter Carrero Blanco, Luis Haughey, Charles Paisley, Ian Carrillo, Santiago Havemann, Robert Palme, Olaf Carstens, Karl Heath, Edward Papandreou, Andreas Chaban-Delmas, Jacques Herzog, Roman Pétain, Marshal [See: Vichy Chirac, Jacques Heuss, Theodor regime*] Churchill, Winston Heym, Stefan Pflimlin, Pierre Ciampi, Carlo Hitler, Adolf Pöhl, Karl Otto Constantine II of Greece Home, Lord Pompidou, Georges Cosgrave, Liam Honecker, Erich Poujade, Pierre-Marie Cossiga, Francesco Hume, John Prodi, Romano Coty, René Craxi, ‘Bettino’ (Benedetto) Jenkins, Roy Rau, Johannes Cresson, Edith Jospin, Lionel Robinson, Mary Juan Carlos, King Rocard, Michel Debré, Michel Rohwedder, Detlev Delors, Jacques Karamanlis (Caramanlis), Dewar, Donald Konstantine Salazar, Antonio Dini, Lamberto Kekkonen, Urho Santer, Jacques Duncan Smith, Iain Kelly, Petra Scalfaro, Oscar List of entries

Scharping, Rudolf Spaak, Paul-Henri Thorpe, Jeremy Scheel, Walter Spring, Dick Tindemans, Léo Schmid, Carlo Springer, Axel Trimble, David Schmidt, Helmut Steel, David Schönhuber, Franz Stoiber, Edmund Ulbricht, Walter Schröder, Gerhard Stoph, Willi Schumacher, Kurt Strauss, Franz Josef de Valera, Eammon Schuman, Robert Suárez González, Adolfo, Smith, Iain Duncan [See: Duke of Waldheim, Kurt Duncan Smith, Iain] Wehner, Herbert Smith, John Thatcher, Margaret von Weizsäcker, Richard Soares, Mário Thorez, Maurice Wilson, Harold

BIOGRAPHIES Soustelle, Jacques Thorn, Gaston Wörner, Manfred List of entries 78 Biographies

Related entries are listed at the end of West of the Northern Ireland Assembly an entry by ‘[See also: . . .]’. An asterisk from 1998. indicates a cross-reference to Section 1, [See also: Hume; Irish Republican ‘Events, groups and developments’. For Army*] example, the entry for Auriol, Vincent has at the end ‘[See also: de Gaulle; Adenauer, Konrad Vichy regime*]’. The entry for de Gaulle is in this section; that for Vichy regime Chancellor of the Federal Republic of is in Section 1. Germany 1949–63; leader of the Christian Democratic Union (CDU) 1950–66. Adenauer was born in Cologne Adams, (Gerry) Gerard in 1876. He studied law and economics, Leader of the Northern Ireland party then practised law in Cologne. He joined Sinn Féin (Ourselves). Born in the the Catholic Centre Party in 1906, and Falls Road area of Belfast in 1948, was elected to the Cologne city council Adams was a founder member of the in 1908, becoming Lord Mayor in 1917, Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association an office he filled until 1933. In the and a member of the Belfast Housing Weimar Republic he was elected to the Action Committee. He joined the Prussian legislature. He was dismissed Republican movement in 1964. In from his offices by the Nazis, and was March 1972 Adams was interned in twice imprisoned by them. Appointed Long Kesh under suspicion of terrorism Lord Mayor of Cologne in 1945 by the but was released in July 1972 to take US occupation authorities, when the part in secret talks between the UK British took over the administration of Secretary of State for Northern Ireland the region, they dismissed Adenauer for and the Irish Republican Army (IRA). non-co-operation. He was active in He was rearrested in 1973 and tried to founding the CDU in the British zone of escape from the Maze Prison. After his occupation, and became Chairman of release in 1977, he was charged in the Parliamentary Council (1948–49) 1978 with membership of the which met in Bonn to draft the Basic Provisional IRA but released after seven Law (the provisional constitution for the months through lack of evidence. Federal Republic). He was elected by Vice-President of Sinn Féin 1978–83, the Bundestag as the first federal he became President of the party in Chancellor in September 1949, and led 1983. He was elected MP for Belfast his party to victory in the federal West 1983–92 and again from 1997. In elections in 1953, 1957 and 1961. 1988 and 1993 he met with John Following coalition negotiations which Hume, leader of the nationalist required of Adenauer that he resign the Social Democratic and Labour Party chancellorship before the 1965 elections, (SDLP), to discuss proposals for the and a series of governmental crises future of Northern Ireland. He has (including the Spiegel Affair) which been the key representative of the damaged his authority, he left the nationalist Catholic community in chancellorship in 1963. He was elected negotiations with the UK government. as federal Chairman of the CDU in 1950, He has been member for Belfast when the CDU created an organisation Adenauer, Konrad Andreotti, Giulio

for the Federal Republic (having served as President of the Federation of previously existed as zonal and Land Catholic Universities 1942–45. A member parties). Adenauer was tempted to seek of the Christian Democrats (DC), he the office of federal president in 1959, was elected to the Italian Constituent but withdrew when he was assured that Assembly in 1945 and served in the he could not extend the very limited Chamber of Deputies from 1946, powers of that office. His chancellorship becoming a life senator in 1992. In a was marked by a search for the security ministerial career spanning four of the Federal Republic through close decades, Andreotti had responsibility for alliances with other West European many policy areas including the interior,

BIOGRAPHIES countries and with the USA, leading to finance, the treasury, defence, industry the Federal Republic becoming an and commerce, the budget and 80 enthusiastic partner in the institutions of economic planning and foreign affairs. European integration and NATO. The He was Chairman of the DC Friendship Treaty between the Federal parliamentary party group 1948–72. In Republic and France in 1963 was February 1972 he became Prime another indication of this diplomatic Minister for the first time at the head of policy. Adenauer was accused of being a single party interim government. He insufficiently enthusiastic about then formed a coalition government of promoting German reunification, and it the centre, but resigned in June 1973. was under his leadership that the From 1976, Andreotti led a DC Hallstein Doctrine was promulgated. The government with the support of the Federal Republic became extremely Communist Party until the Communists prosperous during Adenauer’s withdrew their backing in 1979. In July chancellorship. As Chancellor, Adenauer 1989 he formed a five-party coalition frequently experienced difficulties with which fell after the elections of 1992. In his coalition partners, especially the 1993 he became embroiled in the FDP. His authoritarian style similarly led Tangentopoli scandal: in 1993 his to problems within his own party. immunity was lifted and in March 1995 Nevertheless, his undoubted success in he was charged with links to the Mafia developing the new Federal Republic as (acquitted in 1999), with complicity in a secure and prosperous democratic murder in November 1995, and with state during the period of the Cold War, financial corruption. and his active utilisation of the office of [See also: Tangentopoli*] federal chancellor to promote his policies, led commentators to apply the Arias Navarro, Carlos term ‘chancellor democracy’ to the period of his leadership. Adenauer died General Franco’s feared head of security in 1967. and Prime Minister of Spain 1973–76. [See also: Basic Law*; chancellor Arias Navarro was born in 1908 in democracy*; economic miracle*; Madrid and received a doctorate in law German question*; Hallstein Doctrine*; from the Central University of Madrid. Spiegel Affair*; Stalin Note*; Young He worked at the Ministry of Justice as a Turks’ revolt*] civil servant before becoming a public Adenauer, Konrad Andreotti, Giulio prosecutor in Malaga in 1933. He supported the rebellion led by General Andreotti, Giulio Franco during the Spanish civil war and Andreotti was Prime Minister of Italy was arrested by the republican 1972–73; 1976–79; and 1989–92. Born in government in 1936. He was freed by Rome in 1919, Andreotti graduated in pro-Franco Falangist forces and joined law from the University of Rome and Franco’s army. When Franco won the Arias Navarro, Carlos Ashdown, Paddy civil war, Arias Navarro was appointed Liberals had representation, and the to a series of provincial governorships appointment of a Commission to before becoming Director General of examine the case for some kind of security in 1957, renowned for his harsh electoral reform, though it soon became dealings with enemies of the regime. He clear that electoral reform would not be was appointed Minister of the Interior in brought forward as Labour policy in the Carrero Blanco’s government of 1973. foreseeable future. When Carrero Blanco was assassinated [See also: Blair] by terrorists in December 1973, Arias Navarro succeeded him as Prime Attlee, Clement

Minister. He was faced with the difficult BIOGRAPHIES task of promoting a gradual political Prime Minister of the United Kingdom liberalisation to ensure a peaceful 1945–51; leader of the Labour Party 81 transfer of executive power from the 1935–55. Attlee was born in London in failing Franco to King Juan Carlos. He 1883, and studied at Oxford University. was reappointed by King Juan Carlos He became a lawyer, then a lecturer in after Franco’s death in 1975 but the King social sciences. He served in the First was critical of his slow progress in World War, and was then briefly mayor democratising Spain. Arias Navarro of Stepney, in London. He became an resigned in 1976 and retired from MP in 1922, and served as a junior politics. He died on 27 November 1989. minister in the Labour governments led [See also: Carrero Blanco; Franco; by Ramsay MacDonald in 1924 and Juan Carlos, King; Spanish civil war*] 1929–31. As leader of the Labour Party Arias Navarro, Carlos Ashdown, Paddy during the Second World War, he was brought into Churchill’s coalition Ashdown, Paddy cabinet. After the general election of Former leader of the British Liberal 1945 had taken place (but before votes Democratic Party. Ashdown was born in had been counted, a delay because of New Delhi in 1941. After a career as an the large numbers of votes from the officer in the Royal Marines (1959–72), armed forces serving overseas), Attlee work for the Foreign Office and a accompanied Churchill to the Potsdam period in private industry, he entered conference, in case it turned out that the House of Commons in 1983. He Labour would form a government after became leader of the Liberal Democrats the election results were known. in 1988, but resigned in 1999. He led Attlee’s Labour government introduced the party to an astonishing electoral an ambitious programme of radical success in 1997, when – thanks to a policies, particularly implementation of successful electoral campaign focused welfare state provisions (including the on ‘target’ seats and a clear identity as National Health Service) outlined in the an anti-Conservative party – it acquired Beveridge Report, and nationalisation of nearly fifty MPs, more than at any time public utilities such as the coal mines, since the 1920s (though it had a slightly railways and gas and electricity supply, lower vote-share in 1997 than in 1992). as well as policies to cope with Ashdown had hopes that Blair would post-war reconstruction in a context of invite him to take a cabinet post, as a severe austerity and adjustments of symbol of cross-party co-operation, but Britain’s international status during a the large size of Labour’s majority period when parts of the British Empire dissuaded Blair from doing this. were seeking self-rule. Attlee died in Ashdown did obtain the creation of a 1967. cabinet committee to deal with [See also: Beveridge Report*; constitutional issues, upon which the Potsdam conference*] Auriol, Vincent Bahr, Egon

Auriol, Vincent Bahr, Egon President of the French Fourth Republic Bahr was born in 1922 in Treffurt 1947–53. Auriol was born in the (Thuringia). He became a journalist, Haute-Garonne in 1884. After studying and joined the West German Social law, he practised as a lawyer, entering Democratic Party in 1957. Bahr was the Parliament of the Third Republic as given a leading foreign policy advisory a Socialist deputy in 1914. He served as role during the grand coalition, serving Finance Minister and Justice Minister in under Foreign Minister Brandt. When 1936–38. After internment as an Brandt became Chancellor in 1969, Bahr

BIOGRAPHIES opponent of Marshal Pétain and the became a senior negotiator of the Vichy regime, he fled to Britain in 1942 agreements later embodied in the 82 and became associated with de Gaulle’s ‘Ostpolitik’ treaties with the USSR, Free French group in London. After Poland and the German Democratic representing France at the United Republic. Having been elected to the Nations, then serving briefly as president Bundestag in 1972, he was appointed as of the National Assembly, he was Minister without Portfolio 1972–74, and elected as first President of the new Minister for Overseas Development Fourth Republic in 1947. He died in 1974–76. He served as federal business 1966. manager (the equivalent of party [See also: de Gaulle; Vichy regime*] general secretary) of the SPD 1976–81. Auriol, Vincent Bahr, Egon [See also: Ostpolitik*] Aznar López, José María Bahro, Rudolf Prime Minister of Spain since 1996. Born in 1953 in Madrid, Aznar studied East German dissident and one of the law at the University Complutense of founders of the German Green Party. Madrid before working as a tax Bahro was born in Bad Flinsberg in inspector. He joined the Alianza Popular 1935, and studied philosophy at the (AP) in 1978 (the forerunner of the Humboldt University in Berlin. He was a Partido Popular (PP)) and was elected member of the SED (the East German to the Spanish Parliament in 1982. In communist party). Employed first in 1987 he was elected President of the journalism, then as an economist in a autonomous community of factory, Bahro became increasingly Castilla-León, a position he held until critical of the regime of the German 1989. He has been president of the PP Democratic Republic. This criticism, since 1990. He re-entered Parliament in based on the conclusion that the ruling 1989. He became Prime Minister of party in the GDR had distorted true Spain in 1996 following the general communism, was laid out in his book: election that year, and again following The Alternative, which was published in his party’s successes in the general West Germany in 1977. The decision to election in March 2000. He played a publish led to his arrest and Bahro was major role in modernising his party, sentenced to eight years’ imprisonment enabling it to discard its Francoist in 1978 on grounds of anti-socialist and legacy and bringing it electoral success. subversive activity, but under an His leadership of the government has amnesty was then allowed to emigrate been largely responsible for Spain’s to the Federal Republic of Germany in economic growth in recent years. He 1979. There Bahro associated himself survived a car-bomb attack by ETA with the nascent Green movement, terrorists in 1995. helping to found the Green Party in [See also: ETA*] 1980, and aligning himself with the Bahro, Rudolf Barre, Raymond fundamentalist wing of that party. His 1924. After studying political science and Marxist and environmentalist beliefs led law at the University of Paris, he him to resign from the party in 1985 in entered the civil service, became a protest at the party’s failure to persist professor at Paris University, and joined with ‘pure’ ecological policy positions. the EEC Commission as Vice-President [See also: Realos and Fundis*] responsible for financial and economic Bahro, Rudolf Barre, Raymond affairs (1967–73). In 1976 he served briefly as Minister for Foreign Trade in Balladur, Edouard Chirac’s government, before succeeding Prime Minister of France 1993–95. Chirac in August 1976 as Prime Minister,

Balladur was born in 1929 at Smyrna in serving as his own Minister for BIOGRAPHIES Turkey. He studied law at Economics and Finance until 1978. His Aix-en-Provence and at the Paris ‘Barre Plan’ sought to deal with the 83 Institute of Political Studies and economic and currency problems facing graduated from the National College of France. He became Prime Minister for a Administration in 1957. In 1963 he second term following the general joined the staff of Prime Minister election of 1978, but resigned in 1981 Pompidou to advise on social and following Mitterrand’s election as industrial relations. He was part of President. He stood unsuccessfully as Pompidou’s May 1968 crisis team, presidential candidate in 1988. taking part in the Grenelle negotiations [See also: Chirac] with the unions. When Pompidou became President, Balladur worked for Barzel, Rainer him, becoming the Elyseé Secretary-General in 1972. After Leader of the West German Christian Pompidou’s death in 1974, Balladur Democrats 1971–73. Born in 1924 in moved to the private sector. From 1980, East Prussia, Barzel qualified as a Chirac often consulted him informally lawyer. He was elected as a Christian on political and economic issues. Democratic candidate in the Bundestag Balladur was elected a Deputy of the election of 1957. He served briefly as National Assembly on the Adenauer’s Minister for All-German Rassemblement pour la République Affairs (1962–63). On the death of von (RPR) list in 1986. A supporter of Brentano in 1964, Barzel became leader ‘cohabitation’, he joined Prime Minister of the Christian Democrat parliamentary Chirac’s cabinet as Minister of the party, retaining that post until he Economy and Finance, taking resigned in 1973. Barzel was elected as responsibility for the government’s party leader in 1971, was the free-market programme. Re-elected in unsuccessful nominee for chancellor in 1988, Balladur worked to transform the the first ever ‘constructive vote of no alliance between the RPR and the confidence’ in 1972 and was selected Union pour la Démocratie Française as chancellor-candidate for the Christian (UDF) into a moderate conservative Democrats for the 1972 Bundestag grouping putting forward a single election. After resigning as party leader presidential candidate. He was Prime and leader of the parliamentary party in Minister of France 1993–95. 1973, he returned as Minister for [See also: Chirac; Pompidou] Inner-German Relations in Kohl’s cabinet in 1982, and became Chairman of the Bundestag in 1983 (equivalent to Barre, Raymond the Speaker in the House of Prime Minister of France 1976–81. Barre Commons), a post he retained until he was born on the island of Réunion in resigned in 1984 because of his Barzel, Rainer Baudouin, King of Belgium

involvement in the scandal surrounding 1993 and was succeeded by his the Flick Affair. brother, Prince Albert. [See also: Adenauer; constructive vote of no confidence*; Flick Affair*] Bérégovoy, Pierre Barzel, Rainer Baudouin, King of Belgium Prime Minister of France 1992–93. Bastian, Gerd [See: Kelly, Petra] Bérégovoy was born in Deville-les-Rouen in 1925. He left school Baudouin, King of Belgium at 16, becoming a manual worker who King of Belgium 1951–93. Baudouin was eventually became Director of the

BIOGRAPHIES born in 1930 in Stuyvenberg, near national gas utility in 1978. A member Brussels. Reflecting the divisions in of the French resistance, after the 84 Belgian society, his education was Second World War he joined the conducted half in French, half in Socialist Party (SFIO), but broke with Flemish. The reigning King Leopold’s the party over his opposition to the clumsy attempts at intervening in Algerian War. A prominent member of politics during the inter-war period various left-wing groups, Bérégovoy caused resentment against the royal played a leading role in the Parti family in Belgium, and, after the Socialiste (PS) as it consolidated Second World War, they went into 1969–71. One of Mitterrand’s closest exile in Switzerland. Leopold was only supporters, Bérégovoy managed the PS allowed to return to the throne in 1950 co-operation with the Communist Party on condition that his son Baudouin take (PCF). He failed, though, to revive the on most of his powers, becoming 1972 electoral pact (the Joint Prince Royal of Belgium and head of Programme for Government between state. Leopold abdicated on 16 July the PS, PCF and left radicals) for the 1951 in Baudouin’s favour. Unlike his 1978 elections. Bérégovoy was father, Baudouin was widely respected, campaign manager for Mitterrand in the particularly for his scrupulously neutral Socialist presidential election victory of dealings with the Flemish and Walloon 1981, and again in 1988. Under (French-speaking) communities and for Mitterrand, he was appointed his part in securing the country’s long Secretary-General of the President’s transition to a federal state. His reign Office, the first in the Fifth Republic not restored faith in the monarchy in to have been a senior civil servant. As Belgium. The extent of his popularity Minister of Social Affairs and National was revealed when he caused a Solidarity (1982–84), he improved the potential constitutional crisis in April social security system and as Minister 1989. The Belgian Parliament had of Finance (1984–86), he modernised passed legislation to legalise abortion, the financial markets and implemented but Baudouin, childless and a staunch the Socialists’ policy of economic Catholic, could not in good conscience austerity. After the 1988 campaign, he sign the bill. The crisis was resolved returned as Minister of Finance under through the co-operation of the the Rocard government, becoming government: the Council of Ministers Prime Minister in 1992. When the PS ruled that Baudouin was unfit to suffered a major defeat in the govern, giving them the right to enact parliamentary election of 1993, the abortion measure on their own Bérégovoy was replaced by Edouard authority. The following day, Balladur. Bérégovoy was implicated in a Parliament was convened and minor financial scandal concerning the Baudouin’s royal powers were returned personal use of campaign funds. to him in full. Baudouin died on 31 July Blaming himself for the Socialist Party’s Bérégovoy, Pierre Berlusconi, Silvio parliamentary defeat, he committed football club). In 1993 he formed the suicide on 1 May 1993. populist, right-wing political movement [See also: Balladur; Mitterrand; FI and began a full-time political career Rocard; Resistance groups*] in 1994, leading his party to win the Bérégovoy, Pierre Berlusconi, Silvio general elections of that year in alliance with the separatist Northern League and Berlinguer, Enrico far-right National Alliance. As Prime Former leader of the Italian Communist Minister of this coalition government Party (PCI). Berlinguer was born in (called the ‘Freedom Pole’) in 1994 he Sardinia in 1922. He led the PCI at the broke with standard conventions of

height of its ‘eurocommunist’ phase. liberal democracy. The coalition BIOGRAPHIES Since the Second World War, the PCI terminated through inter-party had been marginalised in Italian politics disagreements at the end of 1994, and 85 through the successful tactics of its rival, Berlusconi became leader of the the Christian Democratic DC. The PCI opposition. In 1996 he was charged with had retreated into a stance of fraud, bribery of tax officials and illegal fundamental opposition and alignment party financing and in 1998 was with the Soviet Union. After the Soviet sentenced to over five years’ invasion of Hungary in 1956, though, the imprisonment for these offences. On 9 party adopted an independent, May 2000 various convictions on eurocommunist position which aimed to charges of bribery were overturned on achieve socialism within the existing appeal. He became Prime Minister form of regime. Berlinguer in 1973 again following the general election in adopted the strategy of ‘historic May 2001, when his party formed a compromise’, aiming to establish the coalition with the Northern Alliance and PCI as a mainstream party. The strategy Northern League. culminated in the agreement in 1976 to [See also: Northern Leagues*] tolerate DC Prime Minister Andreotti’s coalition government, but was Bevan, Aneurin abandoned in 1980 after anticipated electoral gains had failed to materialise. Minister of Health 1945–51 and Minister Berlinguer died in 1984. of Labour 1951; deputy leader of the [See also: Andreotti; eurocommunism*; Labour Party (1959–60). Bevan, son of a historic compromise*] Welsh coalminer, was born in Tredegar in 1897, and worked as a coalminer from the age of 13. He became an Berlusconi, Silvio active trade unionist, leading the Welsh Berlusconi, controversial politician and miners during the 1926 general strike. businessman, leader of the Italian party He was first elected to Parliament in Forza Italia (FI). He became Prime 1929 as an Independent Labour Party Minister of Italy in 1994 and again in candidate. He joined the Labour Party in June 2001. Born in Milan in 1936, 1931. He was frequently in trouble with Berlusconi studied at the University of the party leadership because of his Milan before embarking on a successful outspoken left-wing views, and was business career. Starting with a building expelled briefly from the party in 1939 and property development business at and resigned as Minister of Labour in the age of 26, his business empire 1951, along with Harold Wilson, over came to span commercial TV, the Chancellor of the Exchequer Gaitskell’s printed media, publishing, advertising, imposition of charges within the insurance and financial services, National Health Service (of which Bevan retailing and football (through AC Milan had been the principal founder in 1948). Bevan, Aneurin Bildt, Carl

In opposition, Bevan was the of Economic Affairs 1976–78 and with standard-bearer of the left wing in the the cabinet office 1979–81. He joined party, and his followers acquired the the executive committee of the name of ‘Bevanites’, seeking to reduce conservative Moderate Party (MP) in defence expenditure and expand social 1981 and was the party’s Chairman services, though Bevan himself renounced from 1986 to 1999. He successfully led unilateral disarmament in a speech at the moderate coalition in the elections the party conference of 1957. He sought of 1991 and replaced Social Democrat the party leadership in 1955, but was Carlsson as Prime Minister. Sweden defeated by Gaitskell. He died in 1960. was renowned for the highly developed

BIOGRAPHIES [See also: Gaitskell; Wilson] welfare state which had been promoted Bevan, Aneurin Bildt, Carl under Social Democratic rule, but Bildt 86 stood for rolling back the state, Bevin, Ernest reducing taxation and government Trade union leader and Labour Party interference in private enterprise. He minister during and after the Second also pressed for Sweden to join the World War. Bevin was born in Somerset European Union (EU). He became EU in 1881, and became a trade union peace envoy to the former Yugoslavia official, then creator and in 1995 and acted as High General-Secretary (1921–40) of the Representative of the International Transport and General Workers’ Union Community in Bosnia and Herzegovina (a federation of numerous smaller 1995–97. He was Vice-Chairman of the separate trade unions). Bevin was a International Democrat Union 1989–92 leading organiser of the general strike in and Chairman 1992–99. In 1999 he was 1926. In 1940 Churchill invited him to appointed Special Envoy of the join the all-party war cabinet, as minister Secretary-General of the United Nations responsible for employment and to the Balkans. national service. Attlee selected him as his Foreign Secretary in the Labour Blair, Tony government of 1945–51, during which period he coped capably with the many British Prime Minister since 1997 and challenges of post-war diplomacy and leader of the British Labour Party. Blair the Cold War. He was regarded as a was born in Edinburgh in 1953, studied stalwart of the moderate centre of the at Oxford University and qualified as a Labour Party, attracting the scorn of lawyer. He entered Parliament in 1983, left-wingers as a result. Bevin died in and was appointed to a shadow cabinet 1951. position responsible for employment [See also: Attlee; Churchill] policy by Neil Kinnock in 1988; he later became opposition spokesman for home affairs. On the death of John Bildt, Carl Smith, he became a candidate for the Prime Minister of Sweden, 1991–94 and party leadership in 1994, and was international statesman. Bildt was born elected by a large margin. In the period in 1949 in Halmstad. He studied at the between his election as leader and the University of Stockholm and was general election in 1997, Blair made Chairman of the Confederation of radical changes to the organisation of Liberal and Conservative Students the party, making it a more centralised 1973–74 and of the European and efficiently managed organisation, Democratic Students 1974–76. He and improving dramatically its public worked as an adviser on policy relations performance. He also did all co-ordination for the Swedish Ministry he could to rid the party – which he Blair, Tony Bohley, Bärbel referred to as ‘new Labour’ – of those Bohley, Bärbel aspects of its policy likely to arouse distrust among uncommitted voters; this Campaigner active in the citizen involved the abandonment of Clause movement during the fall of the GDR Four of the party’s constitution, which regime. Bohley was born in Berlin in committed the party to nationalisation 1945. She became an artist in the GDR. of ‘the means of production and Her activities as a peace campaigner exchange’. Labour’s overwhelming brought her into conflict with the victory (in terms of seats, though not in authorities, leading on two occasions to terms of vote-share) in the 1997 election her arrest and then to her expulsion

made Blair’s position as leader totally from the GDR. Pressure from her BIOGRAPHIES secure, despite continuing criticism from associates in West Germany led to a minority of socialists within the party. revocation of that expulsion. During the 87 In government, he has introduced a period of crisis for the communist number of major constitutional changes, regime in Autumn 1989, Bohley was ranging from the introduction of elected among those instrumental in founding assemblies for Scotland and Wales and New Forum, the best known of the a directly elected mayor for London to new groups which tried to provide a removal in stages of the hereditary structure for discussion within the peers from the House of Lords. His burgeoning citizen movement. The pace government’s economic policies, of events in the GDR in 1989–90 tended implemented by Gordon Brown as to force the citizen movement to the Chancellor of the Exchequer, have been margins of the political process, and conservative and have produced large Bohley became an opponent of the public sector surpluses. He has made rush to reunification, arguing for a ‘third statements expressing commitment to way’ which would produce a European integration and favours democratic but socialist form of state eventual British membership of the within the GDR. European currency project, provided [See also: reunification of Germany*] economic conditions permit this. Blair Blair, Tony Bohley, Bärbel has been criticised for seeking to Böll, Heinrich exercise control over the party at the expense of democratic choice by German author and political members, in matters such as selection campaigner. Böll was born in Cologne of the candidate for mayor of London in 1917. After the Second World War and leadership of the Labour Party he became renowned for his novels group in the Welsh Assembly. He has and short stories, dealing with life in also diluted several conventional the Nazi period, the war and the practices connected with cabinet post-war years. He was awarded the government, such as using cabinet Nobel Prize for Literature in 1972. Böll’s meetings less than his predecessors, fame enabled him to publicise his and he attends the House of Commons views on political matters such as the very infrequently. He led his party to radicals’ decree and what he regarded another sweeping general election as the revival of militarism in the victory in 2001. He played a significant Federal Republic of Germany. His international role in the diplomatic and commitment to the protection of the military developments following the 11 persecuted was demonstrated by his September 2001 attack by terrorists on welcome to Solzhenitsyn when that New York. author left the Soviet Union in 1974. [See also: Kinnock; Smith; Clause Böll died in 1985. Four*] [See also: nazism*; radicals’ decree*] Bossi, Umberto Brandt, Willy

Member until 1957, then again from Bossi, Umberto 1969 to 1992. He was elected to the Leader of the Italian party, the Berlin city legislature in 1950 and Lombardy League, then of the Northern became lord mayor of West Berlin in League. Born in 1941 in Varese, Bossi 1957, a post he held until 1966, including studied at Pavia University. He the period of the erection of the Berlin co-founded the Lombardy Autonomy Wall. He was chancellor-candidate of League in 1982 and has led the party the SPD in the federal elections of 1961 (which changed its name to Lombardy and 1965. After a period as Deputy League) since 1984. He was elected as Chancellor and Foreign Minister in the

BIOGRAPHIES a Senator in 1987 and has been leader grand coalition (1966–69), Brandt was of the Federation of Northern League again chancellor-candidate of his party 88 Movements from 1989. In 1991 he in 1969, and because after that election played a leading part in creating the the FDP preferred to ally with the SPD Northern League from five regional rather than the CDU, Brandt was elected parties, and became its leader. He as Chancellor. He pursued a very active served as minister responsible for policy of improvement of relations with reform and devolution in Berlusconi’s the Soviet Union, the GDR and other coalition government in 1994, one of East European states, in contrast to the five Northern League ministers in that policies of the Adenauer government. government. Personal and political Having survived the first ever disagreements between Bossi and constructive vote of no confidence in Berlusconi led to the break-up of that the Bundestag in 1972, Brandt led his coalition at the end of 1994. In 1995 he party to victory in the Bundestag election called for the secession of the northern later that year. He resigned as area of Italy to form a new state called: Chancellor in 1974 following the ‘Padania’. He rejoined Berlusconi in the Guillaume Affair, but remained as party new coalition formed in 2001. In 1995 leader. He had been awarded the Nobel he was sentenced to five months’ Peace Prize in 1971 for his Ostpolitik imprisonment for libel and eight achievements, and went on to take an months’ for illegal party financing. active role in several international [See also: Northern Leagues*] organisations, including the Socialist Bossi, Umberto Brandt, Willy International. He served for a period as a Member of the European Parliament, Brandt, Willy and was Chairman of the Independent Chancellor of the FRG 1969–74 and Commission on International leader of the SPD 1964–87. Brandt (born Development Issues (the Brandt as Herbert Frahm) was born in Lübeck Commission) which produced reports in 1913. He joined the SPD in 1930, and on the North–South divide and other then the Socialist Workers’ Party – ‘third world’ issues. Brandt died on which had broken away from the SDP – 9 November 1992. in 1931. When Hitler came to power in [See also: Adenauer; Hitler; Berlin 1933 Brandt fled to Norway, assuming Wall*; Guillaume Affair*; Hallstein the name ‘Willy Brandt’ which he was Doctrine*; Ostpolitik*; Spanish civil war*] to retain after the war, and spent the war in that country and Sweden, Brundtland, Gro Harlem studying history and law and working as a journalist, reporting for a time on the Norwegian Prime Minister Spanish civil war. Having rejoined the February–October 1981; 1986–89; SPD in 1947, Brandt was elected to the 1990–96 and leading international Bundestag in 1949 and remained a politician. Born in Oslo in 1939, Brundtland, Gro Harlem Callaghan, James

Brundtland studied medicine at the Minister. The Labour government lost its Universities of Oslo and Harvard. She small majority due to defeats in acted as a consultant to the Norwegian by-elections, and Callaghan had to Ministry of Health and Social Affairs negotiate with, first, the Liberals, then 1965–67, was medical officer for Oslo the Scottish and Welsh Nationalists and city health department 1968–69 and Northern Irish MPs, to retain a majority Deputy Director of Oslo’s school health over the Conservative opposition. He service in 1969. Minister of the was Prime Minister during the ‘winter of Environment 1974–79, she was discontent’ when strikes plagued the deputy leader of the Labour Party British economy. That, and his

1975–81 and leader of the parliamentary misjudgement concerning the timing of BIOGRAPHIES party group 1981–92. In 1981, she the general election, are generally held became Norway’s first woman Prime to have contributed to the heavy defeat 89 Minister. During her first two periods in of his party in the 1979 general election. office, she introduced several He continued as party leader and thus controversial economic reforms to as leader of the opposition only until reduce Norway’s budget deficit. She 1980, when he was replaced by became active internationally as a Kinnock. He became a member of the leading spokeswoman on the House of Lords in 1980. environment, the equality of women, [See also: Gaitskell; Kinnock; Wilson; and international co-operation. Her Lib–Lab pact*; winter of discontent*] report as Chair of the UN World Commission on the Environment and Carrero Blanco, Luis Development (1987) established the concept of sustainable growth. She was Prime Minister of Spain June–December a leading figure in the 1995 UN 1973. Carrero Blanco was born in womens’ conference in China, and was Santona in 1903. He graduated from the appointed Director-General of the WHO Spanish naval academy, becoming an in 1998. A pro-European, she was ensign in 1922, a lieutenant in 1926 and unable to mobilise the majority of later a submarine commander. He Norwegians to agree to entry of the EU, joined the staff of the naval academy in but remains a popular leader. 1934 and in 1966 was promoted to Brundtland, Gro Harlem Callaghan, James admiral. He joined the Nationalist navy during the Spanish civil war and in 1939 Callaghan, James became Franco’s chief of naval British Prime Minister 1976–79. operations. He was appointed Callaghan was born in Portsmouth in Under-Secretary to the presidency of the 1912. He became a civil servant, and government in 1941 and became was elected to the House of Commons Vice-President of the Parliament, the in 1945. He failed in his attempt to be Cortes, in 1942. In 1951 he joined elected as Labour Party leader in 1963, Franco’s cabinet and was a trusted following the death of Gaitskell. He was adviser throughout the 1950s and 1960s, appointed as Chancellor of the serving as Deputy Prime Minister from Exchequer, Home Secretary and Foreign 1968, and was viewed as the likely Secretary by Wilson in the period successor to Franco. He favoured 1964–76 (one of the few politicians ever changes in the regime which would to hold all three of these leading restore the monarchy, though he did ministerial positions). Following Wilson’s not favour political reform of a resignation in 1976, Callaghan was democratic type. In 1973, when a new elected as party leader and thus constitution was introduced in Spain, became Wilson’s successor as Prime Franco kept the presidency, but handed Carrero Blanco, Luis Carstens, Karl

his powers as head of government to single term as federal President, during Carrero Blanco. On 20 December 1973 which he became noted for his plan to Carrero Blanco was killed in a walk – in stages and accompanied by car-bomb attack, believed to have been local citizens – the length of the Federal carried out by ETA, the Basque Republic from the Danish border to the separatist organisation. His death made Lake of Constance. He died in 1992. political reform in Spain more likely. [See also: Franco; ETA*] Chaban-Delmas, Jacques Carrero Blanco, Luis Carstens, Karl A leading Gaullist figure in post-war Carrillo, Santiago BIOGRAPHIES French politics and Prime Minister of Leader of the Spanish Communist Party France 1969–72. Born Jacques Delmas

90 (CP), 1960–82 and of the United in 1915 in Paris, he studied law and Communists (UC) since 1985. Born in politics and worked as a journalist for 1915 in Gijón, Carrillo became leader of the Radical Socialist economic daily the United Socialist Youth in 1936. L’Information before fighting in the Having close links to the Italian Italian campaign. From 1941 to 1943 he Communist Party, Carillo tried to worked in the Ministry of Industrial introduce their ideas of Production and joined the resistance, eurocommunism to his party, with afterwards adopting ‘Chaban’, his some success. A member of the resistance pseudonym, as part of his Congress of Deputies from 1977, he was surname. He became the national expelled from the Communist Party in military delegate of de Gaulle’s 1985, becoming President of the United provisional government and was closely Communists in the same year, a party involved in the liberation of Paris. After which became absorbed in the PSOE. a brief association with the Radical He left politics in 1993, and has since Party, in 1947 he joined the Gaullist published his memoirs and several Rassemblement du Peuple Français other books. (RPF). He served as Minister of Public [See also: eurocommunism*] Works, Transport and Tourism; Minister of State and Defence Minister. Following the upheavals of 1968, in 1969 Carstens, Karl Pompidou appointed Chaban-Delmas as CDU politician and President of the Prime Minister to try to stabilise the Federal Republic of Germany 1979–84. situation. Chaban-Delmas formed a Carstens was born in Bremen in 1914. government which included two He studied law and political science in members of the social democratic Germany, France and the USA. After opposition. He promised his government service in the army in the Second would create a ‘new society’ in France, World War he practised law and served setting out to reduce the inequalities the Bremen government. He followed and rigidity of French society through this with a period as a professor progressive social measures including combined with diplomatic service. He more effective collective bargaining and was appointed as State Secretary, first in the liberalisation of government, the Defence Ministry in 1967, then in the particularly in public sector Chancellor’s Office from 1968 to 1969. broadcasting. However, Chaban-Delmas’ He was elected to the Bundestag in initiative failed to integrate the more 1972, and became parliamentary leader hard-line Gaullists and the parties of the of the Christian Democrats in 1973 until left. Pompidou increasingly came to see his election as President of the Chaban-Delmas as irresponsible and in Bundestag in 1976. He then served a danger of alienating conservative Chaban-Delmas, Jacques Chirac, Jacques support for the party. Relations between Chirac resigned. Chirac then became President and Prime Minister party leader of the new Gaullist deteriorated and in 1972 Pompidou was Rassemblement pour la Republique furious when Chaban-Delmas called (RPR), a post which he held until 1994. (and won) a parliamentary vote of He was elected mayor of Paris confidence on his own initiative. Six (1977–95), an important power base. weeks later, the President dismissed After his resignation as Prime Minister, him. Chaban-Delmas at first appeared to Chirac worked to undermine Giscard. In be consolidating his position as a future the presidential elections of 1981, he leader of the Gaullist party, but in the split the right by standing against

presidential election of 1974 he lost Giscard, consolidating his reputation for BIOGRAPHIES heavily to his rival, Giscard d’Estaing, being divisive and ambitious. During and withdrew to his provincial Mitterrand’s first presidency, Chirac was 91 stronghold of Bordeaux, allowing Chirac effectively leader of the opposition in to take over leadership of the Gaullists. France. When the right won a narrow He continued to figure large in majority in the parliamentary elections parliamentary politics (he was three of 1986, Mitterrand called on Chirac to times President of the National form a ‘cohabitation’ government to Assembly), but did not regain a party work in tandem with his Socialist leadership role. presidency. France’s poor economic [See also: Chirac; de Gaulle; Giscard performance during Chirac’s d’Estaing; Pompidou; resistance premiership (1986–88) hampered him in groups*] the presidential race of 1988, again won Chaban-Delmas, Jacques Chirac, Jacques by Mitterrand. Chirac finally succeeded in his ambition to become President in Chirac, Jacques 1995. He resumed a Gaullist foreign Prime Minister of France 1974–76; policy in launching nuclear testing at 1986–88 and President of France 1995–. Mururoa and through adopting a Chirac was born in 1932 in Paris and Eurosceptic stance. His economic policy studied at the Paris Institute of Political had two central but conflicting aims: to Studies. After active service in Algeria, fight unemployment and to reduce the he graduated from the National College budget deficit. Chirac’s popularity of Administration in 1959. During the plummetted during his first year as early part of his political career, Chirac President, but he was able to shift was appointed to Prime Minister much of the blame for his policies onto Pompidou’s staff and forged close links his Prime Minister, Juppé. He made a with him. His ministerial career spanned political blunder by calling an early employment (1967–68); finance general election, which the Socialists (1968–71); relations with Parliament (at won, forcing Chirac to govern in which he was not judged a success, cohabitation with Prime Minister Jospin. having little interest in Parliament) [See also: Giscard d’Estaing; (1971–72); agriculture (1972–73; Mitterrand; Pompidou; Algerian conflict*] 1973–74) and the interior (1974). He was instrumental in Giscard d’Estaing’s Churchill, Winston nomination as Gaullist presidential candidate in 1974 and was rewarded by British Prime Minister 1940–45 and Giscard with the post of Prime Minister. 1951–55. Churchill was born at Giscard and Chirac soon clashed Blenheim Palace in 1874. He took up a personally and over policy and in 1976, military career after training at following Giscard’s refusal to dissolve Sandhurst military college. He was the Parliament and hold fresh elections, elected to Parliament as a Conservative Churchill, Winston Ciampi, Carlo

in 1900, but switched to the Liberal constitutional reform was pursued. After Party in 1906, and held various his term as Prime Minister he served as ministerial posts, including Home Minister of the Treasury and the Budget Secretary and First Lord of the in the d’Alema government (1996–98). Admiralty, a post he resigned following From 1998 until 1999 he was Chairman the failed Dardanelles military landings of the IMF Interim Committee and has in 1915. Churchill served in the army in been a member of numerous economic France until, in 1917, Lloyd George institutions. In 1999 he was elected appointed him Minister for Munitions. President of Italy. Changing back to the Conservatives in [See also: Tangentopoli*]

BIOGRAPHIES 1924, Churchill was Chancellor of the Exchequer 1924–29. His critical attitude

92 Constantine II of Greece towards the Baldwin and Chamberlain governments’ appeasement policies Deposed King of Greece. Born in 1940 towards European dictators aroused near Athens, Constantine studied law at hostility towards him among the more Athens University and received military orthodox members of his party, but training 1956–58. He won a gold medal when the Second World War in the Rome 1960 Olympic Games for commenced, he accepted office as First yachting. When his father King Paul I Lord of the Admiralty again. The died in March 1964, he succeeded to downfall of Chamberlain in 1940 left the the throne. Constantine had a tense way open for Churchill to become relationship with the left-wing Prime Prime Minister and lead an all-party Minister Georgios Papandreou and national government. After the war, this dismissed him in 1965. This launched a government broke up, and in the period of civil disorder and a vacuum in general election of 1945 Churchill, government culminating in a military despite the accolades given him for his coup on 21 April 1967. Constantine had leadership in the war, was heavily little choice but to accept the military defeated by the Labour Party. He dictatorship which was imposed after returned as Prime Minister in 1951, but the coup. He called for a return to a was by then ageing and unwell. He was democratic civil regime, but, when an persuaded to retire in 1955. He attempt in 1967 to topple the military remained an MP until 1964. He was government failed, he was forced to awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature leave Greece for Rome, then London. in 1953, and was made a Knight of the Constantine was formally deposed on 1 Garter in that same year. On his death June 1973. The abolition of the Greek in 1965 he was given a state funeral. monarchy was confirmed by popular Churchill, Winston Ciampi, Carlo referendum in December 1974. In 1994 Constantine was deprived of his Greek Ciampi, Carlo citizenship and the property he owned Italian Prime Minister 1993–94. Born in in Greece was nationalised. Livorno in 1920, Ciampi studied at the [See also: Papandreou; Colonels’ University of Pisa, and, after serving with coup (Greece)*] the Italian army 1941–44, joined the Bank of Italy in 1946 and pursued a Cosgrave, Liam career as a research economist. He was Governor of the Bank of Italy 1979–93, Leader of the Irish Fine Gael (FG) party after which he was asked to form a 1965–77; Prime Minister of Ireland ‘government of technocrats’ in order to 1973–77. Cosgrave was born in 1920 in restore confidence in the collapsing Templeogue, County Dublin. His father parliamentary institutions while was William T. Cosgrave, President of Cosgrave, Liam Cossiga, Francesco the Executive Council of the Irish Free and when Moro was murdered in May State 1922–32. Liam Cosgrave studied in 1978, Cossiga resigned. In 1979 he Dublin and Kings Inns and was called to agreed to form a coalition government the Bar in 1943, becoming a Senior and immediately introduced legislation Counsel in 1958. In 1943 he was elected to curb terrorism. He resigned as Prime to Parliament as a representative of the Minister in March 1980 in the face of a FG. He acted as Parliamentary Secretary vote of no confidence, but immediately to the Prime Minister and to the Minister formed another coalition government of for Industry and Commerce 1948–51. In Christian Democrats and Socialists. He 1956, as Minister for External Affairs, he resigned again in October 1980 when

led the first Irish delegation to the his economic plan to support the value BIOGRAPHIES United Nations General Assembly. In of the lira was defeated in Parliament. 1965 he was elected leader of the FG He was President of the Italian Senate 93 and in 1973 became Prime Minister at 1983–85 before being elected President the head of an FG–Labour coalition. He of the Republic 1985–92. He was was respected as a moderate leader implicated in the corruption crisis which who tried to ease tensions between the engulfed the Italian political elite in the Republic of Ireland and Northern early 1990s and resigned early in 1992. Ireland, although his attempt to promote [See also: Moro; Tangentopoli*; compromise through the Sunningdale terrorism*] Agreement of December 1973 met with little success. In 1977 the National Coty, René Coalition government was defeated by the Fianna Fail (FF) and Cosgrave As President of the Fourth French stepped down both as Prime Minister Republic 1954–59, Coty guided the and as leader of the FG. He retired from peaceful transition between the Fourth politics in 1981. and the Fifth Republics. Coty was born Cosgrave, Liam Cossiga, Francesco in Le Havre in 1882 and studied law at the University of Caen. He was elected Cossiga, Francesco to the National Assembly in 1923, sitting Prime Minister of Italy 1979–80; with the left Republican party group. President of Italy 1985–92. Cossiga was From 1935 to 1940 he was a member of born in 1928 in Sassari, Sardinia, and the Senate, and was amongst those received a law degree from Sassari who supported the transfer of powers to University in 1948. He joined the Pétain. After the Second World War he Christian Democrats (DC) in 1945, led the Independent party group in the becoming a provincial secretary 1956–58 National Assembly and was Minister for and a member of the party’s national Reconstruction and Town Planning council 1956–85. In 1958 he was elected 1947–48. In the presidential election of to the Chamber of Deputies. He was 1953, it took seven days of negotiations Under-Secretary of State for Defence and thirteen ballots before Coty, an 1966–70 and Minister for Public outsider who entered the field only on Administration 1974–76. As Minister of the eleventh ballot, emerged as the Interior 1976–78 in the cabinet of President. Aware of his shaky mandate, Aldo Moro he had to deal with an he worked to restore the dignity and upsurge in urban violence and political unity of the parliamentary institutions, terrorism. In April 1977, his offices were exercising his powers with restraint and bombed by radicals. In March 1978 adopting a conciliatory stance towards Cossiga took charge of the investigation the Communist Party. In 1958, when into the kidnapping of Aldo Moro. He France faced a crisis over Algerian refused to negotiate with the terrorists independence and the threat of military Coty, René Cresson, Edith

intervention, Coty helped to secure the Cresson, Edith transition to the Fifth Republic. He threatened to resign, potentially leaving First woman Prime Minister of France the way open for a Popular Front 1991–92. Born in Boulogne-sur-Seine in government, unless de Gaulle was 1934, Cresson graduated from a allowed to introduce the new republic. prestigious Paris business school and Once the Fifth Republic was took a doctorate in demography before inaugurated, Coty stepped down as beginning a career in economic President in favour of de Gaulle. Coty investment and marketing. She was died on 22 November 1962. national secretary of the Socialist Party

BIOGRAPHIES [See also: de Gaulle; Algerian (PS) 1974–79 and was also responsible conflict*; Vichy regime*] for its youth section. She was elected to 94 Coty, René Cresson, Edith the European Parliament in 1979 and to the National Assembly in 1981. She was Craxi, ‘Bettino’ (Benedetto) a member of all three Mauroy cabinets: Prime Minister of Italy 1983–87 and Minister for Agriculture 1981–83; Foreign leader of the Italian Socialist Party. Born Trade and Tourism 1983–84; and in 1934 in Milan, Craxi joined the Italian Industrial Restructuring and Foreign Socialist Youth Movement in the early Trade 1984–86. From 1988 to 1990 she 1950s and became active in the was Minister for European Affairs, Socialist Party. He was elected to the famously attacking Mrs Thatcher by Chamber of Deputies in 1968. He declaring that the EC was ‘more than a became Deputy Secretary of his party in glorified grocer’s shop’. As Prime 1970, and General Secretary in 1976 and Minister 1991–92 she often caused succeeded in integrating the various offence with her rash comments and factions of the party. In 1983 he became failed to promote the popularity of the the first Socialist Italian Prime Minister. PS. When the party lost support in the His government’s austerity programme March 1992 parliamentary elections, she was met with a series of strikes. In stood down. From 1994 to 1999 she was October 1985, the Italian liner the EU Commissioner for Science, Research Achille Lauro was hijacked by and Development. She was deeply Palestinian terrorists. Craxi’s government implicated in the scandal which brought negotiated with the terrorists through down the commission team in 1995. the Palestinian Liberation Organisation [See also: Mauroy] and released the suspected organiser of the hijacking. These events caused a Debré, Michel government crisis, but Craxi was able to stay in power until 1987. After his Prime Minister of France 1959–62 and resignation he remained sufficiently designer of the constitution of the Fifth powerful to force the resignation of French Republic. Debré was born in several subsequent governments. He Paris in 1912. After studying law, he resigned as leader of the Socialist Party served as an officer in the Second in February 1993 following allegations of World War, became a prisoner of war political corruption. He fled to Tunisia but escaped in 1940 and fled to and in 1994 he was sentenced in his England. Here he worked closely with absence to eight and a half years’ de Gaulle’s Free French resistance imprisonment for having accepted 7 movement. He became a Senator in the billion lire from the corrupt Milanese Fourth Republic, and, when de Gaulle Banco Ambrosiano for the Socialist accepted the call to introduce a new Party. He died in January 2000. constitution in 1958, Debré played a [See also: Tangentopoli*] leading role in drafting that constitution. Debré, Michel Delors, Jacques

After serving as Prime Minister, he later engineered major changes including a became Foreign Minister and Defence restructuring of the EC’s finances and Minister. In 1981 he was a candidate for agricultural policy and significant the presidency, but received only about constitutional and institutional reform. 1 per cent of the vote on the first round Encouraged by a proactive of balloting. Franco-German leadership (Mitterrand [See also: de Gaulle; resistance and Kohl), he moved the EC towards groups*] further integration. His efforts were Debré, Michel Delors, Jacques consolidated in the Single European Act (SEA) and the Treaty on European Delors, Jacques

Union (TEU or Maastricht Treaty). In BIOGRAPHIES French christian democrat/socialist and addition to various EU posts, he has President of the EC/EU Commission acted as special adviser on economic 95 1985–95. Delors was born in 1925 in and social affairs to the OECD since Paris, where he studied law and 1999. banking before joining the Bank of [See also: Chaban-Delmas; Kohl; France in 1944. He acted as consultant Mitterrand; Maastricht Treaty*; Single in social and economic affairs in the European Act*] preparation of the Fifth Plan (1962–69), a position he gained partly through his Dewar, Donald ties with the Catholic union, the CFTC. He associated briefly with the First Minister (Prime Minister) of the Mouvement Républicain Populaire and Scottish Executive 1999–2000. Dewar with socialist splinter groups before was born in Glasgow in 1937. He leading the Catholic Citoyen 60 club. studied history and law at Glasgow After the social upheaval of May 1968, University. Dewar was first elected as a his vision of a less authoritarian, Labour Party MP to the House of consensus-led mode of conducting Commons in 1966, but was defeated in industrial relations became more the 1970 general election. He returned popular. In 1969, Prime Minister as an MP in 1978, and became the Chaban-Delmas, keen to promote a Opposition spokesman on Scottish ‘new society’ in France, appointed affairs in 1983, a post he held until 1992. Delors as his adviser on social affairs. In He became a strong supporter of the 1974, Delors joined the Socialist Party idea of a devolved Parliament for (PS) and became a supporter of Scotland, campaigning in favour of Mitterrand. When Mitterrand became devolution in the unsuccessful 1979 President in 1981, Delors was appointed referendum, supporting the Scottish Minister of Finance. He kept France in Constitutional Convention created in the European Monetary System (EMS), 1988 which investigated ways and and, in the Spring of 1982, implemented means of bringing about a Scottish an austerity programme aimed at Parliament, and managing the campaign curbing consumption to reduce the in 1997 which produced an trade deficit. A second, more stringent overwhelming majority in a referendum phase adopted in March 1983 curtailed favouring a Scottish Parliament. When collective bargaining, particularly in the that Parliament was elected in 1999, public sector. Although the government Dewar, as leader of the largest proved unpopular, Delors’ performance parliamentary party group, became the was approved by the financial First Minister and formed a coalition community. First elected MEP in 1979, government with the Liberal Democrats. Delors became President of the EC In 2000 he had treatment for a heart Commission in 1985. As President, he condition, and died in October 2000. Dini, Lamberto Duncan Smith, Iain

single European currency scheme. He Dini, Lamberto was appointed by Hague in 1997 as Leading Italian economist and opposition spokesman for social security ‘technocratic’ Prime Minister of Italy policy. In the leadership election in 1995–96. Dini was born in 1931 in 2001, he rather surprisingly obtained Florence and studied at the Universities more votes from Conservative MPs than of Florence, Minnesota and Michigan. Portillo, and competed successfully He became an economist with the IMF against Clarke in the membership ballot in Washington and took various among the top two contenders. consultancy posts before joining the [See also: Hague]

BIOGRAPHIES Bank of Italy, first, in 1979, as Assistant General Manager, then as General

96 Dutschke, Rudi Manager. He was a member of the Monetary Committee of the EU. He was Leading figure in the German student Minister of the Treasury 1994–95, Prime movement, especially in the late 1960s. Minister 1995–96 and Minister of Foreign Dutschke was born in Schönefeld near Affairs 1996–2000. In spite of a bitterly Luckenwalde (south of Berlin) in 1940. divided Parliament in the wake of As a conscientious objector in the GDR Berlusconi’s failed government of 1994, he was excluded from higher education, Dini was able to find majorities to pass so moved to West Berlin to study a new budget in March 1995 and a sociology. As a leading member of the significant pension reform to introduce a left-wing Socialist German Student new system of benefits by 2008. Association (SDS), he organised However, he was not able to pass demonstrations in the late 1960s, anti-cartel laws directed against including a protest demonstration Berlusconi’s control of the media: the against the visit of the Shah of Iran in measure was rejected by referendum by 1967, against the grand coalition and its 57 per cent of the vote. He resigned as policies and against what the SDS Prime Minister under growing pressure perceived to be undemocratic from the established parties, but formed dominance in universities and other a new party: the centrist Italian Renewal institutions by elites. In April 1968 Party, shortly before the 1996 general Dutschke was shot by an assassin, and election, and became a prominent for a time his life was in danger. He member of Prodi’s ‘Olive Tree’ coalition made a recovery, eventually finding government in 1996. employment at Aarhus University [See also: Berlusconi; Prodi; (Denmark). He supported the founding Tangentopoli*] of the Green Party in Germany. Dini, Lamberto Duncan Smith, Iain Dutschke died in 1979 from the effects of his gunshot injuries. Duncan Smith, Iain [See also: extra-parliamentary Leader of the Conservative Party since opposition*] 2001. Duncan Smith was born in Edinburgh in 1954 and educated at Eanes, General António Sandhurst, following which he became an army officer, then a business An army officer, General Eanes was executive. He was first elected to the President of Portugal 1976–86. Eanes House of Commons in 1992. He was born in 1935 in Alcains. He studied established a reputation within the party psychology and law before military for his outspoken opposition to further training in 1953. He was commissioned developments in European integration, to Portuguese India 1958–60; and especially British entry into the Mozambique 1962–64, 1966–67; Eanes, General António Eden, Anthony

Portuguese Guinea 1969–73; and Angola to his humiliation as Prime Minister and 1973–74. He became a General in 1978. to divisions within his party. He resigned After the April Revolution he was as Prime Minister on grounds of named to the first ‘Ad hoc’ Committee ill-health in January 1957. He became for mass media in June 1974 and Earl of Avon in 1961. He died in 1977. subsequently to other media posts, but [See also: Churchill; Suez crisis*] resigned after accusations of ‘probable implication’ in the abortive counter-coup Eichmann, Karl Adolf of March 1975. He was later cleared of this charge. He was a member of the Nazi war criminal responsible for

Military Committee of the Council of the administration of the Holocaust. BIOGRAPHIES Revolution and was responsible for the Eichmann was born in Solingen in 1906. Constitutional Law approved in He joined the Nazi Party in 1932 and 97 December 1975. In addition to the was recruited to the SS (state security presidency, Eanes was service). As a high-level bureaucrat with Commander-in-Chief of the Armed experience in managing anti-Jewish Force 1976–80, 1980–81. After his policies in Vienna, he attended the presidency, he led the Portuguese Wannsee conference which planned Democratic Renewal Party 1986–87. the so-called ‘final solution’ and was in Eanes, General António Eden, Anthony charge of administration of this policy of eliminating Jews in Europe by murder Eden, Anthony in concentration camps. Escaping from British Prime Minister and Conservative American custody after the war, he fled Party leader 1955–57. Eden was born in to Argentina, but a group of so-called 1897 in Durham. After studying at ‘Nazi hunters’ located his residence Oxford, he was awarded the Military there in 1960 and he was kidnapped by Cross during his service in the First Israeli security agents, transported to World War. He was first elected to the Israel and put on trial. Found guilty of House of Commons in 1923. After crimes against the Jewish people, he holding junior ministerial posts, he was was sentenced to death and executed appointed Foreign Secretary in 1935. in 1962. Disagreements with Prime Minister [See also: anti-Semitism*; final Chamberlain, especially concerning the solution*; Holocaust*; nazism*] need actively to resist aggression by Italy in Abyssinia, caused Eden to resign Engholm, Björn from the cabinet in 1938. Eden became Dominions Secretary in Chamberlain’s Prime Minister of Schleswig-Holstein, government when the Second World 1988–93 and leader of the West German War commenced in 1939. Churchill Social Democratic Party 1991–93. appointed him in 1940 as Secretary of Engholm was born in Lübeck in 1939. State for War, then as Foreign Secretary, He had been a Member of the which involved Eden closely in the Bundestag, and, briefly, a minister in war-time conferences with the USA and Helmut Schmidt’s coalition government. USSR. When Churchill returned as Engholm was a popular politician, who Prime Minister in 1951, Eden became seemed set to become Foreign Secretary for the third time, and chancellor-candidate for the SPD for the was the recognised successor-in-waiting 1994 Bundestag election. However, his to the aged and ailing Churchill. He admission that he had given false became Prime Minister when Churchill evidence to an inquiry into the Barschel resigned in 1955, but in 1956 became Affair led to his resignation from party embroiled in the Suez crisis, which led and public office in 1993. He was Engholm, Björn Erhard, Ludwig

replaced as SPD leader by Rudolf 1897 in Fürth (Bavaria). Prior to and Scharping. during the Second World War he [See also: Scharping; Schmidt; directed an economics research Barschel Affair*] institute. In 1944 he produced a scheme Engholm, Björn Erhard, Ludwig for the economic recovery of post-war Germany based on the notion of a Eppelmann, Rainer social market economy, a combination Dissident and leading eastern German of the free market and welfare state politician during German reunification provisions, which guided West German (1989–90). Eppelmann was born in economic policy after the war. After the

BIOGRAPHIES Berlin in 1943. After his trade war he was appointed as Professor of apprenticeship he was jailed as a Economics at Munich University, served 98 conscientious objector. He studied as Bavarian Minister for Industry in theology and became a leading pacifist 1945–46 and became Economic Director and critic of the German Democratic in the Bizone Economic Council Republic (GDR). As a pastor, he housed Executive in 1948. In this post he meetings for opponents of the regime implemented the currency reform of in his East Berlin church. He was 1948, designed to produce a stable co-founder of the political movement: currency and eliminate the black Democratic Renewal (Demokratische market in the western zones of Aufbruch) and represented it at the occupation. He was elected to the Round Table talks on constitutional and Bundestag in 1949, and became Minister political reform which took place in late of Economics in Adenauer’s 1989 and early 1990 under the Modrow government, serving in that post until he government. From February 1990 he succeeded Adenauer as Federal was Minister without Portfolio in the Chancellor in 1963. His skills as an Modrow cabinet. When the leader of economist and administrator, though Democratic Renewal, Wolfgang Schnur, earning him the title of ‘Father of the resigned over alleged links with the Economic Miracle’, did not benefit him GDR state security police (Stasi), he in election campaigns, and the failure of was replaced by Eppelmann. the CDU–CSU to do as well as expected Eppelmann was Minister for in the 1965 Bundestag election left Disarmament and Defence in the de Erhard in a vulnerable position. When Maizière cabinet in 1990 following the the Free Democrats forced a coalition parliamentary elections. He became a crisis in 1966 over taxation policy, member of the CDU when Democratic Erhard was forced to resign as Renewal was merged with the CDU Chancellor, and was replaced by shortly before reunification, and took a Kiesinger. Erhard succeeded Adenauer leading role in the CDU employees’ briefly as leader of the Christian organisation. He chaired committees of Democratic Union (1966–67). Erhard inquiry into past events in the GDR. He died in 1977. has been a Member of the Bundestag [See also: Adenauer; Kiesinger; since 1990. economic miracle*; social market [See also: de Maizière; Modrow; economy*] reunification of Germany*; Round Table*; Stasi*] Erlander, Tage Prime Minister of Sweden 1946–69. Erhard, Ludwig Erlander was born in Ransäter in 1901. Chancellor of the Federal Republic of He entered the Swedish Parliament Germany 1963–66. Erhard was born in (Riksdag) in 1933 as a Social Democrat, Erlander, Tage Fabius, Laurent and rapidly rose to become a member rivals in the party, and also with of the cabinet in 1944. In 1946 he was Mitterrand. He was criticised for his elected as party leader and became pragmatism and viewed as not being a Prime Minister. His main achievement true socialist: he was dubbed the was the development of Sweden’s ‘Giscard of the left’. Lacking an welfare state system. He emphasised independent political power base, consensus in his relations with other Fabius lost public profile when the right parties, which enabled many of his regained the government in 1986. He policies to be adopted without much failed to gain the leadership of the PS political controversy. He defended the during the election year of 1988 and his

policy of neutrality for Sweden, but selection as President of the National BIOGRAPHIES combined this with internationalism Assembly in that year was understood expressed through generous foreign aid as a consolation prize. He was briefly 99 and Swedish membership in the First Secretary of the PS (1992–93) and European Free Trade Association. led the PS party group in the National Erlander, Tage Fabius, Laurent Assembly 1995–97. [See also: Giscard d’Estaing; Jospin; Fabius, Laurent Mauroy; Mitterrand] Prime Minister of France 1984–86, the youngest to hold this office since Fini, Gianfranco Decazes in 1815. Fabius was born in Paris in 1946 and studied there at the Leader of the right-wing National Institute of Political Studies and at the Alliance party in Italy, and Deputy Prime National College of Administration. In Minister in Berlusconi’s government. Fini 1973 he joined the Council of State, was born in Bologna in 1952, and France’s highest administrative tribunal, studied education and psychology at becoming Master of Petitions in 1981. In university. He played a leading role in 1974 he joined the Socialist Party (PS) Italy’s neo-fascist youth group (the and rose rapidly from economic adviser Fronte della Gioventú) and was elected to Mitterrand in 1975 to First Secretary to Parliament for the neo-fascist Italian of the party, and, in 1976, Director of Social Movement (MSI) in 1983. He Mitterrand’s advisory staff. Together with became leader of that party in 1987, Jospin, Fabius worked to secure but, because of problems affecting that Mitterrand’s power base within the party, decided to form a new party in party. In 1978, Fabius became PS 1994: the National Alliance (AN), which parliamentary spokesman on budgetary took a more moderate and orthodox matters, and, in 1981, Minister for the political stance than had the MSI. That Budget. His reflationary budget of 1982 same year the AN joined in Berlusconi’s aimed to implement the series of social coalition government, and it also and economic reforms proposed by the became a partner in Berlusconi’s 2001 Socialist–Communist coalition. In March coalition government. 1983, Fabius was promoted to the [See also: Berlusconi] flagship ‘superministry’ of Research, Industry and Telecommunications, Finnbogadóttir, Vigdís intended to mastermind France’s ‘third industrial revolution’. When Mauroy President of Iceland 1980–96. resigned as Prime Minister in 1984, Finnbogadóttir was born in 1930 in Mitterrand replaced him with Fabius, Reykjavik and studied at the Universities who introduced the surprisingly of Iceland, Grenoble and the Sorbonne successful austerity programme. Popular before becoming a French teacher. She with the public, Fabius clashed with became involved in the Icelandic tourist Finnbogadóttir, Vigdís Fitzgerald, Garret

industry, was Director of the Reykjavik Fitzgerald, Garret Theatre Company 1972–80 and taught French drama at the University of Leading Irish and EU politician and Iceland. In politics, she was first a economist, leader of the Fine Gael (FG) Member, then Chair, of the Advisory party 1977–87 and Prime Minister of Committee on Cultural Affairs in the Ireland 1981–82, 1982–87. Fitzgerald was Nordic countries 1976–80 before born in 1926 in Dublin, where he becoming President of Iceland 1980–96. graduated in law from University Finnbogadóttir, Vigdís Fitzgerald, Garret College. From 1947 to 1958 he worked as a manager for Aer Lingus before Fischer, Joschka

BIOGRAPHIES taking up posts in political economy at Foreign Minister of Germany, and Dublin University 1958–73. He was a leading personality in the Green Party. member of the Irish Senate (Seanad 100 Fischer was born in Gerabronn in 1948. Éireann) 1965–69, then of the lower He was one of the more notorious house (Dáil Éireann) for Dublin radicals of the ‘1968 movement’. He South-East 1969–92. He was Minister for joined the Green Party in 1982, as it was Foreign Affairs 1973–77 before first first developing into a national political becoming Prime Minister (Taoiseach) in force. In 1985 he became Minister for 1981. During this period in office he set the Environment in the Hesse Land up an Inter-Governmental Council on government, in what was the first Land Northern Ireland with the UK Prime coalition government in which the Minister, Margaret Thatcher. His Green Party had participated. He coalition government with the Labour retained that office until 1987, and was Party fell when its budget was defeated again Minister for the Environment in the in 1982, and fresh elections gave power second SPD–Green Party coalition in to the opposition, the Fianna Fail (FF). Hesse, from 1991 to 1994. He had been Fitzgerald led the FG from 1977 to 1987. a Member of the Bundestag 1983–85, He again became Prime Minister in and was again elected to the Bundestag December 1982. On 15 November 1985 in 1994. In the period 1987–94 he was a he signed the Anglo-Irish Agreement Member of the Hesse Land Parliament. with Thatcher. This gave the Republic a Fischer was always seen to be a consultative role in Northern Ireland for supporter of a more pragmatic policy for the first time, while recognising the the Green Party: one of the ‘Realos’. He right of the majority in Northern Ireland was the most widely recognised to decide the political allegiance of the personality in that party, certainly since province. With respect to domestic the death of Petra Kelly. When the SPD policy, Fitzgerald failed to reduce formed a governing coalition after the government spending or bring down 1998 Bundestag election, Fischer the rate of unemployment and barely became Foreign Minister and Deputy survived a no-confidence motion in Chancellor. His policies whilst in office October 1986. His government have sometimes met with strong collapsed, again over the budget, in disapproval from elements within his January 1987, and Fitzgerald promptly own party, such as his support for resigned from the leadership of FG. He German military participation in has held numerous national and peacekeeping in areas of the former international positions relating to Yugoslavia. In 2001 allegations economics and in association with the concerning his radical activities in the EU. While Minister for Foreign Affairs, early 1970s cast a shadow over his he was President of the Council of position in the Schröder government. Ministers of the EEC January–June 1975. [See also: Kelly; Realos and Fundis*] He was a leading figure in the Fitzgerald, Garret Fraga Iribarne, Manuel

European People’s Party of the for the Interior and Deputy Prime European Parliament. He has been Minister 1975–76. In 1976 he formed the active as a political journalist, working AP which he led for much of the 1980s. for the BBC, the Financial Times, The He was a Member of the European Economist and the Irish Times. Parliament 1987–89 and was involved in [See also: Thatcher] regional politics in Galicia, becoming Fitzgerald, Garret Fraga Iribarne, Manuel the President of the region in 1990 (and re-elected to that post in 1993, 1997 and Foot, Michael 2000). During the Franco regime he was Leader of the British Labour Party a supporter of partial liberalisation, both

1980–83. Foot was born in Plymouth of the ruling party and of the regime. BIOGRAPHIES in 1913. Educated at Oxford University, He removed aspects of censorship of he became a journalist noted for his the press by legislation in 1966, for 101 left-wing views. He was first elected to instance. However, he was too closely the House of Commons in 1960 and linked to Franco’s regime to be a key became a minister in the 1974 Wilson figure in the transition to democracy in government. He was leader of the Spain. House of Commons 1976–79. He was elected deputy leader of the Labour Franco, Francisco Party in 1976, and then leader in succession to Callaghan in 1980. His Military leader of Spain from the civil left-wing views were blamed for the war until his death in 1975. Franco was heavy defeat of the Labour Party in the born in Galicia in 1892. He entered 1983 general election, after which Foot upon a military career, and became resigned as party leader. He has always Chief of Staff in 1935. His overt been associated with pacifist causes, in opposition to the democratic regime particular the Campaign for Nuclear in Spain at the time led to his posting Disarmament. as military commander in the Canary [See also: Callaghan; Wilson; Islands, and Franco’s decision in 1936 Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament*] to lead a military uprising against the socialist government. This led to the Spanish civil war, which ended in a Fraga Iribarne, Manuel victory for the military forces in 1939. Leader of the former Spanish party He then ruled Spain as a dictatorship Alianza Popular (AP) (now Partido in which he was head of state and Popular (PP)) 1979–86, 1989–90 and a Prime Minister, with the aid of his leading writer and diplomat. Fraga was Falange party. Other parties were born in 1922 in Villalba, Lugo and prohibited, democratic rights were studied at the Universities of Santiago abolished, regional identity was and Madrid before becoming a suppressed and a corporate form of Professor at the Universities of Valencia economic regulation introduced. (1945) and Madrid (1948). He was Franco was regarded by some as active in the diplomatic service from fascist and he benefited during the 1945. From 1951 to 1961 he held various civil war from military aid sent by public posts related to culture, the Nazi government. Nevertheless, education and political studies. He was he refused to join in the Second Minister of Information and Tourism World War, maintaining Spanish 1962–69 and also Secretary-General of neutrality. Before his death, Franco the cabinet 1967–69. He was arranged that the monarchy should be Ambassador to the UK 1973–75. After restored and that Juan Carlos should Franco’s death, Fraga became Minister succeed him as head of state, in the Franco, Francisco de Gasperi, Alcide

hope that his style of regime would the Italian resistance. When Mussolini persist after his death. fell, de Gasperi joined the Bonomi [See also: Juan Carlos, King; Spanish government of 1944, becoming Foreign civil war*] Minister in December. He was elected Franco, Francisco de Gasperi, Alcide leader of the newly founded Christian Democrats (DC) and in 1945 became Gaitskell, Hugh Prime Minister, introducing a period of Leader of the British Labour Party DC participation in government which 1955–63. Gaitskell was born in London was to last until the party’s dissolution in 1906. He studied at Oxford University in 1994. As Prime Minister, de Gasperi

BIOGRAPHIES and then became a lecturer in committed the Italian Republic to NATO, economics. He was elected to the promoted links with the USA, House of Commons in 1945 and held a established a fairly liberal economic 102 number of ministerial positions in the policy and remained staunchly Attlee governments, becoming anti-communist. He grew increasingly Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1950. committed to the goal of European His decision to introduce charges for integration. During his period in office, certain National Health Service Italy recovered its international standing provisions led to a bitter feud with and the economy improved. After losing Bevan (who resigned from the a vote of confidence in June 1953, de government on this issue) and the left Gasperi stepped down. He resigned as wing of the party, and to criticism of leader of the DC in June 1954 and died Gaitskell’s revisionism. In 1955 Gaitskell on 19 August 1954. defeated Bevan in the election for the [See also: Mussolini; resistance party leadership. He tried to modify groups*] Labour’s commitment to nationalisation, and strongly opposed attempts to de Gaulle, Charles impose unilateral nuclear disarmament as party policy. He died Leader of the Free French resistance in 1963. during the Second World War and [See also: Bevan] President of France 1958–69. De Gaulle was born in Lille in 1890. He made a career in the army, and was a de Gasperi, Alcide prisoner-of-war in the First World War. Prime Minister of Italy 1945–53 during When France was defeated in 1940 by the reconstruction period after the the German military, de Gaulle, at the Second World War. De Gasperi was time a General with a post in the born in 1881 in Pieve Tesino in Ministry of Defence, fled to London and Trentino. He studied at the University of set up a committee of the Free French Vienna before becoming editor of the to continue resistance to the Germans. newspaper Nuovo Trentino. He was Following the liberation of France in elected to the Austrian Parliament in 1944–45, de Gaulle became head of the 1911 as a representative of the Italian provisional government, until the Fourth Irredentist movement. After the union of Republic was established in 1946, his province with Italy, he was elected following a referendum. He removed to the Italian Parliament in 1921. An himself from an active role in national opponent of Mussolini’s dictatorship, he politics, but in 1958, as a result of the was arrested in 1926 and his newspaper growing crisis in Algeria and the lack of was banned. He was jailed for 16 support for the Fourth Republic, he was months. During the Second World War, invited to become Prime Minister with de Gasperi was an active member of the mandate to produce a new de Gaulle, Charles Genscher, Hans-Dietrich constitution. He became the first deputy leader of his party in 1968. He President of the new Fifth Republic, served as Minister of the Interior in the introduced direct election for the Brandt government from 1969 to 1974. presidency and was re-elected in 1965 The resignation in 1974 of the under this new system. He successfully incumbent Foreign Minister and party managed the Algerian crisis, eventually leader, Scheel, allowed Genscher to ensuring that Algeria became assume both those positions. Genscher independent. He played an active part in played a leading role in bringing about shaping the politics of European the fall of the Schmidt government and integration, though always with a view its replacement by a Christian

to protecting the interests of France. In Democrat–FDP coalition in 1982 by use BIOGRAPHIES particular, he negotiated the of the constructive vote of no Franco-German treaty with Adenauer confidence. As Foreign Minister under 103 which was signed in 1963 and twice two Chancellors of different parties: exercised a veto against the entry of the Helmut Schmidt (Social Democrats) United Kingdom into the European and Helmut Kohl (Christian Democrats), Economic Community. He withdrew Genscher provided continuity of foreign France from various aspects of NATO policy and was able to promote his membership in 1966. The events strategy of combining the pursuit of surrounding the student and left-wing détente with measures to ensure the demonstrations in 1968 seemed to military and diplomatic security of the weaken his position, though he agreed Federal Republic – a policy stance that to a range of reforms in an effort to became known as ‘Genscherism’. He meet popular demands. In 1969 de soon became the most prominent of all Gaulle’s plans for regional reform were the FDP politicians, and his reputation defeated in a referendum which was and fame contributed much to the perceived as a test of confidence in his electoral survival of the FDP in 1983 leadership, and he resigned. He died in and its electoral successes in 1987 and 1970. 1990. He played a leading role both in [See also: Adenauer; Algerian dealing with diplomatic incidents conflict*; empty chair crisis*; May during the collapse of the communist Events*; resistance groups*] regime in the GDR (such as emigration de Gaulle, CharlesGenscher, Hans-Dietrich of GDR refugees in Western embassies in Eastern Europe in 1989) and in Genscher, Hans-Dietrich the diplomatic strategies which led Foreign Minister of the German Federal to the reunification of Germany in Republic 1974–92 and leader of the 1990. Free Democratic Party (FDP) 1974–85. [See also: Brandt; Scheel; Schmidt; Genscher was born near Halle, in what constructive vote of no confidence*; later became the German Democratic reunification of Germany*] Republic, in 1927. He studied law at the Universities of Halle and Leipzig, then Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry migrated to the Federal Republic in 1952, the year in which he joined the President of France 1974–81. Giscard FDP. He was appointed to the staff of was born in 1926 in Koblenz the FDP parliamentary party in the (Germany). He served in the Second Bundestag in 1956, becoming business World War and then received an elite manager of that parliamentary party in civil service education, graduating from 1959, and business manager of the FDP the newly created National College of in 1962. He was first elected to the Administration to take a post at the Bundestag in 1965. He was elected as a Bank of France. Minister of Finance Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry Giscard d’Estaing, Valéry

Edgar Fauré appointed Giscard to his presidential election of 1981. Giscard’s staff in 1954, keeping him on when presidency ended in a welter of Fauré became Prime Minister in 1955. scandals, including the murder of a In 1956 Giscard inherited his Giscardian Deputy of the National grandfather’s parliamentary seat of Assembly and the suspicious suicide of Puy-le-Dôme. In the 1958 crisis, Giscard a government minister. The last straw backed de Gaulle and retained his seat was Giscard’s refusal to account for his at the first elections of the Fifth acceptance of a gift of diamonds from Republic. In 1962 he became Minister of the African dictator Emperor Bokassa. Finance and Economic Affairs. From Giscard returned to the National

BIOGRAPHIES 1962 to 1974, Giscard led the Assembly as a Deputy in 1984. He was development of liberalism in French President of a weakened UDF 1988–96. politics. After the 1962 elections, his He became President of the European 104 party group, the Independent international movement 1989–97 and led Republicans, supported the Gaullist the UDF–RPR list in the 1989 European government as a coalition partner with elections. In 1997, he became President the aim of promoting European of the Council of European integration and a less authoritarian style Municipalities and Regions. of government. In 1966 Giscard left the [See also: Chirac; de Gaulle; government and openly criticised de Pompidou; oil crisis*] Gaulle, refusing to support him over the Giscard d’Estaing,Giscard Valéry d’Estaing, Valéry 1969 referendum on regional and senate Goldsmith, James reform. The failure of the referendum was to bring down de Gaulle’s Founder and principal financier of the presidency. Giscard transferred his Referendum Party, which presented loyalty to Pompidou and was rewarded candidates at the 1997 British general by the new President with the Finance election. Goldsmith was born in Paris Ministry (1969–74). When Pompidou in 1933. He became a businessman, died in 1974, Giscard won the amassing great wealth as a result of presidential elections. Determined to be founding and developing companies. a new-style ‘popular’ president, the high He became convinced that British entry expectations at the start of his term of into the single European currency office faded to disillusionment. Giscard system would be a national disaster, so took office as the oil crises of 1973 and he first campaigned vigorously for a 1979 were taking their toll in economic promise by the Conservative recession and inflation. Giscard had government that they would promise a promised liberal social reforms, but referendum on the issue on his terms, failed to deliver as anticipated. On and, when that demand was rejected, Europe, Giscard backed significant financed candidacies of Referendum initiatives including the establishment of Party supporters in constituencies the European Council, the EMS and the where he and his party regarded the Franco-German entente, but his Conservative candidate as unsound on administration was not noticeably less the referendum issue. None of his nationalist than that of his predecessors. candidates was elected, but some From 1976 to 1981, the Gaullists received several thousand votes in became increasingly critical of the way their constituencies, and could, in which Giscard himself kept tight in some cases, be regarded as having control over policy. Jacques Chirac, cost the Conservative candidate that Giscard’s first Prime Minister, became seat. The Referendum Party was his bitterest rival, and played a major wound up after the election. Goldsmith part in Giscard’s defeat in the died in 1997. González Márquez, Felipe Grass, Günther

González Márquez, Felipe Grass, Günther Prime Minister of Spain 1982–96 and German leftist intellectual, writer and leader of the Spanish Socialist Party artist: a vocal critic of the values of the (PSOE) 1979–97. González was born in Federal Republic of Germany and 1942 in Seville and studied law at the particularly of the reunification project. Catholic University of Louvain in Grass was born in 1927 in Danzig (now Belgium. Working in Seville as a Gdánsk, Poland) and went to art school. lawyer, in 1966 he introduced the first Best known as an author, Grass labour law centre specifically for received numerous prizes for literature

workers. During Franco’s regime, he and the arts, notably the West German BIOGRAPHIES was arrested several times for his Group 47 Prize 1959; the literary prize of association with the banned socialists. the Association of German Critics 1960; 105 He had joined the Spanish Socialist the Thomas Mann prize 1996 and the Youth in 1962 and the PSOE in 1964 Nobel Prize for Literature 1999. His best and rose rapidly in the party ranks, known works are the fictional Tin Drum becoming a member of the Seville (1959); From the Diary of a Snail Provincial Committee 1965–69, the (1972); and the political commentary National Committee 1969–70, and the Two States – One Nation? (1990). He Executive Board in 1970. In 1972, he was President of the Berlin Academy of became leader of the largest faction the Arts 1983–86 and a member of the within the party. He became first American Academy of Arts and Secretary of the PSOE 1974–79, Sciences. A long-standing member of resigned for a brief period before the Social Democratic Party (SPD), he being re-elected in September 1979 resigned in 1992. and then held the post of [See also: reunification of Germany*] Secretary-General of the party until his González Márquez, Felipe Grass, Günther resignation in 1997. In 1982, the Grimond, Jo Socialists won a landslide election and replaced Súarez’s centre-right Leader of the British Liberal Party government. González was Prime 1956–67. Grimond was born in 1913. Minister of Spain 1982–96, as well as Trained as a lawyer, he fought in the leading the PSOE party group in Second World War, then entered Parliament. Initially very popular, his Parliament in 1950 as MP for Orkney government was increasingly troubled and Shetland. Elected as party leader in by economic problems and by 1956, Grimond succeeded in increasing corruption scandals, including the the very small number of Liberal MPs, FILESA scandal, when a judge ordered and brought about a general, if limited, searches of party records which revival of the party. He acted briefly as revealed illegal payments to the PSOE provisional party leader in 1976 and later the trial of several officials of following the resignation of Jeremy the party. These scandals, although not Thorpe. He left Parliament in 1983. directly involving González in criminal Grimond died in 1993. charges, affected his reputation and [See also: Thorpe] probably prevented him being considered as successor to the Gysi, Gregor discredited Jacques Santer as President of the EU Commission. González has First leader of the Party of Democratic now retired from politics. Socialism (PDS), after its emergence [See also: Franco; Suárez González; from the Socialist Unity Party (SED) at Felipeism*] the end of 1989. Gysi was born in Berlin Gysi, Gregor Hague, William

in 1948. He joined the SED in 1967. He 1989. Prior to becoming leader of the was a lawyer by profession, and gained Conservative Party, he was a reputation as a defender of dissidents. Parliamentary Private Secretary to the He became known as a reformer within Chancellor of the Exchequer 1990–93; the SED in the closing months of the Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State communist regime. This led to his in the Department of Social Security election as Chairman of the SED at its 1993–94; Minister for Social Security and emergency congress in December 1989, Disabled People 1994–95; and Secretary leading a provisional committee given of State for Wales 1995–97. He has been the task of adapting the party to the Chair of the International Democratic

BIOGRAPHIES change of regime in the German Union since 1999. Following the defeat Democratic Republic. He led the PDS in of his party in the general election of its electoral campaign for the elections 2001, he announced his intention to 106 to the People’s Chamber in March 1990, resign as party leader. Following a and entered the Bundestag in 1990 as a lengthy and complex electoral process, delegate in October following he was replaced by Iain Duncan Smith reunification, and became an elected in September 2001. Member in December 1990. Gysi had to [See also: Duncan Smith] cope with accusations that the SED had misused funds and had improperly Haider, Jörg sought to avoid public accountability for its finances by sending large sums of Leader of the far right Austrian Freedom money to foreign bank accounts. Party. Haider was born in 1950 in Despite suspicions of association with Carinthia and studied at Vienna the Stasi, Gysi remained leader of the University. He joined the Liberal Youth PDS until 1993, when he voluntarily Movement in 1964 and the Freedom gave up that office in order to Party in 1971. He worked in private concentrate on his activities as leader of industry 1976–77 and was a Member of the PDS parliamentary group in the Parliament 1979–83 and again from Bundestag. Gysi was re-elected to the 1986. His controversial and charismatic Bundestag in 1994 and 1998, retaining leadership of the Freedom Party his Berlin constituency seat in each case. promoted the party to the third force in [See also: reunification of Germany*; Austrian politics. There was an Stasi*] international outcry, particularly amongst Gysi, Gregor Hague, William EU countries, when Haider’s party was asked to participate in a coalition Hague, William government after the elections in Leader of the British Conservative Party February 2000, and EU states imposed and leader of the opposition in the various sanctions. He gave up the House of Commons 1997–2001. Hague leadership of his party, but remains was born in 1961 in Rotherham and active in the regional politics of studied at Oxford University, where he Carinthia. was President of the Union 1981. After university he worked as a management Hallstein, Walter consultant for McKinsey and Co. 1983–88 and acted as a political adviser German diplomat and first President of to the Treasury. He made an early start the European Commission 1958–67. to his political career when he Hallstein was born in Mainz in 1901. He addressed the annual Conservative studied law and became a Professor of Conference at the age of 15. He has Law at Rostock and Frankfurt been MP for Richmond, Yorkshire since Universities. He became a senior civil Hallstein, Walter Haughey, Charles servant in Adenauer’s government, accusations of financial impropriety first in the Federal Chancellery, then in were made against him concerning the newly established Foreign Office. large political donations made by In this position he was the chief industrialists. negotiator for the Federal Republic in the creation of the European Coal and Havemann, Robert Steel Community and the Messina negotiations which led to the Treaty of German scientist and political dissident. Rome. In 1955 he formulated the Havemann was born in Munich in 1910. famous ‘Hallstein Doctrine’ concerning After studying chemistry at Munich and

relations with states which recognised Berlin Universities, he was employed in BIOGRAPHIES the GDR. He served as President of the a scientific research institute until forced EEC Commission, but French from his post because of his 107 opposition prevented him from membership of the Communist Party in accepting the presidency of the EC 1933. He was active in resistance groups Commission following fusion of the in the Hitler period, and on one EEC, ECSC and EURATOM institutions. occasion was caught, tried and He served as a Member of the sentenced to death, but reprieved Bundestag for the CDU 1969–72. because the research he was Hallstein died in 1982. engaged in was of relevance to the [See also: ECSC*; Hallstein Doctrine*] German military. After the war, he Hallstein, Walter Haughey, Charles became a Professor at the Humboldt University in East Berlin, a post he held Haughey, Charles until he was expelled from the SED in Former Prime Minister of the Irish 1964 because of his dissident views. He Republic. Haughey was born in County was also an SED member of the Mayo in 1925. After studying law and Volkskammer (the GDR Parliament) accountancy, he went into the property 1950–63. He continued to publicise his business before entering politics. He dissident views, and was regarded as became a member of the Irish the leading theorist of a democratic legislature for Fianna Fail in 1957, and form of socialism in the GDR. This led held a number of ministerial posts from to his being placed under house arrest 1961 onwards. He resigned as Minister in 1976. He died in 1982. of Finance in 1970 because of [See also: Hitler; Resistance groups*] allegations of links to Irish Nationalist groups, but following his acquittal on Heath, Edward charges arising from those allegations he was again appointed as Minister in 1977, Leader of the Conservative Party and became Prime Minister and leader 1965–75 and British Prime Minister of his party in 1979. He remained Prime 1970–74. Heath was born in Broadstairs Minister until 1981, and was again Prime in 1916. He studied at Oxford University Minister briefly in 1982. In opposition, and served as an officer in the Second internal party conflicts led to a World War. He was first elected to the break-away from Fianna Fail by some of House of Commons in 1950, becoming its parliamentary group, to form a new his party’s chief whip in 1955 and party: the Progressive Democrats. Minister of Labour in 1959. In 1960 he Haughey was again Prime Minister from was appointed as Lord Privy Seal (a 1987. In 1992 he resigned as Prime ministerial post without specific Minister because of his association with departmental responsibilities) and was cases of illegal phone-tapping by his principal negotiator – though government. In retirement, further unsuccessful – of British entry to the Heath, Edward Herzog, Roman

EEC. He was Secretary of State for Vice-President of the Federal Industry in Home’s government Constitutional Court (FCC) 1983–87 and (1963–64). He became leader of the President of the FCC 1987–94. He was Conservatives in 1965 and, somewhat nominated as the CDU candidate for unexpectedly, led his party to victory in President of the FRG after Kohl the 1970 general election. He called an withdrew his proposal to nominate early general election in February 1974 Heitmann, a minister in the Saxony to try to defeat a series of strikes by Land government, whose lack of coalminers. However, he failed to popularity within the party and outside it obtain a majority and the Labour Party called into question his suitability as

BIOGRAPHIES formed the government. Heath also presidential candidate. failed to win the general election in October 1974, and he was defeated in a 108 Heuss, Theodor leadership election by Margaret Thatcher in 1975. He never seemed to First President of the Federal Republic reconcile himself to this loss of party of Germany and first leader of the Free leadership, the more especially as Mrs Democratic Party (FDP). Heuss was Thatcher was electorally more born in Württemberg, in south-west successful than he had been and Germany, in 1884. After a period as a because she represented a very journalist, he taught political science in sceptical approach to further Berlin (1920–33) and was elected to the developments in European integration, Reichstag (the Parliament of the developments which Heath seemed to Weimar Republic) for the German welcome uncritically. Heath became Democratic Party 1924–28 and 1930–33. ‘Father of the House of Commons’ in Having criticised Hitler in his books and 1992, having served longer than any journalism, Heuss was dismissed from other sitting MP. He was re-elected in his university post when the Nazis the 1997 general election, and as such came to power. After the Second World presided over the controversial election War, Heuss helped to found the Liberal of a Speaker in 2000, following the Party in south-west Germany, was the resignation of Mrs Boothroyd. When he first Minister of Education for the Land left the House of Commons in 2001 of Württemberg-Baden, and a member Heath had served over half a century in of the Land Parliament. When a liberal the House of Commons. party for West Germany was founded [See also: Thatcher] in 1948, he was elected as its first Heath, Edward Herzog, Roman leader. He was an influential member of the Parliamentary Council, which Herzog, Roman drafted the Basic Law for the new President of Germany 1994–99. Herzog Federal Republic. Coalition negotiations was born in 1934 in Landshut and between the FDP and Adenauer’s studied at the University of Munich, the Christian Democrats led to an Free University of Berlin, and the agreement that Heuss would be College of Administrative Sciences at supported by both parties for the Speyer. He has held high office in position of Federal President when the protestant organisations and in the Federal Republic was founded in 1949. Christian Democratic Party (CDU). In the Heuss was a much-respected President, state of Baden-Württemberg he was and enjoyed a good relationship with Minister for Culture and Sport 1978–80 Adenauer. He was re-elected as Federal and Minister for the Interior 1980–83. He President in 1954 for a second term. He was a member of the Federal died in 1963. Committee of the CDU 1979–83. He was [See also: Adenauer; Hitler; nazism*] Heym, Stefan Hitler, Adolf

provided opportunities for both electoral Heym, Stefan advances and direct action by the Nazis, Controversial writer from the former and in 1933 President Hindenburg was German Democratic Republic (GDR) compelled to ask Hitler to form a and latterly social democratic politician. coalition government. Hitler used this Heym was born 10 April 1913 in opportunity to manufacture an election Chemnitz and studied at the Universities victory with the aid of the Reichstag fire of Berlin and Chicago. In 1933 he fled (allowing him to exclude communists – the National Socialist regime to blamed for starting the fire – from the Czechoslovakia where he worked as a Parliament) and then to pass emergency

journalist until 1935. He left for the USA legislation (the Enabling Acts) which in BIOGRAPHIES in 1935, working as a waiter as he effect marked the end of democracy edited an anti-fascist newspaper. He and the commencement of the 109 served in the American army 1943–45. dictatorial Third Reich. Exerting a form He was co-founder of the newspaper: of totalitarian rule in Germany, which the Neue Zeitung in Munich in 1945. In included a policy of violent 1950 he led the American delegation to discrimination against the Jewish the Second World Peace Congress in population and, later, their transfer to Warsaw. In 1952 he returned to what concentration camps and their mass was now the GDR. He was a member murder, Hitler was able to commence of the executive board of the GDR what he regarded as ‘rectifications’ of Writers’ Association but was expelled in the Versailles Treaty, including 1979. After German unification he joined reoccupation of the Rhineland by the the Social Democratic Party (SPD) and German military, the annexation of was a Member of the Bundestag Austria and then seizure of territory from 1994–96. He died in 2001. Czechoslovakia and Poland. This led to Heym, Stefan Hitler, Adolf the Second World War, in which Hitler, after initial successes in northern and Hitler, Adolf western Europe, sought to defeat the Chancellor and then President of the USSR. The entry of the USA into the war Weimar Republic; leader (‘Führer’) of in 1941 marked the beginning of Hitler’s the Nazi state – the Third Reich. Hitler downfall. The German army was halted was born in 1889 in Braunau (Austria). at Stalingrad and at El Alamein (North After failure to enter training courses for Africa), and Allied invasions of Italy art and architecture, he served in the (1943) and France (1944) led to the Bavarian army in the First World War, defeat of the German military, their attaining the rank of corporal and being unconditional surrender and the awarded the Iron Cross. After the war, occupation of Germany in 1945. Hitler, he became employed in various tasks who had been the target of for the military, then joined and took assassination attempts (most notably the over the National Socialist Workers’ ‘July plot’ in 1944), committed suicide in Party (Nazi Party). In 1923 he attempted, his Berlin headquarters a few days with General Ludendorff (one of the before the surrender of German forces. military rulers of Germany during the [See also: nazism*] war), to seize control of the Bavarian government by an armed putsch. This Home, Lord failed, and he was sentenced to imprisonment, during which time he British Prime Minister and leader of the commenced writing his manifesto: Mein Conservative Party 1963–64. Alec Kampf (My Struggle). The crises which Douglas-Home was born in London in weakened the Weimar Republic 1903 and was educated at Eton and Home, Lord Honecker, Erich

Oxford University. He was elected to the GDR to support of repression of House of Commons in 1931, and reformist movements in other countries became an aide to Chamberlain during of the Soviet bloc. At Soviet insistence, pre-war negotiations with Hitler. He he participated in the development of succeeded to the hereditary title of Earl policies of détente in the 1970s, including of Home in 1951, and held several signing of the Basic Treaty with the ministerial positions in Conservative Federal Republic of Germany and the governments before Macmillan appointed Helsinki Treaties. He made a long-awaited him as Foreign Secretary in 1960. When official visit to the Federal Republic in Macmillan announced his resignation as 1987. As events unfolded in the second

BIOGRAPHIES party leader and Prime Minister, he half of 1989, Honecker maintained a surprisingly recommended Lord Home stubborn refusal to adapt the policies of as his successor. This led necessarily to the regime in any way, even, in this 110 Home resigning his peerage under the case, rejecting the lead of Gorbachev 1963 Peerage Act, and he was elected to and the Soviet Union Communist Party the House of Commons in a by-election. with their policies of glasnost and Home never established his authority as perestroika. Though he was still leader Prime Minister, and was defeated in the of the GDR when the state celebrated 1964 general election. He resigned as the fortieth anniversary of its foundation party leader in 1965, and became in October 1989, he was compelled by Foreign Secretary for a second time in his colleagues (with the acquiescence of Heath’s 1970 government. He returned the USSR) to resign on 17 October 1989. to the House of Lords as a life peer in After German reunification, he was 1974. He died in 1995. charged with various offences, including [See also: Heath; Hitler; Macmillan] the ‘shoot to kill’ orders which resulted Home, Lord Honecker, Erich in the deaths of many would-be escapees at the East German border. He Honecker, Erich escaped trial because of illness, and General Secretary (i.e. leader) of the died of cancer in Chile in 1994. ruling communist party (the Socialist [See also: Berlin Wall*; détente*; Unity Party: SED) in the German glasnost*; Helsinki Agreements*; Democratic Republic from 1971 until his nazism*; perestroika*; reunification of forced resignation in 1989. He was born Germany*; Vergangenheitsbewältigung*] in the Saarland in 1912. He joined the Communist Party of Germany (KPD) in Hume, John 1929. Honecker was imprisoned during the Third Reich because of his underground Leader of the Irish Social Democratic political activities. In the Soviet zone of and Labour Party (SDLP) since 1979. occupation, later the German Born in 1937 in Londonderry, Northern Democratic Republic, he was leader of Ireland, Hume studied at the National the communist youth organisation (the University of Ireland. He was appointed Free German Youth: FDJ) until 1955. He Research Fellow at Trinity College and rose rapidly within the SED organisation, then Associate Fellow at the Centre for and was put in charge of the building of International Affairs at Harvard. He was the Berlin Wall in 1961. As leader of the a founder member of the Credit Union SED, he attempted to introduce a in Northern Ireland and its President measure of economic modernisation, 1964–68. Opposed to violence, he was a though remaining within the confines of civil rights leader 1968–69. Hume a strictly controlled and planned economy. represented Londonderry in the He was a loyal follower of the Soviet Northern Ireland Parliament 1969–72 and Union’s policies, eagerly committing the the Northern Ireland Assembly 1972–73. Hume, John Jospin, Lionel

He was Minister of Commerce in the 1995–97. Jospin was born in 1937 at power-sharing executive of 1974 and Meudon (Seine-et-Oise). He graduated again represented Londonderry in the from the Institute of Political Studies Northern Ireland Convention 1975–76. He and the National College of has been a Member of the European Administration in Paris and embarked Parliament since 1979. He was a on a career in the Foreign Ministry Member of the Northern Ireland (1965–70) before taking up a university Assembly 1982–86 and from 1998. He post in economics (1970–81). A protégé participated in the SDLP New Ireland of Mitterrand, he joined the Socialist Forum 1983–84. He has held many Party (PS) in 1972 and was advanced

national and international posts, rapidly as one of a new cadre of BIOGRAPHIES particularly concerning workers’ issues, leaders who Mitterrand hoped would regional issues and civil rights. keep the party loyal to him. From 1973 111 Hume, John Jospin, Lionel to 1975 Jospin was the party’s National Secretary for Political Education before Jenkins, Roy taking charge of Third World Relations Former senior British Labour Party (1975–79) and then International Affairs politician, former President of the (1979–81). He was appointed First Commission of the European Secretary of the party in 1981, leading Community, and co-founder of the the party in a process of ideological Social Democratic Party. Jenkins was transformation away from traditional born in Abersychan, Wales, in 1920. He socialism towards a new style of social was first elected to the House of democracy, which culminated in the Commons in 1948, and was appointed party’s 1985 Congress at Toulouse. As to several ministerial offices in Labour party leader he was forced to adopt a governments, including those of Home rather passive leadership role during the Secretary (1965–67 and 1974–76) and cohabitation period from 1986 and Chancellor of the Exchequer (1967–70). faced growing criticism from within the He was elected as deputy leader of the PS. He stood down in 1987, but later British Labour Party in 1970. Jenkins took up the party leadership again served as President of the EC (1995–97). After Mitterrand’s re-election Commission 1977–81. As one of the as President in 1988, Jospin was ‘Gang of Four’ he founded the Social rewarded with the prestigious post of Democratic Party in 1981, and became Minister of State for Education, Research its first elected leader in 1982, though and Sport in Rocard’s government, he gave way as leader to David Owen keeping education as the ministerial in 1983. He entered the House of Lords responsibilities were restructured. In as Lord Jenkins of Hillhead in 1988. He 1997 he was appointed Prime Minister served as Chancellor of Oxford following the general election called by University, and has written several newly elected President Chirac, and well-received books, especially which resulted in ‘cohabitation’ when biographies of Asquith, Dilke and the PS won that election. Gladstone. In 1998 he was Chairman of [See also: Mitterrand; Rocard; a Commission on Electoral Reform, cohabitation*] which reported in October 1998. [See also: Gang of Four*] Juan Carlos, King King of Spain since 1975. Juan Carlos Jospin, Lionel was born in Rome in 1938. He was the Prime Minister of France since 1997; grandson of King Alfonso XIII, who leader of the Socialist Party 1981–87; abdicated in 1931. Invited by Franco to Juan Carlos, King Karamanlis (Caramanlis), Konstantine

return to Spain from exile in 1960, he was successful again in 1961 and he was nominated in 1969 by Franco as resumed as Prime Minister, resigning in heir to the Spanish throne (bypassing 1963 over a dispute with King Paul I his father, Don Juan). On Franco’s over the respective powers of the death in 1975, Juan Carlos became monarch and the prime minister. King. Franco had believed Juan Carlos Karamanlis left Greece for Paris where would be a reliable defender of the he stayed for ten years. After the military values of his authoritarian regime, but takeover in 1967, he issued statements Juan Carlos proved to be a promoter of calling for the re-establishment of democracy, and sought to become a democratic rule. In 1974, following the

BIOGRAPHIES constitutional monarch on the model of crisis between Turkey and Greece over the British and northern European Cyprus, Karamanlis was asked to return monarchies. He bravely resisted the and form a civilian government. He 112 group of officers who attempted to negotiated a settlement to the war in engineer a military coup in February Cyprus and introduced democratic 1981. He has proved to be an integrative reforms. He lifted the military junta’s ban figure in the Spanish political system, on free speech and the press and characterised as it is by strong regional cancelled most of the martial law identities. measures. He founded the New [See also: Franco; Spanish coup Democracy party which formed a attempt*] majority government. He stepped down JuanKaramanlis Carlos, King (Caramanlis), Konstantine as Prime Minister to become President of Greece in 1980 and was again Karamanlis (Caramanlis), Konstantine President in 1990. Prime Minister of Greece 1955–58, [See also: Aegean Sea dispute*] 1958–61, 1961–63, 1974–80; President of Greece 1980–85, 1990. Karamanlis was Kekkonen, Urho born in 1907 in Macedonia and graduated in law from the University of President of Finland 1956–81. Kekkonen Athens in 1932. He was elected to was born in Pielavesi in 1900. He Parliament in 1935. The dictator Ioannis studied law at Helsinki University, then Metaxas closed the Parliament in 1936 was employed as a civil servant. He and offered Karamanlis a place in his entered the Finnish Parliament in 1936 government, but Karamanlis refused and as a representative of the Agrarian Party, stayed out of politics until after the and became a minister in the coalition Second World War. He was elected to government. After the Second World Parliament again in 1946 and served in War he helped to negotiate a treaty of various ministerial positions until the friendship with the USSR in 1948. He mid-1950s, becoming popular became Prime Minister in 1950, and particularly as Minister of Public Works served, with one interruption, until 1956. 1952–54. During his first term as Prime He was a proponent of a policy of Minister he formed the National Radical co-operation with the USSR, which has Union and won the elections of 1956. acquired the label: ‘Finlandisation’. He The defection of some of his party group resigned as President on grounds of to the opposition in 1958 led to his ill-health in 1981. He died in 1986. resignation, but he was again named [See also: Finlandisation*] Prime Minister after elections in May 1958. During this period he negotiated Kelly, Petra the establishment of an independent republic of Cyprus with Turkey. In spite Leading member of the West German of allegations of electoral fraud, his party Green Party in its early years. Kelly was Kelly, Petra Kiesinger, Kurt Georg born in Günzburg in 1947. She studied Kiesinger, Kurt Georg political science at university in the USA. She then was employed by the Chancellor of the Federal Republic of European Community as an Germany 1966–69. Kiesinger was born administrator. She was a member of the in Württemberg in 1904, and qualified SPD 1972–78, but resigned in protest at as a lawyer. He was employed in the the moderate and compromising German Foreign Office during the policies of the Schmidt government. She Second World War. He was elected to became involved in the feminist, peace the Bundestag as a Christian Democrat and ecological movements in Germany, in 1949, but resigned his seat in 1958 to

and played a leading part in establishing become Prime Minister of BIOGRAPHIES the Green Party in West Germany, Baden-Württemberg. When Erhard was including campaigning vigorously in the compelled to resign as Chancellor in 113 1980 and 1983 Bundestag elections. She 1966, Kiesinger was chosen to take his was elected to the Bundestag in 1983 place at the head of a ‘grand coalition’ and 1987, and was involved in the between the Christian Democrats and collective leadership of the party within the Social Democrats (SPD). That and outside the Bundestag. She was coalition was responsible for several associated with the ‘fundamentalist’ achievements, including the stabilisation wing of the Green Party, rejecting any of the economy, some improvements in idea of forming coalitions with relations with Eastern European states, established parties, though she came to and the preservation of a democratic oppose several of the party’s regime challenged by extremists from organisational tenets, such as rotation of the left-wing student movement and the office, and came to view the party’s radical right-wing National Democratic organisation as primitive and Party. Though his party secured the amateurish. Her views and her obvious largest share of votes in the 1969 federal charisma (which led to her being seen election, Kiesinger had to make way for by the media as the personification of Chancellor Brandt who led a coalition the Green movement) led to her between the SPD and Free Democratic increasing unpopularity within the Green Party. Kiesinger was leader of the CDU Party. She committed suicide with her 1967–71 and was again a Member of partner, the former General Gerd the Bundestag from 1969 to 1980. He Bastian, in 1992. died in 1988. Kelly, Petra Kiesinger, Kurt Georg [See also: Brandt; Erhard; grand coalition*] Kennedy, Charles Leader of the British Liberal Democratic Kinnock, Neil Party since 1999. Kennedy was born in Fort William in 1959. He studied at Leader of the British Labour Party Glasgow University and commenced a 1983–92. Kinnock was born in Tredegar career in broadcasting before being in 1942. He engaged in socialist political elected for the Social Democratic Party activity while a student, and was for the constituency of Ross, Cromarty elected to the House of Commons in and Skye in 1983. In 1988 he agreed to 1970. He was elected to succeed support the merger of the SDP with the Michael Foot as party leader. Though Liberals. In 1999, following the he, like Foot, had a left-wing reputation, resignation as party leader of Paddy being among other things a staunch Ashdown, Kennedy was elected leader supporter of the Campaign for Nuclear by a vote of the party membership. Disarmament, Kinnock realised that for [See also: Ashdown] Labour to win general elections in Kinnock, Neil Kohl, Helmut

future it would have to discard many of based mainly upon his leading role in its ideological attitudes. He thus promoting the reunification of Germany introduced measures of organisational in 1990. His ten-point plan of 28 and policy reform. Defeated in the 1987 November 1989 referred to the general election, Kinnock had high possibility of reunification. However, his hopes of winning in 1992. When negotiations with the government of the Labour was defeated again, even GDR in December 1989 and February though more narrowly than in the 1990; his personal popularity in the GDR 1980s, Kinnock resigned as party leader. in early 1990 and his successful He became a Commissioner of the sponsorship of the Christian

BIOGRAPHIES European Union in 1994, and survived Democrat-led electoral ‘Alliance for the scandals that led to the resignation Germany’ in the first free elections to of Santer and his fellow Commissioners the GDR People’s Chamber in March 114 in 1998, being reappointed with the 1990; his promotion of economic and responsibility of reforming the monetary union of the two German administration, financial control and states; and his role in negotiations with practices of the Commission. other states (especially the USSR) to lay [See also: Foot; Santer; Smith; the diplomatic foundations for German Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament*; reunification will all be seen as great Clause Four*] personal achievements. Following Kinnock, Neil Kohl, Helmut German reunification, he led his coalition to a narrow victory in the 1994 Kohl, Helmut Bundestag election, a victory which Chancellor of the Federal Republic of owed much to his personal popularity. Germany 1982–98; leader of the He was unable to capitalise on that Christian Democratic Union (CDU) popularity in the 1998 election, following 1973–98; Prime Minister of which some experts stated that he Rhineland-Pfalz 1969–76. Kohl was born should have made way for a in 1930 in Ludwigshafen, and was replacement chancellor-candidate well awarded his doctorate in political before that election campaign got under science from Heidelberg University in way. Immediately after the election 1958. He joined the CDU in 1946, and result was known on 27 September held numerous party offices at local and 1998 he announced his intention to Land levels. He was resign as leader of the CDU, and later chancellor-candidate in the 1976 that year was replaced by his protégé, Bundestag election, but, though securing Wolfgang Schäuble. In 1999 revelations the highest vote-share for the Christian of secret donations to the CDU led to a Democrats since Adenauer’s absolute scandal, in which Kohl was centrally majority of votes in 1957, this was involved. insufficient to defeat the Social [See also: Adenauer; Schmidt; Democrat–Free Democrat (FDP) constructive vote of no confidence*; coalition. He became Chancellor when reunification of Germany*] the FDP withdrew from that coalition in 1982, and supported Kohl in the first Kreisky, Bruno ever successful use of the constructive vote of no confidence, which dismissed Chancellor of Austria 1970–83. Kreisky Helmut Schmidt from the office of was born in Vienna in 1911. He studied Chancellor. Though Kohl had successes law at university, and became active in in politics prior to 1990, and led his politics as a socialist. He was coalition to election victories in 1983 imprisoned following the socialist and 1987, his place in history will be uprising in Austria in 1934, and was Kreisky, Bruno Krenz, Egon again briefly imprisoned in 1938 after a considered policy decision. Krenz the Nazis took over Austria. He resigned his offices in December 1989. emigrated to Sweden later in 1938, In 1999 he was sentenced to a term of returning to Austria after the end of the imprisonment for his implication in war. After periods in the diplomatic fraud. service and as a civil servant, he was [See also: Honecker; reunification of appointed Austrian Foreign Minister in Germany*] 1959, a position he retained until 1966. In 1967 he became leader of the Social Lafontaine, Oskar Democratic Party (the SPÖ). Though

head of a minority government in 1970, Former leader of the German Social BIOGRAPHIES Kreisky’s personal popularity contributed Democratic Party (SPD) and the SPD’s to his party’s successes in elections in chancellor-candidate in the 1990 115 1971, 1975 and 1979, where in each Bundestag election. Lafontaine was case it secured an absolute majority of born in Saarlouis (Saarland) in 1943 and seats. As leader of the government of a studied physics at university. He joined neutral state, Kreisky was able to play a the SPD in 1966, and was elected to the role (with others such as Olaf Palme) in Saarland legislature in 1970. He became mediation in several international lord mayor of Saarbrücken in 1976 (at conflicts, especially in the Middle East. the time, he was the youngest city He resigned as Chancellor following the leader in West Germany). In 1985 he loss of a parliamentary majority in the became Prime Minister of the Saarland 1983 elections. after the SPD’s first post-war election [See also: Palme; nazism*] victory in the Saarland parliamentary Kreisky, Bruno Krenz, Egon elections. He became a deputy leader of the SPD in 1987. He was unable to Krenz, Egon revive the fortunes of the SPD in the The last leader of the communist 1990 all-German Bundestag election: the regime in the German Democratic SPD only secured 33.5 per cent, its Republic. Krenz was born in 1937 in worst showing for thirty years. In that Pomerania, now part of Poland. Krenz campaign, Lafontaine was stabbed in developed a career within the Socialist the neck by a deranged person, who Unity Party (the SED) which he joined inflicted a serious wound. Lafontaine’s in 1955, becoming leader of the Free sceptical stance vis-à-vis German German Youth in 1974. He was long reunification, especially concerning its regarded as the probable successor to likely costs, is thought to have been a Honecker, and when Honecker was factor in that 1990 election defeat. In compelled to resign his offices in 1995, Lafontaine successfully challenged October 1989 because of manoeuvres the incumbent party leader, Scharping, initiated by Krenz and others, Krenz for the party leadership. This meant that took over as party General-Secretary when the SPD came to power in the and head of state. In his short period as 1998 Bundestag election, Lafontaine leader, he attempted to introduce could take much of the credit, and concessions on issues such as freedom could demand an important government to travel, but these reforms were always post; Schröder appointed him as too little to satisfy the growing numbers Finance Minister. However, Lafontaine’s of discontented East Germans. The traditionalist social democratic views opening of the border on 9 November were at odds with the more modernistic 1989 (the ‘fall of the Berlin Wall’) policies pursued by Chancellor Schröder seemed to result from a and the two were frequently in conflict. misunderstanding rather than Lafontaine unexpectedly announced his Lafontaine, Oskar Laval, Pierre

resignation from government and party in his constituency than in ideology, offices on 11 March 1999. when the Socialist and Communists [See also: Scharping; Schröder; split in 1920, Laval continued as an reunification of Germany*] independent and was elected to the Lafontaine, Oskar Laval, Pierre Senate in 1927. He was Minister and Prime Minister in a series of Lambsdorff, Otto Graf governments 1925–35, moving Leader of the German FDP 1988–93. progressively to the right of the political Lambsdorff was born in Aachen in 1926. spectrum in reaction to the success of He served in the Second World War, the left-wing Popular Front and through

BIOGRAPHIES and was seriously wounded in the his increasing attraction to fascism. closing days of that conflict. Following Convinced that Bolshevism posed the study of law at university, after the war main threat to European civilisation, 116 was over he practised as a lawyer, then Laval tried actively to promote worked in the banking and insurance Franco-German relations. He joined sectors. He joined the FDP in 1951, and Marshal Pétain’s right-wing Vichy became a member of the party government, first as Deputy Prime executive in 1972, the year of his first Minister (1940), then as Prime Minister election to the Bundestag. After a period (1942–44). After the armistice with as economics spokesman for his Germany on 22 June 1940, Laval parliamentary party group, he became masterminded the suspension of the Minister of Economics in the Schmidt 1875 constitution and the transfer of full government in 1977. His strongly liberal powers to Pétain on 10 July 1940, and free-enterprise attitude to the ending the Third Republic. As Prime economy led to conflicts with Schmidt Minister, Laval made growing and eventually to the termination of the concessions to Hitler, including the SPD–FDP coalition in 1982. He remained authorisation of French labour for the as Economics Minister in the Kohl Nazi war effort and the deportation of government, but resigned in 1984 Jews. After the fall of the Vichy regime, because of his implication in the Flick he was executed after a notional trial Affair. As party leader, he decided to on 15 October 1945. remain outside the government, and led [See also: Hitler; nazism*; Vichy his party to an excellent result in the regime*] 1990 Bundestag election. [See also: Kohl; Schmidt; Flick Lemass, Sean Francis Affair*; ‘Wende’*] Irish revolutionary and Prime Minister of Ireland 1959–66. Lemass was born in Laval, Pierre 1899 in Dublin and took part in the Irish Prime Minister of the Vichy government independence movement that in war-time France, and executed for culminated in the Easter Week treason in 1945, Laval bore the brunt of Rebellion in 1916. When the rebellion recriminations against the Vichy regime collapsed he was arrested by the British which had collaborated with Nazi forces, but his young age saved him Germany. Born in the Auvergne in 1883, from imprisonment or execution. Laval studied science at Lyons and law Lemass joined the Irish Republican in Paris. He founded a law practice and Army (IRA) and was again arrested for a radio and press empire, which funded revolutionary activities. He was kept in his political activities. A socialist, he was prison until July 1921 when a truce was elected to the Parliament of the French declared. When civil war broke out in Third Republic in 1914. More interested July 1922, Lemass fought with the IRA, Lemass, Sean Francis Leone, Giovanni was captured, but managed to escape. resign his presidency through his Recaptured in December 1922 he stayed implication in a corruption scandal: the in prison until the Republicans were first Italian president to suffer this defeated in the spring of 1923. Lemass disgrace. He died in 2001. resigned from the Sinn Féin party and joined de Valera’s new Fianna Fail (FF) Le Pen, Jean-Marie party. In 1924 he was elected to the Irish Parliament. In 1932, he became de Leader of the radical right-wing National Valera’s Minister of Industry and Front party in France. Born in 1928 at Commerce. In 1939 he became Minister La Trinité-sur-Mer (Morbihan), Le Pen

of Supplies, a post he kept until 1945. studied in Paris, graduating in law and BIOGRAPHIES After the Second World War he was political science. Violently anti-Marxist, Deputy Prime Minister until Fianna Fail he was a student leader 1949–51 and 117 was defeated in the 1948 elections. was often in trouble with the police for Lemass then worked for the party taking part in fights. In 1953 he joined newspaper: the Irish Press until FF the Foreign Legion and went to returned to power in 1951 and he again Indo-China as a parachutist, where he became Deputy Prime Minister and worked as a political journalist for the Minister of Industry and Commerce. military’s press. He returned to his When, in 1959, de Valera resigned as studies and his activities in student Prime Minister to become President, politics in 1954. In 1956 he was elected Lemass was his successor. He as a Poujadiste (reactionary, negotiated with Northern Ireland in the anti-taxation party) Deputy and gained a hope of reuniting the country. In 1965 reputation as a charismatic speaker. He he arranged a free trade pact with rejoined his former regiment 1956–57. In Britain. He resigned as Prime Minister 1957 he was accused of torturing a in 1966 but remained in Parliament until young Algerian arrested by the his retirement in 1969. Lemass died in parachutists, but was not prosecuted. 1971. Back in France, Le Pen lost an eye in a [See also: Irish Republican Army*] fight at an electoral meeting trying to Lemass, Sean Francis Leone, Giovanni defend a Muslim friend. In late 1957, he left the Poujadistes and sat first as an Leone, Giovanni independent in the National Assembly, Prime Minister of Italy June–November then, from 1958 to 1962, with the 1963; June–December 1968; President of conservative party group Independents Italy 1971–78. Giovanni Leone was born and Peasants. Le Pen was sued for in 1908 in Naples. He studied at the allegedly pro-Nazi statements. He University of Naples, then became a actively supported the presidential Professor of Law there. He began a long campaign of the right-wing candidate parliamentary career as a Christian Tixier-Vignancourt in 1965. In 1972 he Democrat (DC) representative with his launched his own party, the far right election to the Constituent Assembly in Front National (FN), on a platform of 1946. He was Vice-President of the nationalism, morality, anti-communism Chamber of Deputies 1948–49 and its and law and order. He and his family President 1955–63. After his first survived a bomb attack at their home in premiership, he became a life senator 1976. After a disastrous return of 0.74 in 1967. He was elected President of per cent of the vote at the presidential Italy in 1971 as a compromise candidate election of 1974, the FN made little after 23 ballots. His presidency impact until the 1980s, when it made a coincided with a period of terrorist credible showing at local and European campaigns in Italy. He was forced to elections and Le Pen became a media Le Pen, Jean-Marie Lübke, Heinrich

celebrity. Le Pen was returned to federal government, as Minister for Food Parliament for the FN in 1986, where he and Agriculture. When Adenauer was an outspoken advocate of the decided that he himself would not seek repatriation of immigrants and tougher the presidency in 1959, and when other policing, but was damaged by a very leading CDU politicians such as Erhard public and acrimonious divorce and by also refused to be candidates, Lübke his comments which played down the was chosen. He was criticised during Holocaust. In 1987, a cheap joke he his presidency for his blunders in public made about gas ovens resulted in the speaking, although it was subsequently one FN Deputy in Parliament leaving the suggested that these might have been

BIOGRAPHIES party and the RPR ruling out any future caused by advancing illness. He used local or national electoral alliance with his second term as President (1964–69) the FN. to promote the idea of a ‘grand 118 [See also: Poujade; Holocaust*; coalition’ of the CDU–CSU and SPD, an immigration*; nazism*] idea which became reality in 1966. Le Pen, Jean-Marie Lübke, Heinrich Lübke died in 1972. [See also: Adenauer; Erhard; grand Lubbers, Ruud coalition*] Prime Minister of the Netherlands 1982–86 and 1989–94. Lubbers was born Macmillan, Harold in Rotterdam in 1939. After studying economics, he managed the family British Prime Minister and leader of the machinery production business. A Conservative Party 1957–63. Macmillan Christian Democrat, he served as was born in London in 1894 and Economics Minister 1973–77. In 1982 he educated at Eton and Oxford University. became the youngest ever Netherlands He served and was wounded in the Prime Minister. He played a significant First World War. While directing the role in bringing about the Maastricht family publishing firm, he entered the Treaty in December 1991, since the House of Commons in 1924. He held Netherlands held the presidency of the various posts in Churchill’s war-time Council of Ministers at the time. government, and in the post-war [See also: Maastricht Treaty*] Conservative governments of Churchill and Eden, including the post of Foreign Secretary in 1955 and then Chancellor Lübke, Heinrich of the Exchequer. On Eden’s retirement, President of the Federal Republic of Macmillan became Prime Minister. He Germany 1959–69. Lübke was born in is particularly remembered for presiding Enkhausen, Westphalia in 1894. Having over a period of economic growth in studied engineering, his employment the late 1950s, coining the phrase: before the Second World War included ‘you’ve never had it so good’; for his that of director of the German Farmers’ acceptance of the decline of British Association. During the war he was power in its former African possessions, engaged in the design of buildings for where he used the phrase: ‘the winds war purposes, including the factories of change’ to describe the process of which produced the V–1 ‘flying bombs’ African states asserting their in Peenemunde (an activity which was independence; and for making an used by his opponents to attack Lübke unsuccessful attempt to take the United during his presidency). After the war he Kingdom into the European Economic was active in founding the CDU, and Community. Though he won the general served first in the Land government of election of 1959 with a large majority, North Rhine-Westphalia, then in the illness and a series of debilitating Macmillan, Harold de Maizière, Lothar political crises (including the Profumo such a political embarrassment to de scandal) persuaded him to resign in Maizière that he resigned from his party 1963, before the 1964 general election, offices, his political career at an end. handing over as Prime Minister and [See also: Honecker; Kohl; leader to Lord Home. He became the reunification of Germany*; Stasi*] Earl of Stockton in 1984, and died in 1986. Major, John [See also: Churchill; Eden; Home; Profumo Affair*] Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Macmillan, Harold de Maizière, Lothar and leader of the Conservative Party

1990–97. John Major was born in 1943 BIOGRAPHIES de Maizière, Lothar in Carlshalton, Surrey. He entered a Prime Minister of the German career in banking, combining this with 119 Democratic Republic following the first local government activities in London. (and only) free elections to the People’s He became an MP in 1979. He rose Chamber (Volkskammer) in 1990. De rapidly within the ranks of the Thatcher Maizière was born in Nordhausen in government, serving as Foreign Minister 1940. He studied music and law, and and then Chancellor of the Exchequer joined the East German CDU (a party in 1989. In 1990 he persuaded Mrs within the block-party arrangement of Thatcher to allow Britain to join the GDR parties, under the dominance of European Exchange Rate Mechanism, the communist party, the SED). As a which limited currency fluctuations. lawyer, he defended several dissidents However, Britain had to abandon its prior to the collapse of the communist membership of that currency system in regime in 1989. He was active in church 1992. Though he had, somewhat affairs and held high office within the surprisingly, led the Conservatives to East German Protestant church. During victory in the 1992 general election, his the political turbulence following small majority in the House of Honecker’s resignation in 1989, de Commons soon eroded. This meant that Maizière was elected in November 1989 he could not afford to offend either the as Chairman of the GDR–CDU when the pro-European or the ‘euro-sceptic’ wings previous Chairman, associated with the of his party, which gave the impression years of CDU subservience to the SED, of indecisive leadership. He was unable had to resign. He led the to prevent the Conservative Party CDU-dominated electoral ‘Alliance for suffering a heavy defeat in the 1997 Germany’ to victory in the 1990 general election. Major took elections to the People’s Chamber, responsibility for that defeat, and becoming Prime Minister after that resigned as party leader shortly election. He enthusiastically pursued afterwards. negotiations with the government of the [See also: Thatcher; Exchange Rate Federal Republic and with foreign Mechanism*; euro-sceptic*] governments, leading to economic and monetary union, then to political fusion, Makarios, Archbishop with the FRG. Following reunification he served briefly in Kohl’s government as a President of the Republic of Cyprus minister without portfolio, and was 1959–77. Makarios was born as Mihail elected to the Bundestag in December Mouskos in Cyprus in 1913. He became 1990. However, as with many other a priest of the Orthodox church in 1946, prominent East German politicians, a bishop in 1948, and archbishop in accusations of association with the GDR 1950. He was a leader of the Enosis secret police (the Stasi) proved to be movement in Cyprus, which sought to Makarios, Archbishop Marchais, Georges

link Cyprus to Greece. The British Marchais signed the historic Common colonial authorities arrested Makarios Programme for the alliance of the left and deported him to the Seychelles in with the Socialist Party (PS) and 1956. He returned to Cyprus in 1959 and left-wing Radicals, and later joined a became Prime Minister in the coalition governmnent with the PS government which combined Greek and (1981–84). During the 1970s, Marchais Turkish Cypriot leaders. Ousted by a presented the PCF as ‘eurocommunist’, military coup in 1974, he returned as adopting a specific French path to Prime Minister of the Greek part of communism in place of the model of Cyprus in 1975 and held that office until the Soviet Union. Under

BIOGRAPHIES his death in 1977. eurocommunism, the PCF dropped [See also: Colonels’ coup*; Enosis*] some aspects of Marxist–Leninist Makarios, Archbishop Marchais, Georges doctrine, accepted full democratic 120 rights as understood in Western Marchais, Georges countries, and acknowledged the Leader of the French Communist Party. principle of pluralism in free elections Born into a working-class background at and a multi-party system, social and La Hoguette (Calvados) in 1920, religious life. However, when electoral Marchais was a skilled mechanic in the gains in support fell in favour of the aeronautics industry. Later, his political Socialists rather than the Communists, career was dogged by controversy over Marchais withdrew the PCF from the his war-time record: Marchais denied co-operation with the PS and turned the the allegation that he worked voluntarily party back to a more pro-Soviet line, at the German Messerschmidt factory in particularly on world issues such as the Neu-Ulm before the introduction of Soviet intervention in Afghanistan and compulsory labour regulations in 1943. on events in Poland. As the PCF’s After the Second World War, he electoral support declined rapidly from became involved in trade union activity 1981 to 1986, Marchais’ support within and in 1947 joined the French the party crumbled. He was accused of Communist Party (PCF). In 1956, he authoritarianism and dissident became Secretary of the Seine-South ‘renovators’ began to contest the federation of the party and joined the leadership from the late 1980s. Central Committee and Political Bureau [See also: Mitterrand; in 1959. In 1961, he was made eurocommunism*] responsible for party organisation and in 1972 became leader of the PCF. He Martens, Wilfried stood in the presidential elections of 1981, losing to his socialist rival Prime Minister of Belgium 1979–81, Mitterrand. Throughout the 1960s, 1981–92 and prominent European Marchais was known as a christian democrat. Martens was born in plain-speaking pro-Soviet. 1936 at Sleidinge. He studied at Louvain Controversially, he did not see the social University and in 1960 became a lawyer unrest of May 1968 as an opportunity for at the Court of Appeal in Ghent. He was socialist revolution. Instead he criticised a leader of the Flemish People’s the student leader Daniel Cohn-Bendit Movement before becoming a christian as a ‘German anarchist’ and saw the democrat. He joined the Christian groups taking part in the protest as People’s Party (CVP) in 1962 and was ‘false revolutionaries’ and splinter President of its youth organisation groups. Marchais led the PCF to assert 1967–71. He was adviser to the Harmel the legitimacy of the Soviet Union’s cabinet (1965), the Vanden Boeynants invasion of Czechoslovakia. In 1972 cabinet (1966) and with the Ministry of Martens, Wilfried Mauroy, Pierre

Community Relations in 1968. He was 1978 elections and was ousted from the President of the CVP 1972–79, a ranks of the party leadership at the party Member of Parliament 1974–91 and a congress of 1979. However, in 1980, he Member of the senate 1991–94. His first was appointed as director of Mitterrand’s term as Prime Minister ended in his presidential election campaign. Mauroy resignation in April 1981 when the was appointed Prime Minister in 1981 Socialists in his government refused to and headed three successive accept Martens’ economic plan to beat governments. The second of these Belgium’s rising unemployment and included four Communist ministers and budgetary problems. In 1976 he was carried through the major reforms of the

co-founder of the European People’s Mitterrand presidency. Mauroy resigned BIOGRAPHIES Party (EPP). During his second term as in 1984 after a disagreement with Prime Minister (1981–92), he introduced Mitterrand over secondary school policy, 121 legislation promoting regional autonomy but continued to promote the unity of in Belgium, but had difficulties in getting the left. In 1988, Mauroy succeeded the bill through Parliament. His Jospin as First Secretary of the PS (a government collapsed in 1991 and he post he held until 1992) in spite of became Minister of State in 1992. He Mitterrand’s preference for the became the EPP’s President 1990–99 moderniser Fabius. and also acted as President of the EPP [See also: Fabius; Jospin; Mitterrand; party group in the European Parliament Mollet] 1994–99. From 1993 to 1996 he was President of the European Union of Mendès France, Pierre Christian Democrats. Martens, Wilfried Mauroy, Pierre A controversial figure whose political career spanned three Republics, Mauroy, Pierre Mendès France was Prime Minister in The first Socialist Prime Minister of the the Fourth Republic from June 1954 to Fifth Republic (1981–84). Mauroy was February 1955. Born in Paris in 1907, born in 1928 at Cartignies. He was Mendès France was a brilliant student General-Secretary of the Socialist Party’s who became the youngest lawyer in (SFIO) Young Socialists 1950–58. A France at age 19. He later graduated in secondary school teacher from 1952, he politics and took a doctorate in law at was a branch General-Secretary of the 21. Politically active from an early age, main teacher’s union FEN 1955–59. In he joined the Radical Party at 16. In 1966, he became Deputy 1932 he became the youngest Deputy in General-Secretary of the Socialist Party, the Parliament and in 1938, as but party leader Guy Mollet backed Under-Secretary of State for the Savary rather than Mauroy to succeed Treasury, the youngest member of a him as leader of the newly formed government in the Third Republic. Socialist Party (PS) in 1969. Mauroy Falsely charged with desertion during backed Mitterrand’s successful challenge the Second World War, he escaped to the party leadership in 1971 and was from prison to England, joined General rewarded with the party position of de Gaulle’s Free French air force and National Co-ordination Secretary. An served with a bomber squadron experienced and committed socialist, he 1942–43. He worked with de Gaulle in successfully integrated the different and Algiers as ‘minister’ of finance in what sometimes conflicting factions within the was to become the Provisional party, particularly the Christian and Government of France in May 1944. In secular tendencies. Mauroy clashed with 1944 he led the French delegation to Mitterrand after the left’s defeat in the the 1944 Bretton Woods conference on Mendès France, Pierre Mendès France, Pierre

international monetary issues and personal experience and reputation. participated in the creation of the World During the 1970s, he devoted his Bank. In September 1944, after the attention to trying to broker an liberation of Paris, he was named by de agreement between Israel and the Gaulle as Minister of the National Palestinians. Mendès France Economy. Dynamic and stubborn, he supported Mitterrand in the presidential pursued unpopular anti-inflationary elections of 1981. He died in October measures and currency reform, but was 1982. opposed by Finance Minister René [See also: de Gaulle; Mitterrand; Pleven. De Gaulle opted to support Mollet; Algerian conflict*; European

BIOGRAPHIES Pleven and Mendès France resigned in Defence Community*] May 1945. He took a principled stance, Mendès France, PierreMendès France, Pierre refusing a ministerial post in 1946 as he 122 Mitterrand, François believed he would not be permitted sufficient autonomy to carry out his Leader of the French Socialist Party and duties, and instead accepted numerous President of France 1981–95. Mitterrand national and international economic was born in Jarnac (in the Charante assignments. During his short region) in 1916. He studied law, and premiership (1954–55), Mendès France worked in law and publishing. In the launched a radical programme. Serving Second World War he became a also as Foreign Minister, he brought the prisoner-of-war in 1940, but escaped via war in Indo-China to a close; he Algeria to London. He served in de resolved an explosive situation in Gaulle’s provisional government until Tunisia by granting its autonomy; 1946, then became a member of the allowed a vote in the National National Assembly, serving in various Assembly to decide an entrenched capacities in eleven different controversy over the European Defence governments during the Fourth Community (the vote went against the Republic. He played a leading role in project, which was dropped); and various efforts to reorganise the helped to negotiate the terms for Socialists, and in 1971 became leader of German rearmament and entry into the newly formed Socialist Party, NATO. His bold handling of remaining leader until 1981. He was the controversial issues mobilised various losing candidate in the second round of forces against him and he was voted voting in the presidential elections of out of office in February 1955, ostensibly 1965 and 1974 (against de Gaulle and over his Algerian policy. From 1955 to d’Estaing). He defeated d’Estaing in 1957 he tried to renovate the Radical 1981 to become the first Socialist Party, but failed, and resigned as leader. President of the Fifth Republic, and was After serving briefly as Minister without re-elected in 1988. In his second term Portfolio (1956) in Guy Mollet’s he twice had to govern under government, he remained in an conditions of cohabitation, with a prime opposition role for the next twenty-five minister from the right wing as a years. Mendès France opposed both the consequence of the outcome of institutional framework of the Fifth elections to the National Assembly. Republic and the way in which de Mitterrand had to confront rumours that Gaulle came to power at the head of he had collaborated with the Vichy the new Republic, which he saw as regime during the war and of corruption illegitimate. During the Fifth Republic, within the ranks of his own party. He Mendès France associated briefly with died in 1996. left-wing groups but was politically [See also: de Gaulle; Giscard active largely on the basis of his d’Estaing; cohabitation*; Vichy regime*] Modrow, Hans Mollet, Guy

family in Flers (Normandy) in 1905 and Modrow, Hans was educated through a state Head of government of the GDR scholarship. He joined the Young 1989–90. Modrow was born in West Socialists in 1921 and the SFIO proper Pomerania in 1928. He joined the SED in 1923. A school teacher, Mollet helped in 1949, involving himself at first to found the union, the General especially in its youth organisation (the Federation of the Teaching Profession. Free German Youth), in which he During the Second World War he became a full-time employee, moving worked with the resistance and was a then to a staff position in the SED. He German prisoner-of-war 1940–41.

became head of the party organisation Elected Secretary-General of the SFIO in BIOGRAPHIES in Dresden in 1973, but was always 1946, he brought ideological and regarded as something of an outsider in strategic change to the party. He was 123 the party, and failed to attain positions elected to the first National Assembly of within the party that his experience and the Fourth Republic in 1946 and qualifications would seem to have appointed Minister of State in Léon deserved. This was associated with a Blum’s government 1946–47, a post he reputation in Dresden for resistance to, returned to under Pleven in 1950 before and criticism of, some policies of the becoming Deputy Prime Minister SED central committee in Berlin. Thus 1950–51. After the parliamentary when the SED came under pressure elections of 1956, Mollet became Prime during the citizen movement protests in Minister of a coalition government Autumn 1989, Modrow was seen as a comprising mainly Socialists and potential reformer who could rescue the Radicals. His programme featured party, and Krenz persuaded him to take stabilising the situation in Algeria and the post of Prime Minister. This post he social welfare reforms, but mounting retained until the first democratic problems led to his resignation in 1957. elections for the Volkskammer in March In 1958 Mollet was instrumental in 1990, but during his period in office he bringing de Gaulle’s Fifth Republic into was seen as too reactionary for the being, believing that this was the only times, being opposed by the Round way France could avoid a military Table and by other parties within and dictatorship. Mollet was appointed outside his coalition government. Minister of State in de Gaulle’s Following the reunification of Germany, government, and helped to draw up the Modrow became a Member of the new constitution of the Fifth Republic, Bundestag for the PDS. Accusations of but moved the Socialists into opposition electoral manipulation in Dresden in in 1959. By 1965, Mitterrand had 1989 led to his trial and conviction in emerged as the leading individual on 1993. He later became Honorary the left of the political spectrum. When Chairman of the PDS. the Socialists formed a new party (PS) [See also: Krenz; reunification of in 1969, Mollet resigned as Germany*; Round Table*] Secretary-General and devoted himself Modrow, Hans Mollet, Guy instead to his socialist research institute OURS. He died in 1975. Mollet, Guy [See also: de Gaulle; Algerian Secretary-General of the Socialist Party conflict*; resistance groups*] (SFIO) 1946–69 and Prime Minister of France 1956–57, Mollet played a key Monnet, Jean-Marie role in the transition between the French Fourth and Fifth Republics. The key thinker behind French post-war Mollet was born into a working-class economic planning and the visionary Monnet, Jean-Marie Monnet, Jean-Marie

strategist behind European integration, of Paris (18 April 1951) formally Jean Monnet never held elected office, establishing the ECSC. He also nor did he follow a regular civil service participated in plans for a European career path. Monnet was born in Cognac Defence Community (EDC), abandoned in 1888, was apprenticed in London to when the French National Assembly learn English, and at 18 became an refused to ratify it. In spite of this international salesman for his father’s setback, Monnet and the Belgian Foreign wholesale brandy co-operative. Unfit for Minister Spaak managed to maintain the service in the First World War, he momentum towards European helped to initiate the creation in 1916–18 economic integration. In 1955, Monnet

BIOGRAPHIES of eight Allied Executives co-ordinating presented Spaak with plans for a scarce supplies of commodities and European Atomic Energy Community. pooling transport. After the war, he Together with Dutch proposals for a 124 became Deputy Secretary-General of the Common Market, this proposal new League of Nations and was culminated in the Rome Treaties of concerned with rehabilitation 1957, which established the EEC and programmes. In 1938, Monnet was EURATOM. De Gaulle’s return to power co-opted by the Prime Minister, Edouard in 1958 restored a nationalist mentality Daladier, to help with preparations for to French politics and undermined the Second World War. He negotiated Monnet’s internationalist stance and his aeroplane orders with the neutral USA personal influence in France. In 1959 he and took a leading role in Anglo-French persuaded the USA to co-found the co-ordination. Sent to the British Supply OECD. Monnet died in 1979. Council in Washington by Churchill, by [See also: Churchill; de Gaulle; 1941 Monnet was acting as an adviser to Schuman; Spaak; European Coal and Beaverbrook and Roosevelt, promoting Steel Community*; European Defence war production. Sent to Algiers to advise Community*; European Free Trade the Allies in North Africa, Monnet helped Association*] de Gaulle to gain control of the French Monnet, Jean-Marie Monnet, Jean-Marie committee of national liberation. Back in Moro, Aldo France, in 1946 Monnet took charge of the new, independent General Planning Prime Minister of Italy 1963–68, 1974–76, Commission attached to the Prime Moro was kidnapped and murdered by Minister, where he devised the ‘Monnet Red Brigade terrorists in 1978. Moro was Plan’ on investment priorities for born in 1916 in Maglie and studied at economic reconstruction through the University of Bari, where he took American funding. The plan was part in Catholic student politics and intended to modernise France’s gained a PhD in law in 1940. After the economic capacity, to be responsive to Second World War, Moro joined the changing economic needs and to Christian Democratic party (DC) and integrate affected interests, including the was elected to Italy’s Constituent trade unions. It provided the foundations Assembly in 1946. Moro took part in the for French economic co-operation and drafting of the constitution which competition with Germany. In 1950, established the Republic of Italy in June Monnet turned his attention to European 1946. In 1948 he was elected to the integration, preparing a plan for the Chamber of Deputies and became a future European Coal and Steel leading member of the DC party group. Community (ECSC), which was He served as Under-Secretary of State in promoted by the French Foreign Minister de Gasperi’s government in May 1948. In Robert Schuman. Monnet chaired the 1955 he became Minister of Justice and conference which produced the Treaty carried out a reform of the prison system. Moro, Aldo Mussolini, Benito

He was appointed Minister of Education daring glider rescue from this in May 1957 and in 1959 became leader imprisonment by German troops of the DC. In 1963 he formed a centre-left permitted Mussolini to set up a puppet government which he successfully regime in German-occupied Italy, but as steered and reorganised until June 1968, the war came to an end in April 1945 when the Socialists refused to take part. Mussolini was caught by partisans when He then took the post of Foreign attempting to escape to Switzerland, Minister until he again formed a coalition and was summarily hanged. government with the Republican Party. [See also: Franco; Hitler; Spanish civil From February 1976 he maintained a war*]

minority government in power until July BIOGRAPHIES 1976. He then became President of the Ollenhauer, Erich DC and it was anticipated that he might 125 be chosen as President of the Republic. Leader of the West German Social However, on 16 March 1978, he was Democratic Party (SPD) 1952–60. Born kidnapped by Red Brigade terrorists, in Magdeburg in 1901, Ollenhauer joined ‘tried’ and killed. His body was found in the SPD in 1916 and became a member Rome on 9 May 1978. of the party’s paid staff. He was a [See also: de Gasperi; Red Brigades*] member of the SPD contingent on the Moro, Aldo Mussolini, Benito Parliamentary Council which drafted the Basic Law, was elected to the Mussolini, Benito Bundestag in 1949, and, following the Fascist dictator of Italy. Born in 1883 in death of Schumacher, became party the Romagna, Mussolini became a leader in 1952. He was the SPD socialist agitator in his youth. He fought chancellor-candidate in the 1953 and in the First World War, then became a 1957 Bundestag elections. His failure in representative of an ex-servicemen’s the 1957 election (when Adenauer association. In 1919 he began to secured an absolute majority of votes promote fascist beliefs, based on radical and seats) and his discomfiture with the nationalism and authoritarian rule, and 1959 Bad Godesberg SPD reform engaged in terrorising his former programme led to his resignation as socialist allies. He became Prime party leader in 1960. He died in 1963. Minister of Italy following his ‘March on [See also: Adenauer; Schumacher; Rome’ by his blackshirted fascist Godesberg Programme*] supporters, but soon turned this post into that of a dictator (Il Duce). He then Paisley, Ian developed a policy of overseas expansion, to rival Hitler’s territorial Leader of the Democratic Unionist Party ambitions in Europe. The invasion of (Northern Ireland). Paisley was born in Abbysinia was followed by engagement Armagh in 1926. After a theological on the side of General Franco in the education, he was ordained as minister Spanish civil war, then the occupation in 1946 and became involved in and annexation of Albania. He entered Unionist politics. He was a member of into a pact with Hitler (the Axis pact). the Northern Ireland Parliament at Joining in the Second World War once Stormont 1970–72, and of the Northern France had collapsed, Mussolini’s Ireland Assembly 1973–74. He has been military advances in Greece and North an MP in the House of Commons since Africa were soon followed by serious 1970 and was elected to the new defeats. He was forced to resign from Northern Ireland Assembly in 1998. He his position as head of the government was elected leader of his party in 1979. in 1943 and was then imprisoned. A Paisley has a reputation as an Paisley, Ian Papandreou, Andreas

intemperate orator, an uncompromising and tortured in 1939, he left in 1940 for opponent of Northern Ireland political the USA, where he studied at Columbia Catholicism and nationalism, a University and received a doctorate from propagator of fundamentalist Harvard in 1943. Papandreou took US Protestantism and a bitter critic of the citizenship, served in the US navy and British government whenever proposals began an academic career in for a compromise settlement in economics. He returned to Greece in Northern Ireland are mooted. Paisley 1959 and became Director of the Centre opposed the Sunningdale Agreement in of Economic Research. He renounced 1972, for instance. His behaviour in the his American citizenship in January 1964

BIOGRAPHIES House of Commons has resulted in his and was elected to Parliament as a exclusion on several occasions. representative of his father’s Centre [See also: Good Friday Agreement*; Union Party. When Georgios 126 Stormont*] Papandreou became Prime Minister in Paisley, Ian Papandreou, Andreas 1964, his son Andreas became his chief adviser. Andreas was an outspoken critic Palme, Olaf of the King and the military and was Prime Minister of Sweden 1969–76 and forced to step down in November 1964 1982 until his assassination in 1986. on charges of corruption. He was Palme was born in Stockholm in 1927. reinstated in the Spring of 1965, but fell He studied law, but began a career in with his father’s government in July politics within the organisation of the 1965. When the military staged a coup Swedish Social Democratic Labour in April 1967, Andreas Papandreou was Party. He was elected to the Swedish charged with high treason and was kept Parliament in 1957 and from 1963 was in solitary confinement until he was appointed to several governmental released in an amnesty in December positions, before becoming party leader 1967. He went into exile as an opponent and Prime Minister in 1969. While out of of the junta, again working as an office between 1976 and 1981, he was a academic. He founded the anti-junta member of several international Panhellenic Liberation Movement in 1968. commissions concerned with Papandreou returned to Greece in 1974 third-world development and when the military government fell. He disarmament. His government refused to lead his father’s former party, undertook several important the Centre Union Party, and instead constitutional reforms in Sweden, founded the Panhellenic Socialist including making the Swedish Movement. For the rest of the 1970s, Parliament unicameral and eliminating Papandreou vigorously attacked the almost entirely the political role of the Karamanlis government. In the elections monarch. He was killed by gunfire from of 1981, his Panhellenic Socialist an unknown assailant in Stockholm in Movement beat Rallis’ New Democratic February 1986. Party and Papandreou became Prime Minister. His government introduced a series of socialist reforms. In 1988 his Papandreou, Andreas government’s popularity fell and he was Prime Minister of Greece 1981–89 and accused of corruption and the misuse of 1993–96. Papandreou was born in Chios power. He stepped down in 1989 after in 1919, the son of the former Prime electoral defeat. Once his parliamentary Minister Georgios Papandreou. He immunity was lifted, Papandreou was studied law at the University of Athens charged with corruption, but was and became a Trotskyist critic of the acquitted in January 1992. He led his dictatorship of Ioannis Metaxas. Arrested party to an election victory in 1993, but Papandreou, Andreas Pöhl, Karl Otto his health deteriorated from 1995, and (and parity for some transactions) when he resigned as Prime Minister in January the German Democratic Republic and 1996. He died later that year. the German Federal Republic entered [See also: Karamanlis] into a Treaty of Economic and Monetary Papandreou, Andreas Pöhl, Karl Otto Union. Pöhl warned that such a generous exchange rate would prove to Pétain, Marshal [See: Vichy regime*] be inflationary and would damage the East German economy. Pflimlin, Pierre [See also: Kohl; Bundesbank*] Prime Minister of France 1958. Pflimlin

was born in Roubaix in 1907. He was BIOGRAPHIES Pompidou, Georges educated in Mulhouse (in Alsace) and universities in Paris and Strasbourg and Prime Minister, then President, of the 127 qualified as a lawyer. He was a Fifth French Republic. Pompidou was prisoner-of-war in 1940, and on release born in the Auvergne in 1911. After joined the resistance. Elected to the studying classics, he became a National Assembly in 1946 as a secondary school teacher. Involved in Republican Party deputy, he became a the resistance during the Second World minister in many of the – usually War, he joined de Gaulle’s staff in 1944, short-lived – cabinets of the Fourth and held various political appointments Republic. After his very brief term as before entering banking in 1955. He last Prime Minister of the Fourth returned to politics when the Fifth Republic (except for de Gaulle himself ), Republic was established in 1958, and Pflimlin served in de Gaulle’s Fifth was principal negotiator of the Évian Republic government in 1962. He served Agreements, ending French involvement as mayor of Strasbourg from 1959 until in the Algerian struggle for 1984, and was a Member of the independence. De Gaulle made European Parliament 1979–89, holding Pompidou Prime Minister in 1962. In the office of President of the Parliament 1968, Pompidou played a major role in 1984–87. He was an enthusiastic calming the riots and protests initiated supporter of European integration. He by the students and workers. De Gaulle died in 2000. held Pompidou responsible for what he [See also: de Gaulle; Algerian saw as unwise concessions to the conflict*; resistance groups*] workers and dismissed him as Prime Minister that same year. However, following de Gaulle’s sudden resignation Pöhl, Karl Otto as President in 1969, Pompidou was President of the German Federal Bank elected as de Gaulle’s successor. (Bundesbank) 1980–91. Pöhl was born Pompidou set about extending the in Hanover in 1929. After an early career powers of the president into economic as a journalist, he became and other domestic policy areas, in a Vice-President of the Bundesbank in drive to modernise the French 1977, and became President in 1980. economy, especially in relation to its Though a member of the Social infrastructure. He died in office in 1974. Democratic Party, he resisted several [See also: de Gaulle; Évian measures of the SPD–Liberal coalition Agreements*; resistance groups*] designed to decrease unemployment through state expenditures. Pöhl is Poujade, Pierre-Marie particularly remembered for his criticism in 1990 of the plan by the Kohl Born in 1920 in Saint-Céré (Lot), government for an exchange rate of 2:1 Poujade was a political activist who Poujade, Pierre-Marie Prodi, Romano

challenged processes of modernisation Born in 1939 in Scandiano, Prodi in France. Brought up as a monarchist, studied at the Catholic University of he at first supported the Vichy regime. Milan. He became Professor of However, by 1942 Poujade was Economics and Industrial Policy at the disillusioned by Vichy’s subservience to University of Bologna in 1971. He was the Germans and tried to leave France Minister of Industry 1978–79. During the for Spain. He was arrested but was 1980s and 1990s he held high-ranking freed in 1943. After the war he went posts related to economic and industrial back to Saint-Céré and set up a research and has published widely on wholesale book business. By the early such issues. In 1995, following the

BIOGRAPHIES 1950s such small businesses, a strong public collapse in confidence in the feature of France’s economy, were traditional parties, he founded the Olive threatened by the rise of big business. Tree, a coalition of centre-left parties, 128 In 1953, Poujade began to organise and after the electoral success of the demonstrations against the way the coalition he became Prime Minister complicated tax system was 1996–98. In 1999 he became President implemented with respect to smaller of the European Commission. businesses. In 1954 he formed the [See also: Tangentopoli*] pressure group, the Union for the Protection of Businesses and Craftsmen, Rau, Johannes (UDCA), which soon took on a wider protest role, attacking aspects of President of the Federal Republic of modernisation including foreign Germany from 1999, and Prime Minister influences in France, republicanism, of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) bureaucracy, the dominance of Paris 1978–97. Rau was born in Wuppertal in and urbanisation. In 1955 Poujade 1931. He went into a career in the book formed a political party, the Union and trade. He joined the Social Democratic Fraternity of the French (UFF) and Party in 1957, and was elected to the conducted major rallies throughout NRW Land Parliament in 1958. After France. In the 1956 elections, the UFF serving as lord mayor of his home gained 52 seats in the National town, Wuppertal, he became a minister Assembly. However, the party was in the NRW Land government from organisationally and electorally unstable, 1970 until his election by his party in and did not survive the transition to the 1978 as NRW Prime Minister. He led his Fifth Republic in 1958 as a credible party to a series of electoral successes political force. Poujade remained a wild in NRW, making what had previously card in French politics until the been a marginal Land for his party into mid-1960s, when he became reconciled one which provided the SPD with to the Fifth Republic and even became absolute majorities. He was SPD adviser to Pompidou on small chancellor-candidate in the 1987 federal businesses. He launched a further party election, but was unable to attract many (UDI) for the 1979 European elections, additional votes to his party. He served but it was not successful. In 1981, he in several senior positions in the supported Mitterrand’s candidacy for the national SPD organisation, becoming a presidential elections. deputy chairman in 1982. He ran as SPD [See also: Mitterrand; Vichy regime*] candidate for the office of federal Poujade, Pierre-Marie Prodi, Romano president in 1994, but without success. However, in 1999, supported by the Prodi, Romano large number of SPD Members of the Prime Minister of Italy 1996–98 and Bundestag elected in 1998, Rau was President of the European Commission. elected President of the republic on the Rau, Johannes Rocard, Michel second ballot. Rau has always had presidential campaign and joined the close links to the Protestant church in new Socialist Party (PS) later that year, West Germany. following the party’s integration of the Rau, Johannes Rocard, Michel bulk of the non-communist left of the party spectrum. He soon became the Robinson, Mary leading voice of the new left or ‘realist’ Former President of Ireland and UN social democracy within the PS and the High Commissioner for Human Rights. only serious rival to Mitterrand for the Robinson was born in 1944 in County party’s leadership. Popular with the Mayo, Ireland. She studied law at Trinity public in the late 1970s, in the 1980s he

College, Dublin and Harvard University. had to contend with a new generation BIOGRAPHIES She then practised as a lawyer and of ‘Mitterrandists’, particularly Fabius became a professor at Trinity College. and Jospin. Rocard was Minister of the 129 She was a member of the Irish Senate Plan 1981–83 and Minister of Agriculture 1969–89. In 1990 she was elected as 1983 but resigned in 1985 in protest President of Ireland and served until over the PS’s tactical decision to 1997. As President, she lent her support introduce proportional representation for to several measures promoting a more the 1986 parliamentary elections. He liberal society in Ireland. She was then distanced himself from the party to appointed as UN Commissioner for prepare his candidacy for the Human Rights, in which role she has presidential elections of 1988, but been involved in various crises all over withdrew when Mitterrand declared he the world, for example in East Timor. would stand. Rocard became Prime Minister of France (1988–91). He was Secretary of the Socialist Party 1993–94 Rocard, Michel and has been a Member of the French Prime Minister 1988–91, Rocard European Parliament since 1994. was born in 1930 at Courbevoie (Seine). [See also: Fabius; Jospin; Mitterrand; He studied at the Institute of Political Mollet; Algerian conflict*] Studies in Paris and at the National College of Administration. He pursued a Rohwedder, Detlev dual career as an inspector of finances and in the ‘new left’ in politics, using Head of the Treuhandgesellschaft the pseudonym Georges Servet for his (Trustee Agency) responsible for political activities until the mid-1960s. privatisation and restructuring of East Rocard was National Secretary of the German business enterprises following Association of Socialist Students reunification. Rohwedder was born in 1955–56. The group was allied to the Gotha in 1932. He studied law at the Socialist Party (SFIO), but Rocard split Universities of Mainz and Hamburg, then with the party over the Mollet was employed by various business government’s Algerian policy. In 1958, companies. He joined the SPD in 1969, he became a member of the and that same year was appointed as Autonomous Socialist Party (PSA) which the chief civil servant (State Secretary) joined with the Unified Socialist Party in the Ministry of Economics when the (PSU) in 1960. He was National SPD–FDP coalition was formed. He Secretary of the PSU 1967–73, the retained that post until 1978. In 1990 he youngest leader of an organised political was appointed Chairman of the party. Opposed to violence, he did not Treuhandgesellschaft. In 1991 he was join the street protests of 1968, but later assassinated by a bomb set by the Red became spokesman of that movement. Army faction. In 1974 Rocard supported Mitterrand’s [See also: Treuhandanstalt*] Salazar, Antonio Santer, Jacques

While Prime Minister he was Salazar, Antonio simultaneously Minister of State and of Prime Minister of Portugal 1932–68. Finance 1984–89 and Minister of State, Salazar was born in Santa Comba Dao of Cultural Affairs and of the Treasury in 1889. He studied economics and and Financial Affairs 1989–94. Santer finance at university, and became a became President of the European professor of economics in 1916, before Commission in 1994 but a series of entering politics. He was elected to scandals led to his resignation, together Parliament in 1921 and became Minister with his Commission team, in 1998. of Finance in 1926 and again from 1928.

BIOGRAPHIES He ruled as a dictator. He maintained Scalfaro, Oscar Portugal’s neutral stance in the Spanish civil war and the Second World War, President of Italy 1992–99, Scalfaro 130 though he gave support to Franco. He promoted the ongoing process of set himself firmly against the constitutional reform in Italy during the introduction of steps towards autonomy 1980s. Born in 1918 in Novara, Scalfaro for Portugal’s overseas colonies. He studied at the Catholic University of reluctantly agreed to allow a multi-party Milan. He was elected Christian system to develop after the Second Democratic (DC) deputy for Turin- World War, though the secret police Novara-Vercelli in 1948. He played a kept opposition activities in check. He leadership role in the DC, acting as survived a number of attempts to Secretary, then Vice-Chair of the overthrow him and his regime by parliamentary party group and communists and elements of the participating in the party’s national military. He retired on grounds of council. During de Gasperi’s leadership, ill-health in 1968 and died in 1970. Scalfaro joined the DC central office. He [See also: Armed Forces Movement*] was Under-Secretary of State at the Salazar, Antonio Santer, Jacques Ministry of Labour and Social Security in the Fanfani government, Under-Secretary Santer, Jacques in the Ministry of Justice and Prime Minister of Luxembourg 1984–89 Under-Secretary at the Ministry of the and 1989–94 and President of the Interior 1959–62. He was Minister of European Commission 1994–99. Born in Transport and Civil Aviation in the Moro, 1937 in Wasserbillig, Santer studied at Leone and Andreotti governments, the Universities of Paris and Strasbourg Minister of Education in the second and at the Paris Institute of Political Andreotti government, and Minister of Studies. He became an advocate at the the Interior 1983–87. In April 1987 he Luxembourg Court of Appeal 1961–65. tried to form a government, but was not He worked with the Ministry of Labour successful. He became President of the and Social Security 1963–65 and was a Republic on 28 May 1992. government attaché 1965–66. He was [See also: Andreotti; de Gasperi; President of the Christian Social Party Leone; Moro; Tangentopoli*] 1974–82. He was Secretary of State for Cultural and Social Affairs 1972–74. He Scharping, Rudolf was a member of the Luxembourg Chamber of Deputies 1974–79 and of Former leader of the German Social the European Parliament 1975–79, Democratic Party and becoming its Vice-President in 1975–77. chancellor-candidate in the 1994 He then returned to Luxembourg Bundestag election. Scharping was born politics, acting as Minister of Labour, of in Niederelbert in 1947. After studying Finance and of Social Security 1979–84. law, politics and sociology at the Scharping, Rudolf Scheel, Walter

University of Bonn, he became an taking the FDP into coalition with the assistant to two Members of the SPD after the Bundestag election of Bundestag (1969–75) and was Land 1969. As Foreign Minister in the Brandt Chair of the Young Socialists 1969–74, government, Scheel played a significant and Deputy Chair of the federal Young role in Brandt’s Ostpolitik. Scheel resigned Socialists 1974–76. He was elected to as Foreign Minister and leader of his the Rhineland-Pfalz Land Parliament in party in 1974 on health grounds, and 1975, remaining a Member until 1994. was elected as federal President that He served as Chair of the Land same year, serving one term (1974–79). parliamentary party from 1985 to 1991, [See also: Adenauer; Brandt;

Chair of the Rhineland-Pfalz SPD Grabenwahlsystem*; Ostpolitik*; Young BIOGRAPHIES 1985–94 and Minister-President 1991–94. Turks’ revolt*] Elected to the Bundestag in 1994, he 131 became leader of the SPD Bundestag Schmid, Carlo party group, a post he held until the 1998 election. He was elected leader of Prominent politician in the West the SPD in 1993 but his failure to win German Social Democratic Party after the 1994 Bundestag election and poor the Second World War. Schmid was Land election results after that election born in 1896 in Perpignan, in southern led to a successful challenge by France. He was a lawyer by training, Lafontaine at the 1995 party conference. becoming a professor of law and then Following the 1998 election, as a result of political science. He served as of which the SPD formed a government Minister of Justice in the Land of with the Greens, Scharping was Württemberg-Hohenzollern 1947–50, and unsuccessful in his efforts to retain the as a member of the SPD delegation to leadership of the parliamentary party, the Parliamentary Council which drafted and instead was persuaded to become the Basic Law 1948–49. As a member of Minister of Defence. the Praesidium of the SPD Schmid had [See also: Lafontaine] great influence on the drafting and Scharping, Rudolf Scheel, Walter adoption of the Godesberg Programme. He was a Member of the Bundestag Scheel, Walter 1949–72, and played a leading role in Foreign Minister of the Federal Republic the parliamentary party of the SPD and of Germany, leader of the Free in Bundestag committees, as well as Democratic Party (FDP) and federal acting as a Vice-President of the President. Scheel was born in 1919 in Bundestag 1949–66 and 1969–72. He Solingen. He served in the German air served as Minister responsible for force during the Second World War, co-ordination with the Länder in the afterwards pursuing a business career. grand coalition (1966–69). He was also He joined the FDP and entered local author of several distinguished books on politics before his election to the political and historical topics, and did Bundestag in 1953. He was one of the much to foster Franco-German relations. group of young FDP members whose He died in 1979. campaign in North Rhine-Westphalia in [See also: Godesberg Programme*; 1956 resulted in the termination of the grand coalition*] Land governing coalition of the FDP and CDU, and its replacement by a coalition Schmidt, Helmut with the SPD, in protest at Adenauer’s proposed electoral system changes. He Chancellor of the Federal Republic of became a deputy leader of the FDP in Germany 1974–82. Born in Hamburg in 1958, and was elected as leader in 1968, 1918, Schmidt served in the German Schmidt, Helmut Schönhuber, Franz

army in the Second World War and was born in Trostberg (Bavaria) in 1923. was awarded the Iron Cross. He then In the Second World War he served as attended Hamburg University, and a member of the Waffen-SS (the joined the Social Democratic Party military arm of the SS). After the war he (SPD) in 1946. He was employed as a commenced a career in journalism, manager by the city government after which led to an important post with the graduation. First elected to the Bavarian broadcasting service, including Bundestag in 1953, he resigned in 1962 having his own talk-show, but was to become a minister in the Hamburg dismissed because of public and media Land government, where his actions reaction to his memoirs (published in

BIOGRAPHIES during the severe 1962 flooding of the 1981) in which he defended the city were praised. He returned to the Waffen-SS and the ‘idealism’ of its Bundestag in 1965, and, following members. In 1983 he was a co-founder 132 service as Chairman of the SPD of the Republican party, a breakaway parliamentary party group during the party of former CSU politicians, which ‘grand coalition’, became Minister of soon developed a radical right-wing Defence in the Brandt coalition in 1969. identity and anti-foreigner rhetoric once When Schiller resigned in 1972 as Schönhuber became Chairman. The Finance and Economics Minister, Republicans had surprising successes in Schmidt took those ministries, then the Berlin Land election and European served as Finance Minister after the parliamentary election of 1989 Bundestag election in 1972 until 1974. In (Schönhuber himself serving as an MEP 1974 he was the undisputed successor until 1994) and in the as Chancellor, after Brandt resigned that Baden-Württemberg Land election in office in the wake of the Guillaume 1992. Schönhuber lost the chairmanship scandal. As Chancellor, Schmidt was of the Republicans in 1994 and resigned effective and efficient, but, with Brandt from the party in 1995. He remained remaining as party leader, was not active in far-right political circles, and successful in integrating the various was a candidate for the German factions in the SPD. In particular, the People’s Party (DVU) in the 1998 hostile attitudes of his own left wing Bundestag election. towards defence and economic policies [See also: xenophobia*] led to a breach within the coalition. The FDP’s decision to support Kohl (the Schröder, Gerhard leader of the CDU) in a constructive vote of no confidence against Schmidt Chancellor of the Federal Republic of in October 1982 led to the replacement Germany since 1998 and leader of the of Schmidt’s government by a coalition Social Democratic Party (SPD) since of Christian Democrats and the FDP. 1999. Schröder was born in 1944 in Schmidt in political retirement took on a Mossenberg, near Detmold. He studied role as elder statesman, and from 1983 law at the University of Göttingen. He became involved in the editorship of the joined the SPD in 1963, and in 1986 news weekly: Die Zeit. became leader of the SPD parliamentary [See also: Brandt; Kohl; constructive group in the Lower Saxony Land vote of no confidence*; grand Parliament. In 1989 he was elected to coalition*; Guillaume Affair*] the Praesidium of the SPD, and in 1990 Schmidt, Helmut Schönhuber, Franz he became Minister President of Lower Saxony, winning the elections in 1994 Schönhuber, Franz and 1998 also. Though he had lost to Co-founder and former leader of the Scharping in the membership ballot for German Republican party. Schonhüber the post of party leader in 1993, his Schröder, Gerhard Schuman, Robert electoral successes in Lower Saxony integration. Schuman was born in made him the obvious choice to be Luxembourg in 1886, grew up in Metz chancellor-candidate for the 1998 (then German) and studied law at Bundestag election. He led his party to Bonn, Munich and Berlin. When an overwhelming electoral victory in Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France that election, and formed a coalition in 1918, Schuman entered French with the Greens. In 1999 he replaced politics, being elected to Parliament in Lafontaine as party leader, after 1919 as a christian democrat. In 1940 he Lafontaine resigned from his was appointed Under-Secretary of State governmental and party positions. for Refugees in Reynaud’s war cabinet.

[See also: Lafontaine; Scharping] After briefly supporting Pétain, Schuman BIOGRAPHIES Schröder, Gerhard Schuman, Robert resigned from the Vichy government and forged links with the resistance Schumacher, Kurt 133 instead. After the Second World War Leader of the Social Democratic Party of Schuman joined the new christian West Germany after the Second World democratic party: the Mouvement War. Schumacher was born in Prussia Républicain Populaire (MRP) and was in 1895. His wounds in the First World re-elected to Parliament. He was War resulted in the amputation of an Minister for Finance in the governments arm. He studied law and political of Bidault (1946) and Ramadier (1947). science at university. He then involved He became Prime Minister (1947–48) himself in socialist politics in the under conditions of financial crisis and Weimar Republic, being elected to the industrial unrest. From 1948 to 1953 Reichstag in 1930. He spent much of Schuman was Minister for Foreign the Hitler period in concentration Affairs in ten successive governments, camps. Involving himself in the revival faced with the task of restraining of the SPD even before the Second Germany in the context of European World War had ended, Schumacher co-operation. In May 1950 he adopted became a leading politician in the Monnet’s plan to merge the French and British zone of occupation. He German coal and steel industries. This vehemently opposed the scheme in the ‘Schuman Plan’ led to the creation of Soviet occupation zone to merge the the European Coal and Steel SPD and the Communist Party, rejecting Community (ECSC) and eventually the it for the western zones. He was elected EEC. His close association with the leader of the West German SPD in failed ‘Pleven Plan’ for a European 1946. The result of the Bundestag Defence Community ended his spell as election in 1949 meant that the SPD Foreign Minister in 1953. Schuman died was in opposition, and Schumacher, as in 1963. leader of the opposition, criticised many [See also: Monnet; European Coal of Adenauer’s policies, especially and Steel Community*; European concerning the market economy and Defence Community*; Vichy regime*] Adenauer’s preference for western integration rather than the pursuit of Smith, Iain Duncan [See: Duncan German reunification. Schumacher died Smith, Iain] in 1952. [See also: Adenauer; Hitler] Smith, John Leader of the British Labour Party from Schuman, Robert 1992 until his death in 1994. John Smith Schuman held high office in France, but was born in 1938, and qualified as a is best known for his work for European lawyer. He became an MP in 1970, and Smith, John Soares, Mário

held office in the Wilson and Callaghan League of Human Rights. After the coup governments. Having held various senior of April 1974, Soares returned to posts in the opposition’s ‘shadow Portugal. As Minister of Foreign Affairs cabinet’ from 1979 onwards, he was 1974–75, he led negotiations on the elected as party leader in succession to independence of the Portuguese Neil Kinnock, following Kinnock’s overseas colonies of Guinea-Bissau, resignation after the election of 1992. Mozambique and Angola. He was Smith continued and developed some Vice-President of the Socialist of the processes of reform of the International 1976–86 and its honorary Labour Party’s policies, image and president thereafter. The Socialists won

BIOGRAPHIES organisation which had commenced a majority in the Constituent Assembly under Kinnock’s leadership, and which elections in 1975, but a tense period were continued by Tony Blair. followed when the leftist military at first 134 [See also: Blair; Callaghan; Kinnock; refused to acknowledge the result. In Wilson] further elections of April 1976, the Smith, John Soares, Mário Socialists again won a majority of seats and Soares became Prime Minister until Soares, Mário 1978, and again 1983–85. During his Prime Minister of Portugal three times period in office he pursued negotiations 1976–85; President of Portugal 1986–96. leading to Portuguese membership of Soares was born in 1924 in Lisbon. His the European Community and signed father was João Soares, a liberal who the Treaty of Accession in 1985. In 1986 had served in the republican he became President of Portugal. He government overthrown by a military has held numerous other national and coup in 1926. Mário Soares studied at international positions. the University of Lisbon, where he [See also: Salazar; Armed Forces founded the United Democratic Youth Movement*] Movement in 1946, and, later, at the Sorbonne in Paris. An active opponent Soustelle, Jacques of Salazar’s dictatorship, Mário Soares was jailed 12 times on political grounds. Leading member of the French ‘Secret He was first arrested for Army’ opposed to de Gaulle’s Algerian anti-government activities in 1947. In policies. Soustelle was born in 1912. He 1958 Soares was active in the worked closely with de Gaulle during unsuccessful presidential campaign of the Second World War and its the opposition candidate General immediate aftermath. He was General Delgado. When Delgado was murdered Secretary of the RPF, de Gaulle’s party in Spain in 1965, Soares acted as the after the war. He served as Governor of lawyer for his family and attracted Algeria, but his intemperate statements international attention by revealing how concerning Algeria led to his recall in Salazar’s secret police were implicated 1956. He supported the recall of de in the crime. He was deported to São Gaulle and the creation of the Fifth Tomé March–November 1968 and went Republic, serving in de Gaulle’s first into exile in France during the early government. After his exclusion from 1970s. In West Germany in 1973, he the government following riots in Algeria founded the Portuguese Socialist Party in 1960, Soustelle joined the leadership and was its Secretary-General until 1986. of the ‘Secret Army’, and was exiled in Soares represented the Portuguese 1962, only returning to France when Socialists at various European socialist pardoned after the 1968 student riots. congresses and was the Portuguese [See also: de Gaulle; Algerian representative to the International conflict*; May Events*] Spaak, Paul-Henri Spring, Dick

Spaak, Paul-Henri Spring, Dick Prime Minister of Belgium 1938–39, Irish Foreign Minister and leader of the March 1946, 1947–49, and leading Irish Labour Party. Spring was born in international politician. Spaak was born Tralee in 1950. He studied and practised into a wealthy family of political law before entering the Irish Parliament activists in 1899 in Schaerbeek. He in 1981. He served as Deputy Prime spent two years as a German Minister in coalition governments in prisoner-of-war during the First World 1982–87 and 1993–97; in the second of War. After the war, he graduated in law those coalitions he was Foreign

from the Université Libre de Bruxelles. Minister. He was leader of the Irish BIOGRAPHIES He joined the Socialist Party in the Labour Party 1982–97. 1920s and in 1932 he was elected to Spaak, Paul-Henri Spring, Dick 135 the Belgian Chamber of Deputies, Springer, Axel where he led the Socialists’ left faction. He served in ministerial posts in German publisher and media 1935–36 before becoming Prime entrepreneur. Springer was born in Minister in 1938. When Germany Altona, near Hamburg, in 1912. In the occupied Belgium, he fled to London period immediately after the Second and acted as Foreign Minister in the World War he began his career as a Belgian government-in-exile. After the newspaper publisher, founding a liberation, Spaak returned to Belgium number of newspapers and magazines, as Deputy Prime Minister, but also took including in 1952 the enormously an active role in European and successful Bild tabloid daily paper, and international politics. Leading the acquiring the respected Die Welt Belgian delegation to the United newspaper in 1953. The student Nations (UN) Conference in 1945, he movement which developed in the late helped to draft the UN charter and 1960s targeted Springer as a ‘monopoly served as the first President of the capitalist’ because of his ownership of a United Nations General Assembly in large share of the newspaper and 1946. Spaak promoted the formation of magazine markets. Among other incidents the Benelux customs union between such as blockades of distribution centres Belgium, the Netherlands and to prevent circulation of his publications, Luxembourg and later played a a bomb attack on the Hamburg leading role in the creation of the headquarters of the Springer companies European Common Market in March in 1972 wounded 17 people. Springer 1957. He was Secretary-General of the was unremitting in his critiques of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation left-wing-dominated student movement, (NATO) 1957–61, after which he promoted the idea of German returned to Belgian politics as Foreign reunification and the illegitimacy of the Minister. He welcomed Britain’s first GDR regime, and defended his position application to join the EEC and was in the publishing market against those angered by the French veto on British who claimed his dominance should be membership in 1963. He worked to weakened by new legal constraints. ease tense relations between Belgium Springer expanded into broadcasting, and its former colony, the African including involvement in the Sat–1 Congo. When he retired from politics in commercial television channel. He was 1966, Spaak continued to work as a generous in his contributions to commercial international adviser. He charities, including to various charitable died in 1972. causes in Israel. He died in 1985. [See also: de Gaulle; Benelux*] [See also: May Events*] Steel, David Stoiber, Edmund

He was appointed Interior Minister in Steel, David the Bavarian government in 1988, and Leader of the British Liberal Party served until 1993, when he became 1976–88, when it merged with the Prime Minister of Bavaria. He has been Social Democratic Party to become the leader of the CSU since 1999. He Liberal Democratic Party. Steel was became the chancellor-candidate for born in Kirkcaldy, Scotland, in 1938. the 2002 Bundestag election on 11 Following study at Edinburgh University, January 2002, following the Steel became a journalist, then was announcement by Merkel that she elected to the House of Commons in a would not seek that position herself.

BIOGRAPHIES by-election in 1965. He became well known following the success of his 1967 Stoph, Willi Private Member’s bill to reform legal 136 restrictions on abortion. After serving as Head of the government (in effect, chief whip of his party, he was elected Prime Minister) of the German leader in 1976 following the resignation Democratic Republic 1964–73 and of Thorpe (Grimond, the former leader, 1976–89. Stoph was born in Berlin in serving as interim leader). In 1977 he 1914. He joined the Communist Party of took his party into an alliance with Germany in 1931. After military service Callaghan’s Labour government that in the Second World War, he made a was less than a formal coalition, and career within the communist Socialist seemed to bring little counter-rewards Unity Party (SED) in the Soviet zone of to the Liberal Party in return for occupation, then in the GDR. He served guaranteeing Callaghan a majority in the as head of state 1973–76. He House of Commons. This move was represented the GDR in talks with criticised within and outside Steel’s own Brandt in Erfurt and Kassel in 1970, as a party ranks. It resulted in electoral prelude to later steps towards improving defeats for his party before and after the relations between the two German dissolution of that alliance in 1978. In states. He was dismissed as Prime 1983 he succeeded Roy Jenkins as Minister in November 1989 during the leader of the Liberal–SDP electoral last days of the communist regime, and alliance. He decided not to seek was succeeded in that office by Hans leadership of the Liberal Democrat Party Modrow. Court cases following at the time of the merger between the reunification against Stoph on grounds Liberals and the SDP in 1988. In 2000 of corruption in office and responsibility he became the first Speaker of the new for the ‘shoot-to-kill’ orders concerning Scottish Parliament in Edinburgh. would-be escapees from the GDR were [See also: Callaghan; Grimond; later dropped, mainly on grounds of his Jenkins; Thorpe; Lib–Lab pact*] age and state of health. Steel, David Stoiber, Edmund [See also: Brandt; Modrow; German question*; Ostpolitik*] Stoiber, Edmund Leader of the Christian Social Union in Strauss, Franz Josef Germany and Prime Minister of Bavaria. Stoiber was born in Oberaudorf in 1941. Leader of the CSU, Prime Minister of He studied law at Munich University and Bavaria and Minister in the governments became a civil servant in the Bavarian of Adenauer and Kiesinger. Strauss was Land government. He has been a born in Munich in 1915. Following Member of the Bavarian Land university studies of history and Parliament since 1974. He served as economics, and from 1943 military General-Secretary of the CSU 1982–86. service in the Second World War, he Strauss, Franz Josef Suárez González, Adolfo, Duke of was one of the founders of the CSU in Democratic Centre (UCD) 1977–82. 1945 and became its General Secretary Born in 1932 in Cebreros in the in 1949, then its Deputy Chairman in Province of Avila, Suárez studied at 1952. He was elected as Chairman in the University of Salamanca and 1961, a post he retained until his death, received a doctorate from the University and was largely responsible for of Madrid. He became governor of consolidating, then expanding, the party Segovia in 1969, then took high-ranking within Bavaria and in its relations with positions in radio and television and in the CDU. He was elected to the tourism. He was involved with the Bundestag in 1949, and was appointed Falange until 1975, when he founded

to Adenauer’s government in 1953, the UCD and became its leader. He BIOGRAPHIES becoming Defence Minister in 1956. was appointed Prime Minister by King Forced to leave the government because Juan Carlos in 1976 and his post-Franco 137 of his responsibility for the improper government effected the transition to imposition of sanctions on the magazine democracy in Spain. It allowed the Der Spiegel in 1962, he was kept out of formation of political parties and the Erhard government by FDP organised free elections. Suárez’ UCD insistence. In the grand coalition led by won the elections of 1977 and 1979 but Chancellor Kiesinger, Strauss became then his popularity fell over his handling Finance Minister (1966–69). Strauss was of the economy and the issue of the unsuccessful chancellor-candidate of Basque terrorism. He resigned in the Christian Democrats in the 1980 January 1981, nominating Calvo Sotelo Bundestag election. When the Christian as his successor. The King named him Democrats returned to government in Duke of Suárez later that year. In 1982 1982, the insistence of the FDP that he left the UCD to form and lead Strauss should not displace Genscher as another party, the Democratic and Foreign Minister effectively kept Strauss Social Centre (CDS) but the party was out of the cabinet, as he would accept not an electoral success and he no other position. He instead remained stepped down as leader in 1991. He Prime Minister of Bavaria, a post he had was President of the International taken in 1979. Strauss was seen as being Liberals 1988–91. on the right of the Christian Democrats, [See also: Franco; Juan Carlos, King] and his various independent initiatives in foreign policy (such as his visit to China Thatcher, Margaret in 1972) and in German–German relations (his unauthorised promises of British Prime Minister and leader of the credits to the GDR government on a visit Conservative Party. Born Margaret in 1983) earned him publicity, but were Roberts in Grantham in 1925, she also grounds for criticism and concern studied chemistry at Oxford University, even within his own party. He was also then qualified as a lawyer. She was first involved in scandals concerning possible elected to the House of Commons in improper dealings with the arms trade. 1959. As well as holding various posts Strauss died in 1988. within the Conservative ‘shadow [See also: Adenauer; Erhard; cabinets’ 1967–70 and from 1974, she Kiesinger; Spiegel Affair*] was Minister of Education in Heath’s Strauss, SuárezFranz Josef González, Adolfo, Duke of government 1970–74. She replaced Heath as party leader in 1975, and Suárez González, Adolfo, Duke of became Prime Minister following the Prime Minister of Spain 1976–81 during 1979 general election. She led her party the transition to democracy in Spain to victories in the 1983 and 1987 and leader of the Union of the elections also. Her policy strategy Thatcher, Margaret Thorez, Maurice

became increasingly right wing, Moscow, and only returned to France emphasising market forces and national after its liberation. Apart from a brief sovereignty. This strategy, revealed in period when Thorez was a member of policies which limited trade union a coalition government (1946–47) he power, promoted the return of and his party took a stance of state-owned commercial activities, such uncompromising opposition to the as the telephone service and power Fourth Republic regime, using links to supply, to private ownership, restricted the trade unions to promote strikes. He local government autonomy and was a convinced supporter of Stalin, defended British interests in and ensured that the PCF kept rigidly to

BIOGRAPHIES negotiations within the European a Stalinist political programme and Community (EC), was given the label: Stalinist organisation of the party itself. ‘Thatcherism’. She became extremely He died in 1964. 138 popular as a result of the successful [See also: nazism*; popular front*] outcome of the Falklands War, overturning Argentinean invasion of the Thorn, Gaston Falkland Islands in 1982. However, her increasingly strident criticism of the EC Prime Minister of Luxembourg 1974–79 and the unpopularity of policies such as and a leading European liberal, a new system of local government President of the European Commission taxation (the ‘poll tax’) led to growing 1981–84. Thorn was born in 1928 in discontent with her leadership within Luxembourg and studied at the her own party. After an unsuccessful Universities of Montpellier, Lausanne challenge to her in a leadership and Paris. He became President of the election in November 1989, another Luxembourg National Union of challenge was mounted in 1990. Students. A Member of the Luxembourg Thatcher narrowly failed to obtain Parliament since 1959, he was also a sufficient votes on a first round of Member of the European Parliament balloting to win that election, and 1959–69, where he was Vice-President was persuaded not to remain in the of the Liberal group. He became contest for a second round, since it President of the Democratic Party of was almost certain she would be Luxembourg in 1961. Prime Minister defeated. She entered the House of and Minister of State 1974–79, from Lords in 1992. 1969 to 1980 he also held ministerial [See also: Heath; Falklands War*; responsibility (often overlapping) in poll tax*] foreign affairs and foreign trade; Thatcher, Margaret Thorez, Maurice physical education and sport; national economy and the middle classes; and Thorez, Maurice justice, as well as acting as Deputy Leader of the PCF 1930–64. Thorez was Prime Minister 1979–80. In tandem with born in 1900 in Noyelles-Godault. He his national political career, he was a was a founding member of the PCF in leading figure in the Liberal 1920. He was elected to the French International and in European politics. Parliament in 1932, and in 1936 agreed He was President of the Liberal to participate in the ‘Popular Front’ International 1970–82; President of the government led by Blum. He refused to 30th Session of the UN General fight in the Second World War and Assembly 1975–76; President of the deserted from the army, at a time when Federation of Liberal and Democratic the USSR was still linked to Nazi Parties of the European Community Germany by the Treaty between 1976–80; and President of the European Germany and the USSR. Thorez went to Commission 1981–84. Thorpe, Jeremy Tindemans, Léo

again from 1989, acting as President of Thorpe, Jeremy the EPP party group from 1992. Leader of the British Liberal Party 1967–76. Thorpe was born in London in Trimble, David 1929. Educated at Oxford University, he became a lawyer before becoming an Leader of the Ulster Unionist Party MP in 1959. He remained in the House (UUP). Trimble was born in Bangor of Commons until 1979. He was elected (Northern Ireland) in 1944. He studied as leader of his party in succession to law at Queen’s University, Belfast, and Grimond, but resigned when he then became a lecturer in law. He

became involved in a scandal which led became a Member of the House of BIOGRAPHIES to a series of court cases. Commons in 1990. Trimble was elected [See also: Grimond] leader of the UUP in 1995, and in that 139 Thorpe, Jeremy Tindemans, Léo capacity was a central figure in the negotiations leading to the Good Friday Tindemans, Léo Agreement and the institutional and Prime Minister of Belgium 1974–78 and political arrangements which followed a leading European christian democrat. from that. He was awarded the Nobel Tindemans was born in 1922 in Peace Prize jointly with John Hume in Zwijndrecht and studied at the 1998 for his efforts in producing a peace University of Ghent and the Catholic settlement in Northern Ireland. He was University of Louvain. He became elected to the Northern Ireland national Secretary-General of the Social Assembly in 1998, and, as leader of the Christian Party in 1958. He was a largest party, became First Minister member of the Belgian Chamber of (Prime Minister) that same year. Because Deputies 1961–89. He was Minister of of continued violence in Northern Community Affairs 1968–71; Minister of Ireland by extremist Protestant and Agriculture and Middle Class Affairs Catholic groups, the refusal of the IRA 1972–73; Deputy Prime Minister and satisfactorily to commence abolishing its Minister for the Budget and Institutional arsenals of weapons, and the Problems 1973–74. Named Prime concessions demanded of Unionists in Minister in 1974, he formed a Social relation to changes in the Royal Ulster Christian–Liberal minority government Constabulary and various other matters, and introduced an austerity programme Trimble has been hard put to retain the to counter the country’s economic support of a majority within his own problems, a plan which was endorsed party. In July 2001 he resigned as First by the electorate in the elections of Minister of the Northern Ireland 1977. He resigned in October 1978 government in protest at the failure of when the Flemish faction of his own progress on arms decommissioning by party refused to support his plan to the IRA, but was re-elected to that post divide Belgium into three linguistic later the same year, following negotiations regions. He served as Minister of relating to arms decommissioning. Foreign Affairs 1981–89; and Minister of [See also: Hume; Good Friday State in 1992. He was President of his Agreement*; Irish Republican Army*] party, the Belgian Christian People’s Party (CVP) from 1979 to 1981. From Ulbricht, Walter the mid-1970s onwards he also played a very active role in European politics. He Leader of the German Democratic was President of the European People’s Republic (GDR) 1949–71. Ulbricht was Party (EPP) 1976–85 and a Member of born in 1893 in Leipzig. He became a the European Parliament 1979–81 and qualified carpenter. He joined the Social Ulbricht, Walter de Valera, Eammon

Democratic Party in 1912, fought in the became leader of the nationalist First World War, and joined the organisation: Sinn Féin. Escaping from Communist Party (KPD) in 1919. He another prison term in 1919, he went to quickly rose within the party to become the USA. Though he opposed the 1921 a member of its Central Committee in Treaty between the United Kingdom 1923. He was elected first to the Saxony and the Irish nationalists and for a time Land Parliament, then to the Reichstag promoted direct action against the in 1928. When Hitler took power, British, he became founder and leader Ulbricht emigrated first to France, then of Fianna Fail in 1926, and became to the Soviet Union. Here he was leader of the Irish government in 1932,

BIOGRAPHIES trained to assume power after the a post he held until 1948 and then defeat of Hitler. He was sent to Berlin in twice more (1951–54, 1957–59). He died April 1945, and established the authority in 1975. 140 of the refounded Communist party in the Soviet occupation zone, working Waldheim, Kurt closely as political adviser with the Soviet Union occupation authorities. As General Secretary of the UN 1971–82 leader of the KPD, Ulbricht played a and Austrian President 1986–92. major role in compelling the fusion of Waldheim was born near Vienna in the KPD and SPD in 1946. Ulbricht 1918. After service in the German army, became General Secretary (and he entered the diplomatic service, therefore leader) of the SED in 1950 and holding a number of posts, including in 1960 became head of state. He was that of Foreign Minister (1968–70), generally a loyal follower of the policies before becoming UN General Secretary. of the Soviet Union, though this meant He was nominated as candidate of the severe disadvantages for the economy Austrian People’s Party for the of the GDR, and was responsible for presidency of Austria in 1986. During the agreeing to the violent suppression of campaign, allegations surfaced that the workers’ uprising in Berlin in 1953 Waldheim, as a young officer, had been and the erection of the Berlin Wall in involved in atrocities in the Balkans 1961. In 1971 he resigned as party during the Second World War. Several leader on grounds of age (but also countries refused to have dealings with under pressure from the USSR) and was Waldheim during his presidency succeeded by Honecker. Ulbricht because of these allegations. Though an remained head of state until his death investigation cleared Waldheim of the in 1973. more serious allegations made against [See also: Hitler; Honecker; Berlin him, it did confirm that he had uprising*; Berlin Wall*; German knowledge of the atrocities and that he question*] had not made full admissions of such Ulbricht, Walter de Valera, Eammon knowledge when questioned. He decided not to seek a second term as de Valera, Eammon President because of this affair. President of the Irish Republic 1959–73. De Valera was born in 1882 in New Wehner, Herbert York but moved to Ireland as a child. Trained as a teacher, he became Leading member of the Social involved with groups which espoused Democratic Party (SPD) in the Federal republicanism for Ireland. He was one Republic of Germany. Wehner was born of the leaders of the 1916 Easter Rising in Dresden in 1906. He joined the in Dublin and imprisoned afterwards, Communist Party of Germany in 1927, but released under an amnesty. He and went into exile from 1935. Wehner, Herbert von Weizsäcker, Richard

Returning to Germany after the Second presidential offices and his private World War, he joined the SPD in 1946. residence to Berlin in 1993. He was elected to the Bundestag in [See also: reunification of Germany*; 1949, and became a deputy chairman of Vergangenheitsbewältigung*] the SPD in 1958. He was a supporter of the idea of a grand coalition in the Wilson, Harold 1960s, and when that coalition was created in 1966 he became a minister James Harold Wilson was leader of the in Kiesinger’s government. He was British Labour Party from 1963 to 1976 leader of the SPD parliamentary party in and Prime Minister from 1964–70 and

the Bundestag from 1969 until his 1974 until he resigned in 1976. He was BIOGRAPHIES resignation in 1983. Wehner is knighted in 1976 and entered the House considered to have played a major role of Lords in 1983. He was born in 141 in securing the resignation of Chancellor Huddersfield in 1916. After studies at Brandt in 1974, following revelations Oxford University, and a brief period as about the espionage activities of a lecturer in economics, Wilson became Guillaume. Wehner died in 1990. a civil servant. He became an MP in [See also: Brandt; grand coalition*; 1945, and held various ministerial offices, Guillaume Affair*] including that of President of the Board Wehner, Herbertvon Weizsäcker, Richard of Trade from 1947 until he resigned in 1951 (along with Bevan) over the issue von Weizsäcker, Richard of charges being imposed within the President of the Federal Republic of National Health Service. When Gaitskell Germany 1984–94. Von Weizsäcker was died in 1963, Wilson was elected as born in 1920 in Stuttgart. After military leader of the Labour Party. He won the service in the Second World War and a 1964 general election with a majority of period as prisoner-of-war, he trained as only 4 seats, but called an election in a lawyer. He joined the Christian 1966, which gave Labour a comfortable Democratic Union (CDU) in 1954, and overall majority. In 1970 Wilson was was a Member of the Bundestag replaced as Prime Minister by Edward 1969–81. He was an unsuccessful Heath after unexpectedly losing the 1970 candidate for the office of federal general election. He became Prime president in 1974. He became lord Minister again in 1974, first heading a mayor of West Berlin from 1981 until his minority government, then after a election as federal President. He was second general election that year in federal President during the events charge of a government with a small leading to German reunification. As overall majority. He tried, unavailingly, to President, he became respected, take Britain into the EEC in 1967. In 1975 especially outside the Federal Republic, he instituted the first official national for the measured statements he made referendum in British politics, on the concerning Germany’s past and its issue of the terms of British membership responsibilities in the future, such as his of the European Community which speech on the 40th anniversary of the Heath had accepted for British entry in end of the Second World War, which he 1973. called a ‘day of liberation’ for Germany. [See also: Bevan; Callaghan; He gave a controversial press interview Gaitskell; Heath] in 1992 in which he criticised the way in which political parties in the Federal Wörner, Manfred Republic seemed to have neglected their representative role in favour of their Defence Minister of the Federal own institutional interests. He moved the Republic of Germany 1982–88 and Wörner, Manfred Wörner, Manfred

Secretary-General of the North Atlantic grounds of homosexual behaviour, but Treaty Organisation (NATO) from as this action was based on false 1988–94. Wörner was born in Stuttgart intelligence information Wörner had to in 1934, and studied law at university. make a public apology to the First elected to the Bundestag in 1965, Bundestag. As NATO Secretary-General he soon developed a reputation for he had to guide NATO through the expertise on military matters within the period leading up to German Christian Democratic (CDU) reunification and the collapse of the parliamentary party. In 1983 Wörner Soviet bloc, including NATO’s East took decisive action in dismissing European counterpart, the Warsaw Pact.

BIOGRAPHIES General Kiessling (a highly placed He died in 1994. German officer within NATO) on [See also: Kiessling Affair*] Wörner, Manfred Wörner, Manfred 142 Section 3 Abbreviations

General abbreviations CCD Christian Democratic Centre (Italy)/Centro Cristiano Democratico AMS Additional Member System CD Centre Democratic Party APO Extra-parliamentary opposition in (Denmark)/Centrum-Demokraterne Germany/Ausserparlamentarische CDA Christian Democratic Party Opposition (Netherlands)/Christen Demokratisch AV Alternative Vote System Appel DM Deutschmark CDS Democratic and Social Centre FPTP First-past-the-post (system of (Spain)/Centro Democratico y Social election) CDU Christian Democratic Union FRG Federal Republic of Germany (Germany)/Christlich Demokratische GDR German Democratic Republic Union GG Basic Law (Germany)/Grundgesetz CDU United Christian Democrats MdB Member of the Bundestag (Italy)/Cristiani Democratici Uniti (Germany)/Mitglied des Bundestages CDU United Democratic Coalition MP Member of Parliament (Portugal)/Coligação Democrático MSP Member of the Scottish Parliament Unitária PR Proportional Representation CDV–PDC Christian Democratic STV Single Transferable Vote People’s Party (Switzerland)/Christlich- USA United States of America demokratische Volkspartie–Parti USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Démocrate-Chrétien Republics CiU Convergence and Union (Catalan Political parties Political parties party, Spain)/Convergencia y Unio Political parties CP Centre Party (Sweden)/Centerpartiet CSU Christian Social Union ADR/CADJ Action Committee for (Germany)/Christlich Soziale Union Democracy and Justice CSV–PCS Christian Social People’s Party (Luxembourg)/Aktiounskomitee fir (Luxembourg)/Chrëschtlech–Sozial Demokratie a Gerechtegkeet; Comité Vollekspartei-Parti Chrétien Social d’Action pour la Démocratie et la CU United Communists Justice (Italy)/Communisti Unitari AGALEV Ecology Party – ‘Live CVP Christian Democratic People’s Party Differently’ (Belgium: (Switzerland)/Christlich-demokratische Flemish-speaking)/Anders Gaan Leven Volkspartei AN National Alliance (Italy)/Alleanza CVP Christian People’s Party (Belgium: Nazionale Flemish-speaking)/Christelijke B ’90/Die Grünen Alliance ’90–The Volkspartij Greens (known as ‘the Greens’) D ’66 Democrats ’66 (Germany)/Bündnis ’90/Die Grünen (Netherlands)/Democraten ’66 BNP British National Party DC Christian Democratic Party BSP Belgian Socialist Party (Italy)/Democrazia Cristiana (Flemish-speaking)/Belgische DF Danish People’s Party/Dansk Socialistische Partij Folkeparti C Centre Party (Sweden)/Centerpartiet DF Freedom Movement (Austria)/Die CADJ (Luxembourg) see: ADR/CADJ Freiheitlichen Political parties Political parties

DIKKI Democratic Social Movement FP Progress Party (Greece)/Dimokratiko Kinoniko Kinema (Denmark)/Fremkridtspartiet DL Democratic Left (Ireland) FPL People’s Party – the Liberals DL Liberal Democrats (Sweden)/Folkpartiet Liberalerna (France)/Démocratie Libérale FPÖ Austrian Freedom DNA Norwegian Labour Party/Det Party/Freiheitliche Partei Österreichs Norske Arbeiderparti FRP Progress Party DP/PD Democratic Party (Norway)/Fremskrittpartiet (Luxembourg)/Demokratesch GA The Greens – Green Alternative Partei-Parti Démocratique (Austria)/Die Grünen–Die Grüne DS Left Democrats (Italy)/Democratici Alternativen

ABBREVIATIONS di Sinistra GL Green Left (Netherlands)/Groen DUP Democratic Unionist Party (N. Links

144 Ireland) GPEW Green Party of England and DVU German People’s Union/Deutsche Wales Volksunion GPV Reformed Political Association EAJ/PNV Basque Nationalist Party (Netherlands)/Gereformeerd Politiek (Spain)/Eusko Alderdi Jeltzalea-Partido Verbond Nacionalista Vasco Green Federation Green Party ECOLO Ecologist Party (Belgium: (Italy)/Federazione dei Verdi French-speaking)/Écologistes Greens French Green Party/Les Verts confédérés pour l’organisation de Greens Luxembourg Green Party/Déi luttes originales Gréng–Les Verts EE Basque Left/Eusko Equerra H Conservative Party (Norway)/Høyre EH ‘We Basques’ (Spain)/Euskal HB United Basque People’s Party Herritarrok (Spain)/Herri Batasuna ELRG Red–Green Unity List IU United Left (Spain)/Izquierda Unida (Denmark)/Einheidslisten-de KdS Christian Democratic Community Roed-Groenne Party (Sweden)/Kristdemokratiska Falange The radical right-wing party of Samhällspartiet Franco and his military regime (Spain KESK Centre Party (Finland)/Suomen 1939–75) Keskusta FDF Democratic Front of KFP Conservative People’s Party French-speakers (Belgium)/Front (Denmark)/Konservative Folkeparti Démocratique des Francophones KK National Coalition FDP Free Democratic Party (Finland)/Kansallinen Kokoomus (Germany)/Freie Demokratische KKE Communist Party of Partei Greece/Kommounistiko Komma FDP/PRD Radical Democratic Party Ellados (Switzerland)/Freisinnige-Demokratische KPD Communist Party of Partei-Parti Radical-Democratique Germany/Kommunistische Partei FI Conservative Party (Italy)/Forza Italia Deutschlands (‘Come on, Italy!’) KRF Christian People’s Party Fianna Fáil Republican party (‘Soldiers (Norway)/Kristelig Folkeparti of destiny’) (Ireland) KRFP Christian People’s Party Fine Gael Centre-right party (‘United (Denmark)/Kristelig Folkeparti Ireland’) (Ireland) KVP Catholic People’s Party FN National Front (Belgium)/Front (Netherlands)/Katholieke National Volkspartij FN National Front (France)/Front LIF Liberal Forum (Austria)/Liberales National Forum Political parties Political parties

LKP Liberal People’s Party (Italy)/Partito Democratico della (Finland)/Liberaalinen Kansanpuolue Sinistra LN-IF Northern League (Italy)/La Lega PDS Party of Democratic Socialism Nord (Germany)/Partei der Demokratischen LSAP–POSL Luxembourg Socialist Sozialismus Workers’ Party/Lëtzebuerger PEV Ecologist Party – The Greens Sozialistesch Arbechterpartei–Parti (Portugal)/Partido Ecologista Os Verdes Ouvrier Socialiste Luxembourgeois PL Right-wing alliance (Italy)/Polo della Miljöpartiet de Gröna Ecology Green Libertà Party (Sweden) Plaid Cymru Welsh National Party MNR National Republican Movement (‘Party of Wales’)

(France)/Mouvement National PLI Liberal Party (Italy)/Partito Liberale ABBREVIATIONS Républicain Italiano

MpD–La Rete Network Movement for PNV Basque Nationalist Party 145 Democracy (Italy)/Movimento per la (Spain)/Partido Nacionalista Vasco Democrazia La Rete POSL (Luxembourg) see: LSAP–POSL MpU Olive Tree Movement PP Popular Party (Portugal)/Partido (Italy)/Movimento per l’Ulivo Popular MRG Left Radical Movement (France) PP Popular Party (Spain)/Partido Popular (now PRG)/Mouvement Radical de PPI Popular Party of Italy/Partito Gauche Popolare Italiano MSI Italian Social Movement/Movimento PR Radical Party (Italy)/Partito Radicale Sociale Italiano PR Republican Party (France)/Parti MSP Moderate Unity Party Républicain (Sweden)/Moderate Samlingspartiet PRC Communist Refoundation Party ND New Democracy (Greece)/Nea (Italy)/Partito della Rifindazione Demokratia Comunista ND New Democrats (Sweden)/Ny PRG Left Radical Party (France)/Parti Demokrati Radical de Gauche NPD National Democratic Party of PRI Italian Republican Party/Partito Germany/Nationaldemokratische Repubblicano Italiano Partei Deutschlands PRL Liberal Reform Party (Belgium: NUDF New Union for French French-speaking)/Parti Réformateur Democracy (France)/Nouvelle Union Libéral pour la Démocratie Française PRO Rule-of-Law Campaign party ÖVP Austrian People’s (Germany)/Partei Rechtsstaatlicher Party/Österreische Volkspartei Offensive (the ‘Schill party’) PASOK Pan-Hellenic Socialist Movement PS Segni Pact (Italy)/Patto Segni (Greece)/Panellinion Sosialistikon PS Socialist Party (Belgium: Kinima French-speaking)/Parti Socialiste PCF Communist Party of France/Parti PS Socialist Party (France)/Parti Communiste Français Socialiste PCI Communist Party of Italy/Partito PS Socialist Party (Portugal)/Partido Comunista Italiano Socialista PCS (Luxembourg) see: CSV–PCS PSC Social Christian Party (Belgium: PD Progressive Democrats (Ireland) French-speaking)/Parti Social PD (Luxembourg) see: DP/PD Chrétien PDC (Switzerland) see: CDV–PDC PSD Social Democratic Party PdCI Party of Italian Communists/Partito (Portugal)/Partido Social Democratico dei Comunisti Italiani PSI Socialist Party of Italy/Partito PDS Democratic Party of the Left Socialista Italiano Political parties Political parties

PSOE Spanish Socialist Workers’ SP Centre Party (Norway)/Senterpartiet Party/Partido Socialista Obrero Español SP Socialist Party (Belgium: PvdA Labour Party (Netherlands)/Partij Flemish-speaking)/Socialistische Partij van de Arbeid SP Socialist Party (Ireland) PVV Party of Liberty and Progress SP/PS Social Democratic Party (Belgium: Flemish-speaking)/Partij (Switzerland)/Sozialdemokratische voor Vrijheid en Vooruitgang Partei-Parti Socialiste RC Communist Refoundation SPD Social Democratic Party (Italy)/Rifondazione Comunista (Germany)/Sozialdemokratische Partei Die Republikaner The Republican Party Deutschlands (Germany) SPÖ Austrian Social Democratic Party/

ABBREVIATIONS RPF Reformational Political Federation Sozialdemokratische Partei Österreichs (Netherlands)/Reformatorische SRP Socialist Reich Party

146 Politieke Federatie (Germany)/Sozialistische Reichspartei RPF-IE Rally for France and the SSDP Finnish Social Democratic Independence of Party/Suomen Sosiaalidemokraattinen Europe/Rassemblement pour la Puolue France et l’Independence de l’Europe Statt party The ‘Instead’ Party RPR Rally for the Republic (Germany) (France)/Rassemblement pour la SV Socialist Left Party République (Norway)/Sosialistisk Venstreparti RV Radical Liberals (Denmark)/Radikale SVP South Tyrolean People’s Party Venstre (Italy)/Südtiroler Volkspartei SAS Swedish Social Democratic SVP Swiss People’s Workers Party/Sveriges Party/Schweizerische Volkspartei/Parti Socialdemokratiska Arbetareparti Suisse de l’Union Démocratique du SD Social Democratic Party Centre (Denmark)/Socialdemokratiet Synaspismos Coalition of the Left and SDI Italian Democratic Progress (Greece)/Synaspismos tis Socialists/Socialisti Democratici Italiani Aristeras kai tis Proodou SDLP Social Democratic and Labour UDF Union for French Party (N. Ireland) Democracy/Union pour la Démocratie SDP Social Democratic Party Française (Finland)/Soumen UDR Democratic Union for the Republic Sosialidemokraatinnen Puolue (Italy)/Unione Democratica per la SDP Social Democratic Party (UK) Repubblica SDS Socialist German Students UKIP United Kingdom Independence Association/Sozialistische Deutsche Party Studentenbund UUP Ulster Unionist Party (N. Ireland) SF Irish Republican party/Sinn Féin V Liberal Party (Denmark)/Venstre (‘Ourselves alone’) VAS Left Alliance SF Socialist People’s Party (Finland)/Vasemmistoliitto (Denmark)/Socialistisk Folkeparti VB Flemish Bloc (Belgium)/Vlaams Blok SFP Swedish People’s Party VL Green Union (Finland)/Vihreä Liitto (Finland)/Svenska Folkpartiet VLD Flemish Liberals and Democrats – SGP Reformed Political Party Citizens’ Party (Belgium)/Vlaamse (Netherlands)/Staatkundig Liberalen en Demokraten – Partij van Gereformeerde Partij de Burger SKL Finnish Christian Union/Suomen VP Left Party (Sweden)/Vänsterpartiet Kristillinen Liitto VU People’s Union (Belgium: SNP Scottish National Party Flemish-speaking)/Volksunie Political parties European and cross-national organisations

VVD People’s Party for Freedom and OSCE Organisation for Security and Democracy (Netherlands)/Volkspartij Co-operation in Europe voor Vrijheid en Democratie QMV Qualified Majority Voting Political partiesEuropean and cross-nationalorganisations SEA Single European Act TEU Treaty on European Union European and cross-national (Maastricht Treaty) organisations UN (see UNO) ACP African, Caribbean and Pacific UNO United Nations Organisation (states) WEU Western European Union CFSP Common Foreign and Security WTO World Trade Organisation Policy

COREPER Committee of Permanent ABBREVIATIONS Miscellaneous Representatives

CSCE Conference on Security and ACLI Christian Association of Italian 147 Co-operation in Europe Workers/Associazione Cristiana EC European Community Lavoratori Italiani ECB European Central Bank BDA Federation of German Employers’ ECJ European Court of Justice Associations/Bundesvereinigung ECOFIN Economic and Finance Council Deutscher Arbeitgeberverbände (of Ministers) BDI Federation of German ECSC European Coal and Steel Industry/Bundesverband der Community Deutschen Industrie ECU European Currency Unit BR Red Brigades (Italy)/Brigate EDC European Defence Community Rossi EEA European Economic Area CBI Confederation of British Industry EEC European Economic Community CFD French Democratic Confederation EFTA European Free Trade Area of Labour/Confédération Française EM European Monetary System Démocratique du Travail EMI European Monetary Institute CFTC French Confederation of Christian EMU Economic and Monetary Union Workers/Confédération Française des EP European Parliament Travailleurs Chrétiens ERM Exchange Rate Mechanism CGC General Confederation of ESCB European System of Central Managers (France)/Confédération Banks Générale des Cadres EU European Union CGT General Confederation of Labour EUA European Unit of Account (France)/Confédération Générale du EURATOM European Atomic Energy Travail Community CND Campaign for Nuclear ESCB European System of Central Banks Disarmament G-7 Group of Seven CNPF National Council of French G-8 Group of Eight Employers/Conseil National du GATT General Agreement on Tariffs Patronat Française and Trade DGB German Trade Union IGC Intergovernmental Conference Confederation/Deutscher JHA Justice and Home Affairs (pillar Gewerkschaftsbund of the EU) ENA National College of Administration NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (France)/École Nationale OEEC Organisation for European d’Administration Economic Co-operation ETA Basque Nation and Liberty/Euskadi OPEC Organisation of Petroleum Ta Askatasuna (Basque terrorist Exporting Countries organisation) Miscellaneous Miscellaneous

FLN National Liberation Front OAS Secret Army Organisation (Algeria)/Front de Libération Nationale (France)/Organisation de l’Armée FO General Confederation of Workers Secrête (France)/Confédération Générale du RAF Red Army Faction Travail – Force Ouvrière TUC Trades Union Congress (UK) IRA Irish Republican Army UGT General Workers’ Union NFU National Farmers’ Union (UK) (Spain)/Unión General de Trabajadores Miscellaneous Miscellaneous ABBREVIATIONS 148 Section 4 Chronologies

15 October 1964 General election. UNITED KINGDOM Labour becomes the largest party, having a vote-share of 44.1 per cent General elections and changes of and a majority of 5 seats. Wilson is government appointed as Prime Minister. 5 July 1945 First general election after 31 March 1966 General election. Labour the Second World War. Unusually (to remains the largest party, with a allow for votes from those doing vote-share of 47.9 per cent and a military service overseas to be sent to majority of 97 seats. Wilson remains the United Kingdom) the count is Prime Minister. delayed until 26 July 1945. Labour is 18 June 1970 General election. The the largest party (47.8 per cent: Conservatives are the largest party. majority of 147 seats). Attlee Their vote-share of 46.4 per cent gives becomes Prime Minister. them a majority of 31 seats. Heath is 23 February 1950 General election. appointed as Prime Minister. Labour remains the largest party 28 February 1974 General election. The (46.1 per cent), but with a majority Conservative Party has 37.9 per cent of only 6 seats. Attlee remains Prime of the vote, but Labour (with only 37.1 Minister. per cent) wins the most seats, though 25 October 1951 General election. no party has an overall majority. Labour remains the largest party in Wilson is appointed Prime Minister. terms of vote-share (48.8 per cent) 10 October 1974 General election. but the Conservative Party (48.0 per Labour (with 39.2 per cent of votes) cent) has a majority of 16 seats. has an overall majority of 4 seats. Churchill becomes Prime Minister. Wilson remains Prime Minister. 6 April 1955 Following Churchill’s 5 April 1976 Following Wilson’s resignation on grounds of ill-health, resignation, Callaghan becomes Eden becomes Prime Minister. Prime Minister. 26 May 1955 General election. The 3 May 1979 General election. Conservative Party has a vote-share of Conservatives obtain 43.9 per cent of 49.7 per cent, and a majority of 59 the votes and have a majority of 44 seats. Eden remains Prime Minister. seats. Thatcher is appointed Prime 10 January 1957 Following Eden’s Minister. resignation due to ill-health and 9 June 1983 General election. political responsibility for the Suez crisis, Conservatives obtain 42.4 per cent of Macmillan is appointed Prime Minister. the votes and have a majority of 144 8 October 1959 General election. The seats. Thatcher remains Prime Conservatives (49.4 per cent Minister. vote-share) increase their majority to 11 June 1987 General election. 99 seats. Macmillan remains Prime Conservatives obtain 43.4 per cent of Minister. the vote, giving them a majority of 18 October 1963 Home (formerly Lord 102 seats. Thatcher remains Prime Home) becomes Prime Minister Minister. following Macmillan’s resignation on 28 November 1990 Following Thatcher’s grounds of ill-health. resignation (the consequence of a United Kingdom United Kingdom

leadership election in which she 28 July 1965 Heath elected leader of failed to be re-elected on the first the Conservative Party: the first time a ballot) Major becomes Prime Minister. formal election had been held. 9 April 1992 General election. 8 November 1965 Race Relations Act Conservatives obtain 42.3 per cent of introduced, creating the Race the votes and have a majority of 21 Relations Board to investigate seats. Major remains Prime Minister. unlawful discrimination on grounds of 1 May 1997 General election. Labour are race. the largest party: a vote-share of 43.2 18 January 1967 Thorpe elected leader per cent gives the party a majority of of the Liberal Party following the 179 seats. Blair becomes Prime Minister. resignation of Grimond.

CHRONOLOGIES 7 June 2001 General election. Labour 19 December 1967 de Gaulle again are again the largest party, with a vetoes British entry to the EEC.

150 majority of 167 seats. Blair forms new 22 January 1972 Treaty of Accession government. signed by which the United Kingdom United Kingdom United Kingdom joins the EEC. 30 January 1972 ‘Bloody Sunday’: General soldiers fire on a procession in 2 August 1945 Clement Davies elected Londonderry (Northern Ireland), leader of the Liberal Party following killing and wounding several people. the outcome of the general election. 31 October 1973 Publication of the 16 December 1949 Parliament Act Kilbrandon Report from the Royal reduces delaying power of the House Commission on the Constitution. It of Lords from two years to one year. recommends a directly elected 6 February 1952 Accession of Queen legislature for Scotland. Elizabeth II, following the death of 11 February 1975 Thatcher becomes her father, King George VI, that day. Conservative leader, winning on The coronation took place on 2 June the second ballot (having defeated 1953. Heath on the first ballot on 4 13 December 1955 Gaitskell elected February 1975). leader of the Labour Party, following 5 June 1975 Referendum on continued the resignation of Attlee. Gaitskell membership of EEC, following was re-elected in leadership elections renegotiation of terms of on 3 November 1960 and 2 membership. 67.2 per cent vote in November 1961. favour of remaining a member. This 29 September 1956 Grimond elected is the first national referendum in leader of the Liberal Party following British political history. the resignation of Clement Davies. 12 November 1975 House of Lords 30 April 1958 Life Peerages Act permits passes Sex Discrimination Act, which appointment of peers whose titles are makes discrimination on grounds of not passed to their heirs. gender an offence in fields such as 31 July 1963 Peerage Act, permitting employment, education and the peers to disclaim hereditary peerage provision of certain services such as titles for life (without affecting future banking and insurance. It also successors to the title) and the includes an amended version of the admission of female hereditary peers. Equal Pay Act 1970, to ensure that 14 January 1963 de Gaulle vetoes pay scales are not differentiated on British entry to the EEC. grounds of gender. 14 February 1963 Wilson elected leader 5 April 1976 Callaghan elected leader of of the Labour Party, following the the Labour Party following the death of Gaitskell. resignation of Wilson. United Kingdom United Kingdom

7 July 1976 Steel elected leader of the police. It ends in March 1985, after a Liberal Party following the resignation group of mineworkers had formed a of Thorpe. breakaway trade union. This strike 22 November 1976 New Race Relations was regarded as the high point of the Act makes discrimination unlawful in Thatcher government’s conflict with various fields (e.g. education and the trade unions. employment) and declares the 9 January 1986 Heseltine resigns from promotion of racial hatred to be an Thatcher cabinet, after disagreements offence. concerning future plans for the 23 March 1977 Callaghan and Steel Westland helicopter firm. agree on a ‘Lib–Lab’ pact. 31 March 1986 Abolition of Greater

25 May 1978 Steel announces London Council and other CHRONOLOGIES termination of the ‘Lib–Lab’ pact. metropolitan local authorities in six

1 March 1979 Referenda in Scotland conurbations. 151 and Wales on regional assemblies. 6 August 1987 SDP agrees to pursue Welsh voters reject the proposals; merger negotiations with the Liberal Scottish voters narrowly support the Party. proposals, but on a turnout too low 28 August 1987 Following Owen’s (67 per cent) to validate the result, so resignation as SDP leader, Maclennan the proposals are not taken forward. is elected as new party leader. 28 March 1979 Labour government 3 March 1988 Liberal Party and SDP defeated by one vote on motion of merge formally to form Liberal no confidence. This precipitates a Democratic Party. general election. 28 July 1988 Ashdown elected leader of 1 October 1980 Labour Party conference the Liberal Party, following the votes in favour of unilateral nuclear resignation of Steel. disarmament for Britain and 20 September 1988 Thatcher makes her withdrawal of the UK from the ‘Euro-sceptical’ ‘Bruges speech’, European Community. warning against progress towards 10 November 1980 Foot elected leader political and economic union in of the Labour Party following the Europe. resignation of Callaghan. 5 December 1989 Thatcher defeats Meyer 25 January 1981 ‘Limehouse in a ballot to elect the leader of the Declaration’ by four senior Labour Conservative Party. The vote is 314–33. Party politicians, a prelude to their 8 October 1990 Britain joins the efforts to form a new social Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM). democratic party. 20 November 1990 Though Thatcher is 2 April 1982 Argentina invades the ahead of Heseltine in the first round Falkland Islands, initiating a war with of a ballot to elect a leader of the the United Kingdom. Conservative Party, she does not 2 July 1982 Jenkins elected as leader of secure sufficient votes to be elected, new Social Democratic Party (SDP). so declines to stand in the second 21 June 1983 Owen elected leader of round. Major is elected in her place, the SDP, following resignation of and becomes Prime Minister. Jenkins on 14 June 1983. 18 July 1992 John Smith elected as 2 October 1983 Kinnock elected as leader of the Labour Party, after leader of the Labour Party, following Kinnock resigns in the aftermath of Foot’s resignation. the general election outcome. 6 March 1984 Strike by National Union 16 September 1992 Britain forced out of of Mineworkers begins, involving the ERM because of pressure on the picketing and confrontations with the pound. United Kingdom France

21 July 1994 Blair elected as leader of government of National Unity formed the Labour Party following the death with de Gaulle as President. of John Smith. 3 January 1946 Decrees establish 4 July 1995 Major defeats Redwood in a post-war system of planning. ballot for the leadership of the 20 January 1946 de Gaulle resigns as Conservative Party, instigated by head of provisional government. Major’s decision to resign the 26 January 1946 Gouin (Socialist) forms leadership and stand in such an government. election in order to obtain a vote of 5 May 1946 Referendum rejects confidence from his MPs. proposed new constitution. 19 June 1997 Hague elected leader of 2 June 1946 Elections to renewed

CHRONOLOGIES the Conservative Party, after Major Constituent Assembly. resigns following the general election 23 June 1946 Bidault (Popular

152 defeat. Republican Movement) forms 6 May 1999 First elections held for government. Scottish Parliament and Welsh 13 October 1946 Fourth Republic Assembly. constitution accepted in a referendum 9 August 1999 Kennedy elected leader by 53 per cent of those voting (33 per of the Liberal Party, following the cent abstain). resignation of Ashdown. 10 November 1946 First election to 16 February 2000 Political Parties, Parliament of Fourth Republic. Elections and Referendums Act takes 16 December 1946 Blum (Socialist) effect. forms government. 4 May 2000 Livingstone becomes first 24 December 1946 Fourth Republic directly elected lord mayor of London. constitution takes effect. 29 January and 16 February 2001 Main 16 January 1947 Auriol (Socialist) provisions of the Representation of elected as first President of the the People Act 2000 take effect. Fourth Republic. 8 June 2001 Hague announces his 22 January 1947 Ramadier (Socialist) intention to resign as Conservative forms government. Party leader. 24 November 1947 Schuman (Popular 15 September 2001 Duncan Smith Republican Movement) forms elected by party membership as new government. Conservative Party leader, defeating 26 July 1948 Marie (Radical Socialist) Clarke. forms government. United Kingdom France 11 September 1948 Queuille (Radical Socialist) forms government, following FRANCE short-lived (two-day) government formed by Schuman. The Fourth Republic 28 October 1949 Bidault (Popular 9 September 1944 de Gaulle announces Republican Movement) forms composition of provisional government. government following the liberation of 12 July 1950 Pleven (Democratic and France. Socialist Union of Resistance) forms 21 October 1945 In a referendum 96.4 government, following short-lived per cent of voters reject continuation (two-day) government formed by of the Third Republic. In elections to Queuille. the Constituent Assembly the 10 March 1951 Queuille (Radical Communists are the largest single Socialist) forms government. party, securing 26 per cent of the vote. 17 June 1951 General election: Gaullists 21 November 1945 Provisional are strongest party. France France

10 August 1951 Pleven (Democratic and initiative, de Gaulle agrees to form Socialist Union of Resistance) forms new government. new government. 1 June 1958 National Assembly votes 20 January 1952 Faure (Radical 339–224 to approve appointment of Socialist) forms government. de Gaulle as Prime Minister with 8 March 1952 Pinay (Independent) extraordinary powers. forms government. 28 September 1958 Referendum accepts 8 January 1953 Mayer (Radical constitution of Fifth Republic: 79 per Socialist) forms government. cent vote in favour of it. 20 May 1953 France signs Agreement 8 January 1961 Referendum approves with Saar territory to regulate future self-determination for Algeria (75 per

relations. cent vote in favour). CHRONOLOGIES 27 June 1953 Laniel (Conservative) 22–25 April 1961 Attempted military

forms government. putsch in Algeria. 153 17 December 1953 Coty (Liberal) 18 March 1962 The Évian Agreement elected as President, but only on 13th settles terms for Algerian ballot. independence. 7 May 1954 Fall of French garrison at 28 April 1962 Referendum approves Dien Bien Phu (Indo-China). Algerian independence (91 per cent 19 June 1954 Mendès-France (Radical vote in favour). Socialist) forms government. 30–31 August 1954 French Parliament The Fifth Republic: general rejects scheme to create a European Defence Community. 4 October 1962 National Assembly 1 November 1954 Algerian uprising approves censure motion, forcing commences. resignation of government (the 23 February 1955 Faure (Radical sole instance of this device being Socialist) forms government. utilised under the Fifth Republic 2 January 1956 General election; constitution). Poujadists get 52 seats with 11.6 per 28 October 1962 Referendum approves cent of the vote. direct election of president (62 per 1 February 1956 Mollet (Socialist) forms cent vote in favour). government. 22 January 1963 Franco-German Treaty 12 June 1957 Bourgès-Maunoury signed. (Radical Socialist) forms government. 1 July 1966 de Gaulle withdraws French 5 November 1957 Gaillard (Radical troops from NATO command. Socialist) forms government. 2 May 1968 Violent clashes occur 14 May 1958 Pflimlin (Popular between students and police in Paris. Republican Movement) forms 17 May 1968 Protest marches of government. students and workers in Paris and France France elsewhere in France; occupation of factories by workers. The transition to the Fifth Republic 12 June 1968 French government and the Algerian issue prohibits demonstrations and 2 and 20 March 1956 France recognises dissolves several student independence of Morocco and organisations. Tunisia. 27 April 1969 Referendum rejects 13 May 1958 Creation of reform package affecting the Senate military-sponsored ‘Committee of and the regions (53 per cent vote Public Safety’ in Algiers. against). 29 May 1958 On President Coty’s 9 November 1970 Death of de Gaulle. France France

27 June 1972 Socialist and Communist appointed Prime Minister by parties agree on a ‘Common de Gaulle. Programme for Government’. 15 April 1962 Pompidou (Gaullist) 21 September 1977 Socialists and appointed Prime Minister. He is Communists fail to renew ‘Common appointed again on 4 December 1962 Programme for Government’, but and on 9 January 1966 following agree to a pact for the general formation of new governments. election in March 1978 whereby the 18 and 25 November 1962 National parties would co-ordinate candidacies Assembly election (held early on the second ballot. following censure motion forcing 9 September 1981 Government resignation of government).

CHRONOLOGIES announces far-reaching programme 19 December 1965 de Gaulle re-elected of nationalisation, affecting banks and as President on second ballot,

154 many other businesses. defeating Mitterrand. 2 March 1982 Extensive package of 5 and 12 March 1967 National Assembly measures concerning regional reform election. adopted (the ‘Loi Deferre’). 6 April 1967 Pompidou again appointed 16 March 1986 National Assembly Prime Minister (and reappointed 1 election held using proportional June 1968). representation electoral system based 23 and 30 June 1968 New National on the Departments. (The two-ballot Assembly election following wave of electoral system was reinstated from student and left-wing protests. November 1986.) First direct elections 9 July 1968 Couve de Mourville to regional councils held. (Gaullist) appointed Prime Minister. 20 September 1992 Referendum 28 April 1969 de Gaulle resigns as narrowly approves Maastricht Treaty President following defeat in a (51 per cent vote in favour). referendum of his Senate and 24 January 1999 National Front splits regional reforms. Poher, as President (mainly concerning strategies relating of the Senate, becomes interim to alliances with other parties). President that day. Mégret leads splinter group: National 15 June 1969 Pompidou (Gaullist) Front – National Movement, later elected as President; 56 per cent called the National Republican voted for him in the second ballot. Movement. 24 June 1969 Chaban-Delmas (Gaullist) 24 September 2000 Referendum appointed Prime Minister. approves reduction in term of 5 July 1972 Messmer (Gaullist) president from seven years to five appointed Prime Minister. years, but only 31 per cent participate. 4 and 11 March 1973 National Assembly 11 and 18 March 2001 Local elections elections. in France; a Socialist becomes mayor 2 April 1973 Messmer re-appointed as of Paris for the first time since 1871. Prime Minister; he is again re-appointed on 1 March 1974 following a government reshuffle. The Fifth Republic: elections and 2 April 1974 Pompidou dies; Poher changes of government again becomes interim President. 23 and 30 November 1958 First National 19 May 1974 Giscard (Independent Assembly election under the new Republican) defeats Mitterrand on constitution. second ballot of presidential election 21 December 1958 de Gaulle elected as by 50.6 per cent to 49.4 per cent. first President of the Fifth Republic. 27 May 1974 Chirac (Gaullist) appointed 8 January 1959 Debré (Gaullist) Prime Minister. France France

25 August 1976 Barre (UDF) appointed 7 November 1995 following a Prime Minister and re-appointed on government reshuffle. 29 March 1977 following a 25 May and 1 June 1997 National government reshuffle. Assembly election: victory of the 12 and 19 March 1978 National left-wing and Green alliance. Assembly elections. 2 June 1997 Jospin (Socialist) appointed 31 March 1978 Barre re-appointed as as Prime Minister (third cohabitation). Prime Minister. 5 May 2002 Chirac re-elected as 10 May 1981 Mitterrand (Socialist) President, defeating Le Pen on elected President, defeating Giscard second ballot by 82.2 per cent to 17.8 on the second ballot. per cent.

21 May 1981 Mauroy (Socialist) CHRONOLOGIES appointed Prime Minister and GERMANY

re-appointed on 23 June 1981 and 22 155 March 1983 following government Bundestag elections, changes of reshuffles. government and election of federal 14 and 21 June 1981 National Assembly presidents elections. 17 July 1984 Fabius (Socialist) 14 August 1949 Bundestag election. appointed Prime Minister. CDU–CSU are largest party. 16 March 1986 National Assembly 12 September 1949 Theodor Heuss election based on proportional (FDP) elected as first federal representation, so only one ballot used. President. 20 March 1986 Chirac (Gaullist) 15 September 1949 Konrad Adenauer appointed Prime Minister (first (CDU) elected as federal Chancellor. cohabitation). Coalition of CDU–CSU, FDP and DP 8 May 1988 Mitterrand again elected as takes office. president, defeating Chirac by 54 per 6 September 1953 Bundestag election. cent–46 per cent. CDU–CSU are largest party. 10 May 1988 Rocard (Socialist) 9 October 1953 Konrad Adenauer appointed Prime Minister and elected as federal Chancellor. re-appointed June 1988 following Coalition of CDU–CSU, FDP and DP National Assembly elections. continues in office. 5 and 12 June 1988 National Assembly 17 July 1954 Theodor Heuss re-elected election. as federal President. 15 May 1991 Cresson (Socialist) 25 February 1956 FDP leaves the appointed as Prime Minister (the first coalition, but its ministers, calling female Prime Minister in the history themselves the Free People’s Party of France). (FVP: Freie Volkspartei), continue in 2 April 1992 Bérégovoy (Socialist) office. appointed Prime Minister. 15 September 1957 Bundestag election. 21 and 28 March 1993 National CDU–CSU obtain overall majority of Assembly election. seats. 29 March 1993 Balladur (Gaullist) 22 October 1957 Konrad Adenauer appointed Prime Minister (second elected as federal Chancellor. cohabitation). Coalition consists of CDU–CSU and 7 May 1995 Chirac defeats Jospin on DP. The DP ministers later join the second ballot of presidential election CDU, leaving Adenauer effectively by 52.6 per cent to 47.4 per cent. with a single-party government. 17 May 1995 Juppé (Gaullist) appointed 1 July 1959 Heinrich Lübke (CDU) Prime Minister and re-appointed elected as federal President. Germany Germany

17 September 1961 Bundestag election. Coalition of SPD and FDP continues CDU–CSU are largest party. in office. 7 November 1961 Konrad Adenauer 23 May 1979 Karl Carstens (CDU) elected as federal Chancellor. elected as federal President. Coalition of CDU–CSU and FDP takes 5 October 1980 Bundestag election. office. CDU–CSU are largest party. 16 October 1963 Following resignation 5 November 1980 Helmut Schmidt of Adenauer as federal Chancellor, elected as federal Chancellor. Ludwig Erhard is elected as his Coalition of SPD and FDP continues successor. The coalition remains in office. unchanged, though ministerial posts 1 October 1980 Helmut Kohl elected as

CHRONOLOGIES are redistributed. federal Chancellor by means of 1 July 1959 Heinrich Lübke re-elected constructive vote of no confidence

156 as federal President. (its first successful use) following 19 September 1965 Bundestag election. termination of the SPD–FDP coalition CDU–CSU are largest party. by the FDP. Coalition of CDU–CSU 20 October 1965 Ludwig Erhard elected and FDP takes office. as federal Chancellor. Coalition of 6 March 1983 Bundestag election, CDU–CSU and FDP continues in office. following constructive vote of no 1 December 1966 Kurt Georg Kiesinger confidence on 1 October 1982 and elected as federal Chancellor, premature dissolution of Bundestag. following termination of coalition by CDU–CSU are largest party. the FDP, resignation of Erhard as 29 March 1983 Helmut Kohl elected as federal Chancellor and the federal Chancellor. Coalition of construction of a ‘grand coalition’ CDU–CSU and FDP continues in consisting of CDU–CSU and SPD. office. 5 March 1969 Gustav Heinemann (SPD) 23 May 1984 Richard von Weizsäcker elected as federal President. (CDU) elected as federal President. 28 September 1969 Bundestag election. 25 January 1987 Bundestag election. CDU–CSU are largest party. CDU–CSU are largest party. 21 October 1969 Election of Willy 23 May 1989 Richard von Weizsäcker Brandt as federal Chancellor. (CDU) re-elected as federal Coalition of SPD and FDP takes office. President. 19 November 1972 Bundestag election 2 December 1990 Bundestag election (the first to be held following a (the first for reunified Germany). premature dissolution of the CDU–CSU largest party. Bundestag). SPD are largest party. 17 January 1991 Helmut Kohl elected 14 December 1972 Willy Brandt elected as federal Chancellor. Coalition of as federal Chancellor. Coalition of CDU–CSU and FDP continues in office. SPD and FDP continues in office. 23 May 1994 Rainer Herzog elected as 15 May 1974 Walter Scheel (FDP) federal President. elected as federal President. 16 October 1994 Bundestag election. 16 May 1974 Helmut Schmidt elected CDU–CSU are largest party. as federal Chancellor, following 15 November 1994 Helmut Kohl elected resignation of Willy Brandt as federal as federal Chancellor. Coalition of Chancellor. Coalition of SPD and FDP CDU–CSU and FDP continues in office. continues in office. 27 September 1998 Bundestag election. 3 October 1976 Bundestag election. SPD are largest party. CDU–CSU are largest party. 27 October 1998 Gerhard Schröder 15 December 1976 Helmut Schmidt elected as federal Chancellor. SPD elected as federal Chancellor. and Green Party coalition takes office. Germany Germany Germany Germany

23 May 1999 Johannes Rau (SPD) 24 May 1949 Basic Law takes effect. elected as federal President. Founding date of Federal Republic of 22 September 2002 Bundestag election. Germany. SPD and Greens continue as 30 May 1949 East German People’s governing coalition. Congress (delegates from political parties and other organisations, such as the trade union) adopts a The division and reunification of constitution for an East German state. Germany 7 October 1949 Founding of the 8 May 1945 Unconditional surrender of German Democratic Republic (GDR). Germany ends Second World War. 10 March 1952 ‘Stalin Note’ offers

5 June 1945 Berlin Declaration: German reunification under certain CHRONOLOGIES occupation regime commences. conditions, including the neutrality of

Germany divided into four zones of the German state. 157 occupation. 17 June 1953 After strikes and protests 15 December 1947 London Conference on 15 and 16 June by building of Foreign Ministers of Allies workers in East Berlin against new terminates without agreement on working conditions imposed by the future of Germany being reached. GDR government, large numbers of 6 March 1948 London Six-Power workers strike and demonstrate Conference (without USSR throughout the GDR. The participation) ends its first session, demonstration is suppressed by the having decided to create a temporary Soviet military and by the GDR West German state, pending a peace security services. treaty. 25 March 1954 USSR recognises full 2 June 1948 London Six-Power sovereignty of GDR. Conference ends its second session, 5 May 1955 End of occupation rights in having decided to require the FRG. Federal Republic acquires full ministers-President of the Land sovereignty. governments of West Germany to 23 September 1955 Announcement by convene a constitutional convention government of the FRG of ‘Hallstein to create a temporary constitution for Doctrine’, whereby states offering a West German state. diplomatic recognition of the GDR 20–21 June 1948 West German could not enjoy diplomatic relations currency reform introduces the with the FRG. Deutschmark for western occupation 27 January 1956 GDR becomes a zones. member of the Warsaw Pact defence 23–28 June 1948 East German currency organisation. reform introduces Eastern Mark for 13 August 1961 Erection of Berlin Wall. the Soviet Union’s zone of occupation. 17 December 1963 Signing of first 1 July 1948 Western occupying powers Berlin Visa Agreement, allowing hand to ministers-President of West citizens of West Berlin to visit German Land governments the three relatives in East Berlin over the ‘Frankfurt Documents’, setting terms Christmas period: the first such for the creation of a provisional West opportunity since the erection of the German state. Berlin Wall. Further such Agreements 1 September 1948 Parliamentary follow in 1964–66. Council of 65 delegates of Länder 19 March 1970 Chancellor Brandt and Parliaments begins its deliberations in GDR Prime Minister Stoph meet in Bonn. Erfurt for talks. A second meeting in 23 May 1949 Basic Law is promulgated. Kassel follows on 21 May 1970. Germany Germany

12 August 1970 FRG and USSR sign Honecker as leader of GDR on ‘health Moscow Treaty, which affects the grounds’. Krenz replaces him. policy of the FRG towards the GDR 9 November 1989 Opening of the Berlin and is a main plank in the Ostpolitik Wall following press conference of Brandt’s government. where it was announced that travel 3 September 1971 Four-Power restrictions for GDR citizens were to Agreement on Berlin regulates the be diminished. situation concerning the divided city. 13 November 1989 Hans Modrow, 21 December 1972 Agreement signed known as a reformer in the GDR between GDR and FRG concerning Communist party, becomes head of their future relations. the GDR government.

CHRONOLOGIES 7–11 September 1987 Official visit of 28 November 1989 Kohl sets out a Honecker (leader of the GDR) to the Ten-Point Plan which could lead to

158 Federal Republic. German reunification. 15 January 1989 Demonstration in 3 December 1989 Krenz and the Leipzig for freedom of expression and Politburo of the GDR Communist freedom to travel, on occasion of party resign en bloc. 70th anniversary of murder of Rosa 7 December 1989 First meeting of the Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht. GDR ‘Round Table’: a forum for 2 May 1989 The Hungarian government representatives of new parties and announces it is to demolish the ‘iron political organisations, as well as from curtain’ border apparatus between the Communist party and the former Hungary and Austria. This later bloc parties and other organisations enables GDR visitors to Hungary to previously associated with it. flee easily to the West. 8 December 1989 A special congress of 7 May 1989 Local elections in the GDR. the GDR Communist party (continued Observation of polling stations by on 9, 16 and 17 December) decides dissidents results in challenges to the to change its organisational structure, accuracy of the official results and adopt new policies and change its the turnout figures. Rejection of name from Socialist Unity Party (SED) challenges to the result leads to to Socialist Unity Party–Party of monthly demonstrations. Democratic Socialism (SED–PDS). 19 September 1989 ‘New Forum’, a 18 March 1990 First democratic election group of GDR dissidents wanting to for the Volkskammer (the legislature foster free political discussion and of the GDR). Victory for the Christian reform, applies for official recognition Democratic-led ‘Alliance for Germany’ as an association. The Interior which favours swift reunification. Minister rejects the application on 21 Lothar de Maizière (CDU) forms a September 1989. coalition government, and is elected 2 October 1989 One of a regular series as Prime Minister by the of Monday evening demonstrations in Volkskammer on 12 April 1990. Leipzig of citizens demanding reform 5 May 1990 First meeting of the Foreign is broken up by police using violent Ministers of the four former Allied methods. occupation powers (USA, United 7 October 1989 Fortieth anniversary Kingdom, France and USSR) and of celebration of founding of GDR. the two German states: the so-called Gorbachev, attending as a guest, ‘Two Plus Four’ talks, to regulate emphasises the need for reform in international aspects of the the GDR. A new Social Democratic reunification of Germany. This takes party is founded in the GDR. place in Bonn. Other meetings take 18 October 1989 Resignation of place on 22 June (East Berlin), Germany Germany

17 July (Paris) and 12 September which the creation of a provisional (Moscow). At the Moscow meeting a West German state was Treaty was signed which was, in foreshadowed. effect, a peace treaty ending the 1 January 1947 Creation of the ‘Bizone’: Second World War and regulating the a fusion of the US and British zones international aspects of German of occupation. reunification, including the borders of 24 June 1948 Berlin blockade the reunified German state. commences. 18 May 1990 Treaty between FRG and 26 June 1948 Commencement of Berlin GDR signed, to institute an economic airlift to relieve shortages in Berlin. and currency union involving the two 10 May 1949 Parliamentary Council

German states. votes by 33–29 for Bonn, rather than CHRONOLOGIES 1 July 1990 Treaty of Economic, Frankfurt, as the seat of government

Monetary and Social Union comes for the FRG. 159 into effect. The Deutschmark (the 12 May 1949 Berlin blockade formally currency of the FRG) replaces the ends. GDR Mark at rates of parity for some 23 October 1952 Socialist Reich Party savings and for incomes, and at 1:2 banned by the Federal Constitutional for most other transactions. Court. 31 August 1990 Signing of Treaty 9 May 1955 Federal Republic of between GDR and FRG to unify the Germany joins NATO. two German states. 23 October 1955 Plebiscite in the Saar 3 October 1990 Treaty of Unification region, which in effect supports takes effect. membership of the Saar as a Land in 2 December 1990 First election in the FRG. reunified Germany for the Bundestag. 25 February 1956 The FDP withdraws from the Adenauer coalition. 17 August 1956 The Communist Party General (KPD) is banned by the Federal 30 April 1945 Hitler commits suicide in Constitutional Court. his Berlin bunker headquarters. 1 January 1957 The Saarland joins the 1 May 1945 Dönitz announces that he Federal Republic of Germany, after has been appointed successor to being under French administration Hitler as German leader. since the end of the Second World 8 May 1945 Unconditional surrender of War. Germany in Berlin ends the Second 13–15 November 1959 SPD party World War in Europe. congress at Bad Godesberg, near 2 August 1945 Potsdam conference of Bonn, accepts the Godesberg the ‘Big Three’ (USA, USSR and Programme, which abandons United Kingdom) which commenced traditional aspects of the SPD’s on 17 July 1945 ends. Decisions made ideology and programme, making it a concerning the future administration more open and modern party. of Germany, as well as other aspects 26 October 1962 Police searches of of the post-war situation. offices of the news magazine Der 20 November 1945 Nuremberg Spiegel begin what becomes known international war-crimes tribunal as the ‘Spiegel Affair’. commences (terminating on 1 6 November 1966 The radical right-wing October 1946). Twelve of the accused National Democratic Party (founded sentenced to death. 28 November 1964) win seats in the 6 September 1946 ‘Stuttgart speech’ of Hesse Land Parliament. Later in 1966 US Foreign Minister Byrnes, in and in the period 1967–68 they win Germany Germany

seats in several other Land 12 July 1994 The Federal Constitutional Parliaments. However, in the federal Court decides that ‘out-of-area’ election in 1969 they only secure utilisation of German military units is 4.3 per cent of the list votes, thus constitutionally permissible, though failing to qualify for seats in the the government must obtain prior Bundestag. approval by the Bundestag for such 24 July 1967 Party Law comes into effect. operations. 12–14 April 1969 German Communist 11 March 1999 Lafontaine, leader of the Party (DKP) officially founded. This SPD and Minister of Finance, resigns replaces the banned KPD. from his party and public offices 12 August 1970 Treaty of Moscow following disagreements with the

CHRONOLOGIES signed by FRG and USSR. This decisions of Chancellor Schröder. establishes the basis for a series of 12 March 1999 Schröder appointed

160 treaties (the culmination of the party Chairman in place of Lafontaine Brandt government’s Ostpolitik) by SPD Executive; he is confirmed in forming the basis for improved that office by a party congress on 12 relations between Germany and the April 1999. communist bloc states. 19 April 1999 Inaugural session of 27 April 1972 First use of the Bundestag in the Reichstag building constructive vote of no confidence in Berlin. (Art. 67 of the Basic Law) to try to 30 November 1999 Following replace Chancellor Brandt by Barzel accusations of improper and corrupt (CDU) fails by two votes. party financing involving various CDU 6 May 1974 Brandt resigns as politicians, former Chancellor Kohl Chancellor following the arrest on 24 admits knowledge of secret party April of Guillaume, a GDR spy who accounts. On 29 December 1999 an worked on Brandt’s staff. Brandt announcement is made that a remains as SPD leader. criminal investigation into Kohl and 12–14 January 1980 Federal Green party the CDU will be opened. Party leader formed at a congress in Karlsruhe. Wolfgang Schäuble resigns as a result. 17 September 1982 FDP ministers 10 April 2000 Angela Merkel elected as withdraw from Schmidt’s coalition CDU leader: the first female leader of government. a major party in Germany. 1 October 1982 First successful use of 11 January 2002 Stoiber (leader of the the constructive vote of no Bavarian CSU) acknowledged as confidence replaces Schmidt as CDU–CSU Chancellor-candidate for Chancellor by Kohl (CDU). the 2002 Bundestag elections 20 June 1991 The Bundestag votes by following Merkel’s announcement that 338 votes to 320 to make Berlin the she would not seek that position. seat of government, in place of Bonn. The Bundesrat votes on 5 July 1991 to ITALY remain in Bonn for the foreseeable future. General 18 May 1992 Genscher (FDP) resigns as Foreign Minister, having served since 25 July 1943 Mussolini deposed. 1974. 3 September 1943 Secret armistice 1 July 1992 A new law takes effect, signed by Italy with the Allies. speeding up the process of assessing 9 May 1946 Abdication of King Victor requests for political asylum and Emmanuel III; Umberto II succeeds making it more difficult to mis-use as King. the right to political asylum. 2 June 1946 First post-war elections and Italy Italy

referendum which rejects the 12–14 February 1998 Congress of PDS monarchy in favour of a republic. approves new name: Left 18 June 1946 Proclamation of the Democrats (DS) to accommodate Republic following abdication of King other parties which joined it in Umberto II on 13 June 1946. forming the DS. 1 January 1948 New constitution takes 10 December 1999 17 Mafia members effect. are given life sentences for the 5 October 1954 Italy and Yugoslavia murder of Judge Borsellino in agree on status of Trieste. Palermo in 1992. 15 June 1977 ‘Red Brigades’ trial opens. 8 October 2001 Referendum approves Five terrorists are sentenced to terms greater powers for the regions (but

of imprisonment on 23 June 1987. turnout only 34 per cent). CHRONOLOGIES 16 March 1978 Moro kidnapped by Red 11 October 2001 Berlusconi acquitted of

Brigades terrorists. corruption charges on appeal (relating 161 9 May 1978 Moro murdered by Red to charges in 1998 of bribing tax Brigade kidnappers. inspectors). 23 June 1978 Curcio, founder of Red Italy Italy Brigades, sentenced to 15 years’ Elections and changes of government imprisonment for forming an armed association and kidnapping. 20 June 1945 Parri appointed Prime 18 February 1984 New Concordat Minister. between Italian government and Holy 10 December 1945 De Gasperi See. appointed Prime Minister. 29 January 1985 Parliamentary 1946 General election. Commission to consider political 28 June 1946 de Nicola takes office as reform, under chairmanship of Bozzi, President. concludes its work. 13 July 1946 De Gasperi re-appointed 11 July 1988 Trial concludes of Prime Minister. right-wing extremists relating to 2 February 1947 De Gasperi bombing at Bologna railway station. re-appointed Prime Minister. Four terrorists receive life sentences. 31 May 1947 De Gasperi re-appointed 3 February 1991 Founding conference Prime Minister. of PDS (formed by former PCI 11 May 1948 Einaudi takes office as members) approves name of new President. party, following official disbandment 23 May 1948 De Gasperi re-appointed of PCI that day. Prime Minister. 10 February 1991 Bossi creates 27 January 1950 De Gasperi Northern League party, linking various re-appointed Prime Minister. regional Leagues. 26 July 1951 De Gasperi re-appointed 9 June 1991 Referendum on reform of Prime Minister. electoral system: 95.5 per cent 16 July 1953 De Gasperi re-appointed support proposed changes. Prime Minister. 23 May 1992 Assassination by Mafia of 7 June 1953 General election. Judge Falcone. 17 August 1953 Pella appointed Prime 19 July 1992 Assassination by Mafia of Minister. Judge Borsellino. 18 January 1954 Fanfani appointed 18–19 April 1993 Referendum on Prime Minister. electoral reform: 82.7 per cent vote in 10 February 1954 Scelba appointed favour. Prime Minister. 3–4 August 1993 Approval by Parliament 11 May 1955 Gronchi takes office as of new electoral system. President. Italy Italy

6 July 1955 Segni appointed Prime 12 February 1976 Moro re-appointed Minister. Prime Minister. 19 May 1957 Zoli appointed Prime 20 June 1976 General election. Minister. 29 July 1976 Andreotti appointed Prime 25 May 1958 General election. Minister. 1 July 1958 Fanfani re-appointed Prime 11 March 1978 Andreotti appointed Minister. Prime Minister. 15 February 1959 Segni re-appointed 15 June 1978 Fanfani takes office as Prime Minister. President. 25 March 1960 Tambroni appointed 8 July 1978 Pertini takes office as Prime Minister. President.

CHRONOLOGIES 26 July 1960 Fanfani re-appointed Prime 20 March 1979 Andreotti re-appointed Minister. Prime Minister.

162 21 February 1962 Fanfani re-appointed 3 and 4 June 1979 General election. Prime Minister. 4 August 1979 Cossiga appointed Prime 6 May 1962 Segni takes office as President. Minister. 28–29 April 1963 General election. 4 April 1980 Cossiga re-appointed Prime 21 June 1963 Leone appointed Prime Minister. Minister. 18 October 1980 Forlani appointed 4 December 1963 Moro appointed Prime Minister. Prime Minister. 28 June 1981 Spadolini appointed Prime 22 July 1964 Moro re-appointed Prime Minister. Minister. 23 August 1982 Spadolini re-appointed 28 December 1964 Saragat takes office Prime Minister. as President. 1 December 1982 Fanfani appointed 23 February 1966 Moro re-appointed Prime Minister. Prime Minister. 26 and 27 June 1983 General election. 19–20 May 1968 General election. 4 August 1983 Craxi appointed Prime 24 June 1968 Leone re-appointed Prime Minister. Minister. 24 June 1985 Cossiga elected President. 12 December 1968 Rumor appointed 1 August 1986 Craxi re-appointed Prime Prime Minister. Minister. 5 June 1969 Rumor re-appointed Prime 17 April 1987 Fanfani re-appointed Minister. Prime Minister. 27 March 1970 Rumor re-appointed 29 July 1987 Goria appointed Prime Prime Minister. Minister. 6 August 1970 Colombo appointed 14 and 15 June 1987 General election. Prime Minister. 13 April 1988 De Mita appointed Prime 29 December 1971 Leone takes office Minister. as President. 23 July 1989 Andreotti re-appointed 17 February 1972 Andreotti appointed Prime Minister. Prime Minister. 13 April 1991 Andreotti re-appointed 7–8 May 1972 General election. Prime Minister. 26 June 1972 Andreotti re-appointed 5 and 6 April 1992 General election. Prime Minister. Northern League win 55 seats. 7 July 1973 Rumor re-appointed Prime 28 May 1992 Scalfaro takes office as Minister. President. 14 March 1974 Rumor re-appointed 28 June 1992 Amato appointed Prime Prime Minister. Minister. 23 November 1974 Moro appointed 29 April 1993 Ciampi appointed Prime Prime Minister. Minister. Italy Spain

10 May 1994 Berlusconi appointed approves Political Reform Law, Prime Minister. allowing transition to democracy. 17 January 1995 Dini appointed Prime 9 April 1977 Communist party legalised. Minister. 23 February 1981 Attempted military 21 April 1996 General election. coup; armed officers hold Members 18 May 1996 Prodi appointed Prime of the Cortes hostage. Minister. 24 February 1981 King Juan Carlos 21 October 1998 D’Alema appointed condemns attempted coup by Prime Minister. officers; coup collapses. 22 December 1999 D’Alema Elections and changes of government re-appointed Prime Minister.

25 April 2000 Amato appointed Prime 5 July 1976 Suarez appointed Prime CHRONOLOGIES Minister. Minister.

13 May 2001 General election. 15 June 1977 Election of Constituent 163 11 June 2001 Berlusconi appointed Assembly: the first democratic general Prime Minister. election since the civil war. Union of the Democratic Centre (UDC) has largest share of the vote (34.5 per cent). SPAIN 1 March 1979 General election. UDC has largest share of the vote (35.1 per General cent). 5 October 1966 Spain closes border 26 February 1981 Calvo appointed with Gibraltar. Prime Minister. 11 January 1980 Catalan and Basque 28 October 1982 General election. regional governments commence Socialists win largest share of the rule. vote (48.3 per cent). 10 April 1980 Spain re-opens border 2 December 1982 González appointed with Gibraltar. Prime Minister. 9 December 1981 Spain joins NATO. 22 June 1986 General election. 12 June 1985 Spain becomes member Socialists win largest share of the of EEC. vote (44.3 per cent). 12 March 1986 Referendum accepts 29 October 1989 General election. Spain’s continued membership of Socialists win largest share of the NATO. vote (39.9 per cent). Italy Spain 1 November 1989 González re-appointed Prime Minister. The transition to democracy 6 June 1993 General election. Socialists 22 July 1969 Franco names Juan Carlos, win largest share of the vote (39.1 per grandson of King Alfonso XIII, as heir cent). to the throne and successor to 14 July 1993 González re-appointed Franco as head of state. Prime Minister. 20 November 1975 Franco dies. 3 March 1996 General election. Popular 22 November 1975 Juan Carlos Party wins largest share of the vote proclaimed King of Spain. (39.2 per cent). 14 July 1976 Ban on political parties 4 May 1996 Aznar appointed Prime lifted. Minister. 16 November 1976 Cortes (Spanish 12 March 2000 General election. legislature) passes Political Reform Popular Party wins largest share of Law to establish democratic elections the vote (44.6 per cent). and a bicameral legislature. 27 April 2000 Aznar re-appointed Prime 15 December 1976 Referendum Minister. Smaller democracies Smaller democracies

30 January 1992 Haughey resigns as SMALLER DEMOCRACIES Ireland’s Prime Minister following 4 November 1948 Queen Juliana allegations of wire-tapping. becomes Queen of the 13 February 1992 Prime Minister, Bildt, Netherlands, following the announces end of Sweden’s neutrality abdication of her mother, Queen status. Wilhelmina. 14 July 1993 Law passed which makes 16 July 1951 Leopold III, King of the Belgium a federal state. Belgians, abdicates; the following day 31 July 1993 Albert becomes King of his son, King Baudoin, succeeds to the Belgians on the death of King the throne. Baudoin.

CHRONOLOGIES 5 June 1953 Greenland becomes an 1 February 2000 EU commences integral part of Denmark, having imposition of diplomatic sanctions

164 previously been a colony. against Austria as protest against the 15 May 1955 Austrian State Treaty inclusion of the radical right-wing signed, ending condition of party: the Austrian People’s Party, in a occupation in Austria. coalition government after the general 21 April 1967 Military coup in Greece election in October 1999. commences. Military junta takes office. Smaller democraciesSmaller democracies 1 June 1973 Greek monarchy declared EUROPE abolished. 25 April 1974 Military coup overthrows Integration dictatorship of Salazar in Portugal. 23 July 1974 Military rule in Greece 19 September 1946 Churchill makes terminates. speech in Zurich advocating 1 August 1974 Restoration of 1952 European integration. Greek constitution. 1 November 1947 Benelux customs 13 February 1975 Turkish Cypriots union (taking effect from 1 January proclaim an independent republic for 1948). their part of Cyprus; Denktash 5 May 1949 Statutes of the Council of becomes President. Europe signed by ten West European 25 April 1976 New, democratic, states. constitution adopted in Portugal. 10 August 1949 First meeting of 1 May 1980 Queen Beatrix becomes Assembly of Council of Europe in monarch of the Netherlands, Strasbourg. following the abdication of her 9 May 1950 Announcement of Schuman mother, Queen Juliana. Plan which leads to foundation of 21 October 1981 Papandreou forms ECSC. Greece’s first ever Socialist-led 18 April 1951 Treaty establishing ECSC government. signed. 28 February 1986 Assassination of 23 July 1952 ECSC Treaty comes into Palme, Sweden’s Prime Minister. effect. 8 June 1986 Kurt Waldheim elected 30–31 August 1954 French Parliament President of Austria. rejects European Defence Community 3 December 1990 Mary Robinson scheme, which would have provided becomes first female President of the for the rearmament of the Federal Irish Republic. German Republic within a European 22 July 1991 New method of choosing defence alliance. president of Finland by direct election 1–2 June 1955 Messina conference on (using a two-ballot system) comes the further development of European into effect. integration. Europe Europe

29 May 1956 Foreign ministers of 1–2 December 1968 Summit meeting of member states of the ECSC meet in EC leaders at the Hague at which (a) Venice and agree to proceed towards agreement is reached to open the creation of the EEC and negotiations with prospective member EURATOM on the basis of decisions states; (b) it is confirmed that a taken at the Messina conference European Economic and Monetary (1–2 June 1955). Union would be created by 1980; and 25 March 1957 Treaties of Rome signed (c) it is agreed that a foreign policy to create EEC and EURATOM. co-operation process will be 1 January 1958 Treaties of Rome come developed. into effect. 27 October 1970 Luxembourg Report on

20–21 July 1959 Seven countries European Political Co-operation (EPC) CHRONOLOGIES including the United Kingdom agree issued to develop foreign policy

to create EFTA. co-operation. 165 3 May 1960 EFTA treaty comes into 19 November 1970 First ministerial effect. meeting under EPC procedures. 31 July, 9–10 August 1961 Applications 16 November 1971 House of Commons made by the United Kingdom, Ireland votes 356–244 to accept membership and Denmark to join the EEC. of EC. 30 April 1962 Norway applies to join the 22 January 1972 Accession treaties for EEC. new member states of EC signed. 14 January 1963 de Gaulle in effect 23 April 1972 Referendum in France vetoes the British application for approves EEC enlargement (68 per membership of EEC. cent vote in favour). 1 July 1965 The ‘empty chair crisis’: 10 May 1972 Referendum in Ireland France withdraws from meetings of approves EC membership: 83 per the Council of Ministers following cent vote in favour. disputes about the future financing of 24 September 1972 Norwegian voters in the CAP. a referendum reject EC membership 4 August 1965 Treaty signed by EEC, by 53.5 per cent to 46.5 per cent. ECSC and EURATOM merging the 1 October 1972 Danish referendum executive organs of those on EC membership: 63 per cent institutions. approve. 29 January 1966 The ‘Luxembourg 1 January 1973 First enlargement of EC compromise’ permitting national takes effect by addition of United vetoes on certain matters means that Kingdom, Ireland and Denmark as France returns to meetings of the members. Council of Ministers. 9–10 December 1974 Paris meeting of 10–11 May 1967 Renewed applications heads of governments of EC member for membership of EC received from states agree (a) to hold such United Kingdom, Ireland and meetings (to be referred to as the Denmark. ‘European council’) at regular 1 July 1967 Executives of EC, ECSC and intervals in future and (b) to permit EURATOM merged. direct elections to the European 25 July 1967 Norway renews application Parliament. to become a member of the EC. 10–11 March 1975 European Council in 28 July 1967 Sweden applies for Dublin discusses renegotiation of membership of EC. terms of British membership. 19 December 1967 de Gaulle again 9 April 1975 British House of Commons rejects EC membership of United votes in favour of EC membership: Kingdom. 396 in favour, 170 against. Europe Europe Europe Europe

5 June 1975 United Kingdom holds its 7 February 1992 Foreign and first ever nationwide referendum: by Finance Ministers sign Maastricht Treaty. 67.2 per cent to 32.8 per cent it 18 March 1992 Finland applies for EC approves continued membership of membership. the EC on the basis of renegotiated 3 May 1992 European Economic Area terms. agreement signed, linking EC and 13 March 1979 European Monetary EFTA. System (EMS) is established. 2 June 1992 First referendum in 28 May 1979 Agreement is reached on Denmark on the Maastricht Treaty: terms of membership of EC for 50.7 per cent vote to reject acceptance. Greece. 16 September 1992 ‘Black Wednesday’:

CHRONOLOGIES 7–10 June 1979 First direct elections to United Kingdom and Italy leave the European Parliament. Exchange Rate Mechanism which

166 1 January 1981 Greece becomes the links EU currency rates. tenth member of the EC. 20 September 1992 Referendum in 23 February 1982 Greenland voters France approves Maastricht decide in a referendum to withdraw Treaty (but only 51 per cent vote in from the EC. This takes effect from favour). February 1985. 6 December 1992 Swiss voters reject 12 June 1985 A decision is taken that Switzerland’s membership of EEA. Spain and Portugal can become 18 May 1993 Second Danish members of the EC. referendum on Maastricht Treaty: 56.8 1 January 1986 Spain and Portugal per cent vote for acceptance. become members of the EC. 21–22 June 1993 European Council, 17 February 1986 Single European Act meeting in Copenhagen, agrees signed, as a comprehensive reform of criteria for acceptance of new the European Treaties. member states. 1 July 1987 Single European Act takes 2 August 1993 Currency speculation effect. against the French franc and other 20 September 1988 Mrs Thatcher’s currencies forces the effective controversial ‘Bruges speech’, suspension of the Exchange Rate criticising what she perceives to be Mechanism. centralising trends of the EC. 1 November 1993 Maastricht Treaty 26–27 June 1989 Delors Report on comes into effect, involving Economic and Monetary Union introduction of the name: European approved by European Council Union to apply to the structure of meeting in Madrid. European integration involving the 17 July 1989 Austria applies for EC and other integrative procedures. membership of EC. 1 January 1994 The EEA takes effect, 3 October 1990 Reunification of introducing closer economic relations Germany adds large amount of between EU and EFTA states (except territory, but not an additional for Switzerland). member, to the EC. 12 June 1994 Austrian voters agree to 8 October 1990 The pound sterling is membership of EU: 67 per cent vote included in the ERM. in favour of EU membership. 1 July 1991 Sweden applies for EC 16 October 1994 Referendum in Finland membership. approves EU membership: 57 per 9–10 December 1991 Meeting of cent vote in favour. European Council in Maastricht 13 November 1994 Swedish voters agrees content of Maastricht Treaty agree to EU membership by a 52 per on European Union. cent–48 per cent majority. Europe Europe

28 November 1994 Referendum in Commissioner. The motion is rejected Norway on EU membership: 52 per by 293–232. cent vote against membership. 16 March 1999 EU Commission resigns 1 January 1995 Austria, Finland and en bloc following publication of an Sweden become member states in independent report detailing cases of the EU. corruption and mismanagement. 26 March 1995 Schengen Agreement 10–13 June 1999 European Parliament comes into force, removing most elections; turnout in most member border checks and controls between states declines. signatory states. 28 September 2000 Danish voters reject 2 October 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam membership of the European single

signed, expanding upon and clarifying currency project: 53 per cent vote CHRONOLOGIES aspects of the Rome and Maastricht against Danish membership.

Treaties. 1 January 2001 Greece joins European 167 1–2 May 1998 European Council single currency. meeting in Brussels agrees that 11 1 January 2002 ‘Euro’ replaces national members meet the convergence currencies as means of exchange. criteria which are conditions for qualification for membership of the General single currency project. It appoints Wim Duisenberg as head of the 5 June 1947 Marshall, in a speech at European Central Bank, which will be Harvard University, proposes what located in Frankfurt. becomes the European Recovery 1 January 1999 Eleven member states Programme (the ‘Marshall Plan’). commence use of the ‘euro’ as the 4 April 1949 North Atlantic Treaty single currency, alongside national Organisation founded by treaty signed currencies, but with unchangeable by 12 original member states. fixed rates of exchange within the 5 May 1949 Statute signed to establish group of eleven states. the Council of Europe. 14 January 1999 Motion of censure on 30 September 1961 Organisation for EU Commissioners by European European Economic Co-operation and Parliament, on basis of allegations of Development (OECD) replaces corruption and other behaviour Organisation for European Economic unsuited to the office of Co-operation (OEEC).

Section 5 Data relating to political systems

THE COUNTRIES OF WESTERN EUROPE referendum. The constitutional court (Verfassungsgerichtshof ) determines the constitutionality of legislation and Austria executive acts. Population 8.1 million (2000) Current government The 1999 Capital Vienna election brought to an end the Territory 83,857 sq. km 13-year government coalition GDP per capita US$25,788 (2000) between the Social Democratic Party Unemployment 3.7 per cent of of Austria (SPÖ) and Austrian workforce (2000) People’s Party (ÖVP), which had State form Republic. The Austrian been under considerable strain. When constitution of 1920, as amended in the two parties failed to reach a 1929, was restored on 1 May 1945. On coalition agreement, Austria found 15 May 1955, the four Allied Powers itself short of viable alternatives. The signed the State Treaty with Austria, record gains of the radical right ending the occupation and Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) had recognising Austrian independence. changed the balance of power within Current head of state President the party system. The other two Thomas Klestil (took office 8 July numerically viable coalitions – 1992, re-elected 1998). SPÖ/FPÖ or ÖVP/FPÖ – had been State structure A federation with nine ruled out in advance by the two provinces (Länder), each with its own mainstream parties. An attempt by the constitution, legislature and SPÖ to form a minority government government. failed. Finally, a coalition was formed Government The president appoints the between the ÖVP and FPÖ under prime minister (chancellor), and, on Wolfgang Schüssel (ÖVP) and the chancellor’s recommendation, a reluctantly sworn in by President cabinet (Council of Ministers) of Klestil on 5 February 2000. The around fifteen members. The Council decision to form a government of Ministers is responsible to the including a party of the far right – lower chamber of Parliament, the six of the 12-member cabinet were 183-member National Council FPÖ members – provoked (Nationalrat). The second chamber, international outrage and a period of the 64-member Federal Council sanctions imposed by the European (Bundesrat), is elected by the Union. Parliaments of the Länder. The Electoral systems The president is government, or individual ministers, elected by direct universal suffrage for can be removed from office by a vote a term of six years and may not serve of no confidence in the National more than two terms. Council. The Federal Council has the Elections to the Nationalrat are based power to delay legislation, but not to on a system of proportional veto it. For certain important matters, representation, the ‘enforced’ the two chambers meet together as preference voting system, with a 4 per the Bundesversammlung. Certain cent threshold. Term of office: four matters may be subject to a years. Austria Belgium

Austrian presidential elections, 19 April 1998 Belgium as a ‘unitary decentralised state’. Between 1970 and 1993 a Votes (%) four-stage process of constitutional Thomas Klestil (independent, backed by ÖVP and 63.4 reform transformed the country into a FPÖ) federation and culminated in the new Gertraud Knoll (SPÖ) 13.6 Heide Schmidt (LF) 11.1 Belgian constitution of 1994. Richard Lugner (independent) 9.9 Current head of state King Albert II Nowak 1.9 (sworn in 9 August 1993). State structure A federation Election to the Austrian Nationalrat, 3 October 1999 characterised by three linguistic communities (French-, Flemish- and Votes (%) Seats German-speaking), three regions Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) 33.1 65 (Walloon, Flemish and Brussels) and People’s Party (ÖVP) 26.9 52 four linguistic regions Freedom Party (FPÖ) 26.9 52 (French-speaking, Flemish-speaking, Greens 7.4 14 Liberal Forum (LF) 3.6 0 German-speaking and the bilingual Others 2.1 0 region of Brussels-Capital). The Total 183 unusually complex federal arrangements are designed to contain DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Party system Since the Second World the conflicts between the country’s War, the Austrian party system has linguistic communities.

170 been dominated by the SPÖ and Government The monarch appoints a ÖVP, which, until the general election formateur to negotiate the formation of 1990, together took 90 per cent of of a new government. The monarch the vote. The Greens emerged in the appoints the prime minister, and, on early 1980s, and, in 1986, the FPÖ the prime minister’s advice, a cabinet became a serious electoral force of up to fifteen members comprising under the charismatic leadership of an equal number of Flemish and Jörg Haider. A controversial figure, French speakers. Executive power is Haider has in the past expressed nominally held by the monarch, but approval of the National Socialist in practice is exercised by the (Nazi) regime in Germany. On 28 cabinet. The cabinet is responsible to February 2000, Haider unexpectedly the lower chamber of Parliament, the resigned as party leader of the FPÖ, Chamber of Representatives. Since ostensibly as a conciliatory gesture to the constitutional reform of 1993, the its coalition partner the ÖVP, but he upper chamber of Parliament, the remains acknowledged as the de Senate, has had only limited facto leader of his party. legislative powers. Austria Belgium Current government The outgoing Belgium christian–social four-party coalition of CVP/PSC/PS/SP under Jean-Luc Population 10.3 million (2000) Dehaene (CVP) had been in Capital Brussels government since 1988 but had made Territory 30,519 sq. km losses at each subsequent election. Its GDP per capita US$26,570 (2000) heavy defeat in June 1999 was seen Unemployment 7.0 per cent of as a public response to a range of workforce (2000) scandals including an ongoing State form Constitutional monarchy. health-related scandal concerning Belgium seceded from the contaminated feed for livestock and Netherlands in 1830, and the the earlier paedophile scandal of constitution of 1831 established 1996. The series of scandals had Belgium Belgium

rocked the establishment and had Elections to the Belgian Senate, 13 June 1999 provoked calls for a democratic Votes (%) Seats renewal in Belgium. A new ‘purple-green’ (ie, red, blue and Flemish Liberals and Democrats 15.4 6 green) coalition comprising six parties (VLD) Christian People’s Party (CVP) 14.8 6 (VLD/PRL–FDF–MCC/SP/PS/AGALEV/ Liberal Reform Party (PRL–FDF–MCC) 10.6 5 ECOLO) was formed on 12 July 1999 Walloon Socialist Party (PS) 9.7 4 led by Guy Verhofstadt (VLD). It was Flemish Bloc 9.4 4 the first government to exclude the Flemish Socialist Party (SP) 8.9 4 christian democratic parties since ECOLO (Walloon Greens) 7.4 3 AGALEV (Flemish Greens) 7.1 3 1958. Social Christian Party (PSC) 6.1 3 Electoral systems A constitutional People’s Union 5.1 2 amendment of 1993 altered the National Front (FN) 1.5 0 membership of the two chambers of Others 4.0 0 Parliament. The Chamber of Total 40 Representatives formerly had 212 members and now has 150; the Party system Reflecting Belgium’s Senate formerly had 182 members linguistic divide, each of the main and now has 71. ideological families in Belgium is Elections to both chambers are by a represented by two separate parties: DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS system of proportional representation the christian democrats by the

for a four-year term. However, only Flemish CVP and Walloon PSC; the 171 forty of the Senate’s seventy-one socialists by the Flemish SP and members are directly elected; the Walloon PS; the liberals by two remaining thirty-one are co-opted recently ‘renovated’ groupings, the from the councils of the linguistic Flemish VLD (formerly PVV) and communities. In May 1995 elections Walloon PRL–FDF; and the Greens by were held for the first time to the the Flemish AGALEV and Walloon new assemblies for the ECOLO. In addition, there are many regional/linguistic communities and to protest and fringe groups, of which the Brussels assembly. These the most significant are the extreme assemblies each have a term of office right-wing Flemish Bloc, the more of five years. moderate Flemish Nationalist People’s Belgium Belgium Union, and the extreme right Walloon Elections to the Belgian Chamber of Representatives, National Front. With the electorate’s 13 June 1999 rejection of the christian–social coalition in June 1999, the liberal Votes (%) Seats parties emerged as the largest Flemish Liberals and Democrats 14.3 23 ‘political family’ for the first time since (VLD) 1883. For the first time since the Christian People’s Party (CVP) 14.1 22 1920s, the christian and socialist Walloon Socialist Party (PS) 10.1 19 families no longer held a combined Liberal Reform Party (PRL–FDF–MCC) 10.1 18 Flemish Bloc 9.9 15 majority in Parliament. The Green Flemish Socialist Party (SP) 9.6 14 family gained ground while the far ECOLO (Walloon Greens) 7.3 11 right family’s standing was eroded AGALEV (Flemish Greens) 7.0 9 overall. New parties demanding a Social Christian Party (PSC) 5.9 10 complete overhaul of the political People’s Union 5.6 8 National Front (FN) 1.5 1 system failed to gain a seat in the Others 4.6 0 federal Parliament. Total 150 Denmark Denmark

maximum of 179 members, two of Denmark whom are elected in the Faroe Population 5.3 million (2000) Islands and two in Greenland. The Capital Copenhagen Folketing is elected by a system of Territory 43,075 sq. km proportional representation for a term GDP per capita US$28,448 (2000) of office of four years. Unemployment 4.7 per cent of workforce (2000) Election to the Danish Folketing, 20 November 2001 State form Constitutional monarchy, (excluding representatives from the Faroes and Greenland) based on the constitution of 5 June Votes (%) Seats 1953. Current head of state Queen Liberal Party (V) 31.3 56 Social Democratic Party (SDP) 29.1 52 Margrethe II (succeeded to the throne Danish People’s Party (DF) 12.0 22 14 January 1972). Conservative People’s Party (KF) 9.1 16 State structure Unitary. Home rule was Socialist People’s Party (SF) 6.4 12 granted to the Faroe Islands in 1948 Social Liberals (RV) 5.2 9 and to Greenland in 1979. Red-Green Unity List (ELRG) 2.4 4 Christian People’s Party (KrF) 2.3 4 Government The monarch appoints the Total 175 prime minister and, on the advice of DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS the prime minister, the cabinet of Party system The main parties currently around twenty members, which is fall into two broad groupings of

172 responsible to the unicameral centre-right (V, KF, KrF) and Parliament (Folketing). Legislative centre-left (SDP, RV, SF and ELRG). authority rests jointly with the The far-right DF was founded in 1995 monarch and Parliament. A bill following a split within the Progress adopted by the Folketing may be Party (FP). Since the centre-right submitted to referendum on the government depends on its support request of one-third of the members for a parliamentary majority, the DF of the Folketing. The bill is invalid if it now holds a key position within the is rejected by a majority of the votes party system. cast, provided this represents at least Denmark Denmark 30 per cent of the electorate. Finland Current government On 31 October 2001 Prime Minister Poul Nyrup Population 5.2 million (2000) Rasmussen (SDP) called an early Capital Helsinki general election in what critics saw as Territory 338,145 sq. km an attempt to capitalise on the GDP per capita US$24,414 (2000) popularity of his support for the Unemployment 9.7 per cent of US-led campaign against Afghanistan. workforce (2000) The gamble backfired and the SDP State form Republic. Finland was part suffered losses which cost the party of the Kingdom of Sweden until 1809 its customary position as the largest when it became an autonomous party in the Folketing. The defeat led Grand Duchy under the Russian Empire. to the transfer of government to the During the Russian Revolution of 1917 former opposition centre-right. Helped Finland claimed its independence by the parliamentary votes of the and, after a brief civil war, the right-wing DF, a new minority republic was founded in 1919. government was formed comprising Finland’s founding republican the liberals (V) and conservatives (KF), constitution of 17 July 1919 was led by Anders Fogh Rasmussen (V). replaced with a new constitution on 1 Electoral systems The Folketing has a March 2000. Finland Finland

Current head of state President Tarja Minister Paavo Lipponen (SSDP) Halonen (took office 1 March 2000). restored his five-party ‘rainbow’ State structure Unitary coalition comprising Government In Finland, the president SSDP/KOK/SFP/VAS/VIHR, arguing that has traditionally enjoyed a more a solid base of co-operation and prominent executive and legislative ministerial experience would be role than most Western European needed for Finland’s forthcoming EU heads of state. However, the new presidency. constitution of 1 March 2000 restricted Electoral systems Following the president’s role, effectively constitutional amendments from 1987, formalising recent practical steps the president is elected by direct towards institutional relationships universal suffrage for a term of six more typical of a parliamentary years and may not serve more than democracy. In future, the president’s two consecutive terms. If no role will be largely ceremonial. presidential candidate obtains more Whereas the president formerly held than 50 per cent of the vote, a supreme executive power, this is now second ballot is held to determine the shared with the cabinet (Council of winner, in which only the two leading State) of around fifteen ministers, candidates of the first ballot may headed by the prime minister. compete. DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Whereas the president used to play a The 200-member Eduskunta is elected

key role in the formation of by a system of proportional 173 governments, his or her role is now representation for a four-year term. reactive: to appoint the prime minister Finland Finland selected by the unicameral Finnish presidential elections, 16 January and 6 February Parliament (Eduskunta) and those 2000 ministers of the Council of State First ballot Second ballot nominated by the prime minister. The (%) (%) prime minister directs the activities of the government. Legislative proposals Tarja Halonen (SSDP) 40.0 51.6 Esko Aho (KESK) 34.4 48.4 are introduced in Parliament either by Riitta Uosukainen (KOK) 12.8 the government or by a private Elisabeth Rehn (SFP) 7.9 member. The Parliament appoints a Heidi Hautala (VIHR) 3.3 parliamentary ombudsman to serve Ilkka Hakalehto (True Finns) 1.0 for a term of four years. The president Risto Kuisma (Independent) 0.6 still has a leading role in foreign policy, but must exercise this in Elections to the Finnish Eduskunta, 21 March 1999 co-operation with the Council of State. Votes (%) Seats In other areas, the president must work to proposals submitted by the Finnish Social Democratic Party 22.9 51 Council of State. On the request of (SSDP) Centre Party (KESK) 22.4 48 the prime minister, the president may National Coalition Party (KOK) 21.0 46 call an early election to the Left-Wing Alliance (VAS) 10.9 20 Eduskunta. The president may be Greens (VIHR) 7.3 11 impeached on grounds of treason or Swedish People’s Party (SFP) 5.1 11 of crimes against humanity. Finnish Christian League (SKL) 4.2 10 Others 6.2 3 Current government For the first time Total 200 since independence in 1917, Finland saw a continuation of precisely the Party system In common with other same governing coalition following Western European countries, Finland’s the elections of March 1999. Prime parties are largely divided by the class Finland France

cleavage, with the VAS, SSDP and accept the resignation of the prime VIHR on the left, and KESK, KOK, SFP minister; submit a bill to a and SKL on the right. (The SKL referendum; declare emergency changed its name to the Christian powers; and dissolve the lower Democratic Party of Finland on 25 chamber of Parliament, the National May 2001.) Unlike the practice in Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) once other countries, it has been common in a twelve-month period. The in Finland for the parties to president makes appointments to co-operate across the class divide in senior civil and military posts. broad-based coalition governments. Throughout most of the Fifth Finland France Republic, the electorate has returned a majority supporting the party or France coalition of the president to the Population 58.9 million (2000) National Assembly. This has enabled Capital Paris the president to be the effective Territory 543,965 sq. km executive leader of France. GDP per capita US$23,276 (2000) Exceptionally, the electorate has (overseas territories excluded) instead returned a majority from the Unemployment 9.5 per cent of opposing ‘bloc’. During these periods DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS workforce (2000) of ‘cohabitation’ (1986–88; 1993–95; State form Republic, based on the 1997–2002), executive power has

174 constitution of 1958 establishing the been shared between the president Fifth French Republic. Following the and the prime minister, with the latter liberation of France from German commanding the support of the occupation in 1944 and a brief majority in the National Assembly. provisional government led by The constitutionality of bills is General Charles de Gaulle, the Fourth determined by the Constitutional French Republic was founded in Council. 1946. This regime, which proved Current government The first ballot of unstable, was replaced in 1958 by the the French presidential election, held current one. on 21 April 2002, shocked the nation Current head of state President when the candidate of the far-right FN Jacques Chirac (took office 17 May took second place from the socialist 1995, re-elected May 2002). leader and Prime Minister Lionel State structure Unitary, comprising 96 Jospin (PS). After this crushing defeat, metropolitan departments and 10 Jospin stood down as head of the overseas departments. Corsica has its left-radical coalition government. In own directly elected legislative his place, President Jacques Chirac assembly. (RPR) named Jean-Pierre Raffarin Government The president appoints the (DL) as interim Prime Minister. After prime minister and a cabinet (Council the parliamentary elections, Raffarin of Ministers) of around twenty was confirmed as Prime Minister and members, which is responsible to the on 18 June 2002 took office at the bicameral Parliament. Executive head of a government comprising power is vested in the president, who RPR and DL. These parties had is in practice the most politically campaigned together during the powerful head of state in Western parliamentary elections as the Europe. The president ‘presides’ over Union for the Presidential Majority the Council of Ministers and may, (UMP). under specified circumstances, Electoral systems From 1962 to 1995, dismiss the government ministers and the president of France was elected France France

by direct universal suffrage for a term Elections to the French National Assembly, 9 and 16 June of office of seven years. In September 2002 2000 a referendum approved the Second ballot Seats reduction of the term of office to five (%) years with effect from the presidential elections of 2002. If no presidential Union for the Presidential Majority 33.4 355 candidate obtains more than 50 per (UMP (RPR and DL)) Socialist Party (PS) 23.8 140 cent of the vote, a second ballot is National Front (FN) 11.1 – held to determine the winner, in French Communist Party (PCF) 4.9 21 which only the two leading Union for French Democracy (UDF) 4.8 29 candidates of the first ballot may Greens (les Verts) 4.4 3 compete. Radical Socialist Party (PRG) 1.5 7 Others 16.1 22 The National Assembly has 577 Total 577 members: 555 for metropolitan France and 22 for the overseas Elections to the French Senate, 23 September 2001 departments. Members are elected by (resulting total distribution of seats in the Senate) a single-member constituency system of direct election, using a second Seats ballot if the first fails to produce an Rally for the Republic (RPR) and allies 96 absolute majority for any one Socialist Party (PS) and allies 83 DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS candidate. The term of office is five Union of the Centre* 53

years. Republicans and Independents † 40 175 French Communist Party (PCF) and allies 23 The upper chamber of Parliament, the Democratic and Social European Rally* 19 Senate, has 321 members, 296 for Independents (non-aligned) 6 metropolitan France, 13 for the Vacant 1 overseas territories and 12 for French Total 321 nationals abroad. It is elected by an * mostly UDF † various right-wing groups electoral college composed of members of the National Assembly Party system During the years of the and delegates from the councils of Fifth Republic, an initially fragmented the departments and municipal party system has developed into a authorities. Senators are elected for a bipolar system of two main ‘blocs’ of nine-year term of office, but the parties on the centre-right and Senate is not elected as a single centre-left. Each bloc comprises many body. Instead, one-third of the parties which frequently splinter and senators is elected every three years. merge. For a time, these blocs were France France almost balanced in terms of electoral French presidential elections, 21 April and 5 May 2002 support, but recent elections show that their support is very First ballot Second ballot unpredictable. The landslide defeat of (%) (%) the Socialist Party (PS), the main Jacques Chirac (RPR) 19.9 82.2 party of the centre-left, in the 1993 Jean-Marie Le Pen (FN) 16.9 17.8 general election was followed by an Lionel Jospin (PS) 16.2 Francois Bayrou (UDF) 6.8 impressive recovery in the first round Arlette Laguiller (Workers’ Struggle) 5.7 of the presidential elections of 1995. Jean-Pièrre Chevènement (Citizen’s 5.3 In the general election of 1997, a Movement, MdC) collapse in the vote of the Noel Mamere (Green) 5.3 centre-right, whose main parties are Alain Madelin (DL) 3.9 Robert Hue (PCF) 3.4 the RPR and UDF, was accompanied Others 16.6 by a surge in support for the far right National Front (FN). In 2002, the FN’s France Germany

success in entering the second round vote of no confidence’). The of the presidential elections prompted chancellor selects a cabinet of around a ‘pro-republican’ cross-party initiative twenty members and the president to secure the centre-right candidate formally appoints the chancellor and Chirac’s election in the second round. cabinet ministers. Executive authority Finally, in the parliamentary elections rests with the federal government, of 2002, the parties of the left which is responsible to the (socialists, communists and greens) Bundestag. The Federal Council saw their vote share fall dramatically (Bundesrat) is composed of from 318 seats to 171 seats. This representatives of the governments of ensured the end of the period of the Länder. Each Land sends ‘cohabitation’ between a centre-left between three and six delegates government and the centre-right according to the size of its population, President Chirac which had begun in and may only vote en bloc. The 1997. In spite of the evidence of Bundesrat may veto growing support for the FN, the party certain legislation. The president’s lost its only parliamentary seat in the activities are strictly defined and election of 2002. observed and include, under France Germany specified circumstances, the DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Germany dissolution of the Bundestag. The Federal Constitutional Court

176 Population 82.1 million (2000) (Bundesverfassungsgericht) Capital Berlin determines the constitutionality of Territory 356,959 sq. km legislation and executive acts. GDP per capita US$24,931 (2000) Current government A centre-left Unemployment 7.9 per cent of coalition of SPD and Alliance workforce (2000) 90/Greens led by Gerhard Schröder of State form Republic, based on the the SPD. Basic Law of 1949, with subsequent Electoral systems The president is amendments. The Federal Republic of elected by the Federal Convention Germany (FRG) was founded in 1949 (Bundesversammlung), comprising from the three western zones of the members of the Bundestag and occupied Germany. On 3 October an equal number of delegates elected 1990, the territories of the former by the Parliaments of the Länder. The German Democratic Republic (GDR) candidate who wins an absolute and Berlin joined the federation and majority of votes is elected. If no accepted the authority of the Basic candidate secures an absolute Law. majority in two ballots, a third ballot Current head of state President is held in which a relative majority is Johannes Rau (took office 1 July sufficient to win. The term of office is 1999). five years. A president may not serve State structure Federation of 16 Länder, more than two successive terms. each of which has its own The Bundestag is elected by direct constitution, legislature and universal suffrage. Since September government. 2002 the Bundestag has a standard Government The federal prime minister complement of 598 seats, but the (chancellor) is elected by an absolute electoral system sometimes allocates majority of the Parliament surplus mandates. Half of the 598 (Bundestag) and can only be seats are allocated to constituency dismissed if a successor is elected on candidates on the simple majority the same occasion (a ‘constructive plurality (‘first past the post’) principle Germany Greece

and the remainder by proportional and, in 1973, Greece was declared a representation based on party lists. republic. In 1974, after a period of Parties receive a share of seats in the violent instability, former Prime Bundestag proportional to their share Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis was of party list votes, so that the electoral invited to form a civilian government. system is effectively one of A return to constitutional monarchy proportional representation. The term was rejected by referendum in of office is four years. December 1974. In June 1975, a new republican constitution was Election to the German Bundestag, 22 September 2002 introduced, establishing a parliamentary democracy. Votes (%) Seats Current head of state President Social Democratic Party (SPD) 38.5 251 Konstantinos Stefanopoulos (took Christian Democratic Union (CDU) 29.5 190 office 10 March 1995). Christian Social Union (CSU) 9.0 58 Alliance 90/Greens 8.6 55 State structure Unitary, with 10 regions. Free Democratic Party (FDP) 7.4 47 Government The president appoints the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) 4.3 2 prime minister, and, on the prime Others 3.0 0 minister’s recommendation, the Total 603 cabinet of around twenty members. In 1986, constitutional amendments DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Party system From 1961, only three reduced the office of president to a

parties won seats in the Bundestag: largely ceremonial one and 177 the CDU–CSU, the SPD and the small transferred many of the president’s liberal FDP. The Greens entered the former executive powers to the Bundestag in 1983 and the former unicameral Parliament (Vouli ton GDR reformed communists, the PDS, Ellinon). The amendments restricted followed after German re-unification the president’s right to call a in 1990. The formation of a red–green referendum, transferred the right to coalition under Schröder ended call a state of emergency to Helmut Kohl’s 16-year incumbency as Parliament, and removed the Chancellor for the CDU–CSU. president’s right to dismiss the prime Germany Greece minister. In addition, the president Greece may now dissolve Parliament only if the resignation of two governments in Population 10.6 million (2000) rapid succession demonstrates a lack Capital Athens of political stability. The president Territory 131,957 sq. km may still ask Parliament to reconsider GDP per capita US$16,244 (2000) legislation, or to pass it with an Unemployment 10.9 per cent of enhanced majority. workforce (2001) Current government The incumbent State form Republic, based on the PASOK, led by Kostas Simitis, constitution of 1975. The liberation of narrowly won a third successive term Greece from German occupation in in office at the election of April 2000. 1944 was followed by a civil war Simitis had called the election five which lasted until 1949, when the months ahead of schedule to benefit communist forces were defeated and from his government’s good the constitutional monarchy restored. economic record. In 1967, a coup led by right-wing Electoral systems The president is army officers took over the elected by Parliament for a term of government and set up a façade five years. democracy. The King went into exile, The Vouli ton Ellinon has 300 Greece Iceland

members and is elected by direct Althingi by a resolution supported by universal suffrage for a term of four three-quarters of its members and years. confirmed by a referendum. If the president disapproves a law passed Election to the Greek Vouli ton Ellinon, 9 April 2000 by the Althingi, it must be confirmed by referendum. Votes (%) Seats Current government The incumbent Panhellenic Socialist Movement 43.8 158 centre-right coalition of the (PASOK) Independence Party and Progressive New Democracy (ND) 42.7 125 Communist Party of Greece (KKE) 5.5 11 party continued under the leadership Alliance of Left and Progressive 3.2 6 of Prime Minister Davíd Oddsson Forces (Synaspismos) (Independence Party). Democratic Social Movement 2.7 0 Electoral systems The president is (DHKKI) elected by direct universal suffrage for Others 2.1 0 Total 300 a term of four years. The 63-member Althingi is elected by a system of proportional Party system The main parties are representation in eight constituencies. PASOK and the centre-right ND. The The term of office is four years.

DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS communist KKE has maintained a small presence in the party system. Election to the Icelandic Althingi, 8 May 1999

178 Greece Iceland Votes (%) Seats Iceland Independence Party 40.8 26 Population 281,000 (2000) United Left 26.8 17 Capital Reykjavik Progressive Party 18.4 12 Left–Green Alliance 9.1 6 Territory 102,820 sq. km Liberals 4.2 2 GDP per capita US$27,608 (2000) Others 0.7 0 Unemployment 2.3 per cent of Total 63 workforce (2000) State form Republic, based on the Party system With the parliamentary constitution of 17 June 1944, when election of May 1999, the Icelandic Iceland declared its independence party system underwent its most from Denmark. radical restructuring since the Second Current head of state President Ólafur World War. Only two parties gaining Ragnar Grímsson (first took office 1 seats in the 1995 election competed August 1996, re-elected 2000). in 1999 in the same form: the State structure Unitary centre-right Independence Party and Government The president appoints the the centrist Progressive Party. The prime minister and a cabinet of Social Democratic Party (including the around ten members. Executive People’s Movement, which had power is vested in the president and broken away from the Social the cabinet, but in practice is Democratic Party in 1994) joined exercised by the cabinet. The cabinet forces with the radical Women’s is responsible to the Parliament Alliance to contest the election under (Althingi), unicameral since 1991. the umbrella of the United Left. Two Ministers may be impeached by the further parties, the Left–Green Alliance Althingi and tried by a court of and the Liberals, managed to win impeachment. The president may seats. The Left–Greens, a splinter dissolve the Althingi. In turn, the group from the former left–socialist president may be dismissed by the People’s Alliance, formed to represent Iceland Ireland

the increasing concerns for the prescribed proportion of members of environment from a leftist platform. both chambers of Parliament, the The Liberals formed to contest the president may refer certain bills to a 1999 election essentially as a referendum. single-issue protest party concerned Current government Following the with fisheries policy. parliamentary elections of May 2002, Iceland Ireland the outgoing prime minister Bertie Ahern (FF) was confirmed at the Ireland head of his Fianna Fáil/Progressive Population 3.8 million (2000) Democrat coalition with the support Capital Dublin of independents to secure the Territory 70,283 sq. km required vote of investiture. As before, GDP per capita US$28,895 (2000) the government programme featured Unemployment 4.2 per cent of the promotion of a lasting peace workforce (2000) settlement in Northern Ireland and State form Republic, based on the measures to ensure a strong economy. constitution of 29 December 1937. Electoral systems The president is Ireland was formerly part of the elected by direct universal suffrage for United Kingdom. In 1920 the island a term of office of seven years. was partitioned, the six north-eastern The Dáil Éireann has 166 members DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS counties remaining part of the UK. In and is elected by STV for a term of

1922 the twenty-six southern counties five years. 179 achieved dominion status, under the The upper chamber of parliament, the British Crown, as the Irish Free State. Seanad Éireann, has sixty members. In 1937, the new constitution was Eleven are nominated by the prime adopted by referendum, giving the minister, six are elected by the Irish Free State full sovereignty within universities and forty-three by a the Commonwealth. Formal ties with broad-based electoral college. The the Commonwealth were ended in term of office is five years. 1949, when the twenty-six southern counties became the Republic of Irish presidential election, 30 October 1997 Ireland (Eire). First count Second count Current head of state President Mary (%) (%) McAleese (took office 11 November 1997). Mary McAleese (FF) 45.2 58.7 Mary Banotti (FG) 29.3 41.3 State structure Unitary Rosemary Scallon (independent) 13.8 Government The president summons Adi Roche (LP) 7.0 and dissolves the bicameral Derek Nally (independent) 5.0 Parliament on the advice of the government or prime minister Election to the Irish Dáil Éireann, 17 May 2002 (Taoiseach). On the nomination of the lower chamber of Parliament First preference Seats (Dáil Éireann), the president appoints votes (%) the prime minister, and, on the Fianna Fáil (FF) 41.5 80 advice of the prime minister and the Fine Gael (FG) 22.5 31 Labour (LP) 10.8 21 Dáil, the cabinet of around fifteen Sinn Féin 6.5 5 members. The president is advised by Progressive Democrats 4.0 8 a Council of State. The president may Green Party (GP) 3.8 6 refer certain bills to the Supreme Others/Independents 11.0 14 Court for a ruling on their Speaker 1 Total 166 constitutionality. With the support of a Ireland Italy

Party system The two main parties, FF 630 members and an upper chamber, and FG, are both right of centre. Their the Senate (Senato), of 315 elected differences stem from their positions members plus ten life senators, on the Anglo-Irish Treaty establishing appointed by the president of the the Irish Free State (1921). This republic. The two houses of cleavage remains as a largely latent Parliament have equal powers. A but significant cleavage in Irish constitutional court carries out the politics. The anti-Treaty FF formed in judicial review of legislation and 1926; the pro-Treaty FG in 1933. In judges accusations brought against 2001, the small Democratic Left (DL) the president of the republic or joined with the larger left party LP. government ministers. For many The other significant parties in the years, a crisis of legitimacy had been party system are the radical building up in the Italian republic, left–nationalist Sinn Féin and the centring on the endemic corruption of conservative–liberal Progressive the traditional Italian political parties Democrats. In 2002, the Progressive and their consequent failure to work Democrats renewed their alliance within the institutions to provide with FF to form the new government. strong, democratic government. In Ireland Italy 1993, a series of scandals thoroughly DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS discredited Italy’s political elite. The Italy crisis set in motion a meltdown and

180 Population 57.2 million (2000) realignment of the party system and Capital Rome an ongoing attempt to bring about a Territory 301,277 sq. km fundamental reform of the country’s GDP per capita US$24,395 (2000) political system. The project is hoped Unemployment 10.5 per cent of to lead to a speculative, improved workforce (2000) ‘Second Republic’, but there are fears State form Republic, based on the that the setbacks suffered may have constitution of 1948. The constitutional cost the reform movement its framework of the previous regime, a impetus. A reform package introduced constitutional monarchy, had by the former centre-left government remained in place throughout in June 1998 was blocked in the Mussolini’s fascist dictatorship Chamber of Deputies by FI leader (1922–43) and was terminated by a Silvio Berlusconi. national referendum held in June 1946. Current government A radical right Current head of state President Carlo populist coalition led by Prime Azeglio Ciampi (took office May 1999). Minister Silvio Berlusconi (FI) and State structure Unitary, with twenty comprising the FI/AN/LN/CCD–UCD regions, five with a special status. The and allied small groupings. regions each have an elected Electoral systems The president of the legislature and regional executive and republic is elected for a seven-year enjoy a large degree of autonomy. term of office by an electoral college Government The president appoints the made up of both chambers of prime minister, and, on the prime Parliament and fifty-eight regional minister’s advice, the other members representatives. of the cabinet (Council of Ministers). New electoral systems for elections to The cabinet has around fifteen full the Chamber of Deputies and the ministers and is responsible to Senate were introduced in 1993. Parliament. The bicameral Parliament These symbolised the reform process has a lower chamber, the Chamber of in Italy and were hailed by some as Deputies (Camera dei Deputati), of the start of a new Republic. The Italy Italy

Chamber of Deputies has 630 elements of continuity in the members. Three-quarters (475) are emerging party system. Currently, the elected on the single-member, powerful House of Freedoms alliance single-ballot, plurality principle, as in represents a broad spectrum of the UK. The remaining 155 members parties of the right. It comprises are elected on a system of Berlusconi’s populist, pro-market and proportional representation based on right-wing Forza Italia (the party name twenty-seven districts, with a 4 per sounds like a football chant), the cent threshold. far-right National Alliance, the radical The Senate has 315 elected members. right separatist Northern League, the Three-quarters (238) are elected by a Christian Democratic Centre, the majority vote in regional Christian Democratic Union and the constituencies and the rest by New Italian Socialist Party. A similar proportional representation on a grouping won the 1994 general regional basis. The term of office for election under the banner of the both the Chamber of Deputies and Freedom Alliance. House of Freedoms the Senate is five years. is opposed by an equally broad range At the 1996 elections, these new of leftist and Green parties. It includes electoral arrangements proved so the Democratic Party of the Left unsatisfactory that they were expected (PDS); the La Margherita alliance DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS to be replaced with another (Italian People’s Party, Democrats,

alternative. However, on 18 April 1999, Italian Renovation, South Tyrolean 181 a referendum proposing new electoral People’s Party (SVP)); the Italian systems failed as the turnout fell just Communist Party; the Greens and the short of the required 50 per cent plus Italian Democratic Socialists. one of the electorate. Italy Italy Luxembourg Election to the Italian Chamber of Deputies, 13 May 2001 Population 439,000 (2000) Votes (%) Seats Capital Luxembourg-Ville House of Freedoms 49.6 368 Territory 2,586 sq. km Olive Tree Alliance 35.0 250 GDP per capita US$46,502 (2000) Refounded Communist Party (PRC) 5.0 11 Others 10.4 1 Unemployment 2.4 per cent of Total 630 workforce (2000) State form Constitutional monarchy, Election to the Italian Senate, 13 May 2001 based on the constitution of 17 October 1868, as revised in 1919. The Votes (%) Seats last subsequent amendment was on House of Freedoms 42.5 177 12 January 1998. Olive Tree Alliance 38.7 125 Current head of state Grand Duke Refounded Communist Party (PRC) 5.0 3 Henri (acceded April 2001). Others 11.6 10 Total 315 State structure Unitary Government After consulting the Party system Italy’s party system is parliamentary party leaders, the Grand currently in a state of flux. Widely Duke nominates the prime minister discredited by the corruption scandals (President of the Council) who must of 1993, the traditional parties found it receive a vote of confidence from impossible to continue under their old Parliament. The prime minister heads names and identities and were forced a cabinet (Council of Ministers) of to reinvent themselves. In spite of this around ten ministers, who must not dramatic upheaval, there are strong simultaneously hold seats in Luxembourg Luxembourg

Parliament. In theory, Parliament may single-issue party which campaigns dismiss the cabinet, but early for pension reform (ADR). With the dissolution is not now seen as a elections of June 1999 there was a realistic option. The unicameral significant swing away from the Parliament (Chamber of Deputies) LSAP/POSL and Green Party to the has sixty members (since 1989). An DP/PD, leaving the liberals – in advisory body of twenty-one opposition since 1984 – the second members, the Council of State, strongest party in the Chamber of reviews legislative proposals before Deputies and the chance of a return they can be adopted by Parliament. to government. The Council of State may delay Luxembourg Luxembourg legislation for up to three months and Malta require Parliament to vote on it a second time. Population 379,000 (2000, estimate) Current government A coalition of the Capital Valletta CSV/PCS and DP/PD under Prime Territory 316 sq. km Minister Jean-Claude Juncker was GDP per capita US$ 8,793 (1995) approved by the Grand Duke on 7 Unemployment 5.3 per cent of August 1999. workforce (2000) DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Electoral system The Chamber of State form Republic, based on the Deputies is elected on a system of constitution of 1964, subsequently

182 proportional representation based on amended. Malta was a Crown Colony four districts. The parties put forward of the United Kingdom from 1814. In lists of candidates and voters may 1964 it adopted the Independence choose to vote for a party list en bloc, Constitution, becoming an or for individual candidates across independent sovereign state within party lists. Voting is compulsory. The the British Commonwealth. The term of office is five years (since constitution was amended in 1974, 1959). establishing Malta as a democratic republic within the Commonwealth. Elections to the Luxembourg Chamber of Deputies, Further amendments in January 1987 13 June 1999 protect Malta’s neutrality and ensure that the party with the majority of Votes (%) Seats votes forms the government. Social Christians (CSV/PCS) 30.4 19 Current head of state President Guido Democratic Party (DP/PD) 24.0 15 de Marco (selected 4 April 1999). Socialist Party (LSAP/POSL) 22.6 13 Action for Democracy and Pension 9.4 7 State structure Unitary Justice (ADR) Government The president appoints the Greens (déi Gréng) 8.5 5 prime minister, and, on the prime The Left (déi Lénk) 1.7 1 minister’s advice, a cabinet of ten to Total 60 fifteen ministers, the chief justice, the judges and the attorney-general. The Party system The three main parties cabinet can be dismissed by the date from the turn of the twentieth unicameral, 65-member Parliament century. The CSV/PCS have been in (House of Representatives). almost every government since 1945, Current government The majority with either the liberal DP/PD or the Nationalist Party (NP) government LSAP/POSL. Other parties include the under Edward Fenech Adami took Green Party (déi Gréng) formed in office on 6 September 1998. December 1994 from a merger of Electoral systems The president is existing green groupings, and a elected by the House of Malta The Netherlands

Representatives for a term of five the advice of the prime minister, the years. other members of the cabinet. There The House of Representatives is is no formal vote of investiture for the elected by STV, based on thirteen cabinet, which has some fifteen constituencies. The term of office is members. Government ministers must five years. not simultaneously hold seats in Parliament, but may attend Elections to the Maltese House of Representatives, Parliament and take part in debates 5 September 1998 there. The cabinet, under the prime minister, is responsible to Parliament. Votes (%) Seats The Parliament (States-General) is Nationalist Party (NP) 51.8 35 bicameral. The lower chamber, Malta Labour Party (PLM) 47.0 30 confusingly termed the Second Democratic Alternative (AD) 1.2 0 Others 0.1 0 Chamber, has 150 members; the Total 65 upper house (First Chamber) has 75. Legislation may be proposed by the Party system The major parties are the Crown (as advised by a Council of NP and the PLM. Minor parties State) and the lower chamber of include the AD and the Malta Parliament. The Council of State must Democratic Party (PDM). In 1998, the be consulted on all bills and draft DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS ousting of the PLM government under general administrative orders. The

Alfred Sant put Malta back on course First Chamber may approve or reject 183 to join the EU. Malta’s application for legislation, but not amend it. EU membership had been frozen by Current government Until shortly the PLM government. before the May 2002 parliamentary Malta The Netherlands election, the left-liberal PvdA/VVD/D66 government of the outgoing Prime The Netherlands Minister Wim Kok (PvdA) had been Population 15.9 million (2000) expected to be endorsed on the Capital The Hague strength of a sound economic Territory 33,937 sq. km (land only) performance over the previous eight GDP per capita US$27,662 (2000) years. However, the assassination on Unemployment 2.9 per cent of 6 May 2002 of Pim Fortuyn, the workforce (2000) controversial leader of the populist State form Constitutional monarchy, LPF, turned the campaign from based on the constitution of 1814 and economic issues to those of later revisions of 1848 and 1983. immigration, crime and Current head of state Queen Beatrix anti-establishment issues. In a (took the throne 30 May 1980). dramatic shift to the right, the CDA State structure Unitary. The twelve emerged as the largest party in provinces are each administered by a Parliament with the LPF in second directly elected council, provincial place, ahead of the PvdA. Support for executive and a sovereign the PvdA fell by almost half to return commissioner, who is appointed by the party with just 23 seats. It was the royal decree. party’s worst defeat since the Second Government The monarch appoints a World War. The CDA’s new leader, senior politician (informateur) to Jan Peter Balkenende, was expected identify a potential prime minister, to form a government coalition of the who, as a formateur, will form a right, possibly with the LPF and VVD. coalition government. The monarch Electoral systems The Second Chamber appoints the prime minister, and, on is elected by a system of proportional The Netherlands Norway

representation based on national party 1814. Norway was formerly linked to lists. Its term of office is four years. the Swedish throne, but declared its The First Chamber is elected by independence in 1905 and elected its members of the twelve provincial own monarchy. councils. Its term of office is six years, Current head of state King Harald V with half its members retiring every (acceded on 17 January 1991). three years. State structure Unitary, with nineteen counties (Fylker) Elections to the Netherlands Second Chamber, 15 May 2002 Government The king appoints the prime minister, and, on the prime Votes (%) Seats minister’s advice, the cabinet (Council Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) 27.9 43 of Ministers) of around twenty Pim Fortuyn’s List (LPF) 17.0 26 members. The cabinet is responsible People’s Party for Freedom and 15.4 24 Democracy (VVD) to Parliament. Ministers must not be Labour Party (PvdA) 15.1 23 members of Parliament, but they may Green Left (GL) 7.0 10 attend and speak there. The Socialist Party (SP) 5.9 9 unicameral Parliament (Storting) has Democrats ’66 (D66) 5.1 7 165 members. The Storting is elected Christian Union (CU) (christian 2.5 4 fundamentalist) as a single institution, but then DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS SGV (christian fundamentalist) 1.7 2 chooses one-quarter of its members Livable Netherlands (populist) 1.6 2 to form the upper chamber (Lagting)

184 Others 0.8 0 while the remainder form the lower Total 150 chamber (Odelsting). Legislation is proposed in the Odelsting and Party system The electoral landslide of requires the consent of both houses, 2002 rocked a party system which but, if the houses disagree, can be had been settling into one of four passed by a joint session of the main parties: the PvdA, CDA, VVD and Storting by a two-thirds majority. D66; and numerous small parties Constitutional amendments must be including the Green Left and the passed by a two-thirds majority of a protestant fundamentalist parties, SGP joint session. The king may veto and CU. The 2002 election brought legislation, but his veto may be two new populist parties into overturned by three successively Parliament, with LPF, only three elected Stortings. months old on election, likely to play Current government A minority a significant role in the party system centre-right coalition of the Christian at least for the current electoral People’s Party (KrF), the period. The new parties represent Conservative Party (H), and the anti-establishment as well as populist Liberal Party (V) won sufficient elements. support in Parliament to form a The Netherlands Norway government under Prime Minister Norway Kjelle Magne Bondevik (KrF), which took office on 19 October 2001. Population 4.5 million (2000) Electoral systems The Storting is elected Capital Oslo by proportional representation based Territory 323,878 sq. km on district party lists; 157 members of GDP per capita US$29,311 (2000) the total 165 are constituency Unemployment 3.5 per cent of representatives, while the remaining workforce (2000) eight are elected so as to achieve a State form Constitutional monarchy, greater degree of proportionality based on the constitution of 17 May among the parties. The four-year term Norway Portugal

of office is fixed by the constitution revision of 1989 removed the and cannot be terminated early. constitutional commitment to Marxist principles. Election to the Norwegian Storting, 10 September 2001 Current head of state President Jorge Sampaio (took office 9 March Votes (%) Seats 1996). Labour Party (AP) 24.4 43 State structure Unitary; the Azores and Conservative Party (H) 21.2 38 Madeira are autonomous regions. Progress Party 14.7 26 Christian People’s Party (KrF) 12.5 22 Government The president appoints the Socialist Left Party (SV) 12.4 23 prime minister, and, on the prime Centre Party (Sp) 5.6 10 minister’s advice, a cabinet (Council Liberal Party (V) 3.9 2 of Ministers) of around fifteen Coastal Party (TF) 1.7 1 members. The cabinet’s programme Others 3.6 0 Total 165 must win a vote of confidence from Parliament within ten days of taking Party system The main parties are AP, office. The cabinet may be dismissed the agrarian Sp, conservative H, by the Parliament following a vote of christian democratic KrF, the Progress no confidence. The unicameral Party, liberal V and the hard left SV. Parliament, the Assembly of the Since the early 1960s, government has Republic (Assembléia da República) DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS usually fallen either to a coalition of has 230 members. The president may

centre-right parties or to a Labour dissolve the Parliament. Legislation 185 minority government. After the passed by Parliament is subject to elections of September 2001, the judicial review by the Constitutional incumbent left-of-centre coalition was Court. The president may veto replaced by the opposition centre-right. legislation. Parliament can overturn a Norway Portugal presidential veto with an absolute majority of all its members. The Portugal Council of State is the political Population 10.0 million (2000) advisory body of the president. Capital Lisbon Current government After the Territory 92,072 sq. km elections of March 2002, the PSD GDP per capita US$17,556 (2000) formed a coalition government with Unemployment 4.1 per cent of the CDS/PP under PSD leader workforce (2000) José Mañuel Durao Barroso, who State form Republic (since 1976). became Prime Minister elect on 22 Portugal’s First Republic was declared March 2002. in 1910, but in 1926 fell to a military Electoral systems Presidential elections takeover. This had given way by 1932 are by direct universal suffrage. The to the right-wing dictatorship of candidate who wins more than one Antonio de Oliveira Salazar, led by half of the valid votes is elected. If no Marcello Caetano after 1968. In April candidate achieves an absolute 1974, this regime was overthrown by majority, a second ballot is held to the military group, the Armed Forces decide between the two leading Movement (MFA). A liberal candidates of the first ballot. The term democratic regime was established of office is five years. The president with the constitution of 1976. The may not be re-elected for a third substantial constitutional revision of consecutive term of office. The 1982 removed the direct political Assembly is elected by a system of influence of the military and reduced proportional representation, with a the president’s powers; a further term of office of four years. Portugal Spain

Portuguese presidential elections, 14 January 2001 constitution was adopted by national referendum in December 1978. The Votes (%) previous dictatorship of General Jorge Sampaio (PS) 55.8 Franco, established in 1939 following Ferreira do Amaral (PSD) 34.5 António Abreu (PCP) 5.1 the three-year civil war, effectively Fernando Rosas (BE) 3.0 ended on Franco’s death in 1975. Garcia Pereira (MRPP) 1.6 Current head of state King Juan Carlos I de Borbón (sworn in 22 Elections to the Portuguese Assembly, 17 March 2002 November 1975). (excluding the autonomous regions*) State structure Unitary, but with considerable devolution of executive Votes (%) Seats and administrative powers to Social Democratic Party (PSD) 40.1 102 seventeen elected regional assemblies. Socialist Party (PS) 37.8 95 Government After consultation with the Democratic Social Centre/People’s 8.7 14 parliamentary party groups, the king Party (CDS/PP) Communist Party (PCP) 7.0 12 appoints the prime minister (President Left Bloc (BE) 2.7 3 of the Government), who must win a Others 1.6 0 vote of confidence on his proposed Total 226 government programme in the lower DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS * At the time of writing, the outcome for the autonomous house of Parliament, the Congress of regions (4 seats) was not known. Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados).

186 On the prime minister’s advice, the Party system Despite the revolutionary king appoints a cabinet (Council of rhetoric of the 1976 constitution, party Ministers) of fifteen to twenty competition has been dominated by members. The cabinet is responsible the centre-left PS and the centre-right to, and may be dismissed by, the PSD. On the radical left are the Congress of Deputies. The Parliament Portuguese Communist Party (PCP) (Cortes Generales) is bicameral, and the Greens. The small CDS/PP is consisting of the 350-member a conservative grouping. After the Congress of Deputies and an upper elections of October 1999, the chamber, the Senate (Senado) of 256 incumbent Socialist Party (PS) members. The prime minister may remained in power under Prime dissolve either or both houses of Minister António Guterres. The PS was Parliament once in a twelve-month one seat short of an absolute majority, period. Legislation passed by the but was able to form a government Cortes Generales is subject to judicial with the parliamentary support of review by a constitutional court. other parties of the left. With the Current government A majority election of 2002 the PSD overtook its government under the centre-right rival the PS and was expected to form Popular Party (PP) led by Prime a government with the CDS/PP. Minister José María Aznar. Portugal Spain Electoral systems The Congress of Spain Deputies is elected by proportional representation for a four-year term. Population 39.5 million (2000) The electoral district is the province. Capital Madrid 208 members of the Senate are Territory 504,782 sq. km elected by a majority system on a GDP per capita US$19,194 (2000) provincial basis, with four senators for Unemployment 14.1 per cent of every mainland province. The workforce (2000) remaining senators, currently 48, are State form Constitutional monarchy. The chosen by the assemblies of the Spain Sweden

autonomous regions. The term of revised in 1979 to incorporate a new office is four years. bill of rights. Current head of state King Carl XVI Elections to the Spanish Congress of Deputies, 12 March Gustaf (took the throne 15 September 2000 1973). State structure Unitary Votes (%) Seats Government After consultation with the Popular Party (PP) 44.5 183 parties represented in Parliament Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE) 34.1 125 (Riksdag), the Speaker of the Riksdag Convergence and Union (CiU) 4.2 15 United Left (IU) 5.5 8 proposes a candidate prime minister. Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) 1.5 7 The prime minister must receive a Others 10.2 12 vote of confidence in the Riksdag Total 350 before taking office. The prime minister appoints a cabinet (Council Elections to the Spanish Senate, 12 March 2000, elected of State) of around twenty ministers, members only which is responsible to Parliament. Individual ministers may also be Seats dismissed by Parliament. The Riksdag Popular Party (PP) 127 has been unicameral since 1969 and

Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE) 61 DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Convergence and Union (CiU) 8 has 349 members. Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) 6 Current government A minority

Canary Islands Coalition (CC) 5 government of the Social Democratic 187 Independent Party of Lanzarote (PIL) 1 Labour Party (SAP) under Prime Total 208 Minister Göran Persson (SAP), with parliamentary support from the Left Party system The main parties are the Party (VP) and the Greens (MP), PP and the PSOE. Also significant is formed on 6 October 1998. the far-left coalition, the United Left (IU), which includes the Communists. Election to the Swedish Riksdag, 20 September 1998 The main regionalist parties are the CiU and PNV. Numerous other small Votes (%) Seats parties contest elections, many Swedish Social Democratic Labour 36.4 131 representing regional positions. In the Party (SAP) election of March 2000 the PP scored Moderate Unity Party (M) 22.9 82 Left Party (VP) 12.0 43 the first majority victory for a Christian Democrats (KD) 11.8 42 centre-right party in contemporary Centre Party (C) 5.1 18 democratic Spain. The party had Liberals (Fp) 4.7 17 previously been in a government Green Party (MP) 4.5 16 coalition with CiU and PNV. Others 2.6 0 Total 349 Spain Sweden Electoral system The Riksdag is elected Sweden by a system of proportional Population 8.9 million (2000) representation based on districts. In Capital Stockholm order to win seats, parties must Territory 449,964 sq. km secure 4 per cent of the total vote or GDP per capita US$24,309 (2000) 12 per cent in one district. Of the 349 Unemployment 5.9 per cent of seats, 310 are permanent constituency workforce (2000) seats and 39 are ‘adjustment’ seats, State form Constitutional monarchy. allocated to ensure that the The constitution of 1975 replaced the distribution of seats in the Riksdag is outmoded version of 1809. It was proportionate to the total votes cast Sweden Switzerland

for each party. The term of office is duties of a head of state together with four years (since 1994). formally chairing the Federal Council. Party system The main parties are SAP, State structure Confederation of twenty M, the Fp, C and KD. Also significant cantons and six half-cantons. are the Left Party (VP) (the former Government The executive body, the Communist Party, which changed its Federal Council, consists of seven name in 1990), and the MP. The members, each from a different right-wing ND lost all of its twenty-five canton, who act as government parliamentary seats in the 1994 ministers. These members represent a election. The outcome of the 1998 coalition of four parties which has election was a blow for the SAP, been in power since 1959. The which received its worst share of the members of the Federal Council are vote since 1928. It nevertheless elected by a joint session of the managed to negotiate sufficient bicameral Parliament (United Federal parliamentary support to take office Assembly) for a term of office of four as a minority government. years. Although the Federal Council is Sweden Switzerland held ‘responsible’ to the Federal Assembly, the Federal Council may Switzerland not be dismissed before the end of its DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Population 7.2 million (2000) term of office. The Federal Council is Capital Bern a collegiate body: there is no prime

188 Territory 41,293 sq. km minister and most decisions are GDP per capita US$29,892 (2000) agreed by the Federal Council as a Unemployment 3.0 per cent of whole. The lower chamber of workforce (1999) Parliament (National Council) has 200 State form Republic, based on the members and represents the Swiss constitution of 29 May 1874. A new people. The upper chamber (Council constitution was accepted by popular of States), representing the cantons, referendum on 18 April 1999 and has forty-six members, two from each came into force on 1 January 2000. canton and one from each Although seen as a fundamental half-canton. The lower and upper review, the new constitution did not chambers have equal powers. substantially change the institutional Referenda are crucial to the legislative framework of government in process in Switzerland. On 4 March Switzerland. Amongst other measures, 2002 the electorate approved a it abolished Switzerland’s referendum to join the UN, ending gold-standard status and enshrined Switzerland’s traditional stance of the right to strike. isolation. A formal application will be Current head of state President submitted at the UN General Kaspar Villiger (2002). The president Assembly in September 2002. and vice-president of the federation Current government The government hold office for one year only and are does not hinge directly on election chosen from the seven members of results, as in other Western European the Federal Council of the Swiss countries, but comprises the formula executive. They are elected by the coalition, noted above, of the Parliament, the Federal Assembly. Christian Democratic Party of The president’s role is not Switzerland (CVP), Social Democratic comparable with any other Western Party (SPS), the liberal Radical European presidency. The Swiss Democratic Party (FDP) and the president has no special political agrarian right Swiss People’s Party privileges, but performs the formal (SVP). Switzerland United Kingdom

Electoral systems Elections to the of around twenty members, who are National Council are by proportional appointed by the monarch. The representation based on party lists. House of Commons has 659 Each canton or half-canton forms one members. The incumbent Labour electoral district. The term of office is government is currently attempting a four years. piecemeal reform of the upper house, The method of election to the Council the House of Lords. Traditionally, the of States varies from canton to canton. House of Lords has had a variable membership of around 1,200. It was a Elections to the Swiss National Council, 24 October 1999 non-elected body with three categories of member: hereditary and Votes (%) Seats non-hereditary peers appointed by the Social Democratic Party (SPS) 22.5 51 monarch; archbishops and senior Swiss People’s Party (SVP) 22.5 44 bishops of the Church of England; Radical Democratic Party (FDP) 19.9 43 Christian Democratic Party (CVP) 15.9 35 and law lords, who, within the House Green Party (GPS) 5.0 9 of Lords, performed the function of a Liberal Party (LPS) 2.3 6 final court of appeal. Reforms to date Others 11.9 12 have concentrated on reducing the Total 200 proportion of hereditary peers with automatic membership: 90 peers DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Party system In addition to the four were elected in October 1999 and it

main parties which make up the is proposed that an increasing 189 government coalition (CVP, SPS, FDP proportion of peers are to be and SVP), a number of other parties appointed or elected to their seats or contest general elections. These positions. The reform proposals are include the liberal LPS, Green GPS, controversial and their outcome Swiss Democrats (SD) (formerly remains uncertain. As before, known as National Action against legislation must be passed by both Foreign Infiltration of the People and houses and obtain royal assent. The Homeland) and the evangelical EVP. House of Lords may delay legislation Switzerland United Kingdom by up to a year. The prime minister may ask the monarch to dissolve United Kingdom Parliament at any time. Following Population 59.5 million (1999) legislation enacted in 1998, a system Capital London of devolution was introduced to the Territory 244,103 sq. km UK with the election of two new GDP per capita US$ 22,882 (1999) chambers in May 1999: the Scottish Unemployment 6.6 per cent of Parliament and the National Assembly workforce (2000) for Wales. UK devolution is State form Constitutional monarchy, open-ended and is expected later to without a written constitution. encompass the English regions. Current head of state Queen Although intended to incorporate the Elizabeth II (acceded 6 February 1952). Northern Ireland Assembly, the status State structure Unitary, with differential of devolution has in practice devolution of powers to Scotland, remained uncertain in Northern Wales and Northern Ireland. Ireland with the imposition of Government The monarch appoints the temporary suspensions. UK devolution prime minister, usually the leader of is asymmetric in that the powers the largest party in the lower house of awarded to each of the devolved Parliament, the House of Commons. authorities differ in nature and in The prime minister chooses a cabinet scope. United Kingdom United Kingdom

Current government A majority Election to the UK House of Commons, 7 June 2001 Labour Party government under Prime Votes (%) Seats Minister Tony Blair. Electoral systems The House of National parties Labour Party 42.0 412 Commons is elected for a five-year Conservative Party 32.7 166 term of office by a simple majority Liberal Democrats 18.8 52 system of voting in single-member Regionally significant parties constituencies (first-past-the-post Scottish National Party (SNP) 1.8 (20.1*) 5 system). The Scottish Parliament and Plaid Cymru 0.7 (14.3†) 4 Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) 0.8 (26.8‡) 6 the National Assembly for Wales are Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) 0.7 (22.5‡) 5 elected on a system of proportional Sinn Féin 0.7 (21.7‡) 4 representation in which voters have Social Democratic and Labour Party 0.6 (21.0‡) 3 two votes, one for a constituency (SDLP) contest and one for party lists, Independent 1 Speaker 1 designed to ensure proportionality. Total 659 Members of the Scottish Parliament * of votes cast in Scotland † of votes cast in Wales ‡ of are elected by a mixed system: 73 votes cast in Northern Ireland members represent single-member constituencies and are elected by a DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS simple-majority vote and the Election to the Scottish Parliament, 6 May 1999 remaining 56 are allocated according First vote Second vote Seats 190 to an additional member system (%) (%) (total) (AMS) so as to enhance Labour Party 38.8 33.8 56 proportionality in the Scottish Scottish National 28.7 27.0 35 Parliament. Members of the National Party (SNP) Assembly for Wales are elected on Conservative Party 15.6 15.4 18 similar principles: 40 members Liberal Democrats 14.2 12.5 17 Others 2.7 11.4 3 representing single-member Total 129 constituencies are elected by simple-majority vote and 20 members Election to the National Assembly for Wales, 6 May 1999 by AMS on regional party lists. The Northern Ireland Assembly has 108 First vote Second vote Seats members elected on a proportional (%) (%) (total) basis, with six members from each of Labour Party 37.6 35.4 28 the 18 constituencies of the central Plaid Cymru 28.4 30.5 17 Westminster Parliament. Conservative Party 15.9 16.5 9 Party system The main parties are the Liberal Democrats 13.4 12.6 6 Labour and Conservative Parties. The Others 4.7 5.1 0 Total 60 Liberal Democrats are the third national force. The Scottish National Election to the Northern Ireland Assembly, 25 June 1998 Party (SNP) and the Welsh nationalist Plaid Cymru attract regional support Votes (%) Seats in Scotland and Wales respectively. Social Democratic and Labour Party 22.0 24 Within Northern Ireland, the main (SDLP) parties are the Protestant Unionist Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) 21.3 28 parties (OUP, DUP, PUP and the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) 18.0 20 Alliance Party) and the mainly Sinn Féin 17.6 18 Alliance Party of Northern Ireland 6.5 6 Catholic Social Democratic and United Kingdom Unionist Party 4.5 5 Labour Party (SDLP). The extreme Others 10.1 7 nationalist Sinn Féin also contests Total 108 elections. United Kingdom United Kingdom Council of Europe European Union (EU)

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS IN three sites: Brussels, Luxembourg WESTERN EUROPE and Strasbourg. The EU is regulated by the Treaty of Rome (1957), the later accession agreements for new Council of Europe member states, the Treaty on Established in 1949 in Strasbourg to European Union (1993) and the Treaty promote unity between its members, of Amsterdam (1999). to encourage their economic and The decision-making process within the social progress and to uphold the EU is as follows: proposals originate principles of parliamentary democracy in the Commission or European and respect for human rights. The ten Parliament (EP) and are passed to founding members were: Belgium, the Council of Ministers (representing Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, the member states), which must Luxembourg, the Netherlands, agree the proposals before they can Norway, Sweden and the United come into effect. Once passed by the Kingdom. There are now forty-one Council of Ministers, the Commission members including all the countries oversees the implementation of of Western Europe and a number of decisions. The EP debates issues, Eastern European countries. Other questions Commissioners and countries of Eastern Europe have ministers, may amend parts of the DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS applied to join. budget and accept or reject the

The Council of Europe has an budget as a whole. It can dismiss the 191 intergovernmental Committee of Commission en bloc. The Treaty of Ministers, whose members are Amsterdam, which came into force in usually the foreign minister of their 1999, expanded and simplified the respective member state, and which Parliament’s legislative role. The makes decisions unanimously. It current President of the Commission usually meets twice a year. The is Romano Prodi (Italy), who took consultative Parliamentary Assembly office in July 1999. has 236 members and meets four Direct elections to the EP were times a year. The current introduced in 1979. Each member Secretary-General of the Council of state uses its own electoral system Europe is Dr Walter Schwimmer to elect representatives on a (Austria). five-year term. In 1995 the EP was The European Convention for the expanded from a chamber of 567 Protection of Human Rights and members to one of 626 to Fundamental Freedoms was drawn encompass new members with the up in 1950 on the recommendation accession of Austria (21 MEPs), of the Assembly and came into force Finland (16) and Sweden (22). in 1953. Under the Convention, the Similar to the development in the European Commission of Human member state Parliaments, ‘party Rights was established in 1954 to groups’ have formed within the EP. investigate alleged violations of The main groupings are: christian human rights, and the European democrats (European People’s Party), Court of Human Rights was set up in Socialists, Liberal Group, 1959. Green/European Free Alliance, Council of Europe European Union (EU) Confederal Group of the United Left, Union for a Europe of the Nations, European Union (EU) Independents, the Europe of The European Union has fifteen Democracies and Diversities and member states. Its institutions are in non-attached members. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)

Soviet-led Warsaw Pact in 1991, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation formerly regarded as the main (NATO) adversary of the Atlantic Alliance, The Atlantic Alliance was established on NATO has undergone radical the basis of the 1949 North Atlantic restructuring in an attempt to meet Treaty to provide common security for the new security challenges in its members through co-operation in Europe. The Czech Republic, Hungary military, political and economic and Poland were formally admitted as matters. The objectives of the Alliance members of NATO in March 1999, are implemented by NATO, based in bringing membership to a total of Brussels. The twelve founding nineteen members. members in 1949 were: Belgium, NATO has an intergovernmental North Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Atlantic Council. It is attended on a Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, weekly basis by permanent Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom representatives of the member states, and the United States of America. and at least twice a year by member Greece, Spain, Turkey and (West) state foreign ministers or their heads Germany joined subsequently. Spain of government and state. At all levels, remained outside the Alliance’s it has effective decision-making DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS military structure until 1999. The authority and decisions are taken by status of France is somewhat unusual. common consent. NATO’s Defence

192 It is a member of the Atlantic Alliance Planning Committee is convened but opted out of the integrated twice a year at ministerial level and is military structure of NATO in 1966 and attended by member state ministers does not attend these meetings. In of defence (although France does not 1996, France resumed participation in send a representative). The current some but not all of the military organs Secretary-General of NATO is Lord of NATO. Since the dissolution of the Robertson of Port Ellen (UK). North(NATO) Atlantic North AtlanticTreaty Organisation Treaty Organisation(NATO) Selected references*

Books Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, 2000). D. S. Bell, D. Johnson and P. Morris (eds), M. Gilbert, A History of the Twentieth Biographical Dictionary of French Century. Volume III, 1952–1999: Political Leaders since 1870 (New Challenge to Civilisation (London: York and London: Harvester Harper Collins, 1999). Wheatsheaf, 1990). M. Howard and W. R. Louis (eds), The A. Briggs and P. Clavin, Modern Europe Oxford History of the Twentieth 1789–1989 (London and New York: Century (Oxford and New York: Longman, 1997). Oxford University Press, 1998). D. Butler and G. Butler, British Political R. S. Katz and P. Mair (eds), Party Facts, 1900–1994 (Basingstoke: Organizations: A Data Handbook on Macmillan, 7th edn, 1994). Party Organizations in Western D. Butler and G. Butler, Twentieth Democracies, 1960–1990 (London: Century British Political Facts Sage, 1992). 1900–2000 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, Keesing’s Record of World Events 8th edn, 2000). (Harlow: Longman, Vols 1 (1931 C. Cook and J. Paxton, European to 48 (2002)). (Titled Keesing’s Political Facts, 1918–1990 Contemporary Archives until 1986.) (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 3rd edn, P. Legrain (ed.), Le Dictionnaire des 1992). Belges (Brussels: Paul Legrain, 1981). C. Cook and J. Stevenson, The Longman I. McLean, Oxford Concise Dictionary of Handbook of Modern European Politics (Oxford: Oxford University History 1763–1985 (London and New Press, 1996). York: Longman, 1987). F. Nicholson (ed.), Political and C. Cook and J. Stevenson, The Longman Economic Encyclopaedia of Western Handbook of the Modern World: Europe (Harlow: Longman, for International History and Politics since Cambridge International Reference on 1945 (Harlow: Longman, 1998). Current Affairs (CIRCA) Ltd, 1990). A. J. Day (ed.), Directory of European W. Nicoll and T. Salmon, Understanding Union Political Parties (London: John the European Union (Harlow: Harper, 2000). Longman, 2001). D. Dinan (ed.), Encyclopedia of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation European Union (Basingstoke: and Development (OECD), Main Macmillan, updated edn, 2000). Economic Indicators (Paris: OECD, Electoral Studies (Guildford: Butterworths, January 2002). Vols 15 (1996) to 21 (2002)). J. Palmowski, Dictionary of Twentieth European Commission, Glossary: Century World History (Oxford and Institutions, Policies and Enlargement New York: Oxford University Press, of the European Union (Luxembourg: 1997).

* This listing has been selected from the sources used in preparing this book. The titles have been chosen as those most likely to help students who wish to pursue a specific interest or field of research. Whereas the listing gives the most recent edition available at the time of writing, students should note that earlier editions are often an invaluable source of historical material. Selected references

M. Parry, Chambers Biographical Dictionary Western Europe 2000 (London: Europa (Edinburgh: Chambers, 6th edn, 1997). Publications Ltd, Taylor and Francis A. Roney, EC/EU Fact Book. A Complete Group, 3rd edn, 1999). Guide (London: Kogan Page, 6th edn, Who’s Who in European Politics 2000). The Europa World Yearbook (London: Bowker Saur, 3rd edn, 2001 (London, Europa Publications 1997). Ltd, 12th edn, 2000). The International Who’s Who in France/Qui est Qui en Who’s Who 2001 (London, Europa France 2000 (Paris: Éditions Jacques Publications Ltd, 64th edn, 2001). The Lafitte, Levallais-Perret 31st edn, International Who’s Who 2002 1999). (London, Europa Publications Ltd, 65th edn, 2002). Internet sources B. Turner (ed.), The Statesman’s Yearbook 2001. The Politics, Cultures

SELECTED REFERENCES SELECTED www.politicalresources.net/europe.htm and Economies of the World www.ifes.org/eguide/elecguide.htm (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000). www.magnet.mt/home/cos/(re Malta) 194 D. W. Urwin, A Dictionary of European www.statistics.gr/netscape/English/MainPa History and Politics, 1945–1995 ge/index_eng.html (National Statistical (London: Longman, 1996). Service of Greece) Selected references