Section 5 Data relating to political systems

THE COUNTRIES OF WESTERN EUROPE referendum. The constitutional court (Verfassungsgerichtshof ) determines the constitutionality of legislation and acts. Population 8.1 million (2000) Current government The 1999 Capital election brought to an end the Territory 83,857 sq. km 13-year government coalition GDP per capita US$25,788 (2000) between the Social Unemployment 3.7 per cent of of Austria (SPÖ) and Austrian workforce (2000) People’s Party (ÖVP), which had State form Republic. The Austrian been under considerable strain. When constitution of 1920, as amended in the two parties failed to reach a 1929, was restored on 1 May 1945. On coalition agreement, Austria found 15 May 1955, the four Allied Powers itself short of viable alternatives. The signed the State Treaty with Austria, record gains of the radical right ending the occupation and Freedom Party of Austria (FPÖ) had recognising Austrian independence. changed the balance of power within Current President the party system. The other two (took office 8 July numerically viable coalitions – 1992, re-elected 1998). SPÖ/FPÖ or ÖVP/FPÖ – had been State structure A federation with nine ruled out in advance by the two provinces (Länder), each with its own mainstream parties. An attempt by the constitution, legislature and SPÖ to form a government. failed. Finally, a coalition was formed Government The president appoints the between the ÖVP and FPÖ under prime (chancellor), and, on Wolfgang Schüssel (ÖVP) and the chancellor’s recommendation, a reluctantly sworn in by President cabinet (Council of Ministers) of Klestil on 5 February 2000. The around fifteen members. The Council decision to form a government of Ministers is responsible to the including a party of the far right – lower chamber of , the six of the 12-member cabinet were 183-member National Council FPÖ members – provoked (Nationalrat). The second chamber, international outrage and a period of the 64-member Federal Council sanctions imposed by the European (Bundesrat), is elected by . of the Länder. The Electoral systems The president is government, or individual ministers, elected by direct universal suffrage for can be removed from office by a vote a term of six years and may not serve of no confidence in the National more than two terms. Council. The Federal Council has the Elections to the Nationalrat are based power to delay legislation, but not to on a system of proportional veto it. For certain important matters, representation, the ‘enforced’ the two chambers meet together as preference voting system, with a 4 per the Bundesversammlung. Certain cent threshold. Term of office: four matters may be subject to a years.

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Austrian presidential elections, 19 April 1998 Belgium as a ‘unitary decentralised state’. Between 1970 and 1993 a Votes (%) four-stage process of constitutional Thomas Klestil (independent, backed by ÖVP and 63.4 reform transformed the country into a FPÖ) federation and culminated in the new Gertraud Knoll (SPÖ) 13.6 Heide Schmidt (LF) 11.1 Belgian constitution of 1994. Richard Lugner (independent) 9.9 Current head of state King Albert II Nowak 1.9 (sworn in 9 August 1993). State structure A federation Election to the Austrian Nationalrat, 3 October 1999 characterised by three linguistic communities (French-, Flemish- and Votes (%) Seats German-speaking), three regions Social Democratic Party (SPÖ) 33.1 65 (Walloon, Flemish and Brussels) and People’s Party (ÖVP) 26.9 52 four linguistic regions Freedom Party (FPÖ) 26.9 52 (French-speaking, Flemish-speaking, Greens 7.4 14 Liberal Forum (LF) 3.6 0 German-speaking and the bilingual Others 2.1 0 region of Brussels-Capital). The Total 183 unusually complex federal arrangements are designed to contain DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Party system Since the Second World the conflicts between the country’s War, the Austrian party system has linguistic communities.

170 been dominated by the SPÖ and Government The monarch appoints a ÖVP, which, until the general election formateur to negotiate the formation of 1990, together took 90 per cent of of a new government. The monarch the vote. The Greens emerged in the appoints the prime minister, and, on early 1980s, and, in 1986, the FPÖ the prime minister’s advice, a cabinet became a serious electoral force of up to fifteen members comprising under the charismatic leadership of an equal number of Flemish and Jörg Haider. A controversial figure, French speakers. Executive power is Haider has in the past expressed nominally held by the monarch, but approval of the National Socialist in practice is exercised by the (Nazi) regime in . On 28 cabinet. The cabinet is responsible to February 2000, Haider unexpectedly the lower chamber of Parliament, the resigned as of the FPÖ, Chamber of Representatives. Since ostensibly as a conciliatory gesture to the constitutional reform of 1993, the its coalition partner the ÖVP, but he upper chamber of Parliament, the remains acknowledged as the de , has had only limited facto leader of his party. legislative powers. Austria Belgium Current government The outgoing Belgium christian–social four-party coalition of CVP/PSC/PS/SP under Jean-Luc Population 10.3 million (2000) Dehaene (CVP) had been in Capital Brussels government since 1988 but had made Territory 30,519 sq. km losses at each subsequent election. Its GDP per capita US$26,570 (2000) heavy defeat in June 1999 was seen Unemployment 7.0 per cent of as a public response to a range of workforce (2000) scandals including an ongoing State form . health-related scandal concerning Belgium seceded from the contaminated feed for livestock and in 1830, and the the earlier paedophile scandal of constitution of 1831 established 1996. The series of scandals had

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rocked the establishment and had Elections to the Belgian Senate, 13 June 1999 provoked calls for a democratic Votes (%) Seats renewal in Belgium. A new ‘purple-green’ (ie, red, blue and Flemish and Democrats 15.4 6 green) coalition comprising six parties (VLD) Christian People’s Party (CVP) 14.8 6 (VLD/PRL–FDF–MCC/SP/PS/AGALEV/ Liberal Reform Party (PRL–FDF–MCC) 10.6 5 ECOLO) was formed on 12 July 1999 Walloon Socialist Party (PS) 9.7 4 led by Guy Verhofstadt (VLD). It was Flemish Bloc 9.4 4 the first government to exclude the Flemish Socialist Party (SP) 8.9 4 christian democratic parties since ECOLO (Walloon Greens) 7.4 3 AGALEV (Flemish Greens) 7.1 3 1958. Social Christian Party (PSC) 6.1 3 Electoral systems A constitutional People’s Union 5.1 2 amendment of 1993 altered the National Front (FN) 1.5 0 membership of the two chambers of Others 4.0 0 Parliament. The Chamber of Total 40 Representatives formerly had 212 members and now has 150; the Party system Reflecting Belgium’s Senate formerly had 182 members linguistic divide, each of the main and now has 71. ideological families in Belgium is Elections to both chambers are by a represented by two separate parties: DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS system of proportional representation the christian democrats by the

for a four-year term. However, only Flemish CVP and Walloon PSC; the 171 forty of the Senate’s seventy-one socialists by the Flemish SP and members are directly elected; the Walloon PS; the liberals by two remaining thirty-one are co-opted recently ‘renovated’ groupings, the from the councils of the linguistic Flemish VLD (formerly PVV) and communities. In May 1995 elections Walloon PRL–FDF; and the Greens by were held for the first time to the the Flemish AGALEV and Walloon new assemblies for the ECOLO. In addition, there are many regional/linguistic communities and to protest and fringe groups, of which the Brussels assembly. These the most significant are the extreme assemblies each have a term of office right-wing Flemish Bloc, the more of five years. moderate Flemish Nationalist People’s Belgium Belgium Union, and the extreme right Walloon Elections to the Belgian Chamber of Representatives, National Front. With the electorate’s 13 June 1999 rejection of the christian–social coalition in June 1999, the liberal Votes (%) Seats parties emerged as the largest Flemish Liberals and Democrats 14.3 23 ‘political family’ for the first time since (VLD) 1883. For the first time since the Christian People’s Party (CVP) 14.1 22 1920s, the christian and socialist Walloon Socialist Party (PS) 10.1 19 families no longer held a combined Liberal Reform Party (PRL–FDF–MCC) 10.1 18 Flemish Bloc 9.9 15 majority in Parliament. The Green Flemish Socialist Party (SP) 9.6 14 family gained ground while the far ECOLO (Walloon Greens) 7.3 11 right family’s standing was eroded AGALEV (Flemish Greens) 7.0 9 overall. New parties demanding a Social Christian Party (PSC) 5.9 10 complete overhaul of the political People’s Union 5.6 8 National Front (FN) 1.5 1 system failed to gain a seat in the Others 4.6 0 federal Parliament. Total 150

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maximum of 179 members, two of Denmark whom are elected in the Faroe Population 5.3 million (2000) Islands and two in Greenland. The Capital Copenhagen Folketing is elected by a system of Territory 43,075 sq. km proportional representation for a term GDP per capita US$28,448 (2000) of office of four years. Unemployment 4.7 per cent of workforce (2000) Election to the Danish Folketing, 20 November 2001 State form Constitutional monarchy, (excluding representatives from the Faroes and Greenland) based on the constitution of 5 June Votes (%) Seats 1953. Current head of state Queen (V) 31.3 56 Social Democratic Party (SDP) 29.1 52 Margrethe II (succeeded to the throne Danish People’s Party (DF) 12.0 22 14 January 1972). Conservative People’s Party (KF) 9.1 16 State structure Unitary. Home rule was Socialist People’s Party (SF) 6.4 12 granted to the Faroe Islands in 1948 Social Liberals (RV) 5.2 9 and to Greenland in 1979. Red-Green Unity List (ELRG) 2.4 4 Christian People’s Party (KrF) 2.3 4 Government The monarch appoints the Total 175 prime minister and, on the advice of DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS the prime minister, the cabinet of Party system The main parties currently around twenty members, which is fall into two broad groupings of

172 responsible to the unicameral centre-right (V, KF, KrF) and Parliament (Folketing). Legislative centre-left (SDP, RV, SF and ELRG). authority rests jointly with the The far-right DF was founded in 1995 monarch and Parliament. A bill following a split within the Progress adopted by the Folketing may be Party (FP). Since the centre-right submitted to referendum on the government depends on its support request of one-third of the members for a parliamentary majority, the DF of the Folketing. The bill is invalid if it now holds a key position within the is rejected by a majority of the votes party system. cast, provided this represents at least Denmark Denmark 30 per cent of the electorate. Current government On 31 October 2001 Prime Minister Poul Nyrup Population 5.2 million (2000) Rasmussen (SDP) called an early Capital general election in what critics saw as Territory 338,145 sq. km an attempt to capitalise on the GDP per capita US$24,414 (2000) popularity of his support for the Unemployment 9.7 per cent of US-led campaign against Afghanistan. workforce (2000) The gamble backfired and the SDP State form Republic. Finland was part suffered losses which cost the party of the Kingdom of until 1809 its customary position as the largest when it became an autonomous party in the Folketing. The defeat led Grand Duchy under the Russian Empire. to the transfer of government to the During the Russian Revolution of 1917 former opposition centre-right. Helped Finland claimed its independence by the parliamentary votes of the and, after a brief civil war, -wing DF, a new minority republic was founded in 1919. government was formed comprising Finland’s founding republican the liberals (V) and conservatives (KF), constitution of 17 July 1919 was led by Anders Fogh Rasmussen (V). replaced with a new constitution on 1 Electoral systems The Folketing has a March 2000.

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Current head of state President Tarja Minister Paavo Lipponen (SSDP) Halonen (took office 1 March 2000). restored his five-party ‘rainbow’ State structure Unitary coalition comprising Government In Finland, the president SSDP/KOK/SFP/VAS/VIHR, arguing that has traditionally enjoyed a more a solid base of co-operation and prominent executive and legislative ministerial experience would be role than most Western European needed for Finland’s forthcoming EU heads of state. However, the new presidency. constitution of 1 March 2000 restricted Electoral systems Following the president’s role, effectively constitutional amendments from 1987, formalising recent practical steps the president is elected by direct towards institutional relationships universal suffrage for a term of six more typical of a parliamentary years and may not serve more than democracy. In future, the president’s two consecutive terms. If no role will be largely ceremonial. presidential candidate obtains more Whereas the president formerly held than 50 per cent of the vote, a supreme executive power, this is now second ballot is held to determine the shared with the cabinet (Council of winner, in which only the two leading State) of around fifteen ministers, candidates of the first ballot may headed by the prime minister. compete. DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Whereas the president used to play a The 200-member Eduskunta is elected

key role in the formation of by a system of proportional 173 governments, his or her role is now representation for a four-year term. reactive: to appoint the prime minister Finland Finland selected by the unicameral Finnish presidential elections, 16 January and 6 February Parliament (Eduskunta) and those 2000 ministers of the Council of State First ballot Second ballot nominated by the prime minister. The (%) (%) prime minister directs the activities of the government. Legislative proposals Tarja Halonen (SSDP) 40.0 51.6 (KESK) 34.4 48.4 are introduced in Parliament either by Riitta Uosukainen (KOK) 12.8 the government or by a private Elisabeth Rehn (SFP) 7.9 member. The Parliament appoints a Heidi Hautala (VIHR) 3.3 parliamentary ombudsman to serve Ilkka Hakalehto (True Finns) 1.0 for a term of four years. The president Risto Kuisma (Independent) 0.6 still has a leading role in foreign policy, but must exercise this in Elections to the Finnish Eduskunta, 21 March 1999 co-operation with the Council of State. Votes (%) Seats In other areas, the president must work to proposals submitted by the Finnish Social Democratic Party 22.9 51 Council of State. On the request of (SSDP) (KESK) 22.4 48 the prime minister, the president may National Coalition Party (KOK) 21.0 46 call an early election to the Left-Wing (VAS) 10.9 20 Eduskunta. The president may be Greens (VIHR) 7.3 11 impeached on grounds of treason or Swedish People’s Party (SFP) 5.1 11 of crimes against humanity. Finnish Christian League (SKL) 4.2 10 Others 6.2 3 Current government For the first time Total 200 since independence in 1917, Finland saw a continuation of precisely the Party system In common with other same governing coalition following Western European countries, Finland’s the elections of March 1999. Prime parties are largely divided by the class

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cleavage, with the VAS, SSDP and accept the resignation of the prime VIHR on the left, and KESK, KOK, SFP minister; submit a bill to a and SKL on the right. (The SKL referendum; declare emergency changed its name to the Christian powers; and dissolve the lower Democratic Party of Finland on 25 chamber of Parliament, the National May 2001.) Unlike the practice in Assembly (Assemblée Nationale) once other countries, it has been common in a twelve-month period. The in Finland for the parties to president makes appointments to co-operate across the class divide in senior civil and military posts. broad-based coalition governments. Throughout most of the Fifth Finland France Republic, the electorate has returned a majority supporting the party or France coalition of the president to the Population 58.9 million (2000) National Assembly. This has enabled Capital Paris the president to be the effective Territory 543,965 sq. km executive leader of France. GDP per capita US$23,276 (2000) Exceptionally, the electorate has (overseas territories excluded) instead returned a majority from the Unemployment 9.5 per cent of opposing ‘bloc’. During these periods DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS workforce (2000) of ‘cohabitation’ (1986–88; 1993–95; State form Republic, based on the 1997–2002), executive power has

174 constitution of 1958 establishing the been shared between the president Fifth French Republic. Following the and the prime minister, with the latter liberation of France from German commanding the support of the occupation in 1944 and a brief majority in the National Assembly. provisional government led by The constitutionality of bills is General Charles de Gaulle, the Fourth determined by the Constitutional French Republic was founded in Council. 1946. This regime, which proved Current government The first ballot of unstable, was replaced in 1958 by the the French presidential election, held current one. on 21 April 2002, shocked the nation Current head of state President when the candidate of the far-right FN Jacques Chirac (took office 17 May took second place from the socialist 1995, re-elected May 2002). leader and Prime Minister Lionel State structure Unitary, comprising 96 Jospin (PS). After this crushing defeat, metropolitan departments and 10 Jospin stood down as head of the overseas departments. Corsica has its left-radical . In own directly elected legislative his place, President Jacques Chirac assembly. (RPR) named Jean-Pierre Raffarin Government The president appoints the (DL) as interim Prime Minister. After prime minister and a cabinet (Council the parliamentary elections, Raffarin of Ministers) of around twenty was confirmed as Prime Minister and members, which is responsible to the on 18 June 2002 took office at the bicameral Parliament. Executive head of a government comprising power is vested in the president, who RPR and DL. These parties had is in practice the most politically campaigned together during the powerful head of state in Western parliamentary elections as the Europe. The president ‘presides’ over Union for the Presidential Majority the Council of Ministers and may, (UMP). under specified circumstances, Electoral systems From 1962 to 1995, dismiss the government ministers and the president of France was elected

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by direct universal suffrage for a term Elections to the French National Assembly, 9 and 16 June of office of seven years. In September 2002 2000 a referendum approved the Second ballot Seats reduction of the term of office to five (%) years with effect from the presidential elections of 2002. If no presidential Union for the Presidential Majority 33.4 355 candidate obtains more than 50 per (UMP (RPR and DL)) Socialist Party (PS) 23.8 140 cent of the vote, a second ballot is National Front (FN) 11.1 – held to determine the winner, in French Communist Party (PCF) 4.9 21 which only the two leading Union for French Democracy (UDF) 4.8 29 candidates of the first ballot may Greens (les Verts) 4.4 3 compete. Radical Socialist Party (PRG) 1.5 7 Others 16.1 22 The National Assembly has 577 Total 577 members: 555 for metropolitan France and 22 for the overseas Elections to the French Senate, 23 September 2001 departments. Members are elected by (resulting total distribution of seats in the Senate) a single-member constituency system of direct election, using a second Seats ballot if the first fails to produce an Rally for the Republic (RPR) and allies 96 absolute majority for any one Socialist Party (PS) and allies 83 DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS candidate. The term of office is five Union of the Centre* 53

years. Republicans and Independents † 40 175 French Communist Party (PCF) and allies 23 The upper chamber of Parliament, the Democratic and Social European Rally* 19 Senate, has 321 members, 296 for Independents (non-aligned) 6 metropolitan France, 13 for the Vacant 1 overseas territories and 12 for French Total 321 nationals abroad. It is elected by an * mostly UDF † various right-wing groups electoral college composed of members of the National Assembly Party system During the years of the and delegates from the councils of Fifth Republic, an initially fragmented the departments and municipal party system has developed into a authorities. Senators are elected for a bipolar system of two main ‘blocs’ of nine-year term of office, but the parties on the centre-right and Senate is not elected as a single centre-left. Each bloc comprises many body. Instead, one-third of the parties which frequently splinter and senators is elected every three years. merge. For a time, these blocs were France France almost balanced in terms of electoral French presidential elections, 21 April and 5 May 2002 support, but recent elections show that their support is very First ballot Second ballot unpredictable. The landslide defeat of (%) (%) the Socialist Party (PS), the main Jacques Chirac (RPR) 19.9 82.2 party of the centre-left, in the 1993 Jean-Marie Le Pen (FN) 16.9 17.8 general election was followed by an Lionel Jospin (PS) 16.2 Francois Bayrou (UDF) 6.8 impressive recovery in the first round Arlette Laguiller (Workers’ Struggle) 5.7 of the presidential elections of 1995. Jean-Pièrre Chevènement (Citizen’s 5.3 In the general election of 1997, a Movement, MdC) collapse in the vote of the Noel Mamere (Green) 5.3 centre-right, whose main parties are Alain Madelin (DL) 3.9 Robert Hue (PCF) 3.4 the RPR and UDF, was accompanied Others 16.6 by a surge in support for the far right National Front (FN). In 2002, the FN’s

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success in entering the second round vote of no confidence’). The of the presidential elections prompted chancellor selects a cabinet of around a ‘pro-republican’ cross-party initiative twenty members and the president to secure the centre-right candidate formally appoints the chancellor and Chirac’s election in the second round. cabinet ministers. Executive authority Finally, in the parliamentary elections rests with the federal government, of 2002, the parties of the left which is responsible to the (socialists, communists and greens) Bundestag. The Federal Council saw their vote share fall dramatically (Bundesrat) is composed of from 318 seats to 171 seats. This representatives of the governments of ensured the end of the period of the Länder. Each Land sends ‘cohabitation’ between a centre-left between three and six delegates government and the centre-right according to the size of its population, President Chirac which had begun in and may only vote en bloc. The 1997. In spite of the evidence of Bundesrat may veto growing support for the FN, the party certain legislation. The president’s lost its only parliamentary seat in the activities are strictly defined and election of 2002. observed and include, under France Germany specified circumstances, the DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Germany dissolution of the Bundestag. The Federal Constitutional Court

176 Population 82.1 million (2000) (Bundesverfassungsgericht) Capital Berlin determines the constitutionality of Territory 356,959 sq. km legislation and executive acts. GDP per capita US$24,931 (2000) Current government A centre-left Unemployment 7.9 per cent of coalition of SPD and Alliance workforce (2000) 90/Greens led by Gerhard Schröder of State form Republic, based on the the SPD. Basic Law of 1949, with subsequent Electoral systems The president is amendments. The Federal Republic of elected by the Federal Convention Germany (FRG) was founded in 1949 (Bundesversammlung), comprising from the three western zones of the members of the Bundestag and occupied Germany. On 3 October an equal number of delegates elected 1990, the territories of the former by the Parliaments of the Länder. The German Democratic Republic (GDR) candidate who wins an absolute and Berlin joined the federation and majority of votes is elected. If no accepted the authority of the Basic candidate secures an absolute Law. majority in two ballots, a third ballot Current head of state President is held in which a relative majority is Johannes Rau (took office 1 July sufficient to win. The term of office is 1999). five years. A president may not serve State structure Federation of 16 Länder, more than two successive terms. each of which has its own The Bundestag is elected by direct constitution, legislature and universal suffrage. Since September government. 2002 the Bundestag has a standard Government The federal prime minister complement of 598 seats, but the (chancellor) is elected by an absolute electoral system sometimes allocates majority of the Parliament surplus mandates. Half of the 598 (Bundestag) and can only be seats are allocated to constituency dismissed if a successor is elected on candidates on the simple majority the same occasion (a ‘constructive plurality (‘first past the post’) principle

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and the remainder by proportional and, in 1973, Greece was declared a representation based on party lists. republic. In 1974, after a period of Parties receive a share of seats in the violent instability, former Prime Bundestag proportional to their share Minister Konstantinos Karamanlis was of party list votes, so that the electoral invited to form a civilian government. system is effectively one of A return to constitutional monarchy proportional representation. The term was rejected by referendum in of office is four years. December 1974. In June 1975, a new republican constitution was Election to the German Bundestag, 22 September 2002 introduced, establishing a parliamentary democracy. Votes (%) Seats Current head of state President Social Democratic Party (SPD) 38.5 251 Konstantinos Stefanopoulos (took Christian Democratic Union (CDU) 29.5 190 office 10 March 1995). Christian Social Union (CSU) 9.0 58 Alliance 90/Greens 8.6 55 State structure Unitary, with 10 regions. Free Democratic Party (FDP) 7.4 47 Government The president appoints the Party of Democratic Socialism (PDS) 4.3 2 prime minister, and, on the prime Others 3.0 0 minister’s recommendation, the Total 603 cabinet of around twenty members. In 1986, constitutional amendments DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Party system From 1961, only three reduced the office of president to a

parties won seats in the Bundestag: largely ceremonial one and 177 the CDU–CSU, the SPD and the small transferred many of the president’s liberal FDP. The Greens entered the former executive powers to the Bundestag in 1983 and the former unicameral Parliament (Vouli ton GDR reformed communists, the PDS, Ellinon). The amendments restricted followed after German re-unification the president’s right to call a in 1990. The formation of a red–green referendum, transferred the right to coalition under Schröder ended call a state of emergency to Helmut Kohl’s 16-year incumbency as Parliament, and removed the Chancellor for the CDU–CSU. president’s right to dismiss the prime Germany Greece minister. In addition, the president Greece may now dissolve Parliament only if the resignation of two governments in Population 10.6 million (2000) rapid succession demonstrates a lack Capital Athens of political stability. The president Territory 131,957 sq. km may still ask Parliament to reconsider GDP per capita US$16,244 (2000) legislation, or to pass it with an Unemployment 10.9 per cent of enhanced majority. workforce (2001) Current government The incumbent State form Republic, based on the PASOK, led by Kostas Simitis, constitution of 1975. The liberation of narrowly won a third successive term Greece from German occupation in in office at the election of April 2000. 1944 was followed by a civil war Simitis had called the election five which lasted until 1949, when the months ahead of schedule to benefit communist forces were defeated and from his government’s good the constitutional monarchy restored. economic record. In 1967, a coup led by right-wing Electoral systems The president is army officers took over the elected by Parliament for a term of government and set up a façade five years. democracy. The King went into exile, The Vouli ton Ellinon has 300

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members and is elected by direct Althingi by a resolution supported by universal suffrage for a term of four three-quarters of its members and years. confirmed by a referendum. If the president disapproves a law passed Election to the Greek Vouli ton Ellinon, 9 April 2000 by the Althingi, it must be confirmed by referendum. Votes (%) Seats Current government The incumbent Panhellenic Socialist Movement 43.8 158 centre-right coalition of the (PASOK) Independence Party and Progressive New Democracy (ND) 42.7 125 Communist Party of Greece (KKE) 5.5 11 party continued under the leadership Alliance of Left and Progressive 3.2 6 of Prime Minister Davíd Oddsson Forces (Synaspismos) (Independence Party). Democratic Social Movement 2.7 0 Electoral systems The president is (DHKKI) elected by direct universal suffrage for Others 2.1 0 Total 300 a term of four years. The 63-member Althingi is elected by a system of proportional Party system The main parties are representation in eight constituencies. PASOK and the centre-right ND. The The term of office is four years.

DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS communist KKE has maintained a small presence in the party system. Election to the Icelandic Althingi, 8 May 1999

178 Greece Iceland Votes (%) Seats Iceland Independence Party 40.8 26 Population 281,000 (2000) United Left 26.8 17 Capital Reykjavik Progressive Party 18.4 12 Left–Green Alliance 9.1 6 Territory 102,820 sq. km Liberals 4.2 2 GDP per capita US$27,608 (2000) Others 0.7 0 Unemployment 2.3 per cent of Total 63 workforce (2000) State form Republic, based on the Party system With the parliamentary constitution of 17 June 1944, when election of May 1999, the Icelandic Iceland declared its independence party system underwent its most from Denmark. radical restructuring since the Second Current head of state President Ólafur World War. Only two parties gaining Ragnar Grímsson (first took office 1 seats in the 1995 election competed August 1996, re-elected 2000). in 1999 in the same form: the State structure Unitary centre-right Independence Party and Government The president appoints the the centrist Progressive Party. The prime minister and a cabinet of Social Democratic Party (including the around ten members. Executive People’s Movement, which had power is vested in the president and broken away from the Social the cabinet, but in practice is Democratic Party in 1994) joined exercised by the cabinet. The cabinet forces with the radical Women’s is responsible to the Parliament Alliance to contest the election under (Althingi), unicameral since 1991. the umbrella of the United Left. Two Ministers may be impeached by the further parties, the Left–Green Alliance Althingi and tried by a court of and the Liberals, managed to win impeachment. The president may seats. The Left–Greens, a splinter dissolve the Althingi. In turn, the group from the former left–socialist president may be dismissed by the People’s Alliance, formed to represent

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the increasing concerns for the prescribed proportion of members of environment from a leftist platform. both chambers of Parliament, the The Liberals formed to contest the president may refer certain bills to a 1999 election essentially as a referendum. single-issue protest party concerned Current government Following the with fisheries policy. parliamentary elections of May 2002, Iceland Ireland the outgoing prime minister Bertie Ahern (FF) was confirmed at the Ireland head of his Fianna Fáil/Progressive Population 3.8 million (2000) Democrat coalition with the support Capital Dublin of independents to secure the Territory 70,283 sq. km required vote of investiture. As before, GDP per capita US$28,895 (2000) the government programme featured Unemployment 4.2 per cent of the promotion of a lasting peace workforce (2000) settlement in Northern Ireland and State form Republic, based on the measures to ensure a strong economy. constitution of 29 December 1937. Electoral systems The president is Ireland was formerly part of the elected by direct universal suffrage for United Kingdom. In 1920 the island a term of office of seven years. was partitioned, the six north-eastern The Dáil Éireann has 166 members DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS counties remaining part of the UK. In and is elected by STV for a term of

1922 the twenty-six southern counties five years. 179 achieved dominion status, under the The upper chamber of parliament, the British Crown, as the Irish Free State. Seanad Éireann, has sixty members. In 1937, the new constitution was Eleven are nominated by the prime adopted by referendum, giving the minister, six are elected by the Irish Free State full sovereignty within universities and forty-three by a the Commonwealth. Formal ties with broad-based electoral college. The the Commonwealth were ended in term of office is five years. 1949, when the twenty-six southern counties became the Republic of Irish presidential election, 30 October 1997 Ireland (Eire). First count Second count Current head of state President Mary (%) (%) McAleese (took office 11 November 1997). Mary McAleese (FF) 45.2 58.7 Mary Banotti (FG) 29.3 41.3 State structure Unitary Rosemary Scallon (independent) 13.8 Government The president summons Adi Roche (LP) 7.0 and dissolves the bicameral Derek Nally (independent) 5.0 Parliament on the advice of the government or prime minister Election to the Irish Dáil Éireann, 17 May 2002 (Taoiseach). On the nomination of the lower chamber of Parliament First preference Seats (Dáil Éireann), the president appoints votes (%) the prime minister, and, on the Fianna Fáil (FF) 41.5 80 advice of the prime minister and the Fine Gael (FG) 22.5 31 Labour (LP) 10.8 21 Dáil, the cabinet of around fifteen Sinn Féin 6.5 5 members. The president is advised by Progressive Democrats 4.0 8 a Council of State. The president may (GP) 3.8 6 refer certain bills to the Supreme Others/Independents 11.0 14 Court for a ruling on their Speaker 1 Total 166 constitutionality. With the support of a

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Party system The two main parties, FF 630 members and an upper chamber, and FG, are both right of centre. Their the Senate (Senato), of 315 elected differences stem from their positions members plus ten life senators, on the Anglo-Irish Treaty establishing appointed by the president of the the Irish Free State (1921). This republic. The two houses of cleavage remains as a largely latent Parliament have equal powers. A but significant cleavage in Irish constitutional court carries out the politics. The anti-Treaty FF formed in judicial review of legislation and 1926; the pro-Treaty FG in 1933. In judges accusations brought against 2001, the small (DL) the president of the republic or joined with the larger left party LP. government ministers. For many The other significant parties in the years, a crisis of legitimacy had been party system are the radical building up in the Italian republic, left–nationalist Sinn Féin and the centring on the endemic corruption of conservative–liberal Progressive the traditional Italian political parties Democrats. In 2002, the Progressive and their consequent failure to work Democrats renewed their alliance within the institutions to provide with FF to form the new government. strong, democratic government. In Ireland Italy 1993, a series of scandals thoroughly DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS discredited Italy’s political elite. The Italy crisis set in motion a meltdown and

180 Population 57.2 million (2000) realignment of the party system and Capital Rome an ongoing attempt to bring about a Territory 301,277 sq. km fundamental reform of the country’s GDP per capita US$24,395 (2000) political system. The project is hoped Unemployment 10.5 per cent of to lead to a speculative, improved workforce (2000) ‘Second Republic’, but there are fears State form Republic, based on the that the setbacks suffered may have constitution of 1948. The constitutional cost the reform movement its framework of the previous regime, a impetus. A reform package introduced constitutional monarchy, had by the former centre-left government remained in place throughout in June 1998 was blocked in the Mussolini’s fascist dictatorship Chamber of Deputies by FI leader (1922–43) and was terminated by a . national referendum held in June 1946. Current government A radical right Current head of state President Carlo populist coalition led by Prime Azeglio Ciampi (took office May 1999). Minister Silvio Berlusconi (FI) and State structure Unitary, with twenty comprising the FI/AN/LN/CCD–UCD regions, five with a special status. The and allied small groupings. regions each have an elected Electoral systems The president of the legislature and regional executive and republic is elected for a seven-year enjoy a large degree of autonomy. term of office by an electoral college Government The president appoints the made up of both chambers of prime minister, and, on the prime Parliament and fifty-eight regional minister’s advice, the other members representatives. of the cabinet (Council of Ministers). New electoral systems for elections to The cabinet has around fifteen full the Chamber of Deputies and the ministers and is responsible to Senate were introduced in 1993. Parliament. The bicameral Parliament These symbolised the reform process has a lower chamber, the Chamber of in Italy and were hailed by some as Deputies (Camera dei Deputati), of the start of a new Republic. The

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Chamber of Deputies has 630 elements of continuity in the members. Three-quarters (475) are emerging party system. Currently, the elected on the single-member, powerful House of Freedoms alliance single-ballot, plurality principle, as in represents a broad spectrum of the UK. The remaining 155 members parties of the right. It comprises are elected on a system of Berlusconi’s populist, pro-market and proportional representation based on right-wing (the party name twenty-seven districts, with a 4 per sounds like a football chant), the cent threshold. far-right National Alliance, the radical The Senate has 315 elected members. right separatist Northern League, the Three-quarters (238) are elected by a Christian Democratic Centre, the majority vote in regional Christian Democratic Union and the constituencies and the rest by New . A similar proportional representation on a grouping won the 1994 general regional basis. The term of office for election under the banner of the both the Chamber of Deputies and Freedom Alliance. House of Freedoms the Senate is five years. is opposed by an equally broad range At the 1996 elections, these new of leftist and Green parties. It includes electoral arrangements proved so the Democratic Party of the Left unsatisfactory that they were expected (PDS); the La Margherita alliance DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS to be replaced with another (Italian People’s Party, Democrats,

alternative. However, on 18 April 1999, Italian Renovation, South Tyrolean 181 a referendum proposing new electoral People’s Party (SVP)); the Italian systems failed as the turnout fell just Communist Party; the Greens and the short of the required 50 per cent plus Italian Democratic Socialists. one of the electorate. Italy Italy Luxembourg Election to the Italian Chamber of Deputies, 13 May 2001 Population 439,000 (2000) Votes (%) Seats Capital Luxembourg-Ville House of Freedoms 49.6 368 Territory 2,586 sq. km Olive Tree Alliance 35.0 250 GDP per capita US$46,502 (2000) Refounded Communist Party (PRC) 5.0 11 Others 10.4 1 Unemployment 2.4 per cent of Total 630 workforce (2000) State form Constitutional monarchy, Election to the Italian Senate, 13 May 2001 based on the constitution of 17 October 1868, as revised in 1919. The Votes (%) Seats last subsequent amendment was on House of Freedoms 42.5 177 12 January 1998. Olive Tree Alliance 38.7 125 Current head of state Grand Duke Refounded Communist Party (PRC) 5.0 3 Henri (acceded April 2001). Others 11.6 10 Total 315 State structure Unitary Government After consulting the Party system Italy’s party system is parliamentary party leaders, the Grand currently in a state of flux. Widely Duke nominates the prime minister discredited by the corruption scandals (President of the Council) who must of 1993, the traditional parties found it receive a vote of confidence from impossible to continue under their old Parliament. The prime minister heads names and identities and were forced a cabinet (Council of Ministers) of to reinvent themselves. In spite of this around ten ministers, who must not dramatic upheaval, there are strong simultaneously hold seats in

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Parliament. In theory, Parliament may single-issue party which campaigns dismiss the cabinet, but early for pension reform (ADR). With the dissolution is not now seen as a elections of June 1999 there was a realistic option. The unicameral significant swing away from the Parliament (Chamber of Deputies) LSAP/POSL and Green Party to the has sixty members (since 1989). An DP/PD, leaving the liberals – in advisory body of twenty-one opposition since 1984 – the second members, the Council of State, strongest party in the Chamber of reviews legislative proposals before Deputies and the chance of a return they can be adopted by Parliament. to government. The Council of State may delay Luxembourg Luxembourg legislation for up to three months and Malta require Parliament to vote on it a second time. Population 379,000 (2000, estimate) Current government A coalition of the Capital Valletta CSV/PCS and DP/PD under Prime Territory 316 sq. km Minister Jean-Claude Juncker was GDP per capita US$ 8,793 (1995) approved by the Grand Duke on 7 Unemployment 5.3 per cent of August 1999. workforce (2000) DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Electoral system The Chamber of State form Republic, based on the Deputies is elected on a system of constitution of 1964, subsequently

182 proportional representation based on amended. Malta was a Crown Colony four districts. The parties put forward of the United Kingdom from 1814. In lists of candidates and voters may 1964 it adopted the Independence choose to vote for a party list en bloc, Constitution, becoming an or for individual candidates across independent sovereign state within party lists. Voting is compulsory. The the British Commonwealth. The term of office is five years (since constitution was amended in 1974, 1959). establishing Malta as a democratic republic within the Commonwealth. Elections to the Luxembourg Chamber of Deputies, Further amendments in January 1987 13 June 1999 protect Malta’s neutrality and ensure that the party with the majority of Votes (%) Seats votes forms the government. (CSV/PCS) 30.4 19 Current head of state President Guido Democratic Party (DP/PD) 24.0 15 de Marco (selected 4 April 1999). Socialist Party (LSAP/POSL) 22.6 13 Action for Democracy and Pension 9.4 7 State structure Unitary Justice (ADR) Government The president appoints the Greens (déi Gréng) 8.5 5 prime minister, and, on the prime The Left (déi Lénk) 1.7 1 minister’s advice, a cabinet of ten to Total 60 fifteen ministers, the chief justice, the judges and the attorney-general. The Party system The three main parties cabinet can be dismissed by the date from the turn of the twentieth unicameral, 65-member Parliament century. The CSV/PCS have been in (House of Representatives). almost every government since 1945, Current government The majority with either the liberal DP/PD or the Nationalist Party (NP) government LSAP/POSL. Other parties include the under Edward Fenech Adami took Green Party (déi Gréng) formed in office on 6 September 1998. December 1994 from a merger of Electoral systems The president is existing green groupings, and a elected by the House of

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Representatives for a term of five the advice of the prime minister, the years. other members of the cabinet. There The House of Representatives is is no formal vote of investiture for the elected by STV, based on thirteen cabinet, which has some fifteen constituencies. The term of office is members. Government ministers must five years. not simultaneously hold seats in Parliament, but may attend Elections to the Maltese House of Representatives, Parliament and take part in debates 5 September 1998 there. The cabinet, under the prime minister, is responsible to Parliament. Votes (%) Seats The Parliament (States-General) is Nationalist Party (NP) 51.8 35 bicameral. The lower chamber, Malta (PLM) 47.0 30 confusingly termed the Second Democratic Alternative (AD) 1.2 0 Others 0.1 0 Chamber, has 150 members; the Total 65 upper house (First Chamber) has 75. Legislation may be proposed by the Party system The major parties are the Crown (as advised by a Council of NP and the PLM. Minor parties State) and the lower chamber of include the AD and the Malta Parliament. The Council of State must Democratic Party (PDM). In 1998, the be consulted on all bills and draft DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS ousting of the PLM government under general administrative orders. The

Alfred Sant put Malta back on course First Chamber may approve or reject 183 to join the EU. Malta’s application for legislation, but not amend it. EU membership had been frozen by Current government Until shortly the PLM government. before the May 2002 parliamentary Malta The Netherlands election, the left-liberal PvdA/VVD/D66 government of the outgoing Prime The Netherlands Minister Wim Kok (PvdA) had been Population 15.9 million (2000) expected to be endorsed on the Capital The Hague strength of a sound economic Territory 33,937 sq. km (land only) performance over the previous eight GDP per capita US$27,662 (2000) years. However, the assassination on Unemployment 2.9 per cent of 6 May 2002 of Pim Fortuyn, the workforce (2000) controversial leader of the populist State form Constitutional monarchy, LPF, turned the campaign from based on the constitution of 1814 and economic issues to those of later revisions of 1848 and 1983. immigration, crime and Current head of state Queen Beatrix anti-establishment issues. In a (took the throne 30 May 1980). dramatic shift to the right, the CDA State structure Unitary. The twelve emerged as the largest party in provinces are each administered by a Parliament with the LPF in second directly elected council, provincial place, ahead of the PvdA. Support for executive and a sovereign the PvdA fell by almost half to return commissioner, who is appointed by the party with just 23 seats. It was the royal decree. party’s worst defeat since the Second Government The monarch appoints a World War. The CDA’s new leader, senior politician (informateur) to , was expected identify a potential prime minister, to form a government coalition of the who, as a formateur, will form a right, possibly with the LPF and VVD. coalition government. The monarch Electoral systems The Second Chamber appoints the prime minister, and, on is elected by a system of proportional

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representation based on national party 1814. Norway was formerly linked to lists. Its term of office is four years. the Swedish throne, but declared its The First Chamber is elected by independence in 1905 and elected its members of the twelve provincial own monarchy. councils. Its term of office is six years, Current head of state King Harald V with half its members retiring every (acceded on 17 January 1991). three years. State structure Unitary, with nineteen counties (Fylker) Elections to the Netherlands Second Chamber, 15 May 2002 Government The king appoints the prime minister, and, on the prime Votes (%) Seats minister’s advice, the cabinet (Council Christian Democratic Appeal (CDA) 27.9 43 of Ministers) of around twenty Pim Fortuyn’s List (LPF) 17.0 26 members. The cabinet is responsible People’s Party for Freedom and 15.4 24 Democracy (VVD) to Parliament. Ministers must not be Labour Party (PvdA) 15.1 23 members of Parliament, but they may Green Left (GL) 7.0 10 attend and speak there. The Socialist Party (SP) 5.9 9 unicameral Parliament () has Democrats ’66 (D66) 5.1 7 165 members. The Storting is elected Christian Union (CU) (christian 2.5 4 fundamentalist) as a single institution, but then DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS SGV (christian fundamentalist) 1.7 2 chooses one-quarter of its members Livable Netherlands (populist) 1.6 2 to form the upper chamber (Lagting)

184 Others 0.8 0 while the remainder form the lower Total 150 chamber (Odelsting). Legislation is proposed in the Odelsting and Party system The electoral landslide of requires the consent of both houses, 2002 rocked a party system which but, if the houses disagree, can be had been settling into one of four passed by a joint session of the main parties: the PvdA, CDA, VVD and Storting by a two-thirds majority. D66; and numerous small parties Constitutional amendments must be including the Green Left and the passed by a two-thirds majority of a protestant fundamentalist parties, SGP joint session. The king may veto and CU. The 2002 election brought legislation, but his veto may be two new populist parties into overturned by three successively Parliament, with LPF, only three elected . months old on election, likely to play Current government A minority a significant role in the party system centre-right coalition of the Christian at least for the current electoral People’s Party (KrF), the period. The new parties represent Conservative Party (H), and the anti-establishment as well as populist Liberal Party (V) won sufficient elements. support in Parliament to form a The Netherlands Norway government under Prime Minister Norway Kjelle Magne Bondevik (KrF), which took office on 19 October 2001. Population 4.5 million (2000) Electoral systems The Storting is elected Capital by proportional representation based Territory 323,878 sq. km on district party lists; 157 members of GDP per capita US$29,311 (2000) the total 165 are constituency Unemployment 3.5 per cent of representatives, while the remaining workforce (2000) eight are elected so as to achieve a State form Constitutional monarchy, greater degree of proportionality based on the constitution of 17 May among the parties. The four-year term

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of office is fixed by the constitution revision of 1989 removed the and cannot be terminated early. constitutional commitment to Marxist principles. Election to the Norwegian Storting, 10 September 2001 Current head of state President Jorge Sampaio (took office 9 March Votes (%) Seats 1996). Labour Party (AP) 24.4 43 State structure Unitary; the Azores and Conservative Party (H) 21.2 38 Madeira are autonomous regions. 14.7 26 Christian People’s Party (KrF) 12.5 22 Government The president appoints the Socialist Left Party (SV) 12.4 23 prime minister, and, on the prime Centre Party (Sp) 5.6 10 minister’s advice, a cabinet (Council Liberal Party (V) 3.9 2 of Ministers) of around fifteen Coastal Party (TF) 1.7 1 members. The cabinet’s programme Others 3.6 0 Total 165 must win a vote of confidence from Parliament within ten days of taking Party system The main parties are AP, office. The cabinet may be dismissed the agrarian Sp, conservative H, by the Parliament following a vote of christian democratic KrF, the Progress no confidence. The unicameral Party, liberal V and the hard left SV. Parliament, the Assembly of the Since the early 1960s, government has Republic (Assembléia da República) DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS usually fallen either to a coalition of has 230 members. The president may

centre-right parties or to a Labour dissolve the Parliament. Legislation 185 minority government. After the passed by Parliament is subject to elections of September 2001, the judicial review by the Constitutional incumbent left-of-centre coalition was Court. The president may veto replaced by the opposition centre-right. legislation. Parliament can overturn a Norway Portugal presidential veto with an absolute majority of all its members. The Portugal Council of State is the political Population 10.0 million (2000) advisory body of the president. Capital Lisbon Current government After the Territory 92,072 sq. km elections of March 2002, the PSD GDP per capita US$17,556 (2000) formed a coalition government with Unemployment 4.1 per cent of the CDS/PP under PSD leader workforce (2000) José Mañuel Durao Barroso, who State form Republic (since 1976). became Prime Minister elect on 22 Portugal’s First Republic was declared March 2002. in 1910, but in 1926 fell to a military Electoral systems Presidential elections takeover. This had given way by 1932 are by direct universal suffrage. The to the right-wing dictatorship of candidate who wins more than one Antonio de Oliveira Salazar, led by half of the valid votes is elected. If no Marcello Caetano after 1968. In April candidate achieves an absolute 1974, this regime was overthrown by majority, a second ballot is held to the military group, the Armed Forces decide between the two leading Movement (MFA). A liberal candidates of the first ballot. The term democratic regime was established of office is five years. The president with the constitution of 1976. The may not be re-elected for a third substantial constitutional revision of consecutive term of office. The 1982 removed the direct political Assembly is elected by a system of influence of the military and reduced proportional representation, with a the president’s powers; a further term of office of four years.

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Portuguese presidential elections, 14 January 2001 constitution was adopted by national referendum in December 1978. The Votes (%) previous dictatorship of General Jorge Sampaio (PS) 55.8 Franco, established in 1939 following Ferreira do Amaral (PSD) 34.5 António Abreu (PCP) 5.1 the three-year civil war, effectively Fernando Rosas (BE) 3.0 ended on Franco’s death in 1975. Garcia Pereira (MRPP) 1.6 Current head of state King Juan Carlos I de Borbón (sworn in 22 Elections to the Portuguese Assembly, 17 March 2002 November 1975). (excluding the autonomous regions*) State structure Unitary, but with considerable devolution of executive Votes (%) Seats and administrative powers to Social Democratic Party (PSD) 40.1 102 seventeen elected regional assemblies. Socialist Party (PS) 37.8 95 Government After consultation with the Democratic Social Centre/People’s 8.7 14 parliamentary party groups, the king Party (CDS/PP) Communist Party (PCP) 7.0 12 appoints the prime minister (President Left Bloc (BE) 2.7 3 of the Government), who must win a Others 1.6 0 vote of confidence on his proposed Total 226 government programme in the lower DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS * At the time of writing, the outcome for the autonomous house of Parliament, the Congress of regions (4 seats) was not known. Deputies (Congreso de los Diputados).

186 On the prime minister’s advice, the Party system Despite the revolutionary king appoints a cabinet (Council of rhetoric of the 1976 constitution, party Ministers) of fifteen to twenty competition has been dominated by members. The cabinet is responsible the centre-left PS and the centre-right to, and may be dismissed by, the PSD. On the radical left are the Congress of Deputies. The Parliament Portuguese Communist Party (PCP) (Cortes Generales) is bicameral, and the Greens. The small CDS/PP is consisting of the 350-member a conservative grouping. After the Congress of Deputies and an upper elections of October 1999, the chamber, the Senate (Senado) of 256 incumbent Socialist Party (PS) members. The prime minister may remained in power under Prime dissolve either or both houses of Minister António Guterres. The PS was Parliament once in a twelve-month one seat short of an absolute majority, period. Legislation passed by the but was able to form a government Cortes Generales is subject to judicial with the parliamentary support of review by a constitutional court. other parties of the left. With the Current government A majority election of 2002 the PSD overtook its government under the centre-right rival the PS and was expected to form Popular Party (PP) led by Prime a government with the CDS/PP. Minister José María Aznar. Portugal Spain Electoral systems The Congress of Spain Deputies is elected by proportional representation for a four-year term. Population 39.5 million (2000) The electoral district is the province. Capital Madrid 208 members of the Senate are Territory 504,782 sq. km elected by a majority system on a GDP per capita US$19,194 (2000) provincial basis, with four senators for Unemployment 14.1 per cent of every mainland province. The workforce (2000) remaining senators, currently 48, are State form Constitutional monarchy. The chosen by the assemblies of the

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autonomous regions. The term of revised in 1979 to incorporate a new office is four years. bill of rights. Current head of state King Carl XVI Elections to the Spanish Congress of Deputies, 12 March Gustaf (took the throne 15 September 2000 1973). State structure Unitary Votes (%) Seats Government After consultation with the Popular Party (PP) 44.5 183 parties represented in Parliament Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE) 34.1 125 (), the Speaker of the Riksdag Convergence and Union (CiU) 4.2 15 United Left (IU) 5.5 8 proposes a candidate prime minister. Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) 1.5 7 The prime minister must receive a Others 10.2 12 vote of confidence in the Riksdag Total 350 before taking office. The prime minister appoints a cabinet (Council Elections to the Spanish Senate, 12 March 2000, elected of State) of around twenty ministers, members only which is responsible to Parliament. Individual ministers may also be Seats dismissed by Parliament. The Riksdag Popular Party (PP) 127 has been unicameral since 1969 and

Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE) 61 DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Convergence and Union (CiU) 8 has 349 members. Basque Nationalist Party (PNV) 6 Current government A minority

Canary Islands Coalition (CC) 5 government of the Social Democratic 187 Independent Party of Lanzarote (PIL) 1 Labour Party (SAP) under Prime Total 208 Minister Göran Persson (SAP), with parliamentary support from the Left Party system The main parties are the Party (VP) and the Greens (MP), PP and the PSOE. Also significant is formed on 6 October 1998. the far-left coalition, the United Left (IU), which includes the Communists. Election to the Swedish Riksdag, 20 September 1998 The main regionalist parties are the CiU and PNV. Numerous other small Votes (%) Seats parties contest elections, many Swedish Social Democratic Labour 36.4 131 representing regional positions. In the Party (SAP) election of March 2000 the PP scored Moderate Unity Party (M) 22.9 82 Left Party (VP) 12.0 43 the first majority victory for a Christian Democrats (KD) 11.8 42 centre-right party in contemporary Centre Party (C) 5.1 18 democratic Spain. The party had Liberals (Fp) 4.7 17 previously been in a government Green Party (MP) 4.5 16 coalition with CiU and PNV. Others 2.6 0 Total 349 Spain Sweden Electoral system The Riksdag is elected Sweden by a system of proportional Population 8.9 million (2000) representation based on districts. In Capital order to win seats, parties must Territory 449,964 sq. km secure 4 per cent of the total vote or GDP per capita US$24,309 (2000) 12 per cent in one district. Of the 349 Unemployment 5.9 per cent of seats, 310 are permanent constituency workforce (2000) seats and 39 are ‘adjustment’ seats, State form Constitutional monarchy. allocated to ensure that the The constitution of 1975 replaced the distribution of seats in the Riksdag is outmoded version of 1809. It was proportionate to the total votes cast

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for each party. The term of office is duties of a head of state together with four years (since 1994). formally chairing the Federal Council. Party system The main parties are SAP, State structure Confederation of twenty M, the Fp, C and KD. Also significant cantons and six half-cantons. are the Left Party (VP) (the former Government The executive body, the Communist Party, which changed its Federal Council, consists of seven name in 1990), and the MP. The members, each from a different right-wing ND lost all of its twenty-five canton, who act as government parliamentary seats in the 1994 ministers. These members represent a election. The outcome of the 1998 coalition of four parties which has election was a blow for the SAP, been in power since 1959. The which received its worst share of the members of the Federal Council are vote since 1928. It nevertheless elected by a joint session of the managed to negotiate sufficient bicameral Parliament (United Federal parliamentary support to take office Assembly) for a term of office of four as a minority government. years. Although the Federal Council is Sweden Switzerland held ‘responsible’ to the Federal Assembly, the Federal Council may Switzerland not be dismissed before the end of its DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Population 7.2 million (2000) term of office. The Federal Council is Capital Bern a collegiate body: there is no prime

188 Territory 41,293 sq. km minister and most decisions are GDP per capita US$29,892 (2000) agreed by the Federal Council as a Unemployment 3.0 per cent of whole. The lower chamber of workforce (1999) Parliament (National Council) has 200 State form Republic, based on the members and represents the Swiss constitution of 29 May 1874. A new people. The upper chamber (Council constitution was accepted by popular of States), representing the cantons, referendum on 18 April 1999 and has forty-six members, two from each came into force on 1 January 2000. canton and one from each Although seen as a fundamental half-canton. The lower and upper review, the new constitution did not chambers have equal powers. substantially change the institutional Referenda are crucial to the legislative framework of government in process in Switzerland. On 4 March Switzerland. Amongst other measures, 2002 the electorate approved a it abolished Switzerland’s referendum to join the UN, ending gold-standard status and enshrined Switzerland’s traditional stance of the right to strike. isolation. A formal application will be Current head of state President submitted at the UN General Kaspar Villiger (2002). The president Assembly in September 2002. and vice-president of the federation Current government The government hold office for one year only and are does not hinge directly on election chosen from the seven members of results, as in other Western European the Federal Council of the Swiss countries, but comprises the formula executive. They are elected by the coalition, noted above, of the Parliament, the Federal Assembly. Christian Democratic Party of The president’s role is not Switzerland (CVP), Social Democratic comparable with any other Western Party (SPS), the liberal Radical European presidency. The Swiss Democratic Party (FDP) and the president has no special political agrarian right Swiss People’s Party privileges, but performs the formal (SVP).

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Electoral systems Elections to the of around twenty members, who are National Council are by proportional appointed by the monarch. The representation based on party lists. House of Commons has 659 Each canton or half-canton forms one members. The incumbent Labour electoral district. The term of office is government is currently attempting a four years. piecemeal reform of the upper house, The method of election to the Council the House of Lords. Traditionally, the of States varies from canton to canton. House of Lords has had a variable membership of around 1,200. It was a Elections to the Swiss National Council, 24 October 1999 non-elected body with three categories of member: hereditary and Votes (%) Seats non-hereditary peers appointed by the Social Democratic Party (SPS) 22.5 51 monarch; archbishops and senior Swiss People’s Party (SVP) 22.5 44 bishops of the Church of England; Radical Democratic Party (FDP) 19.9 43 Christian Democratic Party (CVP) 15.9 35 and law lords, who, within the House Green Party (GPS) 5.0 9 of Lords, performed the function of a Liberal Party (LPS) 2.3 6 final court of appeal. Reforms to date Others 11.9 12 have concentrated on reducing the Total 200 proportion of hereditary peers with automatic membership: 90 peers DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS Party system In addition to the four were elected in October 1999 and it

main parties which make up the is proposed that an increasing 189 government coalition (CVP, SPS, FDP proportion of peers are to be and SVP), a number of other parties appointed or elected to their seats or contest general elections. These positions. The reform proposals are include the liberal LPS, Green GPS, controversial and their outcome Swiss Democrats (SD) (formerly remains uncertain. As before, known as against legislation must be passed by both Foreign Infiltration of the People and houses and obtain royal assent. The Homeland) and the evangelical EVP. House of Lords may delay legislation Switzerland United Kingdom by up to a year. The prime minister may ask the monarch to dissolve United Kingdom Parliament at any time. Following Population 59.5 million (1999) legislation enacted in 1998, a system Capital London of devolution was introduced to the Territory 244,103 sq. km UK with the election of two new GDP per capita US$ 22,882 (1999) chambers in May 1999: the Scottish Unemployment 6.6 per cent of Parliament and the National Assembly workforce (2000) for Wales. UK devolution is State form Constitutional monarchy, open-ended and is expected later to without a written constitution. encompass the English regions. Current head of state Queen Although intended to incorporate the Elizabeth II (acceded 6 February 1952). Northern Ireland Assembly, the status State structure Unitary, with differential of devolution has in practice devolution of powers to Scotland, remained uncertain in Northern Wales and Northern Ireland. Ireland with the imposition of Government The monarch appoints the temporary suspensions. UK devolution prime minister, usually the leader of is asymmetric in that the powers the largest party in the lower house of awarded to each of the devolved Parliament, the House of Commons. authorities differ in nature and in The prime minister chooses a cabinet scope.

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Current government A majority Election to the UK House of Commons, 7 June 2001 Labour Party government under Prime Votes (%) Seats Minister Tony Blair. Electoral systems The House of National parties Labour Party 42.0 412 Commons is elected for a five-year Conservative Party 32.7 166 term of office by a simple majority Liberal Democrats 18.8 52 system of voting in single-member Regionally significant parties constituencies (first-past-the-post Scottish National Party (SNP) 1.8 (20.1*) 5 system). The Scottish Parliament and Plaid Cymru 0.7 (14.3†) 4 Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) 0.8 (26.8‡) 6 the National Assembly for Wales are Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) 0.7 (22.5‡) 5 elected on a system of proportional Sinn Féin 0.7 (21.7‡) 4 representation in which voters have Social Democratic and Labour Party 0.6 (21.0‡) 3 two votes, one for a constituency (SDLP) contest and one for party lists, Independent 1 Speaker 1 designed to ensure proportionality. Total 659 Members of the Scottish Parliament * of votes cast in Scotland † of votes cast in Wales ‡ of are elected by a mixed system: 73 votes cast in Northern Ireland members represent single-member constituencies and are elected by a DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS simple-majority vote and the Election to the Scottish Parliament, 6 May 1999 remaining 56 are allocated according First vote Second vote Seats 190 to an (%) (%) (total) (AMS) so as to enhance Labour Party 38.8 33.8 56 proportionality in the Scottish Scottish National 28.7 27.0 35 Parliament. Members of the National Party (SNP) Assembly for Wales are elected on Conservative Party 15.6 15.4 18 similar principles: 40 members Liberal Democrats 14.2 12.5 17 Others 2.7 11.4 3 representing single-member Total 129 constituencies are elected by simple-majority vote and 20 members Election to the National Assembly for Wales, 6 May 1999 by AMS on regional party lists. The Northern Ireland Assembly has 108 First vote Second vote Seats members elected on a proportional (%) (%) (total) basis, with six members from each of Labour Party 37.6 35.4 28 the 18 constituencies of the central Plaid Cymru 28.4 30.5 17 Westminster Parliament. Conservative Party 15.9 16.5 9 Party system The main parties are the Liberal Democrats 13.4 12.6 6 Labour and Conservative Parties. The Others 4.7 5.1 0 Total 60 Liberal Democrats are the third national force. The Scottish National Election to the Northern Ireland Assembly, 25 June 1998 Party (SNP) and the Welsh nationalist Plaid Cymru attract regional support Votes (%) Seats in Scotland and Wales respectively. Social Democratic and Labour Party 22.0 24 Within Northern Ireland, the main (SDLP) parties are the Protestant Unionist Ulster Unionist Party (UUP) 21.3 28 parties (OUP, DUP, PUP and the Democratic Unionist Party (DUP) 18.0 20 Alliance Party) and the mainly Sinn Féin 17.6 18 Alliance Party of Northern Ireland 6.5 6 Catholic Social Democratic and United Kingdom Unionist Party 4.5 5 Labour Party (SDLP). The extreme Others 10.1 7 nationalist Sinn Féin also contests Total 108 elections. United Kingdom United Kingdom Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/23/2021 12:29:26PM via free access (EU)

INTERNATIONAL ORGANISATIONS IN three sites: Brussels, Luxembourg WESTERN EUROPE and Strasbourg. The EU is regulated by the Treaty of Rome (1957), the later accession agreements for new Council of Europe member states, the Treaty on Established in 1949 in Strasbourg to European Union (1993) and the Treaty promote unity between its members, of Amsterdam (1999). to encourage their economic and The decision-making process within the social progress and to uphold the EU is as follows: proposals originate principles of parliamentary democracy in the Commission or European and respect for human rights. The ten Parliament (EP) and are passed to founding members were: Belgium, the Council of Ministers (representing Denmark, France, Ireland, Italy, the member states), which must Luxembourg, the Netherlands, agree the proposals before they can Norway, Sweden and the United come into effect. Once passed by the Kingdom. There are now forty-one Council of Ministers, the Commission members including all the countries oversees the implementation of of Western Europe and a number of decisions. The EP debates issues, Eastern European countries. Other questions Commissioners and countries of Eastern Europe have ministers, may amend parts of the DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS applied to join. budget and accept or reject the

The Council of Europe has an budget as a whole. It can dismiss the 191 intergovernmental Committee of Commission en bloc. The Treaty of Ministers, whose members are Amsterdam, which came into force in usually the foreign minister of their 1999, expanded and simplified the respective member state, and which Parliament’s legislative role. The makes decisions unanimously. It current President of the Commission usually meets twice a year. The is (Italy), who took consultative Parliamentary Assembly office in July 1999. has 236 members and meets four Direct elections to the EP were times a year. The current introduced in 1979. Each member Secretary-General of the Council of state uses its own electoral system Europe is Dr Walter Schwimmer to elect representatives on a (Austria). five-year term. In 1995 the EP was The European Convention for the expanded from a chamber of 567 Protection of Human Rights and members to one of 626 to Fundamental Freedoms was drawn encompass new members with the up in 1950 on the recommendation accession of Austria (21 MEPs), of the Assembly and came into force Finland (16) and Sweden (22). in 1953. Under the Convention, the Similar to the development in the European Commission of Human member state Parliaments, ‘party Rights was established in 1954 to groups’ have formed within the EP. investigate alleged violations of The main groupings are: christian human rights, and the European democrats (European People’s Party), Court of Human Rights was set up in Socialists, Liberal Group, 1959. Green/European Free Alliance, Council of Europe European Union (EU) Confederal Group of the United Left, Union for a Europe of the Nations, European Union (EU) Independents, the Europe of The European Union has fifteen Democracies and Diversities and member states. Its institutions are in non-attached members.

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/23/2021 12:29:26PM via free access North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO)

Soviet-led Warsaw Pact in 1991, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation formerly regarded as the main (NATO) adversary of the Atlantic Alliance, The Atlantic Alliance was established on NATO has undergone radical the basis of the 1949 North Atlantic restructuring in an attempt to meet Treaty to provide common security for the new security challenges in its members through co-operation in Europe. The Czech Republic, Hungary military, political and economic and Poland were formally admitted as matters. The objectives of the Alliance members of NATO in March 1999, are implemented by NATO, based in bringing membership to a total of Brussels. The twelve founding nineteen members. members in 1949 were: Belgium, NATO has an intergovernmental North Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Atlantic Council. It is attended on a Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, weekly basis by permanent Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom representatives of the member states, and the United States of America. and at least twice a year by member Greece, Spain, Turkey and (West) state foreign ministers or their heads Germany joined subsequently. Spain of government and state. At all levels, remained outside the Alliance’s it has effective decision-making DATARELATING TO POLITICAL SYSTEMS military structure until 1999. The authority and decisions are taken by status of France is somewhat unusual. common consent. NATO’s Defence

192 It is a member of the Atlantic Alliance Planning Committee is convened but opted out of the integrated twice a year at ministerial level and is military structure of NATO in 1966 and attended by member state ministers does not attend these meetings. In of defence (although France does not 1996, France resumed participation in send a representative). The current some but not all of the military organs Secretary-General of NATO is Lord of NATO. Since the dissolution of the Robertson of Port Ellen (UK). North(NATO) Atlantic North AtlanticTreaty Organisation Treaty Organisation(NATO)

Geoffrey K. Roberts and Patricia Hogwood - 9781526137852 Downloaded from manchesterhive.com at 09/23/2021 12:29:26PM via free access