winter 2016 | volume xlvii | issue 1 President Gilbert Joseph Yale University

Vice President Joanne Rappaport Georgetown University

Past President Debra Castillo Cornell University Table of Contents Treasurer Timothy J. Power University of Oxford

Incoming Treasurer Patricia Tovar Rojas City University of New York, John Jay College 1 From the President | by Gil Joseph EXECUTIVE COUNCIL LASA2015 KALMAN SILVERT AWARD For term ending May 2016: Carmen Martínez Novo, University of Kentucky 3 La vocación de una generación: Discurso de recepción del Premio Kalman Silvert, Angela Paiva, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio de Janeiro LASA, Puerto Rico, 29 Mayo 2015 | por Manuel Garretón Charles Walker, University of California, Davis

For term ending May 2017: DEBATES: LATIN AMERICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST Evelina Dagnino, Universidade Estadual de Campinas Lauren “Robin” Derby, University of California, Los Angeles 7 Refuge, Alliance, and South-South Exchange: Latin America and the Maria Helena Machado, Universidade de São Paulo Middle East | by Jessica Stites Mor Ex Officio 9 Syrian Refugees in Latin America: Diaspora Communities as Interlocutors Ariel C. Armony, University of Pittsburgh Amy Chazkel, City University of New York/Queens College by Lily Balloffet Philip Oxhorn, McGill University 15 Nuevas agendas para una antigua migración: La migración siria, libanesa y Milagros Pereyra-Rojas, University of Pittsburgh palestina desde una mirada Latinoamericana | por Jorge Araneda Tapia FORUM EDITORIAL COMMITTEE 21 El régimen militar chileno e Irán: De las relaciones con el Sha Mohammad Reza Guest Editor Pahlaví a los negocios de la guerra Irán-Irak, 1974–1986 Jessica Stites Mor, University of British Columbia, Okanagan por Fernando Camacho Padilla Managing Editor 26 Beside Bandung: Brazil’s Relations toward the Arab World Milagros Pereyra-Rojas, University of Pittsburgh by John Tofik Karam LASA STAFF 31 Not Afraid to Make Connections: Edward Said and Salman Rushdie’s Latin Special Projects Coordinator American Solidarity | by Anna Bernard María Soledad Cabezas, University of Pittsburgh

34 The Death of Alberto Nisman, the Argentine Presidency Unhinged, and the Secret Social Media Coordinator History of Shared United States-Argentine Strategy in the Middle East Paloma Díaz-Lobos, University of Texas at Austin by David M. K. Sheinin Associate Director and Financial Administrator Mirna Kolbowski, University of Pittsburgh NOTE ON THE PROFESSION Communications Specialist Sara Lickey, University of Pittsburgh 39 Interview with David Grantham | by Jessica Stites Mor Executive Director ON LASA2016 Milagros Pereyra-Rojas, University of Pittsburgh Membership Coordinator 42 From the LASA2016 Congress Program Co-Chairs Israel R. Perlov, University of Pittsburgh by Ariel C. Armony and Amy Chazkel Operations Manager – Congress Coordinator 44 Reservation Form for the LASA2016 Book Exhibit Pilar Rodríguez Blanco, University of Pittsburgh

CALLING ALL MEMBERS The LASA Forum is published four times a year. It is the official vehicle for conveying news about the Latin American Studies Association to its 45 Elections 2016: Nominating Committee Slate members. Articles appearing in the On the Profession and Debates sections of the Forum are commissioned by the Editorial Committee and deal with selected themes. The Committee welcomes responses to any material NEWS FROM LASA published in the Forum.

Opinions expressed herein are those of individual authors and do not 57 Declaración de intelectuales, científicos y académicos hispanos contra necessarily reflect the view of the Latin American Studies Association xenofobia de Trump or its officers. ISSN 0890-7218 From the President by Gil Joseph | Yale University | [email protected]

I write this message at the midpoint of my discussion of how specialists in that field presidential term, in the wake of a might better communicate with those who stimulating New Year’s Day tertulia hosted work on what is traditionally regarded to by Susan Meiselas and Julia Preston, two be Latin America. A variety of panels longtime observers of Latin American engage Latino New York, and one politics and cultures. A hundred of us highlighted session organized by celebrated in SoHo, a bohemian quarter of transnational historian and documentary constituencies—and speculate on what the the great multicultural metropolis where, in filmmaker Seth Fein links Cold War–era decades ahead will bring. A companion a few months’ time, LASA will convene its New York City and Latin America. Fein presidential roundtable, on 50 years of historic 50th anniversary Congress. LASA will also premiere an interdisciplinary, journalistic coverage of Latin America, will will be returning to New York for the first multimedia installation that interrogates include some of the hemisphere’s most time since it held its inaugural meeting in conventional notions of North-South renowned reporters and photojournalists, 1966, when its membership numbered only encounters, imperial core and periphery, all of whom seek to promote a deeper a few hundred, mostly North American and spatial concepts of “interborough” and exchange with academic scholars. scholars. Now LASA is an organization of “outerborough.” One of the Congress’s 12 thousand members, nearly half of whom presidential panels will feature a timely In these and a myriad of other ways, reside in Latin America. Not only does interview, six months before the U.S. “LASA at 50” will afford us the “LASA at 50” promise to be the largest presidential election, with a major figure in opportunity to take stock of Latin Congress the association has ever President Obama’s administration. The American studies and chart new directions sponsored, in terms of the number of interview, to be conducted by New York for our dynamic interdisciplinary panels and participants; it will also be the Times national immigration correspondent enterprise. In keeping with our goal of most international in character, with a bit Julia Preston, will focus on the dilemmas promoting a more diverse, engaged, and more than 60 percent of the accepted posed by international migration and relevant association, the 50th Congress will papers from participants residing outside border security, and the prospects for provide a meeting place for continuing the United States. With well over a comprehensive immigration reform. efforts to enhance the participation and thousand panels, workshops, roundtables, Another presidential panel will feature a better represent the interests of LASA’s and receptions, we had to add an extra day high-profile dialogue among leading Cuban student members, who make up roughly to the conference, and even so, limitations and U.S. diplomats and policy makers one-fifth of the association. In the same of space meant we could accommodate behind the normalization of relations spirit, “LASA at 50” will foster the only about 75 percent of those who between the two nations. In addition to the relaunch of Otros Saberes, thereby paving submitted proposals. (For the rigorous diplomatic challenges the two nations will the way for continuity with the Lima 2017 procedure that was undertaken for continue to confront, the dialogue will also Congress theme “Diálogo de Saberes.” selection, please see Program Chairs Ariel engage the flow of people, goods, and ideas Otros Saberes has recently organized a Armony and Amy Chazkel’s report, between the two nations as normalization LASA section and a new website, and the elsewhere in this issue.) proceeds. Yet another presidential panel, 50th Congress will feature a presidential “Latin American Transformations,” will session dedicated to the role of hip-hop LASA’s return to New York is particularly bring some of the most distinguished artists and activists in diverse political, fortuitous for reasons far more profound interdisciplinary thinkers in our field, social, ethnic, racial, gender, sexual, and than historical symmetry. Over the course including John Coatsworth, Alejandro linguistic movements of the global South of LASA’s first half century, New York has Portes, Maria Hermínia Tavares de (which also includes the immigrant become an important part of “the field” Almeida, Florencia Mallon, and Steve J. imaginaries in the global North). The itself, a critical crossroads for the study of Stern, to assess changes over the past 50 vitality of Otros Saberes among LASA’s Latin America in its rich transnational and years. The panelists will focus on U.S. membership—and the opportunity it multilayered contexts. It is therefore fitting power and hegemony, migration and affords to consolidate collaborations that two of “LASA at 50’s” 39 program demographic trends, democracy and between academic scholars and intellectuals tracks privilege Latino/a studies, and many dictatorship, economic paradigms and and knowledge producers at the grass of our panels promise a continuing policies, and new grassroots roots—constitutes one of our organization’s

1 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

most promising renovating strategies as we As I began my presidential year I was keep working in the months ahead to be begin our next half century. charged by LASA’s Executive Council and able to deliver some encouraging news to Secretariat with coordinating a fund-raising the membership in a future issue of the The program of “LASA at 50” graphically effort around the 50th anniversary in Forum. Finally, let me emphasize that, underscores that LASA remains fully collaboration with LASA’s executive outside of the context of the dinner, we committed to its “big tent” philosophy. As director and Development Committee. I would greatly welcome any contribution to Ariel Armony and Amy Chazkel point out have taken this charge very seriously. For the broader anniversary fund-raising effort, in their report, the sessions that have been the past six months, Milagros Pereyra and I and we encourage all LASA members to organized by our diverse tracks and have been reaching out to foundations, contribute “50 for 50”—50 dollars for 50 sections equally represent the social LASA life members and past presidents, years. sciences and the humanities and seek to New York metro area universities, and honor classical fields of study as well as Latin American studies centers across the Meantime, rest assured that, in addition to emerging fields and coverage of the country and internationally to organize a the celebratory dinner, the 50th will have pressing issues of the day. In this spirit we celebratory fund-raising dinner to raise as its full complement of regular events, take particular pride in the presidential much money as possible for the association. including a welcoming ceremony and panel that will feature a dialogue on the LASA has never been in the business of festive reception on opening night and our achievement and prospects for democracy galas and—full disclosure—I haven’t worn accustomed, pulsating Gran Baile on the in the hemisphere between two of Latin a tuxedo since my senior prom (happily for night before the final day of sessions. This America’s most enduring statesmen and me, our fund-raising dinner will be short is in addition to a program whose thinkers, Fernando Henrique Cardoso and on pomp, and black tie will be optional!). intellectual agenda will be unprecedented in Ricardo Lagos; a presidential roundtable The idea behind the dinner is not to target both size and scope. on political and economic development individuals who can afford to pay and that will showcase Costa Rican president thereby create an elite group of partygoers. These are exciting times for the Latin Luis Guillermo Solís; and a blue-ribbon The exception will be life members and American Studies Association and for me panel that will commemorate Guillermo past presidents, who will be subsidized at as president. LASA has just appointed a O’Donnell’s classic work on democratic cost to honor them at the dinner, along new editor in chief of the Latin American transitions. with LASA’s supporting foundations, for Research Review, Aníbal Pérez-Liñán, a standing with us these past 50 years. renowned political scientist at the Congresses in New York City as ambitious Rather than individuals, the appeal has University of Pittsburgh, who will bring as this one incur gargantuan expenses; it is been focused on foundations, universities, further technological innovations to the not for nothing that LASA has not met in institutions, and centers, in an effort to journal and has appointed an the Big Apple since its modest inaugural raise as much money as we can on a interdisciplinary editorial team that will event! In order to accommodate as many one-time basis. We have been extremely include several distinguished scholars from participants as possible, we have been heartened by those institutions and centers Latin America. He is committed to obliged to rent space at New York prices that have answered our challenge and also disciplinary excellence, to synoptic articles for an extra day of sessions. At the same by those who continue to consider that engage developments in Latin time, we only turn 50 once! The special participation in our fund-raising drive American and global studies across circumstances of the 50th require an either as individual centers or as part of disciplines, and to greater balance in appropriate celebration and also afford a creative inter-institutional collaborations. LARR’s articles between the social sciences unique opportunity for LASA to raise funds We realize this is a difficult moment for and the humanities (which in recent years to realize its abiding commitment to Latin American studies centers’ operating have been underrepresented). It is a distinct become a more diverse and inclusive budgets, and that they have to make privilege to welcome aboard Aníbal Pérez institution for its expanding membership. difficult requests of their university and his team, who will formally commence The 50th challenges us to bolster LASA’s administrations. We realize, too, that every their editorship at the beginning of 2017. endowment, which above all underwrites institution has its own valid set of At the same time, LASA also acknowledges travel and research opportunities for Latin priorities. Still, we have been gratified with a decade of dedicated and pioneering America–based members. the interim results of our drive and will service by outgoing editor in chief Phil

2 LASA2015 KALMAN SILVERT AWARD

La vocación de una generación: Discurso de recepción del Premio Kalman Silvert, LASA, Puerto Rico, 29 Mayo 2015

por Manuel Antonio Garretón | Universidad de Chile | [email protected]

Oxhorn of McGill University. During Phil’s Autoridades de LASA, miembros del para todos, la sociedad latinoamericana. editorship, LARR is transitioning to Jurado, queridas amigas y amigos, Esta sociedad se definía por una publication in electronic form and will problemática histórica que era elaborada become the first completely open-access Agradezco muy emocionadamente en por las ciencias sociales y era a la vez un journal of its stature in the field. Phil also primer lugar a LASA, su Comité Ejecutivo tipo ideal en el sentido weberiano y una played a key role in LASA’s decision to y su Jurado del premio Kalman Silvert, su utopía que se buscaba alcanzar. En aquella create an open-access press for publishing equipo administrativo. Parte importante de época dicha problemática era la cuestión book-length monographs, thereby mi trabajo ha estado presente en LASA, he del desarrollo que las ciencias sociales facilitating a single hemispheric market for asistido a 18 Congresos y he sido miembro tematizaban como modernización, lo que the dissemination of academic books. He del Comité Ejecutivo. Recuerdo en este tan bien formularan, entre otros, José will continue working with the new Latin momento a otros Premios Kalman Silvert, a Medina Echavarría y Gino Germani, desde American Research Commons Press after quien conocí cuando se jugaba por la ángulos distintos. Pero, más allá de las his editorship of LARR ends this coming ayuda a los académicos y centros que voces del desarrollo o la modernización, December. habían sido víctimas de las intervenciones aparecían voces alternativas y críticas que militares en las universidades en Chile, se harán predominantes a partir de Finally, in recent months LASA has been otorgados a amigos y colegas como mediados de los sesenta, reflejando en el engaging in a strategic-planning initiative Richard Fagen, Alain Touraine, Julio Cotler, campo intelectual el impacto de la to brainstorm ways to make the association Guillermo O’Donnell, Osvaldo Sunkel, revolución cubana. Si en la realidad more efficient, more transparent, and more Edelberto Torres Rivas, Jean Franco, Peter histórica, la cuestión de la revolución alive to the needs of its greatly expanded Smith, por nombrar los más cercanos, y al reemplazaba a la del desarrollo, en and more diverse membership, at a recordarlos me produce un enorme honor términos intelectuales, lo que se llamó la dynamic historical moment for Latin el agregarme a esa lista. Agradezco a teoría de la dependencia y la hegemonía del America and those who study it. I will have Merilee Grindle y a mis amigos Sofía pensamiento marxista en las ciencias more to say on the strategic-planning Donoso, Juan Pablo Luna y Ken Roberts sociales reemplazaban los enfoques de la initiative in the Spring issue of the Forum. por sus magníficas intervenciones en este modernización. A veces eso se hizo con In the meantime, let me encourage you to panel. Gracias a todos Uds. por su críticas injustas de las visiones precedentes finalize your reservations for “LASA at 50” presencia aquí y por su afecto. Para mí es como las de la CEPAL. in New York City in late May. Not only conmovedor y será imborrable en mi will it be a historic meeting, but we also memoria. Un abrazo estrecho para todos. En todo caso, lo que trato de mostrar es need your ideas and energy as we begin to que nuestro nacimiento a la vida académica debate and plan the next half century of Siempre he pensado que los premios a la e intelectual está marcado por un doble Latin American studies! trayectoria de vida en algún ámbito, junto significado: debíamos a la vez descubrir a con celebrar a alguna persona una profesión y una disciplina y un objeto individualmente son también un de estudio, la sociedad latinoamericana y, reconocimiento a su entorno, en este caso, como parte de ella, la sociedad chilena. Ello intelectual y generacional. Así recibo este no habría sido posible sin una tradición de Premio, como parte de una generación. pensamiento en esta materia, pero sobre todo sin algunos que siendo un poco Esta generación nació a la vida pública y mayores en ciertos momentos nos académica en los sesenta de la mano de las confundíamos en una misma generación1. ciencias sociales, especialmente de la sociología que de alguna manera incluía a Concebíamos nuestras vidas y carreras la ciencia política en América Latina. Desde académicas y profesionales en una triple nuestros inicios fuimos descubriendo que dimensión, como lo intuyera Medina junto a una profesión y una disciplina Echavarría: científica, intelectual crítica y había un objeto de estudio, la sociedad profesional. Y eso lo vivimos como una histórica, en mi caso la sociedad chilena, y tensión a veces insoportable y que nos

3 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

hacía trampas al concentrarnos en una u sentido. Por un lado, la revisión de las todas esas redes y grupos que constituimos otra y abandonar las restantes. Pero no categorías conceptuales y prácticas sin los cuales mi trabajo no habría sólo esa tensión marcó nuestra generación profesionales con que habíamos pensado existido2. y a mí personalmente, sino que ella era los procesos desarrollistas, populistas o atravesada por aquella a la que se refería revolucionarios que terminaron tan Hay que recordar los debates que se dieron Wright Mills, biografías e historia colectiva, trágicamente, para proponer nuevos en aquella época sobre la naturaleza de las estructura y trayectoria personal. De alguna horizontes de liberación para nuestras dictaduras y autoritarismos, y las salidas a manera todos la vivimos y de distintas sociedades. Pero sería una profunda ellas a través de los procesos de maneras. La tentación era olvidar la tensión equivocación pensar que el desenlace de democratización. Buscábamos desarrollar y que un polo devorara al otro. Había que tales procesos se debió a los errores de conceptos, análisis científicos, buscar formas de resolver estas tensiones quienes nos identificábamos con ellos y no reemplazando a las universidades en que no dejaran perderse ninguna de las a la acción de los sectores poderosos de la docencia e investigación, proveyendo a la dimensiones. Ello significaba la presencia y sociedad y fuera de ella que querían vez elementos útiles para las luchas de los distancia entre ellas, significaba terminar con los proyectos de desarrollo y actores sociales. Quizás nunca, en un necesariamente el desgarro. transformación a sangre y fuego para ambiente sin embargo hostil al trabajo recomponer a través de los militares intelectual, fuimos más fieles a todas La pérdida de la distancia señalada entre capitalismos autoritarios engarzados con nuestras vocaciones y dimensiones sin las dimensiones y tensión constitutiva de las tendencias predominantes del abandonar ninguna. nuestras vocación, en definitiva, su fusión, capitalismo a nivel mundial. Y ello da el fue especialmente significativa para mi sentido de nuestra segunda tarea en aquella La instalación de regímenes democráticos generación en Chile en el período que época: a la vez que luchábamos por en prácticamente todos nuestros países, culmina con la a Unidad Popular. La sobrevivir y por enfrentar desde nuestros realidad inédita en nuestra historia, planteó identificación con los proyectos histórico propios y escasos medios contra la nuevos desafíos tanto respecto de la políticos, nuestro deseo de historia como dominación autoritaria, tratábamos de recuperación de espacios universitarios, diría Touraine, nos llevó muchas veces ser comprender y analizar y desarrollar una como, sobre todo, respecto de contestar testigos que sistematizaban o masa crítica a la vez institucional y una pregunta pendiente en las transiciones: conceptualizaban tales procesos, que humana, comprometida y autónoma. Y ello más allá de la democracia como régimen de defendían posiciones, pero sin escrutarlos coincidió con una nueva respuesta a las dictaduras, cuál era el con distancia para poder entender y señalar latinoamericanización de las temáticas de sentido de ellas en nuestras sociedades. sus problemas y mostrar lo que vendría nuestro trabajo. Junto a las nuevas formas Quizás el movimiento social que mejor planteando visiones alternativas. La de comunicación entre los diversos núcleos expresa esta cuestión es el de Chiapas, pese solidaridad con tales proyectos y actores e instituciones que se establecieron gracias a su pérdida de importancia posterior, sociales, nuestra identificación como a la solidaridad entre nuestros países, se porque ahí se daban todas las dimensiones intelectuales con ellos, nos impedían la imponía una nueva problemática con un de una nueva problemática socio-histórica: indispensable soledad para analizar y nuevo horizonte a la vez objeto de estudio étnica, regional, extra institucional pero plantear alternativas. Y con eso no y principio normativo que era la democrática, anti globalización y anti cumplíamos aquella dimensión insoslayable democracia. Y en este proceso de neoliberal, inclusión e igualdad, nuevo de esta vocación que es la de ser críticos latinoamericanización jugaron un rol papel del Estado. Más adelante fue lo que con los propios proyectos políticos con los fundamental las redes tanto a nivel de la se llamó el giro a la izquierda de los que nos identificamos y con los actores región, como con la ayuda europea, y con gobiernos, desde la política, el que recogió sociales y políticos con los que nos la academia de los Estado Unidos, esta vez esta nueva problemática socio-histórica. consideramos sus aliados e interlocutores. no para enfrentarnos como en los sesenta Desde las ciencias sociales, se abordó esta Miro hacia atrás ese período y creo que sino para enfrentar juntos la tarea de nueva época, por un lado, a través de la tenemos una deuda al respecto. análisis científico, comprensión crítica y interdisciplinariedad, la creciente proyección desde nuestro lugar a las luchas importancia del debate metodológico en Deuda que quizás en parte saldamos en la de la sociedad contra las dictaduras. En mi relación a las dimensiones cuantitativa y época de las dictaduras. Ello en un doble caso particular, soy un gran beneficiado de cualitativa y, sobre todo, con el debate

4 entre las voces más clásicas de desarrollo son otros los que podrían juzgarlo. Yo lo de Galio, o en alguna telenovela brasilera, científico y las que se planteaban como veo también como un acto de egoísmo por nombrar solo algunos ejemplos, se superación de lo que se califica como el necesario. Porque los que no tenemos el encuentra mejor que en ningún lado la pensamiento colonial, síntesis aún don de pensar escribiendo, pensamos a relación entre biografía e historia a lo que pendiente. Por otro lado, los estudios sobre través de la expresión oral, aprendemos a aludíamos al inicio o porque al tratar de calidad, tipos y transformación de la saber lo que pensamos a través de la entender a Melquíades o Amaranta en Cien democracia, las nuevas formas de acción exposición. Enseñar y exponer es una años de soledad, los estudiantes agreguen colectiva, la emergencia de actores necesidad de nuestro papel como otro tipo de acción a la clasificación identitarios y las luchas por derechos, las intelectuales. Y en ese oficio nuestra weberiana. Me temo que en los excesos de nuevas formas de convivencia afectadas preocupación por desarrollar lo que profesionalización, criterios de por los cambios en las tecnologías de pensamos debe siempre apartarse de la empleabilidad y obsesiones metodológicas, información y comunicación, las nuevas búsqueda de discípulos. Como se recordaba el papel de la docencia para comprender relaciones entre subjetividad y política y en esta mesa, creo fundamental que los nuestras sociedades pierda esta dimensión entre Estado y sociedad, reformularon esta estudiantes pasen en sus vidas disruptiva y formativa en aras de una problemática socio-histórica. El concepto universitarias por muy diferencias estandarización curricular para alcanzar límite, objeto de estudio y principio experiencias de formación, una de las determinados niveles de competencia y normativo, que ocupaba el lugar que antes cuales, no la única ni quizás la más acreditación. tuvieron el desarrollo, la revolución o la importante pero sí indispensable es la clase democracia, fue la igualdad. magistral. Pero hay que reconocer que en el El segundo instrumento ha sido la debate sobre las transformaciones de investigación. Confieso también un cierto He planteado en diversos trabajos que contemporáneas de la educación superior y egoísmo. En general sólo he estudiado lo tanto los países que enfrentaron esta nueva las cuestiones de nuevas tecnologías de que he vivido como acontecimientos problemática como aquellos que no lo comunicación este problema no ha sido históricos o experiencias intelectuales: hicieron, enfrentan hoy, con escasas resuelto. A veces también los debates sobre había que explicarse y explicar lo que excepciones, una crisis de sus modelos. disciplinariedad e interdisciplinariedad pasaba. Y mi preocupación ha sido menos Chile fue uno de los países que no intentó tampoco toman en cuenta la naturaleza de la de un teórico o de un investigador dar el salto a nuevas relaciones entre la experiencia formativa, puesto que no es empírico tareas indispensables y medulares Estado y sociedad teniendo como horizonte una cuestión dicotómica que se resuelva al en nuestra profesión, que la de quien busca la igualdad, como lo hicieron otros a través nivel del puro conocimiento o de temas desarrollar conceptos, marcos analíticos, de asambleas constituyentes o el epistemológicos. Uno puede decir que toda relatos, orientaciones, para comprender los mencionado giro a la izquierda. Y hoy investigación en ciencias sociales es fenómenos que vivimos. Si pienso, por pagamos ese precio, tanto los actores interdisciplinaria, pero hay un momento en ejemplo, en el desarrollo del marco políticos como los científicos sociales, lo que la formación disciplinaria es analítico de la matriz socio-política, en la que nos muestra nuestro horizonte en los insustituible por ejemplo en el pregrado. cual han sido parte esencial los colegas próximos años. Cavarozzi, Hartlyn y Cleaves, recuerdo que Por otro lado, mi mejor experiencia todo surgió a partir de la pregunta por qué En esta visión apretada y personal de lo docente, y ello tiene de algún modo que ver en Argentina hubo huelga temprana en que ha sido nuestra trayectoria como con la diversidad disciplinaria y de mundos dictadura y en Chile no la hubo, y de esa generación, resaltan tres grandes intelectuales de una institución como LASA pregunta empírica salió el concepto de instrumentos de la vocación de conocer y que hay que preservar, ha sido la columna vertebral y luego de matriz comprender, que han sido inseparables. introducción de material externo a las socio-política para explicar cómo se ciencias sociales como novelas, series de constituyen en cada sociedad los sujetos y Por un lado la docencia, que ejercimos televisión y para estudiar fenómenos actores sociales. Pero también en los incluso en los tiempos de proscripción. Se sociológicos. Quizás porque ahí, como en el estudios de transición y democratización, tiende a ver este ejercicio como una caso del cine italiano de Visconti o Scola, o casi siempre conceptualicé a partir de las expresión de generosidad hacia los otros, en las novelas latinoamericanas como experiencias que se vivían. Y desde otro especialmente los estudiantes. En mi caso, Conversación en la Catedral o La Guerra ángulo, cuando quise saber qué pensaba yo

5 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

de la cuestión de modernidad, la mejor de las ciencias sociales cuando sólo Notas inspiración la tuve de los ensayos de emitimos simples opiniones en medios de 1 Pienso, y nombro sólo a los que conozco o novelistas y poetas como Kundera u comunicación, redes o asesorías. El uso de conocí personalmente, en Fernando Henrique Octavio Paz. encuestas o estudios cualitativos para Cardoso, Pablo González Casanova, Rodolfo apoyar una determinada posición sin Stavenhagen, Octavio Ianni, José Nun, Aníbal En esta campo también hay una amenaza cuestionar los componentes conceptuales Quijano, Julio Cotler, Domingo Rivarola, hoy día al trabajo de investigación en que hay detrás, usando por ejemplo Edelberto Torres Rivas, Edgardo Lander y los nuestras disciplinas, en tanto se somete conceptos como confianza o felicidad, son hermanos Silva Michelena, Jorge Graciarena, Ruy Mauro Marini, y entre los chilenos, dicho trabajo a sistemas de medición, una de las tantas ilustraciones de lo que Eduardo Hamuy, Aníbal Pinto, Osvaldo competitividad, rankings y estandarización quiero decir. No debemos olvidar nunca Sunkel y mis profesores Raúl Urzúa, José que arriesgan convertirlas en irrelevantes que nuestra tarea se ubica en la misma Sulbrandt, Gabriel Gyarmati, Roger para nuestras sociedades. Mi impresión es línea de lo que señalaba Neruda para sus Vekemans, Luis Scherz, Armand Mattelart y que redefinir la evaluación de nuestro poemas: panes útiles y necesarios, en este Franz Hinkelammert, entre muchos otros. quehacer obliga a una inmensa tarea por caso, para ayudar a todos analizar y Mezcla de colegas y maestro Enzo Faletto y Guillermo O’Donnell. Y, sobre todo, para mí parte de comunidades e instituciones comprender. la sociología y las ciencias sociales, así como la académicas a nivel latinoamericano para comprensión desde ellas de la sociedad enfrentar los poderosos intereses Para terminar, digamos que en los últimos latinoamericana, están marcadas por la trasnacionales a nivel de la ciencia y el tiempos hemos visto como las tensiones presencia e influencia de Alain Touraine. trabajo intelectual. analizadas en nuestro quehacer de 2 Como prueba de ello, recordemos sólo algunas estudiosos de América Latina, se han muestras. El apoyo de instituciones y redes En efecto, el tercer instrumento de la expresado, en una cierta disociación, ya como LASA, FLACSO, ALAS, CLACSO, Joint generación a que pertenezco para cumplir mencionada escuetamente, entre las voces Committee on Latin American Studies del nuestra vocación ha sido la de participar en más ligadas a formas clásicas de trabajo y Social Science Research Council (SSRC). el debate público, sufriendo el desgarro aquéllas que plantean innovaciones Fundaciones como IDRC, el papel jugado por la Fundación Ford y un especial recuerdo al entre el discurso científico y el anhelo de radicales. El riesgo es que se consoliden dos mismo Kalman Silvert, Nita Manitzas, Peter historia. Más que la defensa de posiciones mundos cerrados en sí mismos o que Bell, Peter Hakim, Alex Wilde. Como ayuda propias o grupales tomadas de antemano, busquen imponerse el uno al otro. No se europea, el World University Service, SAREC o nuestro esfuerzo iba dirigido a ayudar a trata de la cuestión insoslayable de la Fundación Friedrich Eber. Entre los centros, comprender los fenómenos y procesos y izquierda y derecha, que remite a el Wilson Center de Washington con Abe desde nuestra propia especificidad, posiciones ideológico culturales distintas y Lowenthal a la cabeza y el Kellogg Institute de participar en ellos. Se trata no sólo los legítimas, sino de la ilegitimización mutua Notre Dame University con un rol preponderante de Guillermo O’Donnell. Y en debates en torno a las dictaduras, las de las formas de saber. LASA ha sido una América Latina recuerdo los grupos de trabajo transiciones o los nuevos sentidos de la gran expresión de la coexistencia de de CLACSO con Francisco Delich sobre democracia o de la acción colectiva, que diversas visones y mundos. ¿No será hora coyuntura a partir del cual escribimos los tienen su propia particularidad en las de ir más allá de la sola coexistencia y primeros trabajos de análisis crítico del ciencias sociales, sino de aquellos que nacen pensar en procesos de hibridación? Al período de la UP y de análisis de los golpes fuera de éstas y que obligan a una respuesta recibir este Premio que honra a toda una militares, el grupo sobre autoritarismo y democratización en el Wilson Center, el del con los instrumentos que tenemos que no generación, pienso que es una de las medio del SSRC, creado por O’Donnell y fueron desarrollados para enfrentar esos grandes tareas de las nuevas generaciones continuado por mí junto a Patricia Fagen y problemas. En el caso chileno, los debates de quienes dediquen sus vidas al estudio de Juan Corradi, el de cultura y autoritarismo sobre la renovación socialista en los años América Latina. coordinado por Saúl Sosnowski, el de ochenta o sobre el proceso constituyente aprendizaje político en los procesos de son ilustraciones pertinentes. El gran riesgo democratización con Jennifer McCoy y Marcelo Cavarozzi, el de partidos políticos en aquí radica en las tentaciones del mundo América Latina con CLACSO y el SSRC con mediático y la farándula, el abandono del Marcelo Cavarozzi, el de la matriz socio- desgarro y el uso indebido que podamos política con Peter Cleaves, Marcelo Cavarozzi, hacer de nuestra autoridad en el dominio Jonathan Hartlyn y Gary Gereffi. Más

6 DEBATES: LATIN AMERICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST

Refuge, Alliance, and South-South Exchange: Latin America and the Middle East

by Jessica Stites Mor | University of British Columbia, Okanagan | [email protected]

adelante vendrían para mí otros como el de Since the beginning of the Arab Spring in scarcity and oppression often made the Desarrollo de la Ciencia Social en América 2011, an estimated nine million Syrians voyage across the great Atlantic divide. Latina, con Hélgio Trindade como have left their homes to seek refuge outside Since the late nineteenth century, however, coordinados junto a Gerónimo de Sierra, their country’s borders, and just this past new flows of peoples gave rise to larger Miguel Murmis y José Luis Reina. A todos ellos y otros, se agregan los múltiples November, a record three thousand Syrians immigrant communities, from within which congresos y seminarios latinoamericanos, were granted asylum in Brazil, in one of the many successful businessmen, politicians, imposibles de mencionar, pero entre los que largest and least bureaucratically and families utilized transregional networks deben recordarse los organizados por el complicated refugee acceptances in the to forge powerful alliances between the two Instituto de Investigaciones Sociales de la Americas. Two months earlier, President regions (Lesser and Klich 1998; Alfaro- UNAM, coordinados por Julio Labastida y los Dilma Rousseff authored an editorial in an Velcamp 2009). However, until recently, de FLACSO-México. outlet of the Huffington Post arguing that most scholarship of Middle East–Latin since over ten million Brazilians could American exchange has focused rather claim Syrian-Lebanese heritage, it was exclusively either on migrant communities Brazil’s duty to welcome and support these or on international diplomacy as a minor new migrants with “open arms” (2015). addendum to reflections on U.S. and Soviet Beyond humanitarian concerns, she argued, intervention. connections between these two regions are significant and long-standing. Economists have raised the point that we have very little understanding of how these The punctuality of a political or economic regions interact, even on the most basic disaster, such as this most recent moment, level. Trade scholars have just begun to reminds scholars and policy makers of investigate exchange and investment these ties and their greater human or relations, uncovering an estimated $40.6 geopolitical import. However, the nature of billion in annual trade, making the Middle crisis often highlights the limitations and East a significant contributor to economies failures of sporadic attention to such of the region, particularly in South relations. While fresh urgency attends America. Some have suggested that the awareness of the impact of long-term Middle East could promise Latin America intervention and population displacement an alternative development strategy to that in the Middle East, it is not a nuanced of the Bretton Woods system, importantly perspective that reveals the alliances and with greater autonomy from North complicities forged from shared suffering at American market forces (Ellis, Baeza, and the hand of empire or resulting from the Porras Eraso 2014). The proliferation of contest of Cold War superpowers. For over organizations such as the Council on Arab a century, migration, cooperation, and Relations with Latin America and the exchange between these two regions has Caribbean, the Federation of Arab–South been without significant pause, and from American Chambers of Commerce, and the the middle of the twentieth century, an Consejo Para las Relaciones Entre el emerging consciousness of belonging to a Mundo Árabe y América Latina y el Caribe community of the global South has come to (CARLAC), alongside the expansion of the mark these relations. Arab–Latin American Summits, suggest that expanding economic ties are only a Middle Eastern migrants were a part of the part of a transregional strategy to promote first voyages of exploration and European greater economic cooperation. conquest; merchants of the Mediterranean world conducted trade between the From another perspective, foreign-policy metropole and its outposts; and fugitives of scholars have pointed to relations like those

7 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

between Venezuela and Syria, sometimes and influence humanitarian responses to relationship of political continuities to grounded in anti-American impulses, as conflict. questions of labor, trade, and sovereignty. having contributed to the rise of new global powers such as Brazil and China. South- This issue of LASA Forum features work From a critical distance, Anna Bernard South strategies of global security, human by scholars who collectively have called for examines literary triangulations of Middle rights protection, and climate change a more sustained intellectual engagement Eastern and Latin American subjects in the prevention have taken on a greater role in with the relations between Latin America writings of Edward Said and Salman international negotiations and have and the Middle East, not only as part of a Rushdie that point to greater intellectual resulted in greater multipolarity (Hopewell better understanding of these regions but and symbolic interconnectedness between 2013). Even at the local level, as John Tofik also as foundational to our ability to these regions. In similar fashion, David Karam illustrates, in “everyday geopolitics,” understand present geopolitical realities. Sheinin reflects on the assassination of the social practices of Middle Eastern and Contributors to this special issue have Alberto Nisman, arguing that domestic Latin American counterparts have had taken on a range of topics from intellectual issues in Argentina are inextricably tied to important impacts. Tofik Karam offers as a currents to mutual aid societies. Lily broader policy decisions regarding the case in point the tri-border area of Balloffet examines the most recent Middle East. Paraguay, Brazil, and Argentina, and how responses of Latin American countries to these habits on a local level have helped to the refugee crisis in contrast with historical The issue concludes with a note on the define boundaries and flows of goods and patterns of aid and assistance to refugees. profession, an interview with David people, including the building of a major She calls for a broadening of data Grantham, which speaks to the challenges hydroelectric dam (2013). collection and questions why Latin America of sustained scholarly attention to the was not subject to the some of the same region, academic and other forms of Paul Silverstein argues that diasporic extreme varieties of racism seen in their preparation, and the matter of sources. affiliations, “worlds not left behind,” also counterparts in the North in response to account for the reverberations of conflict in flows of migrants. Jorge Araneda Tapia the Middle East within communities in pushes the boundaries of study of diasporic References Latin America and vice versa (2015, 282). communities, asking questions about the Alfaro-Velcamp, Theresa My own research, for instance, has identitarian politics of these communities uncovered the role of Palestinian conflict as they struggled to assert themselves 2009 So Far from Allah, So Close to Mexico: with the Israeli state in helping to shape the within the ranks of the upper-middle Middle Eastern Immigrants in Modern agenda of the New Left in Argentina. I classes. Mexico. Austin: University of Texas Press. argue that reflections on and solidarity with Ellis, R. Evan, Cecilia Baeza, and Cecilia Porras “distant but significant others” in the Fernando Camacho Padilla examines the Eraso Middle East came to structure notions of relationship between Chile and Iran, a citizenship rights and political priorities frustrated but significant diplomatic 2014 “What Can the Middle East and Latin America Offer Each Other?” Latin American through a series of successful campaigns experiment, calling into question the Advisor, March 12. http://archive.thedialogue​ (Stites Mor 2014). Other scholars have influence of Latin American responses to .org/page.cfm?pageID=32&pubID=3540. revealed rich histories of interconnectedness the Iranian Revolution. Specifically, he through labor relations and working-class points to the relevance of connections Elsey, Brenda political organizing (Winn 1991; Elsey between the Pinochet regime and Shah 2012 Citizens and Sportsmen: Fútbol and 2012); and recently, studies of Islam have Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to each other’s Politics in Twentieth-Century Chile. Austin: connected the cultural and spiritual paths domestic and international agendas. In this University of Texas Press. of these regions (Logroño Narbona, Pinto, issue, John Tofik Karam compares Brazil’s and Tofik Karam 2015). Advocating for early stance vis-à-vis the Non-Aligned Hopewell, Kristen national or communitarian goals, migrants Movement to the Lula administration’s 2013 “New Protagonists in Global Economic and their networks have been able to approach to the region. He argues that the Governance: Brazilian Agribusiness at the intermittently shape state-level diplomacy Brasília Declaration puts in focus the WTO.” New Political Economy 18 (4): 602–623.

8 DEBATES: LATIN AMERICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST

Syrian Refugees in Latin America: Diaspora Communities as Interlocutors

by Lily Balloffet | North Carolina State University | [email protected]

Lesser, Jeffrey, and Ignacio Klich, eds. In the wake of the tragic mid-November Southeastern Europe (fewer than ten bombings in Paris, there has been a thousand have come to Latin America, in 1998 Arab and Jewish Immigrants in Latin America: Images and Realities. New York: staggeringly rapid response from politicians contrast to the more than six million Routledge. in the United States regarding U.S. displaced people in the Middle East and immigration policy toward Syrian refugees. Southern Europe). Nevertheless, if we are Logroño Narbona, Maria del Mar, Paulo G. Within a matter of days, dozens of truly invested in understanding the Pinto, and John Tofik Karam, eds. governors made public statements intended mechanics of the growing transatlantic flow 2015 Crescent over Another Horizon: Islam in to roll back months of progress toward of displaced people, we must assume a Latin America, the Caribbean, and Latino legislation that would grant asylum to transregional analysis of how newly arrived USA. Austin: University of Texas Press. thousands of Syrian refugees. In contrast, refugees are becoming incorporated into Latin American leaders’ expressions of host societies in the Americas. Rousseff, Dilma sympathy and solidarity with France have 2015 “Refugees and Hope.” World Post: not been accompanied by a reactionary Since September 2015 alone, multiple Latin Huffington Post. September 21. http://www. wave of anti-immigration discourse. As is American leaders have come forward to huffingtonpost.com/dilma-rousseff/brazil- typical of sensationalistic press coverage, propose, and in some cases enact, new refugees_b_8170932.html. the international media has largely ignored policy initiatives affecting refugees. The Silverstein, Paul a century of Syrian migration to the most dramatic gesture was, by far, Western Hemisphere. This article provides Venezuelan president Nicolás Maduro’s 2015 “Anthropologies of Middle Eastern historical context, as well as a discussion of statement to his cabinet that he would like Diasporas.” In A Companion to the Anthropology of the Middle East, edited by current policy initiatives targeting Syrian to invite 20 thousand Syrian refugees to Soraya Altorki, 282–315. Oxford: John Wiley refugees in Latin America. We must make their home in his country. This and Sons. understand how the global Arab diaspora follows Venezuela’s expulsion of thousands has shaped current immigration policies of Colombians living on Venezuelan soil, Stites Mor, Jessica and nongovernmental support networks for and since September Maduro’s gesture 2014 “The Question of Palestine in the refugees. I will also discuss future directions toward Syrian-oriented refugee policy Argentine Political Imaginary: Anti-Imperialist for research that will improve our ability to remains just that—a gesture, not formalized Thought from Cold War to Neoliberal Order.” speak in an informed manner about policy. In other cases, Latin American Journal of Iberian and Latin American diasporic Middle Eastern communities in leaders have more nebulously professed Research 20 (2): 183–197. the Americas. “open arms” to Syrian refugees, as was the Tofik Karam, John case with Chilean president Michelle Bachelet and former Argentine president 2013 “The Lebanese Diaspora at the Tri-Border Contemporary Migrant Flows Cristina Fernández de Kirchner. In marked and the Redrawing of South American contrast, Brazil has issued more Geopolitics, 1950–1992.” Mashriq and Mahjar: Journal of Middle East Migration Press coverage and social media bombard humanitarian visas than the rest of Latin Studies 1 (1): 55–84. us with conflicting messages about Latin America and the United States combined America’s role in receiving Syrian refugees (over two thousand as of September), and Winn, Peter during the current “migration crisis.” the government estimates that some four 1991 Weavers of Revolution: The Yarur Grandiose statements from national leaders thousand more Syrians have entered Brazil Workers and Chile’s Road to Socialism. are dramatized, yet Latin American asylum outside officially documented paths. As Oxford: Oxford University Press. data almost unilaterally fails to appear in increasing numbers of U.S. politicians reports on where displaced peoples end up pressure their government to tighten landing. It is indeed true that, so far, the restrictions on Syrian resettlement within total number of officially documented cases U.S. borders, we must consider the of asylum and special visas granted by potential diversion of some of this Latin American host countries is minuscule transatlantic flow of refugees to Latin in comparison to displacement figures America, and a subsequent spike in visa within the Middle East and arrivals to requests or asylum petitions.

9 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

However, what happens to Syrian and part of much larger immigration booms Voluntary associations such as São Paulo’s other Middle Eastern refugees upon their of the mid to late nineteenth century, and Homs Club, the Club Sirio Libanés of arrival to the Americas depends heavily on they generally entered through major Buenos Aires, or Club Libanés Sirio what sort of federally funded support clearinghouse ports such as Buenos Aires Palestino of Santiago, performed a variety systems are in place, and what kind of and Santos. In the case of landlocked areas of services for their Arab Latin American nongovernmental networks and actors have such as the Gran Chaco, smaller groups of members. These were sites of medical care, tried to fill the gaps when these systems are Levantine Arabic speakers made their way informal banking, and conscious lacking. Attention to these questions has overland to remote outposts, and many set preservation of the Arabic language, among been, so far, oblique and much less up shop as purveyors of dry goods and other things. These types of associations publicized than sweeping proclamations other materials that would sustain the appeared, predictably, in ethnically diverse made by heads of state, some of whom find inhabitants of rural frontier spaces. This urban centers with large immigrant themselves treading water amid public first wave of arrivals did not often leave populations but also in rural towns and outcry, or the tenuous party politics of behind abundant documentation as to how villages throughout Latin America. campaign seasons. Or both. This discourse they made their way from their port of must be situated within the much longer arrival to their final destination. Despite an increasing number of studies of history of Syrians who have been coming to Nevertheless, we can track this ethnic Arab diaspora communities focusing on settle in Latin America for well over one community’s steady expansion across Latin core urban migration areas such as New hundred years now. American terrain by other means, such as York, Cairo, São Paulo, or Buenos Aires, mapping the societies and institutions that we still know relatively little about how this first generation established. these central migratory hubs related to vast Syrian Migration in Historical Perspective networks of rural, provincial diasporic Throughout North and South America, nodes. In Argentina, the Latin American Beginning in the late nineteenth century, hometown clubs, mutual aid societies, nation that received the most Levantine more than a quarter of a million people intellectual circles, business bureaus, and immigrants prior to 1940, we can clearly from the current geographic territory of religious institutions pertaining to these see the proliferation of Syrian and Lebanese Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine Middle Eastern immigrant communities heritage societies along the burgeoning began to emigrate from the crumbling began to appear in the first decades of the Argentine railway system of the early 1900s Ottoman Empire to Latin America. Driven twentieth century. These voluntary that carried Middle Eastern immigrants primarily by the lure of opportunity, and associations acted as essential conduits in deep into Argentina’s interior (see figure 1). even prosperity, that American horizons linking together members of the larger offered, these waves of immigrants were Arab diaspora, or mahjar, who looked to The steady “transnational turn” in not refugees as is the case today. Exact effect political, intellectual, or economic methodological approaches to numbers are difficult to pinpoint, but by change back in the Middle East. Events understanding history has illuminated the 1940 some three hundred thousand Arabic such as the 1925 Syrian Revolt, or World importance of recognizing the transnational speakers from the Eastern Mediterranean Wars I and II, were met with a flurry of exchanges of people, politics, money, and had arrived in Latin America, from philanthropic campaigns, political activism, cultural production that exist between Northern Mexico to the Patagonian and debates in vibrant diasporic print diaspora communities and their territory. The communities and networks media. This culture of long-distance homelands—in this case Latin America and that these individuals proceeded to build involvement, characterized by a circulation the Arab world. New historiography in the more than a century ago persist today. They of resources and ideas, is indicative of the field of migration studies has consistently have also placed this heritage community in existence of a “transnational public sphere” pushed us to conceive of transnational the spotlight as potential interlocutors at that connected Arab Latin Americans to networks as our base unit of analysis, another moment of mass migration from both their Middle Eastern homelands and rather than neatly defined geopolitical (and within) the Middle East. diaspora communities across the globe packages. However, as a result, few studies (Fahrenthold 2014; Bailony 2013; Amar of the Arab diaspora, especially of its Latin In nations such as Brazil and Argentina, 2014). American region, have considered the Middle Eastern immigrants represented a actual mechanics by which these immigrant

10 Figure 1: Middle Eastern heritage societies in Argentina

of cultural production, this network also fostered Arab Argentine artistic, literary, and cinematic innovation that benefited from a network of funding generated by a web of Levantine immigrants across South America. Through periods of economic depression and state violence and other difficult times, these associations helped to sustain Arab diaspora communities economically, culturally, and socially.

The case of Argentina’s Syrian-Lebanese Hospital is an illustrative example of how the Arab Argentine diasporic network collectively executed major institutional projects. In 1917, a group of elite Arab Argentine women came together to form a secular association by the name of Sociedad de Obras de Misericordia, later renaming themselves the Asociación de Beneficencia Pro Hospital Sirio Libanés in 1923, when they turned their focus entirely to the task of building a clinic that would cater to their ethnic community (for example, it would have a bilingual Arabic-Spanish medical team). Only a decade later, they had raised enough money to purchase the property for the Syrian-Lebanese Hospital and immediately began the construction of additional medical facilities. It was a momentous feat of fund-raising, and even then president of Argentina, General Agustín P. Justo, was in attendance at the hospital’s groundbreaking ceremony. communities formed the local networks concluded that it was this network of The funds that they raised for this project that enabled large-scale transnational flows diasporic nodes that ranged from tiny rural came from all over the country—from of culture and capital. What has been communities to the federal capitals provincial capitals to tiny villages on the missed, in pursuing analyses of these global throughout the Southern Cone which Bolivian border and down into the networks, in regard to the local networks enabled the execution of large-scale Patagonian territory. The women who that underpinned them? projects that took place in Buenos Aires. managed the execution of this project These projects included construction of the actually referred to the provinces as their In my own research in national archives Syrian-Lebanese Hospital and Syrian- “Pillars of Gold.” They created a structure and local heritage associations in six Lebanese Bank, and international of “Official and Honorary Delegates,” Argentine provinces, I discovered evidence philanthropic campaigns that aided natural whom they charged with spreading the of a vibrant network of Arab Argentine disaster victims, for example, in Japan, word about their project and who would institutions that spanned the nation. I Russia, or Jerusalem. From the perspective organize fund-raising campaigns across the

11 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

country, and even across the Southern Cone Heritage Associations and Local Networks In the case of the Argentine Programa Siria more widely. Regional heritage visa policy, the importance of kinship ties organizations in the provinces acted as Media coverage of Latin American between Argentines and Arabs is built into conduits for these fund-raising efforts, and responses to the Syrian refugee situation the legislation. Applicants for emergency individuals associated with these groups provides evidence that some of these visas through this program must served as guides for fund-raisers from the organizations actively entered debates on demonstrate a bond of kinship with an capital, who ventured far out into rural visa and asylum policy. In Argentina, for Argentine who will then act as their areas to drum up donations. The successful example, the Islamic Cultural Center of sponsor. One young Syrian refugee recently efforts of this campaign to build the Argentina, the Federation of Argentine described to the Argentine press how her hospital resulted in the Syrian-Lebanese Arab Entities, and the Orthodox Church uncle in Buenos Aires, whom she had never Hospital becoming a powerful and have sent representatives to work with met before, was nevertheless able to act as well-endowed institution within the wider Argentine policy makers on that her sponsor under Programa Siria. In this Arab Argentine community. It also government’s emergency humanitarian visa case, her great-uncle’s local Arab Argentine provided an institutional platform from program known as “Programa Siria.” In heritage organization, Asociación Kalaat which its board of directors could make Brazil, organizations such as the Liga da Yandal, was able to help facilitate the decisions about engaging in transnational Juventude Islâmica Beneficente do Brasil process. Founded in the 1930s by the first philanthropy in the form of remitting funds and the Do Pari mosque of São Paulo offer group of Syrian immigrants hailing from to the Middle East in times of crisis and Portuguese language classes to newly the village of Qal’at Jandal, the association natural disaster. arrived immigrants and provide services to was founded with the aim of creating a aid new arrivals in the navigation of space where Syrian immigrants could Looking at organizations like the Syrian- Brazilian bureaucratic systems. In Mexico gather, speak their language, eat typical Lebanese Hospital allows us to decenter City, some five hundred Mexicans of Arab Syrian food, and keep in contact with our vision of the Arab diaspora in heritage participated in a September 2015 others who immigrated to Argentina from Argentina by looking beyond urban hubs protest outside the Secretariat of Foreign the Middle East. More than seventy years and major immigration ports and Affairs, in which they called upon their later, heritage associations such as examining the role of “peripheral” government to expedite policy initiatives Asociación Kalaat Yandal are looking to diasporic nodes in the formation of local that would provide asylum for Syrian once again assert this mission. networks, institution building, and refugees. philanthropy. As we see with the hospital, Groups that advocate increased Syrian and indeed many other organizations, the Beyond federal capitals and major cities migration to Latin American host countries periphery was in fact instrumental in the such as São Paulo, provincial associations have also employed rhetoric that harkens construction of international networks of such as Argentina’s Centro Sirio Libanés of back to nineteenth-century discourses on diasporic Arabs across Latin America, and Gualeguaychú, in the northeastern province immigration and colonization. A November also in terms of the transnational of Entre Ríos, have also come forward to 13 letter from eight Arab Argentine connections that these diasporic announce their intention to house Syrian associations directed to former president communities cultivated with the Middle refugees. The Centro recently publicized to Fernández de Kirchner went so far as to East/North Africa region. For many of the national press that it had organized the suggest the positive benefits of resettling these Arab Argentine organizations, these necessary resources to take eight to ten Syrian refugees in Argentina’s sparsely transnational charitable campaigns persist Syrian families into its community. The populated regions such as Patagonia. In today. This raises the question: is it possible Syrian-Lebanese community of the rural this case, we witness an eerie echo of for Arab Latin American heritage town of Oberá, in the Argentine province nineteenth-century gobernar es poblar organizations to play the role of of Misiones, has also been meeting with ideology. Simultaneously, it is also an interlocutor between Latin American provincial administrators to push through interesting subversion of an era of positivist governments and Levantine refugees who paperwork that would allow the relatives logic, which insisted that to populate a wish to attempt a new life on Latin of misioneros of Arab descent to bring nation with immigrant stock was indeed American soil today? family members from Syria to Oberá. the best course of action, but with the strict

12 caveat that said immigrant stock must be to Argentine society at large. It is clear that available to us, such as national census and European and white. at mid-century, as in 2015, anxiety over immigration records, on a country by preserving a certain image of Arab diaspora country basis. From there, we can start to Lest the above examples risk painting an communities in Latin America—be that an build a sharper picture of where Syrian, overly rosy picture of Arab Latin image based on socioeconomic status, Lebanese, and Palestinian immigrants to Americans as interlocutors during this time politics, or religion—plays into diasporic the Americas settled, and in what numbers, of mass migration, it is also important to responses to “open arms” policies for over the course of the past hundred years. acknowledge that contemporary migration Syrian migrants. Ideally, these demographic maps of the flows from the Middle East have not been Arab diaspora in Latin America will even met with uniform solidarity. A recent report hold the potential for us to track whether emanating from the Paris Institute of Achieving Accurate Demographics or not refugees from the Middle East today Political Studies characterized the gravitate toward historically populous Arab involvement of Arab diaspora communities Beyond the need to historically Latin American diasporic nodes when they in the reception of refugees as “well below contextualize current polemics regarding make their transatlantic journeys. Here at its potential.” The authors of this report refugee policy in Latin America, media North Carolina State University’s Moise A. also point out that some individuals of coverage of these events also serves as a Khayrallah Center for Lebanese Diaspora Syrian heritage in Latin America fear that blatant reminder that we are currently Studies, a team of historians has already the arrival of Muslim refugees would operating from a place of acute uncertainty begun this work and is making great strides change the image of the diaspora, which when it comes to reliable demographic data in the task of digitally mapping North was historically mainly Christian. Adolfo regarding Latin Americans of Middle American Arab communities. In an effort to Numi, director of the Syrian Charitable Eastern heritage. A century after the initial extend these maps into the Southern Society in Chile, is quoted as recently waves of Levantine immigrants brought Hemisphere, scholars in the field of Middle saying in a public interview: “We want to some three hundred thousand people from East migration studies have already bring Syrian refugees to Chile, and we don’t the greater Syrian region of the Ottoman compiled the archival material necessary to want to discriminate by religion, but we Empire, estimates of how many “Arab” expand this digital mapping project to want the Syrian community in Chile to Latin Americans live today in nations such encompass Central and South American remain Christian in its majority” (Baeza as Brazil, Mexico, Chile, and Argentina Arab diaspora communities, and it is only a 2015). have exploded. Unsubstantiated claims that matter of time before the numbers start to there are currently upwards of 10 million, become clearer. The gulf between the anxieties expressed by or even 25 million Latin Americans of Numi and the response of organizations Syrian, Lebanese, and Palestinian heritage In addition to crunching numbers and such as Gualeguaychú’s Centro Sirio appear repeatedly and anecdotally in dispelling overblown (yet rarely questioned) Libanés also recalls controversies and journalistic renderings of Latin America– estimates of the population of Arab Latin fractures present among the first and Middle East relations. How did we arrive Americans, this type of data mining can second generation of Arab Latin Americans. at these numbers? Who are we imagining also lead us to revise long-standing cultural In one dramatic case in Argentina, a these numbers to represent? At the root of myths. For example, a recent demographic scandal broke out in the early 1940s when this problem (perhaps one of many roots), analysis of first-generation Syrians and an Arab Argentine newspaper attempted to is the lack of any formal consensus in terms Lebanese in the United States has effectively uncover the abuses of a powerful Syrian- of what it means to identify as, or be dispelled the myth that the first wave of Lebanese heritage association. The exposé identified as, Arab Latin American. immigrants was almost entirely comprised accused one of Buenos Aires’ most historic of single men. In fact, records show that mutual aid societies of forcibly Scholars need to do the demographic grunt more than 40 percent of early twentieth “repatriating” destitute Syrians living in work that will finally allow us to achieve a century Levantine arrivals were women Argentina. The accusing newspaper decried more accurate portrait of Middle Eastern (Vartanian and Khater 2015). This raises what they saw as elite Arab Argentines’ immigration to Latin America, from the the question: What other populations, desire to sanitize and police the image of first generation on. We should begin by besides women, have been edited out of Middle Easterners that would be presented mining the data sets that we do have many generations of mahjar

13 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

historiography? How sturdy is the Bailony, Reem foundation upon which we have 2013 “Transnationalism and the Syrian constructed our understanding of the Migrant Community: The Case of the 1925 migratory flows that have long connected Syrian Revolt.” Mashriq and Mahjar: Journal these two world regions? of Middle East Diaspora Studies 1 (1). http:// lebanesestudies.ojs.chass.ncsu.edu/index.php/ There of course remains much work to be mashriq/article/view/3. done before we achieve a more complete Diario Sirio Libanés demographic picture of the distribution and mechanics of the Latin American region of 2015 “Proponen nuevo proyecto para the global Arab diaspora. In the meantime, recepción de sirios.” Diario Sirio Libanés, November 11. http://www.diariosiriolibanes. there remains the urgency of finding com.ar/Actualidad/Argentina/Proponen- solutions to the burgeoning population of nuevo-proyecto-para-recepci%C3%B3n-de- stateless people passing through the sirios. Mediterranean border region. As these individuals fan out across the globe, we will Fahrenthold, Stacy doubtless continue to periodically turn our 2014 “The Global Levant: Making a Nation in attention to the role that Latin American the Syrian and Lebanese Diaspora, 1913– nations propose to play in the migration 1939.” PhD diss., Northeastern University, crisis. When doing this, scholars should Boston. keep in mind the force that historic Vartanian, Haley, and Akram Khater diasporic networks can potentially bring to bear on the experience that awaits those 2015 “The Myth of the Peddler: A Re- refugees who do navigate their way to examining of Early Lebanese-American Roles Latin American shores. in the U.S.” Khayrallah Center for Lebanese Diaspora Studies, North Carolina State University, Raleigh.

References

Amar, Paul, ed. 2014 The Middle East and Brazil: Perspectives on the New Global South. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.

Baeza, Cecilia 2015 “Note d’analyse n. 1: Refugees from Syria in Latin America: Beyond the Rhetoric.” SciencesPo, Observatoire politique de l’Amérique latine et des Caraïbes, October. http://www.sciencespo.fr/opalc/sites/ sciencespo.fr.opalc/files/OPALC_RI_NA%20 1_%20Baeza_Syrian%20refugees%20in%20 Latin%20America_oct%2015%20-%20V2. pdf.

14 DEBATES: LATIN AMERICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST

Nuevas agendas para una antigua migración: La migración siria, libanesa y palestina desde una mirada Latinoamericana por Jorge Araneda Tapia | Universidad de Chile | [email protected]

La conectividad global existente en muchas 2012) (Hyndman-Rizk 2011) (Nabti 1992) respetabilidad que llevó a expresiones de comunidades del Bilad as-Sham que y (González 1992). lealtad hacia sus comunidades receptoras y actualmente constituyen los países del actos de civismo público como medio de Líbano, Siria y Palestina son el resultado de Este tipo de comunidades que comparte lograr la aceptación de las comunidades una larga historia de emigraciones, que lazos globales ha sido analizada en variadas locales. comenzaron a mediados del siglo XIX y publicaciones sobre la migración árabe en que no han dado señal de detenerse. Es el caso de América Latina (Hourani and Igualmente de importante fue en países más, dichos procesos migratorios Shedadi 1992; Klich and Lesser 1998); como México, Brasil o Chile, por ejemplo, estuvieron marcados por la constante para el caso Norteamericano (Naff 1993); que algunos miembros de las comunidades búsqueda de nuevos horizontes en América para Australia (Hage 2002); en África árabes levantinas fuesen capaces de del Norte y del Sur, para después virar occidental (Peleikis 2003); y tanto como reclamar una posición de élite en el hacia África, Australia, y más tarde hacia para diversos países europeos (Ghadban extranjero, que junto con sus conexiones los países vecinos productores de petróleo 2000; Abdulkarim 1996). La amplia familiares, recursos económicos, alto nivel y, por último, a Europa siempre en la gama de investigaciones sobre el campo educacional y participación en el aparato búsqueda de nuevas y mejores horizontes de la migración árabe levantina podría estatal, pudieran consolidar un estatus de oportunidades (Hourani 1992, 5; ser vista como la ilustración de diferentes elevado en sus países de llegada. Sin Labaki 1992, 605; Tabar, Noble y Poynting dimensiones de un mismo tema: la embargo, este grupo de élite fue siempre 2010). construcción, la negociación y la recreación pequeño en comparación con la clase de las identidades por los inmigrantes árabe obrera y no “exitosa” mucho mayor de Asimismo, a lo largo del siglo XX nuevas en el contexto de local, nacional y inmigrantes en estas sociedades. estructuras transnacionales y una continua transnacional. participación desde la lejanía en las Paralelamente, los inmigrantes árabes de diversas realidades ahora locales en Es por lo anterior, que la emigración árabe primera generación y los descendientes de Latinoamérica, fueron dando como en todo el mundo ofrece una gran variedad aquella tuvieron que volcar sus tradiciones resultado un intercambio constante de de contextos nacionales y locales dentro de y expresiones culturales hacia la familia o realidades y relatos inmigratorios en las la cual continuamente se construyen, hacia las colectividades árabes a lo largo diversas sociedades receptoras. Dichas negocian y recrean nuevas identidades, del siglo XX. Sumado, que al ser redes globales que se unen a las distintas mientras que a la par, estos sujetos han Latinoamérica un espacio alejado comunidades estuvieron en constante trataron de mantener una identidad geográficamente del Bilal as-Sham sólo vinculación con nuevas conexiones basadas original, definiéndose como libaneses, conocían sus antiguas comunidades de en la confluencia de posiciones políticas, palestinos o sirios en la diáspora negociado origen por fotografía o relatos de viajeros económicas y culturales. sus identidades dentro diferentes relatos infrecuentes siendo sus únicas fuentes de nacional en disputa. mantener el contacto. Sin embargo, durante Las recientes investigaciones han la últimas tres décadas, la identidad de los documentado dichos intercambios cruzados descendientes árabes ha sido enormemente por intereses sociales mantenidos a lo largo Nuevos desafíos teóricos investigativos influenciada por su acceso a los contextos del tiempo por vínculos institucionales, transnacionales de más fácil y más rápida familiares e historias personales (Batrouney A lo largo de Latinoamérica, el peyorativo conectividad, sumado, a viajes más baratos, et al. 2014). Asimismo, la construcción de “Turco” fue el término que se utilizó para así como su uso generalizado de televisión comunidades árabes migrantes en capitales definir a los migrantes palestinos, sirios y por cable o Internet. nacionales no árabes se configuraron como libanesas, seguido por el término “sirio”. centros neurálgicos de una vastas redes de En diferentes espacios latinoamericanos, los Estas múltiples y dinámicas complejidades comunicación, globalmente conectadas con inmigrantes levantinos fueron sometidos a se han manifestado en los nuevos las comunidades desarrolladas un camino de perfomatividad identitaria investigadores latinoamericanos del principalmente en los países de la zona nacional. Incluso, en algunos casos los fenómeno de la migración árabe a levantina y otras cercanas (Escher 2004, inmigrantes intentaron volver a recrear sus Latinoamérica, mucho más ligados a los identidades y enfatizar su “blancura” y estudios antropológicos que a los históricos

15 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

o económicos, y que han puesto en duda en Brasil-Argentina y no en menor forma las inmigraciones de población árabe las mitológicas o relatos hegemónicos que en el resto de los países latinoamericanos. levantina a lo largo del período estudiado y en mayor o menor medida habían sido Sólo por mencionar algunos de estos determinar cuáles fueron los puntos transmitidas por las primeras exponentes es posible de señalar los centrales que intervenían en la vida investigaciones relacionadas al área. trabajos en Argentina (Montenegro 2015a, cotidiana de estas sociedades dentro de la 2015b; Giménez y Montenegro 2010; esfera del Imperio otomano. Tales como: es posible medir el peso Baeza 2015a, 2015b, 2014); en Brasil las demográfico específico de la migración investigaciones de larga data (Logrono, El espacio de disputa y donde se centró la levantina a Latinoamérica; la migración Pinto y Karam 2015; Dupret et al. 2013; investigación serán los múltiples periódicos levantina es sólo posible de estudiar bajo el Pinto 2010a, 2010b; Chagas 2013a, 2013b, editados en Santiago por la colectividad binomio migración/diáspora; como 2012, 2011; Schiocchet 2015; Hamid 2015, árabe, no sólo como respuesta a los desvelar las narrativas migrantes 2010, 2009; Jardim 2015, 2012, 2008) y en prejuicios y a la turcofobia, sino como dominadas por una intelectualidad Perú (Cuche 2010a, 2010b) entre otros parte constitutiva de cómo era la cristiana ortodoxa o católica; seria investigadores e investigadoras organización en sus sociedades de origen. fructífero realizar estudios de género frente latinoamericanas. Vale decir, tanto la prensa como las a los relatos de las comunidades árabes instituciones son reflejo en respuesta hacia dominadas por grandes hombres exitosos; la sociedad de llegada y de la activación de como dar cuenta de las comunidades o Traspasando lo particular; construcción de una cotidianidad reconstruida que proviene relatos quedaron fuera de las narrativas tópicos identitarios de las sociedades de origen. Es por esto, migratorias; como comprender las que tiene suma importancia la múltiples afinidades con las narrativas Es por lo anterior, que se presentaron en caracterización y el estudio de los posteriores a la Nakba y la diáspora de esa línea algunas conclusiones finales en la periódicos de origen árabe, considerando 1967; o, finalmente, el reencuentro con su investigación desarrollada en Chile su número, tipo, duración y fundación, y su etnicidad perdida gracias a las nueva (Araneda Tapia 2015, 2014). La que vinculación con las organizaciones de la conectividad en las redes sociales, entre pretendieron dar cuenta de un esfuerzo por colectividad árabe. otras varias. indagar en la creación de una identidad modelo, dentro de la esfera de los En resumen, los periódicos levantinos, Lo anterior, ayudado por todo un nuevo periódicos árabes levantinos entre 1912 a editados en Santiago de Chile, crearon un repertorio de conceptos teóricos posible a 1948 en la capital de Chile. La cual, dio sentido comunitario común que sobrepasó describir y analizar las experiencias árabe como resultado que el estudio identitario lo regional otomano (as-Sham) hacia lo levantina en el mundo, han vuelto a poner de los árabes levantinos en los periódicos regional levantino (arabidad) y que colindó en relieve las disputas sobre cómo volver a editados confirmara que éste proceso fue con lo local nacionalista, apostando conceptualizar la diáspora (Tabar 2005), multivariable visiblemente negociado entre siempre a una identidad árabe compartida las comunidades y espacios étnicos (Boos las líneas editoriales y los lectores, sumado con sus lectores. 2013), los campos e identidades étnicas a que no se restringió sólo al devenir en las (Tabar, Noble y Poynting 2010), el habitus sociedades de llegada. Es más, si no se La primera estrategia que resulta evidente étnico (Noble and Tabar 2014) o las despliegan las circunstancias históricas, en dicho análisis es el hecho del uso transculturalidades, comunidades étnicas y económicas y políticas que desencadenan constante de formas lingüísticas de la redes étnicas (Escher 2006). los procesos migratorios en las sociedades lengua árabe. Los periódicos levantinos de origen, no sería posible reconstruir los intentaron usar la lengua árabe en sus De ahí que, una serie de nuevos detalles específicos que la identidad en su publicaciones, pero en los procesos de investigadores propiamente proceso de consolidación reactualiza. negociación los formulismos árabes latinoamericanos o que formados en quedaron bajo el espectro de la lengua Europa o Norteamérica pero que Asimismo, fue necesario penetrar en las española. La lengua así negociada desempeñan en universidades configuraciones de las sociedades de origen desempeñará un papel en la construcción y latinoamericanas han tomado la tarea abrir en donde se origina esta negociación el mantenimiento de la identidad levantina, nuevas rutas investigativas principalmente identitaria. Y así, determinar las causas de consolidando ella misma un complejo

16 fenómeno. El uso del árabe en los En definitiva, el uso de léxicos propiamente encajar con los otros nódulos, los que se periódicos tendrá un objetivo simbólico, levantinos que se usan como parte de una verán afectados al tener que adecuarse a demostración del valor de la lengua y expresión fija tiene un significado bastante dicho conglomerado. Así, los nódulos consideraciones estilísticas de enorme diferente del léxico de árabe que está solo. menores fueron traspasados por una importación comunicativa. Es decir, existe una apuesta ideológica identidad fundamental con características detrás del uso de léxicos árabes que en lo particulares, aunque siempre negociables, Por lo tanto, no es relevante si los absoluto pasa por una decisión estilística. que se expresaron presionando hacia el inmigrantes árabes, sobre todo los de Dicha apuesta permite consolidar tótems lector ideal, a saber: patriota, nacionalista, segunda y tercera generación, son lingüísticos, como un acto simbólico de árabe, pro-palestino y masculino. efectivamente competentes en el uso del identidad que debe ser consolidada y idioma árabe, lo que importa es que los mantenida a la vez que la repetición Dichos conglomerados discursivos y las lectores puedan ser capaces de reconocerlo apuesta a que sea aceptada. frecuencias discursivas se moverán dentro como árabe, y por lo tanto ser capaces de de ejes sistémicos ideológicos marcados por identificarse con el idioma, a la vez que lo En consecuencia, se observa que en el micro poderes, donde se establecerá por perciben como parte de su cultura, es decir, período que va desde 1912–1935, la regla la réplica del sistema en menor escala. se sienten cómodos y la consideran identidad levantina se conforma desde un Particularmente efectivo en el nódulo de la apropiada para ciertos usos en la vida lector ideal masculino adulto, más que familia/sociedad, el que dentro de estas cotidiana. juvenil. Más aún, sólo posterior a la jerarquías corresponde al microsistema por fundación de las primeras asociaciones excelencia y al lugar de negociación Dicho lo anterior, esta investigación no sólo juveniles en 1920 y sus constructos fundamental a la vez que protegido y se enfocó en el estudio de construcción discursivos en la prensa se producirá un enmarcado por un espacio esencial donde lingüística de la identidad árabe en los cambio y una presencia en las instituciones valores y comportamientos son desplegados periódicos, sino también en cómo los y sus espacios públicos. Esta creciente con fuerza. El nódulo familia/sociedad fue periódicos se acercan hacia la juventud árabe consolidó una identidad entonces legitimado a través de una conceptualización de lo que es ser árabe y expresada en el sentimiento nacional y en identidad diacrónica (por ejemplo los lazos lo que significa serlo en los espacios la defensa hacia la causa nacional, sobre de consanguinidad) y sincrónicas (por públicos y privados. todo Palestina. Esto se manifiesta en los ejemplo el éxito de los grandes industriales comunicados que las instituciones y sus familias), reproducido por el sistema El uso de las deixis sociales enmarcando el entregaban a la prensa árabe de la época en de discurso presente en los periódicos uso de léxicos levantinos, lo que en Chile, que mostraban una constante árabes descritos. definitiva erigen, hasta cierto punto, una preocupación y una avanzada capacidad de identidad lingüística que simultáneamente análisis de la realidad que Palestina poseía En segundo lugar, cabe hacer notar que el incluye a todos los lectores levantinos y en dicha fecha. nódulo de la familia/sociedad estará a lo excluye de manera bastante clara a los que largo del estudio siempre bajo la presión no lo son o no reconocen el léxico árabe. Para fines de la década de 1935 ya es jerárquica del nódulo de política Esto implica un intrincado proceso de posible hablar de una constancia en la internacional y la política nacional, negociación con sus lectores en cuanto a lo conformación identitaria en la totalidad de afectando su desenvolvimiento discursivo y que esa identidad árabe debe ser, y con qué los nódulos normados bajo el sistema de su apuesta identitaria. Lo que en definitiva proximidad la lengua puede evocarlo. discursos heteronormativos, caracterizados termina por negociar un discurso También los resultados evidencian que se por la institucionalización piramidal heteronormativo en la familia en donde se puede sostener que el uso de fórmulas marcada por el dominio, valorización y disputa las definiciones de género y la lexicales repetitivas tiene tanta importancia subsunción de un nódulo sobre otro dentro estructura de dominio. En su mayoría se como el uso de las mismas, ya que su del sistema de conglomerados. En otras apuesta por que el padre pasa a ser más función simbólica es paralela a la palabras, la identidad expresada y que responsable del cuidado de los hijos, el importación comunicativa. construida en el entrecruce del lector ideal guardián y el responsable de la activo, moderno, civilizado y siempre reproducción identitaria levantina. masculino del nódulo dominante deberá

17 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

Esta apuesta identitaria se encarnara Existe un repertorio de características laboral, que disfruta de vacaciones y que claramente en los discursos sobre la familia identitarias donde el encuadre masculino se cada vez más se encuentra con la libre como el lugar de origen de las referencias presenta con una uniformidad que, según la disposición del domingo. En consecuencia, binarias, lineales, como también de lucha y norma de la alta clase social dominante nacen los Clubs Deportivos de la conflicto permanente. En este espacio de santiaguina de la década de 1930 se colectividad, los que se insertaron como relación, los periódicos se transformaron en presenta en esplendor. Son escasísimas las una condición social restringida sólo a un lugar político fundamental, donde se prácticas discursivas que atentan contra aquellos que disfrutaban del tiempo del construyen y materializan los valores. Será esta ideología. El hombre encarna en su ocio, entendido como un consumo el lugar que informó y elaboró discurso lo moderno y progresista, materialmente selecto del tiempo libre. Esto conocimiento para la colectividad, identificándose rápidamente con las modas reforzaba a dar el mensaje de que sólo registrando lógicas diferenciadas entre de la burguesía chilena. No está más decir aquellos que dispusieran de un generoso hombres y mujeres. que este aparatoso y costoso discurso tiempo libre, aquellos que no tuvieran material es sólo exclusivo de los congéneres necesidad de trabajar para vivir, podrían Las identidades masculinas (que decantan con mayores recursos económicos, que ha participar. en el lector ideal) se legitiman sobre lo integrado el espacio de capital mercantil y femenino al provenir de una experiencia manufacturero dentro de Chile. Serán, los Desde el decenio de 1930 comienzan histórica especialmente diferenciada. “señores” y las “señoras” de la alta clase paulatinamente a difundirse comentarios y Mientras lo masculino proviene de una inmigrante las que serán el sujeto artículos que parecen haber abandonado experiencia de poder, con una historia identitaria al que aspirarían los periódicos. toda preocupación por la identidad escrita y relatada a lo largo de los nódulos Ejemplo de aquello son los múltiples femenina, relegándola exclusivamente al de historia árabe/islámica. Un dato no artículos sobre las reuniones institucionales espectro del matrimonio e incidir así en menor es que la historia de las instituciones donde dichos “representantes” de la reflexiones que atañen directamente a la masculinas, ocupan más espacio por cm2 colectividad se citan, se encuentran entre sí, naturaleza, función y rango de la mujer dentro del discurso periodístico que las se reconocen y se dejan admirar por una árabe en el seno de la colectividad. instituciones femeninas. multitud que, a pie desde las aceras, presencia el paso ceremonioso y elegante de Comienza en esta década la promoción Es más, los diferentes periódicos con sus los cocheros y los atuendos. Es un de una mujer tan moderna como efectiva respectivas diferencias ideológicas dan por espectáculo de la burguesía inmigrante para madre en el seno del hogar. El creciente sentado la construcción identitaria bajo el pueblo, como para la colectividad. grado de instrucción y educación de las variables diacrónicas que son expresadas mujeres de la colectividad levantina fue desde la idea de consanguinidad (que un suceso común a todas las colonias de establece como hecho constitutivo la marca Conclusiones América, integrándose en el mercado inamovible de la sangre o del hamule), laboral mujeres tituladas y, por lo mismo, aunque ésta no garantiza los lazos entre las Para concluir, dentro de las diferentes capacitadas para ejercer profesiones personas, ni el entendimiento entre los reflexiones y análisis, al describir el tradicionalmente privativas de los varones. individuos, lo que produce tal material utilizado no es posible acotar entendimiento corresponde más bien a sobre una serie de artículos de escaso Esta situación daba lugar a una lazos electivos de un orden valórico número pero con un sentido central dentro competencia laboral evidente en el seno de compartido. Se puede afirmar que la de la investigación que fue el espacio del las colectividades árabes y, sobre todo, en consanguinidad funciona como un eje ocio y esparcimiento a fines del decenio de los medios urbanos, circunstancia que ideológico que responde a un sistema de 1930, el que comienza a tomar fuerza en contribuía a la preocupación de los padres valores construido, donde la sangre se las secciones de sociedad dentro de la por el futuro profesional y laboral de sus establece como concepto de igualdad y de colectividad. hijos. En este caso, la preferencia laboral se diferenciación, al mismo tiempo que otorgaba al varón en detrimento de la constituye un gesto esencialista. Paralelamente, irrumpe en la escena social mujer y, como justificación, podía recurrirse una clase media inmigrante que dispone de a toda suerte de argumentos que, en tiempo libre por la reducción de su jornada muchos casos, contradecían a los que

18 sustentaban, en un mismo periódico, la solucionarse en las páginas del periódico 2015a “O ‘refúgio’ e o ‘retorno’ entre os promoción laboral de la mujer en el mismo por medio de la adopción paulatina pero Palestinos do Chile: Narrativa identitária e rango de igualdad con el hombre. firme de la figura de una mujer árabe discurso militante”. En Entre o velho e o novo “moderna” y con plenos derechos sociales. mundo: A diáspora palestina desde o Oriente Médio à América Latina, editado por Ahora bien, en los últimos años del decenio Leonardo Schiocchet, 297–322. São Paulo: de 1930, resultaba evidente que la mujer En conclusión, los periódicos levantinos a Chiado Editora. árabe ya no era sólo una inmigrada que menudo usan una variedad de reconocibles residía en su hogar, sino una mujer de formulismos árabes como un método para 2015b “Palestinians and Latin America’s Indigenous Peoples: Coexistence, Convergence, origen árabe que fundaba colectividades y construir y mantener un sentido de la Solidarity.” Middle East Research and se integraba partidos políticos. Los identidad levantina. Además, el uso del Information Project (MERIP) Report, n° 274 matrimonios endogámicos se continuaban contenido constante de fórmulas (45): 34–37. celebrando y de ello son buena muestra la discursivas (como, por ejemplo, la abundante cantidad de noticias con repetición lexical) parece formar parte Batrouney, Trevor, Tobias Boos, Anton Escher y fotografías de enlaces matrimoniales que el importante de la construcción y Paul Tabar, eds. periódico incluye en cada uno de sus negociación de rasgos identitarios 2014 Palestinian, Lebanese and Syrian números: era un hecho que muchas mujeres compartidos por todos los periódicos. Pero Communities in the World: Theoretical ya estaban saliendo del marco tradicional. esa identidad levantina nacional, sugieren Frameworks and Empirical Studies. los datos es, hasta cierto punto, mediada Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag. La instrucción educativa, la libertad de por las clases sociales clase las identidades Boos, Tobias costumbres y el progreso social junto con regionales y la de género y, de ahí se la emancipación femenina podrían resultar desprende su carácter multifacético. 2013 Ethnische Sphären: Über die emotionale Konstruktion von Gemeinschaft bei syrisch- beneficioso siempre que no se perdieran las und libanesischstämmigen Argentiniern. identidades: el progreso y la renovación, tal Bielefeld: Transcript. como se escribía en los periódicos árabes Referencias del momento, debían ser vividos en el seno Chagas, Gisele Fonseca Abdulkarim, Amir de la continuidad de las tradiciones 2011 “Muslim Women and the Work of da’wa: levantinas. De esta forma, aquellos 1996 La diaspora libanaise en France: The Female Branch of the tariqa adelantos no constituyen una ruptura con Processus migratoire et économie ethnique. Naqshbandiyya-Kuftariyya in Damascus, la cultura árabe, sino que permiten Paris: Harmattan. Syria.” Middle East Critique 20: 207–218. profundizar en ella. Al remitirnos al Araneda Tapia, Jorge 2012 “Ser um defunto nas mãos do shaykh’: material recogido, un ejemplo clave es el Sufismo e a produção de masculinidades em discurso en el ámbito de las instituciones 2014 “Construcción de tópicos identitarios uma rede sufi damascena.” História (São femeninas, donde se entremezcla un árabes levantinos, en los periódicos árabes de Paulo, online) 31: 145–162. Santiago 1912–1948”. Magister tesis, discurso que halaga dichos esfuerzo en Universidad de Chile, Chile. 2013a “Female Sufis in Syria: Charismatic relación con el espacio público, a pesar de Authority and Bureaucratic Structure”. En que se plantean dentro de un discurso con 2015 “Las ilusiones y los padecimientos de la The Anthropology of Religious Charisma: una connotación maternal. emigración: El caso de los inmigrantes árabes Ecstasies and Institutions, editado por Charles musulmanes levantinos a Chile 1930–1950”. Lindholm, 81–100. New York: Palgrave Tabula Rasa 22 (1): 125–146. A la luz de estas opiniones, el periódico Macmillan. árabe entra en un punto crítico al tener que Baeza, Cecilia 2013b “Un llamado al islam: Los cursos de presentar dos lectores ideales, uno religión en la comunidad sunita de Río de 2014 “Palestinians in Latin America.” Journal Janeiro.” En Musulmanes en Brasil: masculino y uno femenino. Esto queda of Palestine Studies 43 (2): 59–72. ejemplificado en los artículos que Comunidades, instituciones, identidades, editado por Silvia Montenegro y Fatiha tímidamente son partidarios de que la Benlabbah, 11–255. Rosario: Universidad mujer participe en las actividades sociales Nacional de Rosário Editora. de la comunidad. El dilema, sin embargo, y tal vez por la fuerza de los hechos, vendrá a

19 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

Cuche, Denys González, Nancie L. Jardim, Denise Fagundes 2010a “Los palestinos en el Perú, un siglo de 1992 Dollar, Dove and Eagle: One Hundred 2008 “Los palestinos en el extremo sur de presencia discreta y exitosa.” En La huella Years of Palestinian Migration to Honduras. Brasil: Inserción social y negociación de las árabe en el Perú, editado por Leyla Bartet y Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. diferencias culturales.” En Árabes y judíos en Farid Kahhat. Lima: Fondo Editorial del Iberoamérica: Similitudes, diferencias y Congreso del Perú. Hage, Ghassan, ed. tensiones, editado por Raanan Rein, 281–298. Sevilla: Fundación Tres Culturas del 2002 Arab-Australians Today: Citizenship and 2010b “Proemio.” En La huella árabe en el Perú, Mediterráneo. editado por Leyla Bartet y Farid Kahhat. Belonging. Carlton South: Melbourne Lima: Fondo Editorial del Congreso del Perú. University Press. 2012 “Invisibilidade e hipervisibilidade dos muçulmanos no extremo sul do Brasil: Os Dupret, Baudouin, et al., eds. Hamid, Sonia contornos da vida comunitária e os preceitos islâmicos em ato entre imigrantes de origem 2013 Ethnographies of Islam: Ritual 2009 “Ser palestina no Brasil: Memórias de palestina”. Ilha: Revista de Antropología 14 Performances and Everyday Practices. guerra, experiências de gênero.” Presentado en (12): 119–138. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. 4° Prêmio Construindo a Igualdade de Gênero – Redações e Artigos Científicos Vencedores – 2015 “A diáspora palestina: As organizações Escher, Anton 2009. Brasília: Presidência da República, Sanaud e a experiência geracional acerca da Secretaria Especial de Políticas para as identidade palestina no Sul do Brasil.” En 2004 “Amar al-Hosn, the Mother Village and Mulheres. Entre o velho e o novo mundo: A diáspora the Newborn Overseas Village: Eine globale palestina desde o Oriente Médio à América Gemeinschaft mit geteilter Lokalität und 2010 “Notas sobre encontros, desencontros e Latina, editado por Leonardo Schiocchet, segmentärer Diaspora-Identität.” En reencontros no trabalho de campo.” En 411–449. São Paulo: Chiado Editora. Transkontinentale Migration im Olhares femininos sobre o islã: Etnografias, Mittelmeerraum, editado por R. Monheim, metodologias, imagens, editado por Francirosy Klich, Ignacio, y Jeffrey Lesser, eds. 183–208. Bayreuth: Naturwissenschaftliche Ferreira. São Paulo: Editora Hucitec. Gesellschaft. 1998 Arab and Jewish Immigrants in Latin 2015 “Árabes estabelecidos e refugiados America: Images and Realities. London: Frank 2006 “I Am Jamaican, I Have a Syrian palestinos recém-chegados ao Brasil.” En Entre Cass. Passport, and I Have a British Passport, Too.” o velho e o novo mundo: A diáspora palestina En “Orient” versus “Okzident”? Zum desde o Oriente Médio à América Latina, Labaki, Boutrus Verhältnis von Kultur und Raum in einer editado por Leonardo Schiocchet, 449–487. globalisierten Welt, editado por Georg Glasze São Paulo: Chiado Editora. 1992 “Lebanese Emigration during the War and Jörn Thielmann, 53–64. Mainz: (1975–1989).” En The Lebanese in the World: Geographisches Institut. Hourani, Albert A Century of Emigration, editado por Albert Hourani and Nadim Shehadi, 605–626. 1992 “Introduction.” En The Lebanese in the 2012 “Global Diaspora Sphere—the Arab London: I. B. Tauris. Experience: The Success Story of a Syrian World: A Century of Emigration, editado por Village.” En Arab American Literature and Albert Hourani and Nadim Shehadi, 3–12. Logrono Narbona, María del Mar, Paulo G. Culture, editado por Alfred Hornung y London: I. B. Tauris. Pinto y John Tofik Karam, eds. Martina Kohl, 265–288. Heidelberg: Winter. Hyndman-Rizk, Nelia 2015 Crescent over Another Horizon: Islam in Ghadban, Ralph Latin America, the Caribbean and Latino 2011 My Mother’s Table: At Home in the USA. Austin: University of Texas Press. 2000 Die Libanon-Flüchtlinge in Berlin: Zur Maronite Diaspora, a Study of Emigration Integration ethnischer Minderheiten. Berlin: from Hadchit, North Lebanon to Australia Montenegro, Silvia Das Arabische Buch. and America. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing. 2015a “A diáspora palestina na argentina: Giménez Béliveau, Veronica, y Silvia Militancia para Além da etnicidade.” En Entre Montenegro, eds. o velho e o novo mundo: A diáspora palestina desde o Oriente Médio à América Latina, 2010 La triple frontera: Dinámicas culturales y editado por Leonardo Schiocchet, 323–361. procesos transnacionales. Buenos Aires: São Paulo: Chiado Editora. Espacio Editorial.

20 DEBATES: LATIN AMERICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST

El régimen militar chileno e Irán: De las relaciones con el Sha Mohammad Reza Pahlaví a los negocios de la guerra Irán-Irak, 1974–1986

por Fernando Camacho Padilla | Universidad Autónoma de Madrid | [email protected]

2015b “Institutionalizing Islam in Argentina: La fuerte represión aplicada por la junta Heraldo Muñoz y Mohammad Javad Comparing Community and Identity militar chilena a partir del golpe de Estado Zarif1. La decisión se tomó unos meses más configurations.” En Crescent over Another del 11 de septiembre de 1973 hizo tarde de la firma en Viena del Joint Horizon: Islam in Latin America, the reaccionar a la comunidad internacional. Comprehensive Plan of Action, el acuerdo Caribbean and Latino USA, editado por Maria del Mar Logroño Narbona, Paulo G. De manera inmediata, la mayor parte de las nuclear del que forman parte Irán, los cinco Pinto y John Tofik Karam, 85–107. Austin: democracias occidentales y de los países de miembros permanentes de las Naciones University of Texas Press. la órbita soviética optaron por condenar y Unidas, Alemania y la Unión Europea, que aislar a la dictadura de Augusto Pinochet tuvo lugar 14 de julio de este año. Con este Nabti, Patricia (1973–1990). Bajo este escenario, fue tratado finalmente también se levantan a 1992 “Emigration from a Lebanese Village: A necesario encontrar nuevos aliados en las sanciones económicas y, a su vez, se Case Study of Bishmizzine.” En The Lebanese regiones en las que hasta entonces Chile no produce un acercamiento con las potencias in the World: A Century Of Migration, editado había estado presente. El Sha Mohammad occidentales. Este escenario está siendo por Albert Hourani and Nadim Shehadi, Reza Pahlaví se convirtió en un gran aprovechando por numerosos Estados 41–64. London: I. B. Tauris referente, especialmente por la naturaleza europeos y latinoamericanos, Naff, Alixa de su gobierno y también por la similitud tradicionalmente aliados de la Casa Blanca, del desarrollo político que se vivía en ese para intensificar sus vínculos con Teherán 1993 Becoming American: The Early Arab momento en Irán. Por esta razón, en 1974 con el fin de aprovechar las oportunidades Immigrant Experience. Carbondale. Southern Chile abrió una embajada en Teherán con económicas que se empiezan a vislumbrar. Illinois University Press. el objetivo de intensificar las relaciones Peleikis, Anja políticas y comerciales, y, además, con la esperanza de que Irán hiciera entender a Una relación bilateral singular 2003 Lebanese in Motion: Gender and the Making of a Translocal Village. Bielefeld: Occidente que la experiencia chilena en la Transcript Verlag. cruzada contra el comunismo y de Santiago y Teherán mantienen relaciones modernización económica, era similar a la diplomáticas formales desde la salida del Pinto, Paulo Gabriel Hilu da Rocha suya. Sin embargo, la revolución islámica poder de Pinochet. Sin embargo, hasta la 2010a Árabes no Rio de Janeiro: Uma de 1979 y la ruptura de las relaciones al fecha no se ha publicado trabajo alguno identidade plural. Rio de Janeiro: Cidade Viva. año siguiente hicieron sucumbir de las sobre la historia de sus relaciones, lo cual 2010b Islã: Religião e civilização, uma pretensiones del dictador. Una vez que limita su comprensión y conocimiento. Esta abordagem antropológica. Aparecida: estalló la guerra Irán-Irak, Pinochet, al característica llama la atención porque Santuário. igual que otros mandatarios occidentales, existe una tradición de estudios sobre la decidió sacarle la máxima rentabilidad, presencia del islam en Latinoamérica, Schiocchet, Leonardo, ed. para lo cual decidió suministrar armamento especialmente en lo que se refiere la 2015 Entre o velho e o novo mundo: A clandestinamente a ambos ejércitos. experiencia de la emigración de los diaspora palestina desde o Oriente Medio à habitantes de Palestina, Líbano y Siria a la América Latina. São Paulo: Chiado Editora. En este artículo se presenta a grandes región (Akmir 2009). rasgos el desarrollo de las relaciones entre Tabar, Paul M., ed. Chile e Irán, partiendo desde la apertura de Durante las dos últimas décadas, la 2005 Lebanese Diaspora: History, Racism and la embajada de Chile en Teherán hasta república islámica ha expresado su interés Belonging. Beirut: Lebanese American mediados de la guerra Irán-Irak. en fortalecer sus vínculos con el país University. sudamericano, pues se inserta dentro de su Tabar, Paul, Greg Noble y Scott Poynting —— estrategia de conseguir apoyos en Latinoamérica, territorio en el que ya se 2010 On Being Lebanese in Australia: Identity, A finales de septiembre de 2015 el gobierno encuentra una parte importante de sus Racism and the Ethnic Field. Beirut: Lebanese de Michelle Bachelet hizo oficial el deseo de aliados en el planeta, como lo son American University Press. abrir una embajada en Teherán después de Venezuela, Cuba, Bolivia, Nicaragua y una reunión que mantuvieron los ministros Ecuador (Caro y Rodríguez 2009; Moreno de relaciones exteriores de ambos países, 2010; Kourliandsky 2013). Por esta razón,

21 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

desde hace varios años existe una embajada hicieron por parte de la diplomacia chilena empleadas por la Dirección Nacional de en Santiago de Chile encabezada por un a mediados de la década de los años Inteligencia (DINA), el principal aparato embajador y varios secretarios, la cual, a su setenta. represor de la dictadura chilena hasta 1977 vez, se ha destacado por fortalecer sus y, hasta 1990, por la Central Nacional de vínculos económicos, culturales y sociales. Por su carácter autoritario, Chile e Irán Inteligencia (CNI) (Policzer 2014). Con el fin de lograrlo han hecho esfuerzos pasaban por una coyuntura similar en Miembros de estos cuerpos habían recibido en organizar actividades y exposiciones varios aspectos durante esta etapa. Ambos formación y entrenamiento por sobre distintos temas. Por el contrario, países eran respaldados políticamente y funcionarios estadounidenses de la Agencia Chile no ha tenido la misma intención y militarmente por los Estados Unidos, si Central de Inteligencia (CIA), con la cual hasta ahora ha carecido de un recinto bien los altos ingresos que generaba el mantenían una colaboración cercana. diplomático en territorio persa. Durante petróleo permitían que Irán tuviera mayor varios años la sede concurrente se soltura económica y posibilidad de A diferencia de lo que ocurre en la encontraba en Ankara y en este momento abastecerse de armamento de última actualidad, en la década de los años sesenta lo es su misión ante las Naciones Unidas. El tecnología, como lo fueron los 80 y setenta, América Latina no era una zona alineamiento que ha mantenido Chile en su cazabombarderos F-14 Tomcat adquiridos prioritaria para la diplomacia iraní, lo cual política exterior no ha contemplado a Irán por el Sha entre los años 1974 y 1975. quedaba comprobado en las escasas dentro de su lista de prioridades. Asimismo, la oposición a los respectivos representaciones que tenía en la región. regímenes buscaba su derrocamiento. La Tampoco lo sería en la década de los Esta situación se diferencia drásticamente heterogeneidad de los grupos marxistas era ochenta, a excepción de los países con los de las relaciones que se mantuvieron amplia en los dos casos, y tanto en Chile que se establecieron fuertes vínculos, como durante los primeros años del régimen como en Irán, los líderes religiosos eran la Cuba castrista y la Nicaragua sandinista militar de Augusto Pinochet (1973–1990). voces importantes que condenaban por su posición antiimperialista. A causa del aislamiento internacional que públicamente a los mandatarios por su sufrió la dictadura por una buena parte de carácter totalitario, las violaciones a los las potencias occidentales, y de la totalidad derechos humanos, y en el caso iraní, por La representación de Pinochet en Irán de los países de la órbita soviética, se entregar el país a los intereses extranjeros. buscaron nuevas alianzas con quienes hasta Al poco tiempo del golpe militar, en el año entonces no las había tenido, ya fuera por El Sha contaba con un mayor respaldo 1974, el Ministerio de Relaciones no tratarse de países con los que existían internacional que Pinochet, en buena Exteriores de Chile decidió abrir una vínculos históricos o bien porque tuvieran medida por la dependencia de Occidente embajada en Teherán, la primera desde que un intercambio comercial significativo. Por en petróleo iraní y por ser un aliado se formalizaron las relaciones entre ambos lo cual, de los 55 países con los que se incondicional en el Golfo Pérsico, zona países. A finales de octubre se hizo oficial la tenían relaciones en el momento del golpe, de alto valor geoestratégico, tanto por los presencia chilena en Teherán y el para el año 1984 se pasó a 107 (Muñoz recursos naturales como por la cercanía embajador Arturo Yovane Zuñiga, general 1986). En su totalidad se trató de Estados de la Unión Soviética (Keddie 2006). En de Carabineros que había ocupado el cargo africanos, asiáticos o caribeños de poco Europa Occidental y los Estados Unidos de Ministro de Minería tras el golpe, hizo peso en la escena internacional, que no también existían colectivos que entrega de sus credenciales al Sha el día 2 habían expresado críticas abiertas contra la condenaban firmemente su régimen, de noviembre en un encuentro que duró 40 junta militar por los crímenes de lesa especialmente por los crímenes cometidos minutos. Unos días más tarde, mantuvo un humanidad cometidos tras el golpe, lo que por la policía secreta iraní, la denominada encuentro privado para conversar sobre pudo deberse a tener una posición Organización de Inteligencia y Seguridad política exterior sobre el que se redactó un favorable a la política exterior de los Nacional (Sazeman-e Ettela’at va informe de gran valor. El mandatario Estados Unidos, o bien por estar dirigidos Amniyat-e Keshvar, SAVAK) cuyas rutinas mostró interés por la situación del país por figuras con características ideológicas consistían detenciones legales e ilegales, latinoamericano, concretamente por su similares a la del propio Pinochet. El Irán secuestros, torturas, violaciones sexuales, aislamiento internacional. Expresó su del Sha Mohammad Reza Pahlaví fue una asesinatos y desapariciones (Abrahamian simpatía y sus esperanzas de que pronto se de las apuestas más significativas que se 1999). Es decir, las mismas técnicas reinvirtiera la situación. Sin embargo, a

22 ojos de los diplomáticos chilenos, el Sha fue Algunas misiones económicas chilenas la Fracción del Ejército Rojo, se demostró un hombre contradictorio, llegaron a Irán y viceversa, pero sin tener que era un nexo importante entre fundamentalmente por sus relaciones grandes repercusiones. Chile evaluó la extremistas latinoamericanos, europeos y cordiales con la Unión Soviética y países posibilidad de exportar productos palestinos. satélites, y, asimismo, lo definieron como industriales a Irán, como zapatos, pescado una persona egoísta e interesada en congelado y conservas. Los representantes Con este viaje, Contreras esperaba ensalzar su figura al máximo. Así, la chilenos observaron que los países encontrar el respaldo económico del Sha y valoración general del embajador Yovane latinoamericanos con los que Irán tenían de su principal aparato represor, la SAVAK, sobre él no fue favorable. Desde su llegada vínculos más fuertes eran para poder consolidar sus operaciones más mantuvo varios encuentros con la fundamentalmente productores de petróleo, allá de Latinoamérica. Sin embargo, las cancillería con la esperanza de que Irán como Venezuela y México, aunque autoridades iraníes no prestaron demasiada abriera una representación diplomática en Argentina y Brasil también ocupaban una atención a la oferta del director de la DINA Santiago, cosa que nunca ocurrió a pesar posición privilegiada a causa de sus y tuvo que regresar a Chile sin lograr su de recibir constantes respuestas de existir vínculos históricos y por tener un objetivo2. una posibilidad. A pesar de que su intercambio comercial más significativo. embajada en Argentina era concurrente en Chile, es decir, a una distancia no Asuntos cotidianos de la labor diplomática demasiado lejana, en escasas ocasiones sus Una colaboración fallida en las prácticas chilena funcionarios viajaron a Chile y menos aún, represivas se preocuparon de organizar algún tipo de Entre las responsabilidades de la Embajada evento de interés. Uno de los episodios más singulares fue la de Chile estaban las funciones consulares. visita de Manuel Contreras, jefe de la La presencia de chilenos en Irán y de El cuerpo diplomático chileno residente en DINA, quien visitó Teherán en el mes de iraníes en Chile fue insignificante. En el Teherán hizo un gran esfuerzo en fortalecer abril de 1976. La misión estuvo compuesta país asiático se habían instalado numerosas los lazos con el Sha pero los logros fueron también por otras figuras ligadas a la empresas extranjeras, las cuales contaban limitados. La política exterior persa parecía represión y al contrabando de armas, entre con un alto número de trabajadores era más habilidosa que la de Pinochet, pues quienes se encontraban el ex oficial nazi cualificados de distintos países. Por esa públicamente no deseaba mostrar sus nexos Gerhard Mertins, tres altos cargos de la razón, residía una pequeña colonia chilena, con un régimen sumamente desprestigiado DINA, Sergio Arredondo González, Vianel la cual se marchó prácticamente por internacionalmente por la ilegitimidad en la Valdivieso y el mayor Alejandro Burgos de completo tras producirse la revolución que se había establecido y, asimismo, por Beer, y un oficial brasileño cuyo nombre se islámica en 1979 a excepción de algunas cometer crímenes de lesa humanidad. Una desconoce. El viaje tenía el objetivo de mujeres que previamente habían contraído amistad con la junta militar podía acarear ofrecer los servicios de la DINA al Sha para matrimonio con hombres iraníes. al Sha una crítica más fuerte por parte de asesinar a una de las personas más activas Occidente e, igualmente, por la propia y críticas con su régimen, Ilich Ramírez, Por los pocos años que duraron las oposición interna. Chile invitó al Sha a “Carlos, El Chacal”, quien circulaba con relaciones entre los dos gobiernos, visitar el país en reiteradas ocasiones, cosa varios de los principales grupos únicamente alcanzaron a estar dos que finalmente nunca pasó. También se revolucionarios latinoamericanos, embajadores de Chile en Teherán. En el año ofrecieron becas a oficiales del ejército para especialmente del Cono Sur. Después de la 1976 llegó Felipe Geiger Stahr, coronel del que realizaran cursos de geopolítica, las espectacular acción en Viena del 21 de ejército que había participado en el que sí fueron aprovechadas. En ocasiones diciembre de 1975, en la que Carlos derrocamiento de Allende y, además, tenía ambos hicieron esfuerzos en conseguir que secuestró a todos los representantes de los vínculos con la DINA. A final de su misión sus candidatos a ocupar altos cargos de países miembros de la Organización de tuvo que viajar con frecuencia a Santiago organismos internacionales fueran Países Exportadores de Petróleo (OPEP) para realizarse varios exámenes médicos a respaldados por el otro, lo cual ocurrió con durante una reunión, y en la que causa de un cáncer. Para el momento de la frecuencia. colaboraron integrantes del Frente Popular ruptura de las relaciones no se encontraba para la Liberación de Palestina (FPLP) y de en la capital iraní, siendo el primer

23 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

secretario y cónsul, José Cataldo Avilés, el 444 días, desde el 4 de noviembre de 1979 la salida del Sha y la revolución islámica, responsable de cerrar la sede. hasta el 20 de enero de 1981, los son de gran relevancia para conocer los representantes diplomáticos de distintos propios acontecimientos vividos en Irán, y, Las relaciones comerciales fueron mínimas. países residentes en la capital redactaron además, las posiciones ideológicas del El único aspecto importante a señalar fue la varios documentos condenando la acción. cuerpo diplomático chileno. No son pocos dependencia chilena del crudo persa. Para Entre ellos se encontraban los funcionarios los fracasos de la política exterior del el momento en el que Irán decidió romper chilenos, un suceso casi sorprendente por el régimen militar, como fueron la ruptura de relaciones, alrededor del 40 por ciento del hecho de que la propia junta militar relaciones con varios países tras el golpe petróleo importado por Chile era dificultó el trabajo de las sedes militar, el retiro de embajadores, el regreso suministrado por Irán. Con la expulsión de diplomáticas de los países que decidieron prematuro de Pinochet a Chile durante el los diplomáticos chilenos también dejó de proteger a los perseguidos políticos tras el funeral del General Francisco Franco en venderse los barriles, lo cual significó un derrocamiento de la Unidad Popular Madrid en 1975 por presión de las grave problema para el régimen de (Camacho 2006). Por defender a los 52 autoridades españolas, o el fiasco del viaje Pinochet que en cuestión de poco tiempo estadounidenses retenidos, los sentimientos a Filipinas de marzo de 1980 en donde se tuvo que buscar nuevos socios. contrarios a Pinochet aumentaron y iba a encontrar con su homólogo asiático, empezaron los rumores de que el nuevo Ferdinand Marcos, quien, sin embargo, no ejecutivo estaba barajando la posibilidad autorizó su entrada en el país cuando su La revolución islámica y la ruptura de las de romper relaciones diplomáticas. Los avión estaba a punto de aterrizar. Sin tener relaciones oficiales empleados de la embajada hicieron todos la sonoridad de esos momentos, la misión los esfuerzos para comprobar si la diplomática chilena en Irán acabó siendo Con el triunfo de la revolución islámica información era verídica. En un primer un fracaso, no sólo por su expulsión, sino aumentaron las voces críticas contra momento fue negada por los empleados del también por no obtener resultados Pinochet, tanto por la experiencia del golpe Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores pero, significativos durante el mandato del Sha, como por las violaciones a los derechos finalmente, el líder supremo decidió razón por la cual este episodio no fue humanos cometidas. También se denunció finiquitarlas el 16 de agosto de 1980 “por difundido públicamente en su momento, ni sus vínculos con los Estados Unidos. A la existencia de profundas diferencias en los tampoco recogido por los trabajos partir de ahora, con más periodicidad se principios que inspiran ambos gobiernos”. académicos publicados hasta la fecha sobre escribieron artículos de prensa y se la temática. mostraron documentales en televisión sobre Lo mismo sucedió con aquellos regímenes la dictadura chilena. También aumentó la que no respetaban los derechos humanos y hostilidad contra la embajada y la eran respaldados por los Estados Unidos. Los intereses de Pinochet en la guerra residencia del embajador, donde se puede Por ende, Teherán también suspendió sus Irán-Irak mencionar los robos e intentos de asalto relaciones con Sudáfrica, Israel y Egipto. por parte de la guardia revolucionaria. En Con este último por el malestar que Durante la guerra Irán-Irak, la cual se ocasiones los funcionarios fueron ocasionaron los acuerdos de Camp David inició tras la decisión de Sadam Husein de intimidados. El caos y la falta de de 1978 en el que se firmó la paz con Israel. invadir los territorios occidentales de Irán, organización reinante en el país, según el La embajada chilena se cerró el régimen de Pinochet prestó servicios el nuevo ejecutivo, era la causa de ello. Los apresuradamente a comienzos de líder iraquí a través del empresario Carlos representantes chilenos exigieron septiembre de 1980 puesto que únicamente Cardoen, fundamentalmente suministrando protección policial pero nunca fue se concedió un plazo de quince días para bombas de racimo y otro tipo de concedida tras el triunfo de la revolución. desmontarla. armamento3. El negocio fue excelente, y para sacarle más partido al conflicto, en Sin embargo, la diplomacia chilena Los detalles y episodios de la relación 1986 las autoridades militares chilenas tampoco fue lo suficientemente cuidadosa Sha-Pinochet son numerosos e interesantes. decidieron ofrecer a Irán los mismos con las nuevas autoridades. A causa de la Los informes redactados por los productos pero con el fin de realizar la ocupación de la Embajada de los Estados representantes del dictador en Teherán operación de manera encubierta, iban a ser Unidos y la toma de 52 rehenes durante sobre la evolución política y social del país, distribuidos por otra entidad, la Fábrica y

24 Maestranza del Ejército (FAMAE). Sin Notas Keddie, Nikki R. embargo, la operación fue un fracaso pues 1 Ver “Chile expresó a Irán su deseo reabrir la 2006 Modern Iran: Roots and Results of las bombas habían sido mal adaptadas a embajada en Teherán”, Cooperative.cl, 29 de Revolution. New Haven: Yale University Press. los aviones de la fuerza aérea iraní. Durante septiembre de 2015, http://www.cooperativa todos los ensayos realizados en las .cl/noticias/pais/relaciones-exteriores/ Kourliandsky, Jean-Jacques medio-oriente/chile-expreso-a-iran-su-deseo- proximidades del golfo pérsico, ninguna de 2013 “Irán y América Latina: Más cerca por las armas funcionó y en la última ocasión, reabrir-la-embajada-en-teheran/2015-09-29 /151729.html. una coyuntura de futuro incierto”. Nueva una bomba defectuosa llegó a ocasionar un Sociedad 246: 144–158. accidente a un caza F-4, el cual ocurrió, 2 Ver Mónica González, “El día en que además, en una etapa en el que Irán no Manuel Contreras le ofreció al Sha de Irán Moreno, Mabel matar a Carlos, El Chacal”, Centro de podía comprar aparatos de este tipo como 2010 “Irán en el actual escenario internacional: Investigación Periodista, 6 de agosto de 2009, consecuencia del bloqueo al que estaba El ascenso de las relaciones con América http://ciperchile.cl/2009/08/06/el-dia-en-que- Latina”. Contra: Relatos desde el Sur; Apuntes sometido. manuel-contreras-le-ofrecio-al-sha-de-iran- sobre África y Medio Oriente 5 (7): 61–98. matar-a-“el-chacal”/. Las autoridades iraníes exigieron una 3 Muñoz, Heraldo compensación por ello, iniciándose así un Ver “Los anos amables de la CIA con Cardoen”, 29 de septiembre de 2015, Archivo 1986 Las relaciones exteriores del gobierno complejo entramado de nuevas ofertas y Chile, http://www.archivochile.com/Poder_ militar chileno. Santiago: Las Ediciones del negociaciones que acabaron siendo uno Dominante/grem_empre/PDgremios0013.pdf. de los intentos mayores de estafa a nivel Ornitorrinco. 4 internacional de la dictadura chilena, que Ver “El Caso Irán-Corfo”, http://web.archive .org/web/20091027093207/http://geocities Policzer, Pablo se conoció con los apelativos de .com/john_muller_es/Cronicas/Irancorfo “Pinochetgate” o “Caso Irán-Corfo”, y que 2014 Los modelos del horror: Represión e /irancorfo1.html. información en Chile bajo la dictadura militar. fue desentramada gracias a la investigación Santiago: LOM Ediciones. publicada en el diario español El Mundo en 1990 por periodista John Müller4. Década Referencias y media más tarde, en el año 2004, este Abrahamian, Ervand reportaje resultó ser fundamental para seguir el rastro de las cuentas secretas 1999 Tortured Confessions: Prisons and Public Recantations in Modern Iran. Berkeley: bancarias que tenía Pinochet University of California Press. clandestinamente en el Riggs Bank los Estados Unidos. Akmir, Abdeluahed, ed. 2009 Los árabes en América Latina: Historia A pesar de lo que se podía imaginar, las de una emigración. Madrid: Casa Árabe / Siglo relaciones Chile-Irán durante la dictadura XXI. militar es un tema de investigación poco conocido que puede dar lugar a nuevos Camacho Padilla, Fernando hallazgos sorprendentes. 2006 “Los asilados de las embajadas de Europa Occidental en Chile tras el golpe militar y sus consecuencias diplomáticas: El caso de Suecia”. Revista Europea de Estudios Latinoamericanos y del Caribe 81: 21–41.

Caro, Isaac, y Isabel Rodríguez 2009 “La presencia de Irán en América Latina a través de su influencia en los países del ALBA”. Atenea 500: 21–39.

25 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

DEBATES: LATIN AMERICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST

Beside Bandung: Brazil’s Relations toward the Arab World by John Tofik Karam | University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign | [email protected]

In 2005, Brazil hosted the first-ever summit Third World Solidarity and Brazilian nonaligned summit. The diplomats that of South American and Arab countries, Detachment, 1955–1972 formulated this foreign policy, however, called the Cúpula da América do Sul-Países were distanced from the Brazilian foreign Árabes, or ASPA in Portuguese. President In April 1955, 29 Arab, Asian, and African ministry after the military overthrew the Luís Inácio “Lula” da Silva inaugurated the state representatives convened in the successor of Quadros in 1964 and seized summit by declaring that Arab and South Indonesian capital of Bandung and control of the state for the next 21 years. American states would together forge “a condemned “colonialism in all of its new international . . . economic geography” manifestations.” They released a ten-point As military rulers sought to realign the and “a world of peace . . . and social declaration that called for noninterference country toward Portugal and the United justice.” Lula used the keywords from the in the internal affairs of African, Arab, and States during the 1960s, Brazil’s relations 1955 Bandung conference of African and Asian countries. Latin American states were with the Middle East were limited to Asian leaders, which gave rise to the officially absent from this meeting, but purchasing petroleum in exchange for Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), a group historian Jerry Dávila noted that the coffee. In order to make up for the lopsided of states that claimed to eschew power Brazilian president, Café Filho, sent an balance of payments, two Brazilian blocs since the Cold War. But as recently “unofficial diplomatic observer” to business associations headed a 1966 trade as 2006, Brazil upheld its status as an Bandung while he officially visited Portugal mission to Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and the “observer,” and not member, of the (Dávila 2010a, 142). Although the United Arab Republic, all of which had Non-Aligned Movement. Why did Brazil Brazilian president, speaking in Lisbon, adhered to nonalignment. These missions, use the language of Bandung in ASPA when alleged, “We stand by the Portuguese in any however, came up short. Only five years it avoided allying with nonaligned states? part of the world,” his observer at Bandung later did Petrobrás, Brazil’s state-owned oil later reflected that “Brazil had the company, “sign an agreement with Iraq’s Brazil’s seemingly paradoxical role in ASPA possibility of becoming one of the great state oil company to purchase Iraqi oil with and NAM makes sense in relation to its world powers if it could relate well with Brazilian manufactured goods.” Despite “independent foreign policy” initiated in the new countries of Asia and Africa” this agreement at this time, however, the the early 1960s. Since that moment, the (Dávila 2010a, 143). The Brazilian state Brazilian foreign ministry, called Itamaraty, Brazilian state cultivated political and sided with the former colonial master on lacked “serious studies of the economies commercial ties with nonaligned states in international matters but could at least and commercial structures” of most Arab the Arab world at the same time it dodged momentarily see in Bandung a future states (Selcher 1974). formal adherence to nonalignment. Brazil’s opportunity. rapprochement toward nonaligned Arab Some six months after the coup d’état, countries and its measured distance from In 1961, the states that attended Bandung Brazilian military rulers sent an observer to official membership in the Non-Aligned as well as others came together to protest the second nonaligned summit held in Movement can be most critically or moderate the Cold War in what they Cairo, despite their ostensible break from understood in three periods: the brief denominated the “Non-Aligned the foreign policy of their predecessor.2 mandate of Jânio Quadros (in 1961), the Movement” (NAM). Jânio Quadros, Brazil’s observer probably heard Nasser’s military dictatorship (from 1964 to 1985), Brazil’s president, sent observers, not inaugural speech, which juxtaposed Cold and Lula’s two terms (from 2003 to 2010). delegates, to the preparatory meeting in War tensions and a divide between “rich During these periods, the Brazilian state Cairo and the inaugural summit in and poor nations.” Though it observed this adopted the rhetoric of, but remained Belgrade.1 Influenced by Third World NAM summit, Brazil and other South separate from, nonalignment in founding leaders, and particularly fond of Egypt’s American states were negotiating a the South America–Arab Countries Gamal Abd el Nasser, Quadros had courtship sparked by the U.S. “Alliance for Summit, revealing the overlapping, and declared what he called Brazil’s Política Progress,” which thinly veiled corporate competing, agendas of what is today called Externa Independente (PEI, Independent and anticommunist interests. The point is the global South. Foreign Policy). This meant that Quadros that the post-1964 Brazilian military not only steered Brazil clear of allying with regime dovetailed with U.S. foreign policy the United States and USSR but also against communism, and against Cuba, at retained observer status for Brazil in the the same time that it maintained a distant

26 tie with nonaligned and seemingly socialist- manufacturers and to solidify ties with this change was palpable in Itamaraty’s leaning countries in and beyond the Arab Arab countries that supplied oil for distancing Brazil from Portugal and in world. industrial expansion at home, as stances that apparently diverged from insightfully argued by Dávila. Serving as “equidistance” toward the Arab-Israeli Close to the United States and Portugal in foreign minister during the term of Emílio conflict. world affairs, this Brazilian regime began Médici (1969–1974), Mário Gibson to rethink its stance toward the Middle Barboza was charged with advancing such One of the most striking moments of this East. Take for instance Brazil’s minister of interests (Dávila 2010b, 141–168). After shift is Brazil’s support of the UN foreign relations, José Magalhães Pinto. visits to West and East Africa, the Brazilian Resolution 3379, “Zionism is racism,” in Though he supported Brazil’s abstention in foreign minister traveled to separately meet 1975. The proposal was approved with 72 a vote on an unsuccessful proposal to with Anwar Sadat and Golda Meir in early votes in favor, most coming from states condemn Israel after the June 1967 war, 1973. The newsweekly Veja represented linked to the Non-Aligned Movement. Magalhães Pinto took the podium at a Gibson Barboza as receiving “goodwill” on Jeffrey Lesser and Jerry Dávila (2012) Special Emergency Session of the United both “Arab and Israeli sides,” advancing demonstrated that Brazilian statesmen Nations (UN) General Assembly.3 He began deals between Petrobrás and the Egyptian supported this position not because of their his speech by stating that Brazil is “a state as well as agreeing to agricultural and country’s oil interests, as widely assumed country linked to Arabs and Jews by ties of military technology exchanges with Israel.5 by pundits and scholars today, but rather blood, friendship and culture” and called Later that same year, though, Brazil’s novel due to Brazil’s mythic self-image as a racial for “a peaceful solution to the crisis which rapprochement toward Africans and Arabs democracy and self-proclaimed leadership has brought suffering and anguish to would be tested. role for Africa. Indeed, in later UN thousands and thousands of Brazilian legislation and voting, Brazil could hardly homes of Jewish and Arab descent.” In September 1973, Brazil again sent an be called pro-Palestinian, not only refusing Apparently connected to two peoples at observer to the Fourth Summit of Non- to cast a vote regarding the proposal that war, Brazil’s foreign minister outlined steps Aligned Countries, held in Algiers. This would grant status to the Palestine for Israeli and Arab states to achieve a meeting marked a “growing Arab-African Liberation Organization (PLO) at the UN, “peaceful solution,” not unlike other alliance,”6 which was felt after the October but also being absent during the moderate UN positions. What was different 1973 War between Israeli and Arab states. unsuccessful vote to create a Palestinian about the minister’s public stance was that At this time, “numerous African states . . . state. Accordingly, Brazil’s support of UN it referenced the myth of Brazil as a model broke off relations with Israel,” and not Resolution 3379, which discredited Israel of ethnic diversity in order to exercise what long after they joined the oil embargo in 1975, must be viewed in terms of its another official later called “equidistance” declared by the Organization of Arab own plan for ever-widening global clout in Middle East affairs.4 By 1972, this Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC). through closer ties with not only the Arab alleged equidistance was again used by Subsequently, African leaders petitioned world but also African states, which were Itamaraty to renew commercial relations OAPEC to adhere to their boycott of connected in a growing Non-Alignment with Iraq, a nonaligned member state, Portugal due to its continued possession of Movement. despite the boycott of multinational oil colonies on the continent. According to companies after the nationalization of the Dávila, Gibson Barboza feared that Begun by Ernesto Geisel (1974–1979) and Iraq Petroleum Company (Vizentini 2004, “African states” would ask Arab “oil renewed by João Figueiredo (1979–1985), 337). producers to extend the boycott . . . to Brazil’s political opening led to the return include countries they believe have of civilian rule in 1985 and presidential supported the government in Lisbon, either elections in 1989. But “the main line of Brazilian Rapprochement toward Africans directly or indirectly” (Dávila 2010b, 169). Brazilian foreign policy,” writes Shiguenoli and Arabs, 1973–1989 Although Brazil “narrowly escaped the Miyamoto (2000, 125), “was marked by a embargo,” its foreign policy began to take continuity with the developmentalist policy With annual growth rates above 10 percent seriously such pressures exerted by that characterized the last two military in the early 1970s, Itamaraty sought to nonaligned African and Arab powers leaders.” This continuity can be seen in open Africa for the exportation of Brazilian (Dávila 2010b, 37). During the early 1970s, Brazil’s ties with two nonaligned Arab

27 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

powers, Iraq and Palestine. First announced Brazilian state remained beside, but not in, posture toward Arafat was repeated in the by Brazilian military authorities during the the Non-Aligned Movement. 1995 nonaligned summit in Cartagena de visit of an Iraqi official in late 1979, the Indias. FHC sent his vice president, Marco opening of a PLO office in Brasília came to Maciel (1995, 191–194), who praised the fruition on the eve of the return to civilian Brazilian Domestic Politics and the Birth of movement’s “nonsubordination” to world rule. The intermediary that convinced then ASPA, 1989–2011 powers, defended an “open, multilateral military rulers in Brasília to approve of a commercial system,” and concluded that PLO office, the Iraq National Oil In 1989, Lula unsuccessfully ran against “Brazil feels privileged in being able to Company, was alleged to have only Fernando Collor de Mello (1989–1992) in participate as an Observer Country in one renewed the contract with Brazil’s state- the second round of the Brazilian more nonaligned conference.” Arafat also owned oil company in exchange for its presidential election. Lula’s political traveled to the Colombian port city, after support of Arab world causes (Vizentini trajectory was marked by private and his visit to Brazil, where he was 2004, 333–334). Without major breaks, the public acts of solidarity with Arab world congratulated for the Oslo accords. Brazil’s first civilian president, José Sarney (1985– causes, namely, the Palestinian national vice president echoed this moderate 1989), continued to recognize the PLO as a struggle. In 1982, the Workers’ Party (PT) embrace, stating that “lasting peace” is the legitimate actor at the same time his published Lula’s own letter to Yasser Arafat “fundamental condition” for “Palestinian administration carried out “systematic in response to the Israeli invasion of self-determination.” Like his military and planning” for Brazil to operate in the Iraqi Lebanon that same year. In writing to the civilian predecessors, FHC continued to market (Fares 2007). PLO leader, Lula expressed “indignation” observe the nonaligned movement and and his “desire to transmit to you, in my carry out its own bilateral interests with As they engaged Arab states, military and name and in the name of the Workers’ Israel and Palestinians, respectively. civilian leaders renewed Brazil’s status as Party, our total and unwavering solidarity,” an “observer” in nonaligned summits in concluding that he was “ready to go to In the 2002 Brazilian elections, Lula ran for Havana (1979), Delhi (1983), Harare Beirut now to be a witness” of the the presidency, and in this fourth (1986), and Belgrade (1989). In the 1980s, atrocities against “the Arab peoples in consecutive attempt, he won. Amid nonaligned members criticized the Lebanon.”7 In the lead-up to the 1989 growing criticisms of his complicity with structures that saddled them with foreign elections, Lula’s position diverged from FHC’s liberal economics, in late 2003, Lula debts. Growing since the last decade of the Collor’s, who voiced his opposition to a departed on a nine-day diplomatic and military regime, Brazil’s indebtedness, Palestinian state and the PLO office in business mission to Egypt, Lebanon, Libya, which led to a moratorium declared by Brazil.8 Though the question of Palestine Syria, and the United Arab Emirates, all civilian leaders in 1987, could have been was not a major issue, this contrast members of the Non-Aligned Movement. reason to officially adhere to nonalignment. between Lula and Collor show that the PT Accompanied by 56 government officials But Brazil remained an observer, a decision was committed to Arab liberationist and some 150 CEOs, Lula voiced criticisms endorsed by Marcos de Azambuja, who movements even before the dawn of of Israeli and U.S. occupations of Palestine, served as the military government’s democratic rule in Brazil. the Golan Heights, and Iraq; made observer at the 1983 Delhi summit and declarations of the Palestinian, Syrian, and general secretary of Itamaraty after the first Again in 1993, Lula unsuccessfully ran for Iraqi peoples’ right to sovereignty; and president was democratically elected in the presidency against Fernando Henrique called for the continued importance of the 1989. He remembered that, in Delhi, Cardoso (FHC, 1994–2002). During Yasser United Nations. Similar to the Non-Aligned India’s soon-to-be prime minister remarked Arafat’s first and only visit to Brazil shortly Movement, Lula declared to a few hundred that Brazil needed to “make up our minds thereafter, FHC carefully spoke about businessmen in Lebanon: “It’s about time and enter as full members of the “collaborating” with Palestinians in for us to change the commercial geography Movement.” Azambuja responded that “we agricultural, health, and sewage matters, of the world, . . . to make the rich countries would continue to be just founding while Lula declared that Brazil should bend their rules, so that we can compete in observers of the non-aligned” (Azambuja officially recognize the state of Palestine, equal conditions” (Rodrigues and Marques 2011). Whether military or civilian, the even before a settlement with Israel (Simões 2003). Lula’s minister of foreign relations, and Fontenelle 1995). FHC’s moderate Celso Amorim (2010), repeated these trade

28 logics in Valor Econômico on the first day Although ASPA is an interregional bloc of South American exchanges, Amorim now of their mission abroad. One Brazilian 34 South American and Arab states, Brazil emphasized Brazil’s position beside, and critic astutely observed, “This visit [to the possesses greater influence and interest than not in, the Non-Aligned Movement. Arab world] has a domestic gain for Lula,” fellow member states. Brazilian officials because it gratified the PT “electorate in hosted or copresided over most of the Avoiding formal adherence to such a way that he can’t do here” ministerial-level meetings held by these nonalignment, Lula’s administration was a (Motomura and Arbranches 2003). committees between 2005 and 2009. In an key player and beneficiary in the second Adhering to liberal economic policies at early encounter among cultural ministers, ASPA summit in March 2009, hosted by home, Lula’s mission drew interest from the Brazilian cohost stated, “It is very Qatar. Weeks previously, a Brazilian official Brazil’s corporate elites and shored up the important that we copresided over the f remarked that “it was a good time to be a support of the PT voters with long-standing irst meeting of the Ministers of Culture Middle East specialist at Itamaraty, as the sentiments of solidarity toward the Arab of the South America–Arab Countries region is gaining bureaucratic clout within world. Summit. . . . Brazil has a singular role in the the ministry,” namely, two Middle East world. Its cultural and ecological diversity divisions as well as two special envoy During his respective meetings with Arab serves as a support base.”9 More tellingly, positions for ASPA and other matters.11 world leaders, Lula proposed the idea of an between 2005 and 2009, Brazil accounted Their main achievement was the signing of interregional bloc between América do Sul for more than 75 percent of the annual the not yet fulfilled trade accord between and Países Árabes (ASPA). In May 2005, trade between South America and the Mercosur (the Common Market of the the Brazilian president’s project came to Arab world, which surpassed $19 billion South) and the Gulf Cooperation Council fruition in the inaugural summit in Brasília. in 2009.10 In its first half-decade or so, (GCC), the economic bloc of Arabian Gulf It brought together representatives from 12 Brazilian political and economic interests countries. Two years later, in 2011, the South American countries and 22 Arab have been far more evident in ASPA. This is total trade between South America and countries. Brazil’s foreign relations minister to say, asymmetries emerge alongside the Arab countries increased by more than Amorim declared that the bloc’s aim “to solidarities in the so-called global South. 40 percent to $27.5 billion, three-quarters create . . . a new world economic of which was made up of Brazilian imports geography” meant that “to go from Brazil Politically and economically strengthening and exports.12 By founding and to Cairo, you won’t need to pass through its relationship to the Arab world, Brazil maintaining ASPA, the Brazilian state Washington and Paris” (Cantanhêde 2005). again retained its official observer status in ensured its own expansion in the southern Framing ASPA in a manner similar to the the 14th Summit of Non-Aligned and northern reaches of the world Non-Aligned Movement that began a half Countries, held in Cuba in September economy. century earlier, Lula referred to the 2006. Brazil’s observer at the meeting and summit’s political significance: “What an architect of ASPA, Celso Amorim, had moves the leaders here today is the been a career diplomat who rose through To Be Continued necessity to strengthen a political space for the ranks, first serving as minister of the construction of a world of peace, foreign relations during Itamar Franco’s ASPA, at least in its first years of existence, democracy, and social justice.” The first mandate (1993–1995). In a nod to Brazil’s is more critically understood not as an ASPA summit culminated in the “Brasília Independent Foreign Policy, Amorim alliance among equals with equitable Declaration,” which gained most attention praised “nonalignment” as “an benefits but rather as a Brazilian state for affirming “the right of states and indispensable force for upholding project that attracts both South American peoples to resist foreign occupation.” The multilateralism,” concluding that Brazil and Arab states in a world increasingly inaugural South America–Arab countries “will continue to work closely with the made up of regional blocs and summit demonstrated that the regions’ Non-Aligned Movement to transform this supranational organizations. ASPA owes as strongest commonality lay in their historic shared vision into reality.” Having used the much to the historical solidarity that Lula subordination to Europe and the United rhetoric of nonalignment the previous year and the PT have felt toward Arab world States, most evident in the questions of when he made the somewhat daring struggles as it does to their maintenance of Malvinas and Palestine. statement that ASPA would bypass U.S. FHC’s liberal economic policies that and French interests in cultivating Arab– increased Brazilian exports to so-called

29 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

nontraditional markets such as the Middle 3 UN General Assembly, 5th Emergency Session: Cantanhêde, Eliane East. But the larger point is that ASPA 1540th Plenary Meeting, June 28, 1967. 2005 “Democracia é algo que existe também needs to be grasped not in relation to any 4 “A eqüidistancia hábil,” Veja, February 14, no Sul, diz ministro.” Folha de S. Paulo, May single leader or recent political-economic 1973, 13–14. 16. platform, but rather in terms of the 5 Ibid. Brazilian state’s more than half-century- Dávila, Jerry 6 long strategy to remain beside—neither in “The Algiers Summit Conference,” MERIP, 2010a “Entre dois mundos: Gilberto Freyre, a nor against—Non-Aligned Summits. Since December 1973, 13–16. ONU e o apartheid sul-africano.” História participating as an observer at the 1955 7 “Opinião do Leitor,” Nova Escrita Ensaio, Social 19: 135–147. Bandung meeting, the Brazilian state October 5, 1982, 8–10, 221–222. 2010b Hotel Trópico: Brazil and the Challenge learned the keywords of nonalignment that 8 “Árabes estão indignados com Collor de of African Decolonization, 1950–1980. it eventually used to frame its own Mello,” Nosso Tempo, August 11, 1989, 1, 3; Durham, NC: Duke University Press. increasingly closer ties with the Middle “A questão da Palestina e a sucessão,” Nosso East, crowned by the América do Sul– Tempo, October 20, 1989, 12. Fares, Seme Taleb Países Árabes Summit. Whether or not this 9 “Intercâmbio cultural entre América do Sul e 2007 “O pragmatismo do petróleo: As relações bloc will expand its clout in the world países árabes,” Carta Maior, February 6, 2006. entre o Brasil e o Iraque.” Revista Brasileira de remains to be seen, but what can be said Política Internacional 50 (2): 129–145. with greater certainty is that Brazil’s reach 10 Ministério das Relações Exteriores, will continue across the global South. Intercâmbio Comercial América do Sul–Países Lesser, Jeffrey, and Jerry Dávila Árabes e Brasil–Países Árabes (Brasília: 2012 “Brasil, Israel y el voto Departmento de Promoção Comercial e ‘sionismo=racismo’ en las naciones unidas Investimentos, 2011). Notes (1975).” In Más allá del medio oriente: Las 11 See the Brazilian diplomat’s remarks in a U.S. diásporas judía y árabe en América Latina, Previous versions of this essay were presented at embassy telegram regarding the 2009 South edited by María José Cano Pérez, Beatriz the Department of Latin American and Latino America–Arab Countries Summit: http:// Molina Rueda, and Raanan Rein, 227–242. Studies at the University of California, Santa wikileaks.org/cable/2009/03/09BRASILIA391 Granada: Editorial Universidad de Granada. Cruz, the Latin American Studies Association in .html (accessed May 12, 2014). Washington, DC, and the Symposium on Middle Maciel, Marco East–Latin America Relations at the Université 12 Ministério das Relações Exteriores, Saint-Espirit de Kaslik in Lebanon. For critical Intercâmbio Comercial América do Sul–Países 1995 “Movimento dos Países Não-Alinhados.” support and suggestions for future research, the Árabes e Brasil–Países Árabes (Brasília: Resenha de Política Exterior do Brasil 22 (77): author wishes to thank Myriem Aboutaher, Departmento de Promoção Comercial e 191–194. Gabriela Arredondo, Cecilia Baeza, Élodie Brun, Investimentos, 2011). Sylvanna Falcón, Adrián Félix, Camilla Fojas, Miyamoto, Shiguenoli Kevin Funk, Roberto Khatlab, Fernando Leiva, References 2000 “O Brasil e as negociações multilaterais.” Dan Linger, Lourdes Martínez-Echazábal, Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional 43 Catherine Sue Ramírez, Lourdes Torres, Federico (1): 119–137. Velez, and Pat Zavella. Amorim, Celso 1 “Relatório do ministro João Augusto de 2010 “Uma agenda de cooperação com o Motomura, Marina, and Virgílio Arbranches mundo árabe, Valor Econômico, 3 de Araújo Castro, observador do Brasil à 2003 “Visita do presidente à Líbia divide Reunião Preliminar da Conferência de Chefes dezembro de 2003.” Discursos, palestras e artigos do Canceler Celso Amorim, 2003– especialistas em política externa.” Folha de S. de Estado e Governo de Países Não-Alinhados, Paulo, December 11. Cairo 5 a 13 junho de 1961,” in Documentos 2010, vol. 1, 245–246. Brasília: Ministério das Relações Exteriores. da Política Externa Independente, edited by Rodrigues, Fernando, and Alan Marques Alvaro da Costa Franco (Brasília: Fundação Alexandre de Gusmão, 2007), 94–115. Azambuja, Marcos de 2003 “No Líbano, Lula defende uma nova ‘geografia comercial.’” Folha de S. Paulo, 2 2011 “A encrenca.” Piauí 58 (July). “Cairo Conference of Nonaligned Nations,” December 6. International Organization 19, no. 4 (1965): 1065–1070.

30 DEBATES: LATIN AMERICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST

Not Afraid to Make Connections: Edward Said and Salman Rushdie’s Latin American Solidarity

by Anna Bernard | King’s College London | [email protected]

Selcher, Wayne At the start of an essay on the relationship significance for Said, as a site that shares between Latin American literature and with the Middle East a history of U.S. 1974 The Afro-Asian Dimension of Brazilian Foreign Policy, 1956–1972. Gainesville: comparative literary studies, the Cuban- imperial control as well as a capacity for University Presses of Florida. American scholar Roberto González resistance. Echevarría accuses comparative literature Simões, Rogério, and André Fontenelle of willful ignorance. Among other eminent Said mentions Latin America only twice in 1995 “FHC promete a Arafat ajudar figures (Tsvetan Todorov, Julia Kristeva, Orientalism, in passing, as part of a list of palestinos.” Folha de S. Paulo, October 18. Jonathan Culler, and Fredric Jameson), he regions that are subject to U.S. intervention implicates Edward Said: as a matter of policy (2014, 46, 348). But Vizentini, Paulo in two essays published in the late 1980s, 2004 A política externa do regime militar Said can go so far as to write things Latin America’s relationship to U.S. brasileiro: Multilateralização, desenvolvimento like “Central and Latin America,” which neoimperialism is a more central point of e a construção de uma potência média on the pages of a State Department reference. These essays appeared at a time (1964–1985), 2nd ed. Porto Alegre: UFRGS communiqué would cause wrath as well when the Iran-Contra affair had made the Editora. as mirth, yet feel that he has the authority links between U.S. foreign policy in the to criticize Borges and Mario Vargas Middle East and Latin America impossible Llosa. . . . It seems to me that boldness to ignore. In 1987, Said published an essay of this kind, which I am sure my truly pointedly titled “Irangate” in the London admired friends Ed and Fred would not Review of Books (LRB, notably, a non- dare display when dealing with the American publication). The piece is French or English, reveals an overseer ostensibly a review of Salman Rushdie’s mentality that is much more of the Jaguar Smile (1987), which recounts three colonizer than of the would-be weeks Rushdie spent with the Sandinistas, decolonizer. (2004, 91–92, citing Said and Noam Chomsky’s Turning the Tide: 1989, 215) U.S. Intervention in Latin America and the Struggle for Peace (1985). However, Said While his tone might suggest otherwise, spends only the last 1,000 words of an González Echevarría’s real targets, it turns 8,500-word article on these texts. The rest out, are other critics—especially Marxist of the essay is an impassioned polemic and Third-Worldist critics—of Latin against the violent and clandestine American literature who draw on Said and American interventions that Iran-Contra Jameson’s work despite those thinkers’ had exposed, and against the false apparent lack of interest in the region information about these regions that is (2004, 92–93). Leaving aside the question regularly conveyed to the American public. of whether it is fair to criticize Said for a Said is particularly scathing of U.S. media copyediting error, or indeed for reading representation of the Sandinistas: “To listen Borges and Vargas Llosa in translation, to the rhetoric about the dangers of González Echevarría’s indignation prompts Sandinista government is to have visions of me to consider how and why Said does Spanish-speaking terrorists parachuting invoke Latin America, in the region’s into Seattle or Atlanta . . . so obscuring of admittedly rare appearances in his work, other peoples is the fog of self-confirming and what it has to do with his far more cultural power” (1987, para. 26). frequent commentary on Middle East politics and the question of Palestine. Said’s aim, however, is not only to describe Rather than dismissing Said’s engagements the structural connections and continuities with Latin America out of hand, it seems of U.S. intervention in the two regions. It is more useful to examine the region’s also, in his position as the English-speaking

31 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

world’s best-known Palestinian The triangular trade route of Iran-Contra “contrapuntal” relationship between spokesperson (a role that at that time he thus provides Said with a triangular model European novels of empire and classic had occupied for less than a decade), to call for political solidarity. It indicates a basis works of anticolonial thought. His attention to the relatively high level of for common struggle among Palestinians, emphasis here, however, is on the egregious domestic opposition to U.S. policy in Nicaraguans, and their American (and continuation of Conrad’s inability to Central America, in comparison to the British) supporters, in their shared imagine an end to Western imperial critique of its actions in the Middle East: opposition to U.S. foreign policy. This domination in contemporary English claim might seem obvious today, but Said literature: “Whereas Conrad may be In relation to Central America and was writing at a time of widespread forgiven—he wrote Nostromo during a Southern Africa—to name two regions left-wing disillusionment: during the period in Europe of largely uncontested where American policy is prominent and Reagan and Thatcher administrations; in imperialist enthusiasms—contemporary controversial—there is an oppositional the wake of the decline of anticolonial, novelists (and filmmakers), who have constituency in the United States. There Third-Worldist revolutionary energies in learned his ironies so well, have no excuse has been no one, in the press or on the 1970s; and before the growth of the for their blindness. They have done their television talk-shows, to represent an transnational antiglobalization and work after decolonization; after the Islamic or Arab viewpoint, no one to anti-neoliberalization movements in the massive intellectual, moral, and imaginative testify to a reality out there that was late 1990s. It was an especially bleak time overhaul and deconstruction of Western independent of American policy. . . . for the Palestinians, as is evident in Said’s representation of the non-Western world” Debate has occurred in the one case, better-known work from the period (Said (1988, 72). but hardly at all in the other. (1987, 1986): the PLO leadership had been in para. 13, 35) exile in Tunis since 1982, and the first Said names Graham Greene and V. S. intifada would not begin until the end of Naipaul as two writers who are Said’s goal, then, is not to further public 1987. American activists and intellectuals particularly guilty of lamenting the violent debate about Central America, since it who were already opposed to U.S. delusions of Western empires while being already had a level of visibility among the intervention in Central America might very unable to imagine that their colonies have American left of which the Palestinian well have seemed the most likely domestic their own lives and histories that are movement could only dream. Instead, Said constituency, apart from Arab-Americans, separate from colonial domination. uses the region as a tool of persuasion: if to be persuaded to oppose U.S. intervention his readers are opposed to U.S. support for in Israel/Palestine. As in the “Irangate” essay, although Said the Contras, they should also be opposed spends most of his time on critique, the to U.S. support for Israel. He would repeat Said may not have been a specialist in Latin trajectory of his argument is toward the this strategy several years later in a more America, and he may have gotten some necessity and actuality of resistance to famous LRB piece in which he challenges things wrong, but he kept thinking about imperialist modes of representation. He the liberal consensus of the period by its place in the imperial past and present. identifies Rushdie as one of a group of calling the Oslo Accords a “Palestinian The year after “Irangate,” Said published world novelists, including Gabriel García Versailles.” Here, he invokes the a short piece on Joseph Conrad’s 1904 Márquez, whose work gives writers like Sandinistas’ 1991 electoral defeat, along novel Nostromo in Harper’s magazine. Greene and Naipaul no excuse for their with the fates of Vietnam, El Salvador, and Nostromo, the only novel that Conrad set condescension toward the global South. In Haiti, to illustrate the consequences of the in Latin America, is a grim account of the the earlier essay, in the three paragraphs PLO’s capitulation to American and Israeli struggle for control of a silver mine in a Said devotes to The Jaguar Smile, he demands: “To throw oneself, as Arafat has country that Conrad calls Costaguana. It emphasizes the book’s challenge to done, on the tender mercies of the US is ends with the triumph of the mine’s British hegemonic American views of the almost certainly to suffer the fate the US and American owners in collaboration with Sandinistas: it is written by a “sympathetic has meted out to rebellious or ‘terrorist’ local oligarchs. Said’s discussion advances non-expert non-American,” it represents peoples it has had to deal with in the Third an early version of the argument that he the Sandinistas as “interesting and World after they have promised not to would go on to develop in Culture and attractive,” and it advances a “guarded resist the US anymore” (1993, para. 14). Imperialism (1993) about the optimism” (1987, para. 52). Said does

32 make a rather embarrassing error in Nicaraguans’ love of poetry and their . . . the irresistible power of superpower Spanish in his discussion of the book—he appreciation for Gandhi and Tagore. Every itself” (2007, 2). Yet this later Rushdie refers to Rushdie as l’escritor hindu (1987, time that Rushdie seeks to situate himself should not, as Tim Brennan has argued, para. 52)—but the error underscores his in relation to what he sees in Nicaragua, he overshadow the Rushdie of the early and larger point that neither he nor Rushdie is does so as an Indian. He writes in the mid-1980s, who has been “lost in the an expert in Latin American history or prologue, “I was myself the child of a uproar [over the Satanic Verses affair] and politics. Instead, Said, suggests, they are successful revolt against a great power,” [is] in need of recovery” (2006, 82). This taking on the “political responsibility” to and suggests that he shares with the Rushdie both influenced and was “formulate solutions, ideas, and even Nicaraguans “some awareness of the view influenced by Said (Rushdie 2010, 166– utopian hopes” (1987, para. 54) across from underneath, and of how it felt to be 186), and like him played a major role in multiple sites, to imagine the world anew. there, looking up at the descending heel” depicting the regions of the global South as (2007, 4). places with their own histories, cultures, Rushdie evidently thought of Palestine and and ideas. Nicaragua in connection with one another, The triangular relationship that Said and as he recounts in his lightly fictionalized Rushdie sketch out—Said in political and These figures matter for our understanding memoir Joseph Anton (2013). Recalling the structural terms, Rushdie from a more of the relationship between Middle Eastern New York literary scene in the mid-1980s, identitarian perspective—does not stop, and Latin American studies, then, because Rushdie (through the voice of his alter ego then, with the critique of U.S. of the specific historical links that they Joseph Anton) describes parties attended neoimperialism in the 1980s. It also made between the two regions, and because by, among others, Said, Mahmoud demonstrates how transnational alliances of their insistence on the importance of Darwish, Omar Cabezas, and Rosario might be forged, from connections across comparison as a form of oppositional Murillo. These figures, he says, the global South that could then be political work. Said wrote of Chomsky, in “articulate[d] views not often heard on extended to the global North. Said and “Irangate”: “Chomsky’s distinction is that American platforms.” At one party, Rushdie had American and British he is not afraid to make connections” Murillo, standing next to the Temple of citizenship, respectively, but they identified (1987, para. 50). This was Said’s and the Dendur in the Metropolitan Museum of as Palestinian and Indian nationals in the early Rushdie’s distinction too, and it Art, invited “the young Indian writer (and first instance. The forms of solidarity that remains a suggestive model for scholars member of the British Nicaragua Solidarity they promote—the “energy to comprehend today, even, or perhaps especially, if such Campaign) to come and see the contra war and engage other societies, traditions, connections fall outside our expertise and for himself” (2013, 77). Rushdie points out histories” (Said 1988, 72)—is aimed at a experience. transnational connections that are both metropolitan Anglophone readership, to be coincidental—the relocated Egyptian sure, but both writers set an example of temple—and deliberate: the Indian writer, how to practice this solidarity by References resident in London, visiting New York, showcasing their own affiliation with Brennan, Timothy who chooses a political affiliation with Nicaraguans and with other victims of Managua. U.S. global hegemony. They thus position 2006 Wars of Position: The Cultural Politics of themselves as the third point in a triangle, Left and Right. New York: Columbia The result of that visit was The Jaguar linking the global North to the global University Press. Smile, a book that Rushdie reports having South, from their positions as perhaps the Chomsky, Noam written in a “frenzy” in three weeks (2013, most visible “Third World” contributors to 78). The book makes no mention of mainstream English-language media at that 1985 Turning the Tide: U.S. Intervention in Palestine, but Rushdie repeatedly compares time. Rushdie’s politics have since shifted Latin America and the Struggle for Peace. Boston: South End Press. Nicaragua under the Sandinistas to significantly to the right (Rushdie 2002); postindependence India, in both negative this is evident from his introduction to the Conrad, Joseph and positive terms: he notes the crowded tenth anniversary edition of The Jaguar buses, the poverty, and the Sandinistas’ Smile, in which he suggests that the book is 1996 Nostromo. 1904. Ware, England: Wordsworth Editions. censorship of the press, but also the naïve, and that “romance has given way to

33 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

DEBATES: LATIN AMERICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST

The Death of Alberto Nisman, the Argentine Presidency Unhinged, and the Secret History of Shared United States-Argentine Strategy in the Middle East

by David M. K. Sheinin | Trent University | [email protected]

González Echevarría, Roberto In January 2015, Alberto Nisman’s body policy has been framed in Argentine turned up with a bullet to the head. In the scholarly literatures as an “equidistant” 2004 “Latin American and Comparative Literatures.” In Comparative Cultural Studies necropolitical tradition of entrepreneur/ approach to the region, balancing measured and Latin America, edited by Sophia A. organized crime figure Alfredo Yabrán, support for Israel with its equivalent McClennan and Earl E. Fitz, 89–104. West who died of a self-inflicted gunshot to the toward the Arab world. Save as a public Lafayette, IN: Purdue University Press. face in 1998, and the still-unsolved severing diplomatic stance, the equidistance model of Juan Perón’s skeletal hands from his has never made much sense. It leaves Iran, Rushdie, Salman corpse in 1987, Nisman’s death became a non-Arab state, and non-Arab social and 2002 “Fight the Good Fight.” Guardian, immediate fodder for a national whodunit. political actors, such as the Kurds, entirely November 2. http://www.theguardian.com/ Often guided by the fiercely divisive binary out of the mix. It suggests a decades-long books/2002/nov/02/iraq.salmanrushdie. of current Argentine politics, fingers policy stasis in the face of evident shifts. 2007 The Jaguar Smile. 1987. London: Vintage. pointed at a range of possible killers from And it fails to distinguish between ranging the government of Iran to disgruntled and diverse Arab, Muslim, and other 2010 Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism 1981-1991. 1991. London: Vintage. Argentine intelligence agents to angry drug interests in the region, across national dealers to the president herself, Cristina boundaries (Klich 1996; Cisneros and 2013 Joseph Anton: A Memoir. New York: Fernández de Kirchner. Iran emerged at the Escudé 2009). In addition, the equidistance Random House. vortex of conflicting interpretations and model belies a rich archival document trove Said, Edward accusations. In 2006, as a federally for the years through 1975 in the Archive appointed special prosecutor, Nisman had of the Foreign Relations Ministry. 1986 After the Last Sky. London: Faber and indicted eight prominent Iranian Faber. government officials in connection with the Second, while the Middle East is a foreign 1987 “Irangate.” London Review of Books 9 1994 bombing of the Asociación Mutua policy tinderbox in many countries, in (9): 7–10. Israelita Argentina (AMIA) headquarters in Argentina it has left leaders open to wild 1988 “Through Gringo Eyes.” Harper’s, April Buenos Aires that had killed 85. accusations of wrongdoing and irrational 1, 70–72. International arrest warrants had followed behavior, sensationalized by international for five of the eight. Almost ten years later, and domestic media too willing to present 1989 “Representing the Colonized: Nisman’s death came on the eve of his arguments without evidence. Third, Anthropology’s Interlocutors.” Critical Inquiry 15 (2): 205–225. scheduled appearance before an Argentine sensationalized media coverage underlines congressional committee to present that Middle East policy has often been 1993 “The Morning After.” London Review of evidence of a purported plot by Fernández founded on domestic policies, strategies, Books 15 (20–21): 3–5. de Kirchner and Argentine foreign minister and political circumstances with little 1994 Culture and Imperialism. 1993. London: Héctor Timerman, in conjunction with specific relevance to Iran or to other Vintage. Iranian authorities, to nix the Argentine countries in the region. Fourth, and 2014 Orientalism. 1978. New York: Knopf. prosecution of the bombers. perhaps most important, the sensational is a misreading of policy making as erratic The killing is unsolved. Nisman’s and quickly changing. Argentina’s policies allegations against the president and in Iran and the Middle East have evolved foreign minister remain tantalizing but slowly, with careful calculation, and often undemonstrated, as do many of the charges (though not always) in alignment with U.S. and countercharges that have been levelled strategic priorities. through 2015. Even so, Argentina’s multiple readings of Nisman’s death The U.S. journalist Dexter Filkins traced suggest four keys to both Argentina’s Iran Nisman’s death to what many in Argentina policy over the past 20 years, and policy in saw as a dramatic policy shift in 2013. the Middle East more broadly. First, the After a decade of tense Argentine-Iranian case tells us what Argentina’s policy is not. relations over the AMIA bombing, Since the late 1940s, Argentine Middle East Argentina announced a deal struck with

34 Iran that would lead to a bilateral truth Nisman killing, media in Brazil and presidency came as a result not of any commission to identify and help convict Argentina accused Fernández de Kirchner pro-Iran or pro-Hezbollah leanings but, alleged Iranian authors of the AMIA of having accepted millions of dollars from rather, after Menem was allegedly paid a bombing. In explaining the policy shift Iran during the 2007 presidential election $10 million bribe by the Iranian toward Iran that would animate Nisman’s campaign. In return, she allegedly offered government. Anything is possible, but there proposed congressional testimony, Filkins Argentine nuclear secrets and amnesty for have been no independent, reliable echoed many in the Argentine media by the AMIA bombers. Never mind that, confirmations for any of it (Turner 2015; hinting at a slightly unhinged President despite ebbs and flows in the transfer of Rohter 2002). Fernández de Kirchner, tagged as “erratic” materials and knowledge, Argentina had an and “ruthless” (Filkins 2015). Stated ongoing exchange of nuclear technology Peeling aside claims of presidential otherwise, for an Argentine president to with Iran since the 1970s, always registered histrionics, suspicious Arab allegiances, and court Iran, the argument went, they would with the International Atomic Energy corruption in Menem’s canceling the arms have to be unbalanced. In 2004, in keeping Agency. Iran-Argentina nuclear exchanges deal and the nuclear accord and Fernández with a new emphasis on human rights in were in keeping with a long-standing de Kirchner’s 2013 policy shift, we get national domestic policy that included a Argentine developmentalist modernizing closer to the most significant factors in the renewed series of prosecutions of project to provide poorer nations with shaping of Argentine Middle East policy dictatorship-era killers and a revival of the non-bellicose nuclear means. The testimony over the past half century. In each of those investigation into the AMIA bombing, of the three sources for the campaign cases, as it had during the 1973 Yom then-president Néstor Kirchner had given funding accusation—exiled, disaffected Kippur War (Sheinin 2012), the Middle Nisman the task of reopening the AMIA members of President Hugo Chávez’s East functioned for Argentina as a regional investigation. Edgier relations with Iran government—could not be independently forum where specific Argentine interests are followed, highlighting a central element of corroborated (La Nación 2012). limited, but where the Argentine Argentina’s ties to the Middle East over the government identified a strategic base from last half century. Decisions on major policy The labeling of President Fernández de which it might exercise larger, global matters have frequently been determined Kirchner as erratic and corrupt on foreign initiatives. In Menem’s case, the on the basis of domestic policy priorities policy formulation is reminiscent of similar cancellations drew on an important policy only tangentially as a function of accusations faced by Argentine president shift toward closer ties with the United developments in the Middle East. In this Carlos Menem 20 years ago. The States; Washington had pressured the case, Kirchner’s Iran policy was linked to a Argentine-born son of Syrian-Argentine Argentine government to back away from central domestic program on the immigrants, Menem was accused falsely in the agreements with Syria and Iran. In vindication of human rights and memory. the Argentine media of fostering close ties 2013, the public face of President In 2013, it seemed to most, Cristina in the 1990s with Syria as a function of his Fernández de Kirchner’s move to end Fernández de Kirchner had done an supposed (and to some, duplicitous) dual Argentina’s existing antagonisms with Iran about-face on Iran by jump-starting ethnic or national loyalties. As a basis for had almost nothing to do with Iran itself. diplomatic and commercial initiatives with policy making, this made as much sense as On both foreign and domestic policies, she Iran while pledging to work with Iranians Filkins’s imaginings about Fernández de had moved her administration to the left in to find those responsible for the AMIA Kirchner’s purported emotional ups and the aftermath of Venezuelan president bombing (Wikileaks 2006). downs as a policy driver. In Menem’s case, Hugo Chávez’s death. Her public a U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) rapprochement with Iran marked a global The depiction of Argentine policy toward informant told the New York Times and realignment of Argentine positions to Iran and to Arab nations as ludicrous, other media that the Iranian government’s reflect that larger shift, and to distance corrupt, or both goes back two decades. motivation for the 1994 bombing was Argentina from Brazil and Chile, which Media assertions have been premised on Argentina’s decision to abrogate an arms were veering from left to center on foreign the reckless assumption that nobody in deal with Damascus and a nuclear accord and domestic policies. In addition, their right mind would pursue relations with Syria’s ally in Tehran. The failure to Fernández de Kirchner was moving to with undemocratic, human-rights-abusing prosecute the AMIA bombers during deemphasize the human rights–related regimes labeled pariahs by others. After the Menem’s five subsequent years of politics of her predecessor in office and

35 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

hoped to expand trade opportunities with continue to guide policy making. Middle Pastor’s accusation draws on a fallacious Iran, as she did with other developing East and Iran policies are shaped by larger view shared by many Argentines. Most nations (Restivo 2012). geopolitical and commercial objectives cannot accept that high-ranking Argentine overseas. In addition, policy makers are officials worked cooperatively with the Where human rights and other identifiably guided by how their decisions will resonate United States on Iran policy. More specific social, cultural, or political domestically. Often, public government important, most Argentines would have problems in the Middle East have informed positions on Middle East conflict have great difficulty accepting what the Argentine policy making, they have rarely concealed larger goals. Over the past 15 Wikileaks documents show. Neither the done so in a way that has placed Argentina years two potentially explosive and on first administration of Néstor Kirchner nor that in a unique leadership role in the glance, contradictory strategic objectives of Cristina Fernández de Kirchner appears international community. This has long have guided Argentine Middle East as an antagonist of Washington. On the suggested diplomatic caution rather than positions. On the Middle East, as contrary, what the U.S. State Department equidistance. Argentine diplomats and elsewhere, Argentina has publicly distanced documentation demonstrates is that, policy makers have been keen observers of itself from the United States. At the same despite that Argentine governments since social crisis. In the aftermath of the 1967 time, through the 2013 Argentine 2002 have presented their polices as Six-Day War, the Argentine ambassador in announcement on the joint Iran-Argentina inimical to the interests of the United Israel, Rodolfo Baltiérrez, urged that commission, during Alberto Nisman’s States, and that many Argentines view Argentina take a prominent stand on almost decade-long efforts to prosecute the kirchnerismo as synonymous with anti- Palestinian refugees in the West Bank who AMIA bombers, and in Argentine-Iranian imperialism, on Middle East policy the two faced hunger, anguish, and malnutrition. relations from 2006 forward, Argentina countries have collaborated extensively and Baltiérrez was fiercely critical of the worked in close cooperation with a in secret to meet common strategic ends. inaction of the United Nations (UN) purported antagonist, the United States. Refugee Agency, and the positions of the In February 2008, Arab and South Egyptian, Jordanian, and Syrian Just as the media frenzy around Nisman American government ministers met to governments, likely to exploit and seemed to have reached impossible levels of promote stronger commercial and exacerbate the crisis faced by the refugees. hyperbole through mid-2015, that ceiling diplomatic ties. Argentina announced it On this as on other occasions, Argentine was broken by the journalist Facundo would open a diplomatic mission in authorities responded with caution. They Pastor, who recently published a book Ramallah and signed on to several staked out a position on the UN Security accusing the special prosecutor of having multinational statements adopted by Council expressing sympathy for refugees, been an FBI agent. Nisman, according to attendees that were inimical to U.S. refusing to label Israel an aggressor, calling Pastor, was the “top contact for the FBI in interests. These included a reform of the for an Israeli withdrawal from territories the entire region,” “reporting all his legal UN Security Council to end the occupied, defending Israel’s right to defend moves to the FBI through the U.S. embassy preeminence of the great powers, the right its security, and pressing for free navigation [in Argentina], before even informing his of peoples to refuse foreign occupation and in the Gulf of Aqaba while referencing own legal superiors.” “Did he spend ten for states and individuals to resist such equally free navigation in the Beagle years dedicating himself to exposing a foreign presences, a withdrawal of Israel to Chanel, a sea lane whose jurisdiction terrorist attack,” Pastor went on, “or did he pre-1967 borders, the opening of Israel- Argentina disputed with Chile (Sheinin follow the script that the Americans had Gaza and Israel-West Bank border 2012). passed on to him before they cut him crossings, and a criticism of U.S. sanctions loose?” (Pastor 2015). Nisman, of course, against the Syrian government. At the same As in the 1960s, and despite a dramatic set was no stooge of the United States. Pastor’s time, and as on other occasions after 2002, of policy shifts on many fronts through accusations come from a gross misreading Argentine officials secretly consulted with Argentina’s 2001–2002 economic crisis, of a handful of secret documents that and assured the U.S. government that it Argentine Middle East policy has remained turned up on Wikileaks. The documents was working behind the scenes to minimize largely unchanged from the preceding show, in fact, that Nisman was in ongoing criticism of Israel and the United States— decade and from how policy was set during contact with the FBI and the U.S. State an assurance that U.S. officials took at face the Cold War. Two linked imperatives Department. Implausible as they are, value. Argentine authorities have long

36 found ways to assert a public position at Argentina’s “point man on AMIA issues” American diplomats in Buenos Aires that at odds with U.S. strategic interests in the (Wikileaks 2007a), lobbied Washington for the General Assembly meetings, he saw Middle East while, at the same time, help in convincing several countries in Iranians trying to lobby U.S. officials at a working privately with Washington to sub-Saharan Africa, the Middle East, reception hosted by the U.S. government. advance common positions reflecting a Eastern Europe, and Asia to support They were unsuccessful (Wikileaks 2007c). more favorable position toward the United Argentina’s request. Moreover, by 2007, the States than public Argentine postures might idea of a joint Iranian-Argentine Unless Wikileaks releases a new batch of have suggested (Wikileaks 2008). commission to investigate the AMIA documents, we may have to wait some time bombing had already been floated—by to understand the nuance of Argentine– This was true of what the international Iran. Argentina hesitated in the hope of United States relations through President media characterized as the 2013 Argentine winning Interpol capture notices for the Fernández de Kirchner’s 2013 policy “shift” about-face toward Iran on the AMIA case. accused Iranians. Perhaps more important, on Iran. As late as 2009, the two countries While most Argentines may not have the U.S.-Argentine secret conversations were cooperating fully on terrorism known it, because diplomatic negotiation reflected a rapprochement with investigations in Argentina, including the had been private, there was nothing new in Washington, and new tensions between FBI’s perceived Hezbollah threat in the Argentine policy or the role of the United Argentina and some Latin American Argentine northeast. They shared a position States in promoting Argentine-Iranian governments. On the eve of the Interpol on Iran as a pariah state. It is possible that conversations on AMIA. As early as 2007, General Assembly, González told American Argentina’s decision to accept Iran’s offer immediately after Fernández de Kirchner’s officials that he didn’t know how of a truth commission was driven in part election as president, and throughout the Venezuela, an international supporter of by tensions in U.S.-Argentine relations over years that followed, there had been Iran, would vote at the Interpol meeting. the effort by NML Capital, a New ongoing, though sometimes tense, Argentina had conveyed the message that if York–based vulture fund, to exact debt diplomatic interactions between Argentina Venezuela could not support the Argentine payments through court action in the and Iran on the subject of Iranian position, it hoped that Caracas would stay United States. Beyond that severe point of cooperation in the AMIA investigation. silent on the matter. Failing that, if contention, little had changed in U.S.- This had come with the support and Venezuela planned to back Iran, the Argentine relations with respect to the knowledge of U.S. officials, who had Argentine Foreign Ministry had asked Middle East. After eight years at the encouraged Argentina in this regard, Caracas for that information beforehand, negotiating table, the commission now for toward a resolution of the AMIA bombing. so Argentina would not be “stabbed in the the first time seemed to Timerman and The philosophy behind Argentina’s back” by Venezuela (Wikileaks 2007b). others in Argentine government as the only diplomatic initiative in 2013 also Argentina negotiated its international way that, after 20 years, any real progress dovetailed with President Néstor Kirchner’s position on Iran in part through a could be made on the AMIA case. In that post-2002 human rights–focused agenda. confidential relationship with the FBI in the Barack Obama administration In this case, the objective was to bring which Nisman was a minor player. Before embarked at the same time on a diplomatic closure to an ugly case of mass murder for the November 2007 Interpol gathering, opening toward Iran that would lead in the family members and others affected by González asked U.S. diplomats to tell 2015 to a long-sought nuclear regulatory the AMIA killings. Assistant FBI Director Tom Fuentes that agreement for Iran, it is unlikely that the European Union countries and the South Argentine overture toward Iran generated In 2007, the Argentine government worked African Interpol Committee would be much concern in Washington except closely with U.S. officials in trying to “looking for Fuentes’ active participation perhaps in Republican congressional convince Interpol to issue arrest warrants in the EC [European Community] against quarters. for Iranians accused of the AMIA bombing. any Iranian efforts to derail the process” In preparation for a November Interpol (Wikileaks 2007b). Among those who In the end, the alarm Nisman seemed to General Assembly where a decision on the accompanied González to the Interpol have felt in January 2015 on the eve of his matter was anticipated, the diplomat meeting, but played a minor role there, was congressional committee testimony may Guillermo González, described by U.S. Alberto Nisman. After the meeting, not have been over the Argentine decision ambassador in Argentina Tony Wayne as González “laughingly explained” to to work with Iran on an AMIA solution, a

37 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

policy position that he would have known Filkins, Dexter Turner, Taos had evolved over years of Iran-Argentina 2015 “Death of a Prosecutor: Alberto Nisman 2015 “Argentine Ex-President Carlos Menem negotiations. He may have been concerned Accused Iran and Argentina of Colluding to Faces Trial.” Wall Street Journal, August 5. that the price of that truth commission Bury a Terrorist Attack. Did It Get Him http://www.wsj.com/articles/argentine-ex- could turn out to be almost a decade of his Killed?” New Yorker, July 20. president-carlos- menem-faces- work—the abandoned prosecutions of the trial-1438805940. perpetrators. In late 2015, all eyes were on Klich, Ignacio Wikileaks Argentine president-elect Mauricio Macri, 1996 “Equidistance and Gradualism in who announced more than two weeks Argentine Foreign Policy toward Israel and 2006 US Embassy, Buenos Aires, to Secretary of before his swearing-in ceremony in the Arab World, 1949–1955.” In The Jewish State. “AMIA Bombing – Request for an December, and a day before naming Diaspora in Latin America, edited by David International Arrest Order against Rafsanjani; Sheinin and Lois Baer Barr, 219–237. New US Expert Mark Jones’ Statements on Argentina’s new foreign minister, Susana York: Garland. Argentina 10/26/06.” October 27, 2006. Malcorra, that he would abrogate the 2013 06BUENOSAIRES2423_a. https://wikileaks deal with Iran. Whether he does so or not, La Nación .org/plusd/cables/06BUENOSAIRES2423_a Macri has illustrated one more time how .html. 2012 “Según Veja, Irán habría financiado la domestic politics—in this case the campaña de Cristina a cambio de impunidad 2007a US Embassy, Buenos Aires, to Secretary antagonism of his recently crafted political por la AMIA.” La Nación, March 14. http:// of State. “AMIA: Argentina’s Requests for movement, Cambiemos, toward the www.lanacion.com.ar/1776166-segun-veja- Help at Interpol General Assembly.” October outgoing president and vice versa—can iran-habria-financiado-la- campana-de- 17, 2007. 08BUENOSAIRES259_a, shape Middle East policy. At the same time, cristina-kirchner-a-cambio-de-impunidad-por- https://wikileaks.org/plusd/cables/ that decision is more relevant to Macri’s la-amia. 07BUENOSAIRES2060_a.html. stated intention to reshape Argentina’s Pastor, Facundo 2007b US Embassy, Buenos Aires, to State relations with Brazil, Venezuela, and other Department. “AMIA: Final Discussions with South American nations than to Iran. 2015 Nisman ¿Crímen o suicidio? ¿Héroe o Argentine MFA Prior to Interpol General Moreover, it is unlikely in and of itself to espia? Buenos Aires: Planeta. Assembly.” October 31, 2007. change much about Argentina’s behind-the- 07BUENOSAIRES2153_a, https://wikileaks. Restivo, Néstor org/plusd/cables/07BUENOSAIRES2153_a. scenes diplomatic, commercial, and html. technical ties with Iran. Perhaps more 2012 “Argentina se distancia de Brasil en una important, whether or not a prosecutor negociación comercial clave.” Clarín, July 27. 2007c US Embassy, Buenos Aires, to State picks up where Nisman left off in mounting Department. “AMIA: MFA Readout from Rohter, Larry Marrakech and Next Steps.” November 15, a legal case against the AMIA killers, 2007. 07BUENOSAIRES2222_a, https:// 2002 “Iran Blew Up Jewish Center in without a reasonably cooperative wikileaks.org/plusd/ Argentina, Defector Says.” New York Times, relationship on the matter with Iran, after cables/07BUENOSAIRES2222_a.html. July 22. http://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/22/ more than 20 years, all of these world/iran-blew-up- jewish-center-in- 2008 US Embassy, Buenos Aires, to Secretary of developments may have eliminated the last argentina-defector-says.html?pagewanted=all. State. “Argentina Hosts Ministerial in best chance to indict those responsible for Preparation for Arab-South American the bombing. Sheinin, David M. K. Summit.” February 29, 2008. 2012 “Reading Kissinger’s Avatars: Cold War 08BUENOSAIRES259_a, https://wikileaks. Pragmatism in Argentina’s Middle East org/plusd/cables/08BUENOSAIRES259_a. References Policy.” In The New Jewish Argentina: Facets html. of Jewish Experiences in the Southern Cone, Cisneros, Andrés, and Carlos Escudé edited by Adriana Brodsky and Raanan Rein, 263–291. Boston: Brill. 2009 “Las relaciones con los países árabes: El ingreso de la Argentina al Movimiento No Alineado (septiembre de 1973).” Historia general de las relaciones exteriores de la República Argentina, vol. 14. Argentina-rree .com.

38 NOTE ON THE PROFESSION

Interview with David Grantham by Jessica Stites Mor | University of British Columbia, Okanagan | [email protected]

One of the most significant challenges Stites Mor: How did you become interested something with a bigger purpose, a teacher facing would-be scholars of Middle in Latin America? and a minister, and I thought I should do East–Latin American exchange is the lack something like that myself. I also played of formal programs of study. Those that Grantham: I grew up on Cuban food, my sports and wanted to do something where I enter this field sometimes are equipped grandfather was from Cuba and my could be physical and stay active. I also with a unique personal background that grandmother was from the states, but they really wanted to travel and see the world, allows them to bridge this gap, but others were both missionaries in the Dominican experience new cultures, and South Dakota have been exceptionally creative to find Republic, where my mother was raised. We was certainly that. I wanted to challenge ways to work from within more traditional joke with my mother that she was Cuban- my assumptions and my thoughts. After programs. Both of these are the case of American, but grew up in the DR and September 11th, it was more complicated, David Grantham, a recent PhD graduate of culturally was very Dominican. She never you have these ideas about what you want Texas Christian University’s program in really felt at home in the U.S. when she first to see and do, but after that point you had history. This interview illustrates the moved there for college, always missed a good idea where you would end up. Or at challenges of this kind of work and offers home. She had lived through the civil war least you knew you would be spending some personal insights into strategies for in the DR, my grandfather had refused to some time in the Middle East. I signed up success. leave, and had many memories of for Reserve Officer Training Corps, which interacting with American soldiers. means I’d come out a second lieutenant and Growing up hearing about the politics of receive better professional instruction. After Stites Mor: Could you tell us a bit about the DR and Trujillo, I took an interest in I served in South Dakota, I deployed twice, your background, David? the region. We were a very politically to Afghanistan, Iraq, and Kuwait in 2006, minded family, we always discussed politics and in 2008 I served in Baghdad. In 2007, I Grantham: I grew up in Tampa, Florida, at the dinner table, and that’s where I moved to Texas, where the AFOSI [Air my mother is from the Caribbean and my became familiar with these topics. My Force Office of Special Investigations] gave father is from Florida, so I had something grandfather’s and my mother’s stories really me a special assignment to work on of a multicultural upbringing. I had fueled my curiosity about the larger technology protection in support of extended family from outside Florida, as histories of the region, not only to Department of Defense contractors in the well, so had a bit of regional diversity, understand my own background, but also Dallas area. My specialty was international different perspectives. I went to a small to understand what was happening there. issues and intelligence, so they sent me to Christian school my entire life. My mother protect our critical technology from being was a Spanish teacher at the school. It was compromised. But at the end of my very small, on the outskirts of downtown Stites Mor: After you were done with required term, I got an email about the Tampa, my graduating class was about 35 school, you joined the service. Did that post-9/11 GI Bill. It is different from the students, a handful of whom had been influence your thinking, as well? earlier GI Bill, and it seemed almost too there since their first days in preschool. I good to be true. It provided more felt like part of the furniture there by the Grantham: I commissioned from the Air extensively for servicemen that have served time I graduated. It was a fantastic school, Force ROTC out of the University of South after 9/11 and included such things as a though, very family oriented, and it felt like Florida in 2004, and when I graduated and living stipend if you are in school full time. classmates were part of a big family. It was got commissioned, I was stationed in South It was state-based, so it is tied in a way to economically and ethnically diverse, Dakota. I had seen snow once in my life, the state where you reside, but in Texas sometimes offered financial assistance to and when I got there, all I had was a that meant it also would pay majority of families that weren’t well off, so I had windbreaker. Within my first week there, your public school tuition and a set amount friends from all walks of life. I am still very my boss literally had to show me how to for private school, and cover your thankful to have gone there, because it zip up a snow coat. When I was graduating textbooks. In particular, the Yellow Ribbon wasn’t a typical Florida regional-district from high school, I thought that I wanted program, which said that if your costs go school experience, it was driven by to grow personally and challenge myself to over a certain amount, the government different motives. work toward something greater than would match any amount that the school myself. My parents had both done would pay over that base amount. This was

39 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

a huge incentive to attend school locally, the military, and I wanted to study Latin American Front” in the Israel-Palestine and Texas Christian University was a American history because of my family conflict. I uncovered that Juan Perón had Yellow Ribbon participant, so it seemed background, and I thought that perhaps significant and complicated relations with like a great option. When I decided to go there was a way in which they interacted Saudi Arabia, Syria, and other countries in back to school, I ended up not having to that could allow me to pursue both. I the region. I also realized that there is a pay a dime to study. found that American Cold War history huge influence of Arabs on Argentina’s sometimes was too focused just on U.S. labor history, among other things. There is foreign policy, so I was inspired to try to quite a bit of cultural history still left to be Stites Mor: What did you study at TCU? push the boundaries, to think about what uncovered. The recent assassination of Latin American and Middle Eastern Alberto Nisman, a prosecutor that was set Grantham: I had a master’s in international countries experienced during the Cold War. to testify that Iran was involved in the relations, and I had thought about going All of those ideas intersected, and I decided bombings of the Israeli Embassy and a back into that kind of work. I wanted to ask how these countries interacted Jewish cultural center in Buenos Aires in something that complemented my master’s, outside of U.S. influence. I was particularly the early 1990s, is a good example of just so I choose TCU because they had a wide interested in the Arab world, and I didn’t how important the Arab-Israeli conflict was selection of modern history courses. When I know what I’d find, it was more of a blind experienced in Argentina. first started it was a bit more exploratory leap. My first stop was Cuba, and it turned and broad. TCU didn’t have a primary field out there was plenty of connection to be for the Middle East, but they did have one found, but my access to documents was Stites Mor: What skills or special training in Latin America. Peter Szok, who is their really very limited in Havana. So I explored did your research require to conduct your modern Latin Americanist, was very further into Central America and finally research? generous in his ability to work with me in looked into Argentina, because there was conjunction with the Middle East professor, quite a bit of material and a fairly Grantham: History as a discipline requires and the board at TCU approved me to have important and rich history of Arab a really in-depth and intimate a field in Latin America and a minor in interactions there, particularly under Juan understanding of its subjects. Despite the Middle East. I was the first student to be Perón. Once I found that, I realized I wasn’t fact that we study the past, history is rarely able to do this. When I went in, I was just up a blind alley, I knew I was onto ever settled. The challenge of conducting ambitious and wanted to do many things, something. research across two regions of the world is and was lucky that I was able to pull that you need to be able to get to a point of together a committee that was willing to being able to understand controversial follow me down this path, even though it Stites Mor: How would you describe your matters in multiple languages and sites. wasn’t in anyone’s specific area. I was able PhD research? There are big gaps and misunderstandings to be a bit more creative, for example that need to be addressed. I was able to taking specialized directed reading classes Grantham: So, I wrote on the Cold War, take an Arabic course at the University of that allowed me to connect these disparate looking beyond the Soviet-U.S. binary, or in Texas at Austin, and there is a large Arabic fields. By the time I got to the stage of my more basic terms, the Cold War through repository of newspapers at the UT Austin dissertation, I’d already been able to the eyes of Latin America and Middle East library. I trained in order to access elaborate a fairly robust bibliography on interaction, the experience outside of the government and Arab League documents the topic. competition between superpowers. I started but I found the availability to be limited. In by finding out that Argentina had a fact, I had a contact in Egypt that visited relationship with the Middle East through the Arab League archives on my behalf. He Stites Mor: How did you come to begin international organizations like the UN and was told that he could review documents your work on Latin America–Middle East the Non-Aligned Movement, but then as I but could not write anything down, could exchange? moved forward I realized that there was a not make copies, and could not photograph much deeper connection, particularly any papers. So short of him trying to recall Grantham: I wanted to study Middle between Argentina and the Levant. I came what he read after leaving the archives, Eastern history because of my experience in to argue that Argentina was the “Latin there was no way to properly review the

40 documents. I can now read Arabic, though Stites Mor: Did your background influence unwarranted compassion. So, I was able to I do rely on dictionaries and sometimes how you approached your sources? read things differently, such as a document translators. I found, though, that having a I found about a Palestinian that had been base-level understanding of the language Grantham: People are always curious about quite hostile to Israel, but I found that by was really fundamental to knowing how to my background in the armed forces or thinking about how that Palestinian had use those supports effectively. going to school at a Christian institution. I been informed, what constituted his have interacted with a lot of officials during knowledge, I could be more sympathetic my time in the military, so I was able to and at least understand on a certain level Stites Mor: What challenges did you face bring a certain kind of skepticism to the what determined his perspective. The same working on this subject? documents than I might not have had was true for stories I read about European otherwise. I was able to be more critical of Jews escaping persecution to what would Grantham: One thing that I faced was that my sources from that perspective. Having become Israel and their participation in the there were so many levels of the topic I had been in intelligence, I often spoke to people forming the country. I developed a sense of chosen, that I had to significantly reduce after they made their public compassion for how peoples’ experience the scope to a much more specific topic. I announcements, so I would always have a informed them, how they saw their lives also got really hammered by my early different interpretation than that which and events, rather than simply judging readers because I was trying to draw would appear in printed sources. It allowed them based on my own understandings. It conclusions without being as well versed in me to know what kind of things to look at also helped me to understand what things each of the two areas as were experts in that went beyond public statements, such being documented were really true. Biblical those fields. That is one reason why I as patterns of behavior and the treatment scripture teaches themes that many times focused on just Argentina within Latin of Arab immigrants to Argentina. I’m run counter to our instincts, that ask you to America and the Levant, Israel, and Egypt proud to have served, but am not blind to engage in behavior that is counter to your in the Middle East, because it allowed me the tendency to pick winners and losers or impulses. With that in mind, in those to find a more workable level of familiarity. to view things as good versus bad; I moments when I might have been Another big challenge is the cost of recognize that these issues are far more distancing myself from something or traveling to more than one research site, complex. I realized that my objective cutting myself off from understanding particularly across more than one region. wasn’t just to criticize a foreign another perspective, I was able to put my Many external funding programs demand government’s policy or a particular U.S. instincts aside to explore further. I think that you stay in residence in the field for administration, but rather to uncover the that encouraged me to think more deeply long periods of time, which was also a enormous complexity these past events. and understand or debate more rigorously. challenge to manage with a family and Veterans sometimes come home a bit related expenses. I also found that a lot of disillusioned, because they lose that sense, programs were fairly restrictive in terms of they experience how much more Stites Mor: What have you done since topics that were eligible. Many required complicated the world is, how much more completion of your PhD? that you follow a very specific kind of intellectually and emotionally rigorous it is topic, such as American foreign policy to understand conflict than they thought it Grantham: I am currently a Senior Fellow during the Cold War, so it was more would be. I’d say my military background at the National Center for Policy Analysis difficult to fit my topic to those programs. was a really important influence on how I in Dallas, which is a think tank that looks Funding at TCU was excellent for graduate dealt with my sources. at primarily free market approaches to students, so I really lived on those internal economic challenges. I was brought on grants. I also found that in publishing my based on my background in history and my findings, sometimes it was more difficult, Stites Mor: And your religious upbringing? national security and economics simply because readers and editors didn’t background. I primarily work on research know quite what to do with this kind of Grantham: While the military offered me a that offers policy recommendations on how research. sense of skepticism, my religious a free market can improve economic upbringing allowed me to maintain an relations and how it can support optimism, a sense of forgiveness and democratic processes. We look at how the

41 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

ON LASA2016

From the LASA2016 Congress Program Co-Chairs

by Ariel C. Armony, co-chair | University of Pittsburgh | [email protected] and Amy Chazkel, co-chair | City University of New York, Queens College | [email protected]

U.S. reacts to new security developments LASA’s 50th anniversary Congress promises individual submissions and papers that are throughout the world, such as the Middle to be the biggest in the association’s history. part of panels): Genders, Feminisms and East. I would not have been able to do this As compared to recent Congresses, the Sexualities; Literary Studies: job without having been in graduate number of submissions has increased Contemporary; Migration, Borders and school. At TCU, I learned how to write, considerably. For example, while last year’s Diasporas; Political Institutions and and more than that, how to write Congress had 1,732 panels and 917 Processes; and Mass Media and Popular effectively, how to use sources. These skills individual papers submitted, there were Culture. The appeal of these themes are essential to what I do now, and I would 2,307 panels and 1,341 individual papers suggests that LASA continues to be a highly not have gained those skills without having submitted for LASA2016. Increased diverse association in terms of disciplinary done my PhD. participation led to the decision to extend interests and one that responds to the Congress to four days. contemporary issues and emerging fields of inquiry even while it continues to honor Stites Mor: Do you have any advice for Track chairs, who volunteer their time and classical fields of study. The social sciences scholars entering this area of study? expertise to evaluate submissions to each and humanities are equally represented in thematic track into which the Congress is the research interests of members. It is also Grantham: The most important thing I divided, assumed their role with a clear that LASA’s membership is deeply and learned was to be creative. Don’t feel wonderful sense of responsibility and meaningfully engaged in interdisciplinary limited by the field. Maybe because I came professionalism, working hard to rank work. In this regard, the Program from a professional background where I numerous submissions. The average Committee is particularly pleased with the was able to be more comfortable taking number of sessions that each set of track way in which this Congress is shaping up. risks, I felt more confident about stepping chairs had to evaluate was 94. Track chairs out of the bounds, experimenting. I was carried out their work in the context of It is also gratifying to see that more than 60 afraid that I might not find mentorship, both this higher than usual number of percent of all proposals for LASA2016 since I wasn’t working within one of the submissions and the limited space in the came from Latin America and other traditional areas, but on the contrary, I New York City venue. To evaluate the non-U.S. regions. Roughly the same found that my professors and mentors were submissions, they applied such criteria as percentage of accepted papers, a little over uniformly excited to encourage me to blaze significance and appeal for the field, 60 percent, are from outside the United my own trail. So, I would say, don’t be coherence, and clarity. The LASA States. This reaffirms the trend that LASA fearful in that situation. But also, be Secretariat, for its part, calculated the is a truly international organization with a realistic; find a question that can allow you percentage of submissions that could be strong presence throughout Latin America. to really explore a topic in depth. accepted to the Congress based on the Specificity helps create useful boundaries to number of available slots, and then LASA Sections have done a terrific job of make a manageable project. established the cut-off for each track based organizing first-rate panels and workshops. on a common acceptance rate. Anyone has Track chairs took to heart the task to access to the full list of selection criteria propose special panels that bring to light Note that track chairs were advised to apply, and the most interesting and cutting-edge David Grantham’s National Center for Policy a detailed description of the several steps of thinking in their subarea of study. Analysis (NCPA) website: http://www.ncpa.org/ the selection process and criteria, which is Particularly interesting has been the about/david-a-grantham#sthash.V7ml3Poh.dpuf. available here: http://lasa.international.pitt excitement about the “LASA at 50” theme. .edu/eng/congress/selectionpaper.asp. We expect a wide range of conversations highlighting some of the most important A quick look at the nature of the trends, debates, and controversies that have submissions reveals their diversity and marked Latin American studies in the last some current trends in the interests of five decades. The proposed sessions not LASA’s membership. Consider, for instance, only take account of the past but also the five thematic tracks that received the reflect upon the future of our field of study. largest number of submissions (including

42 The Congress in New York City will It is important to mention that the feature some unique gems as well. A combination of a large number of conversation between Noam Chomsky and submissions and space limitations in the Greg Grandin will celebrate the 50th New York City venues posed an unusually anniversary of LASA and NACLA and the difficult situation for the LASA Secretariat. 30th anniversary of Chomsky’s Managua Nearly a quarter of submissions could not Lectures. Top diplomats and policy makers be accommodated in the program. Whereas from Cuba and the United States who are space limitations dictated how many presiding over normalization of relations submissions could be included in the between the two countries will discuss this program, the final decision was the result historic process. A panel of leading scholars of a rigorous selection process conducted will reflect upon 50 years of intellectual by experts in each subfield who generously transformation in the study of Latin gave their time to conduct such a complex America and the Caribbean. Prestigious task. While LASA strives for inclusiveness, journalists will examine how their the harsh reality of a popular Congress and profession has contributed to shaping our limited space led to a situation in which a understanding of political, social, cultural, number of submissions could not be and economic issues in the hemisphere. included in the program. As program Two former presidents will consider the co-chairs, we are deeply thankful to our past and present state of democracy in the colleagues, who read carefully through region, and a sitting president will talk scores of individual and panel proposals about his country’s international insertion and evaluated them with an eye toward in a changing global landscape. These are producing a conference of the highest only a few examples of the high-profile quality. We are also thankful to the panel discussions, talks, and public thousands of members who either conversations that will add a distinctive collaborated on wonderful, creative panels touch to the upcoming Congress. or who sent in their individual paper proposals, which will form the basis for In organizing the Congress, much attention four days of intellectual inquiry, artistic has been paid to New York City as the expression, political debate, and collegial Congress site, a city that is inexorably exchange. connected with—and indeed arguably part of—Latin America through migrations, Plurality, diversity, interdisciplinary politics, cultural exchanges, and shared strength, critical approaches, hot histories. Many especially interesting contemporary issues, and evolution of features of the LASA2016 program will be thought are the key elements defining the the result of collaborations between the “LASA at 50” Congress. We will continue association and local universities, cultural working on this one-of-a-kind conference organizations, artists, consulates, NGOs, and will get back in touch with you soon and foundations. The Congress will feature with more updates. an art installation and accompanying panel that explicitly links midcentury New York City with Latin America, and a rich variety of offerings on Latino New York, among other sessions and events.

43 LASA2016 RESERVATION FORM

Organization Name: . Address: . City: State: Zip: Primary Contact: . Title: . Phone & ext. (office): Fax: E-mail: Web-site: FULL EXHIBIT SPACE (10’ x 8’) ☐ $1195 Commercial/ University Press ☐ $1060 each additional commercial ☐ $1120 Charitable Organization ☐ $885 each additional charitable ☐ $608 + $108 (sharing fee) Booth Share ($716 total) Combined booth: One book $100 ☐ Additional $75 ☐ More than five please “Take one” display $168 ☐ contact [email protected] ADVERTISING Deadlines Reservations: March 31, 2016 Materials: April 15, 2016 LASA2016 PROGRAM BOOK FUNDRAISING GALA DINNER PROGRAM ☐ $750 full page ☐ $750 full page ☐ $450 half page ☐ $450 half page ☐ $2025 back cover ☐ $2025 back cover ☐ $2025 inside back cover ☐ $2025 inside back cover ☐ $1500 Inside Front Cover ☐ $1500 Inside Front Cover ADVERTISING PACKAGES ☐ $1400 one page in the LASA2016 ☐ $3950 back cover in the LASA2016 Program Book + one page in the Program Book + back cover in the Fundraising Gala Dinner Program Fundraising Gala Dinner Program ☐ $800 half page in the LASA2016 ☐ $2900 inside front cover in the Program Book + half page in the LASA2016 Program Book + inside front Fundraising Gala Dinner Program cover in the Fundraising Gala Dinner Program MAILING LIST $610 Pre-registrant list (commercial) $475 Pre-registrant list (nonprofit) ☐ ☐ $675 On-site list (commercial) $540 On-site list (nonprofit) ☐ ☐

Payment information Check ☐ Credit Card ☐ Wire Transfer ☐ Amount (check must be American ☐ Visa ☐ MasterCard ☐ Transaction # payable to LASA) Express (Outside USA)

PLEASE INDICATE YOUR BOOTH Card # Exp. Date PREFERENCES: CVV # DATE

Cancellations If an exhibitor is forced to withdraw from participation by January 5, 2016, all sums paid by the exhibitor less a $350 service fee will be refunded. No refunds will be issued after January 5, 2016. Cancellations are not effective until received in writing by LASA. No refund will be made if an exhibitor fails to occupy the space. No refund on late or no arrival of materials. Payment A minimum deposit of 50% of the total booth rental fee is required. Booths Return form to: will not be assigned without the 50% deposit. Failure to remit total payment LASA Book Exhibit for the booth rental by January 5, 2016 constitutes cancellation of the 416 Bellefield Hall contract, and the space will be subject to resale without refund. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh PA 15260.

As the authorized contact for the above organization, I agree Telephone: 412-648-7929 Fax: 412-624-7145 to comply with, and be bound by, the terms of LASA’s Rules and Email: [email protected] / [email protected] Regulations (F).

Printed Name:

Signature:

CALLING ALL MEMBERS

Elections 2016: Nominating Committee Slate

The LASA Nominating Committee presents The Candidates Argentina, Bolivia, Brasil, Ecuador, Chile, the following slate of candidates: two Costa Rica, Guatemala, México, Perú y candidates for vice president and six Raúl L. Madrid Uruguay. candidates for three open positions on the Executive Council (EC). The winning Raúl L. Madrid es profesor en el Es el autor de The Rise of Ethnic Politics candidate for vice president will serve in Departamento de Gobierno de la in Latin America (Cambridge University that capacity from June 1, 2016, to May Universidad de Texas en Austin, donde está Press, 2012) y Retiring the State: The 31, 2017, as president from June 1, 2017, afiliado con el Instituto Lozano Long de Politics of Pension Privatization in Latin to May 31, 2018, and as past president Estudios Latinoamericanos (LLILAS) y el America and Beyond (Stanford, 2003) y es from June 1, 2018 to May 31, 2019. The Centro de Estudios México-Americanos co-editor de Leftist Governments in Latin three winning candidates for EC (CMAS). Raúl ha sido profesor de la America: Successes and Shortcomings membership will serve a two-year term Universidad de Texas-Austin desde 1999. (Cambridge, 2010). También es autor de from June 1, 2016, to May 31, 2018. Recibió su BA (1985) en la Universidad de Overexposed: U.S. Banks Confront the Yale y su MA (1995) y Ph.D. (1999) en la Third World Debt Crisis (Westview, 1992) Universidad de Stanford. y es co-autor de U.S. Arms Exports: Nominees for Vice President Policies and Contractors (Ballinger, 1988). Antes de cursar estudios de posgrado, él se Sus artículos han aparecido en Raul L. Madrid desempeñó como voluntario del Cuerpo de Comparative Politics, Electoral Studies, University of Texas at Austin Paz en zonas rurales de Costa Rica y como Journal of Latin American Studies, Latin Aldo Panfichi Huamán analista en el Centro de Investigaciones American Politics and Society, Latin Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú para Inversiones Con Responsabilidad American Research Review, Political Social en Washington, DC. Science Quarterly, Political Studies, y World Politics, entre otras revistas. Ha Nominees for Executive Council Actualmente él trabaja en un libro sobre los recibido becas de investigación de la orígenes de la democracia en América National Science Foundation y el Institute Jo-Marie Burt Latina basado en gran parte en fuentes de for the Study of World Politics, así como de George Mason University archivo, incluidos los textos de los debates la Universidad de Stanford y la Universidad Eduardo Dargent Bocanegra legislativos sobre las reformas, periódicos de Texas en Austin. Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú de la época, y cartas y memorias de los participantes claves. La investigación trata Raúl Madrid ha sido miembro activo Claudia Ferman de explicar el surgimiento de leyes que durante muchos años en la Asociación de University of Richmond aseguraron elecciones razonablemente Estudios Latinoamericanos, participando Jane Landers libres y justas en América Latina a finales en todos los congresos de LASA celebrado Vanderbilt University del siglo 19 y principios del siglo 20. Sus en las últimas dos décadas. Se desempeñó libros anteriores exploraron el ascenso de como Co-coordinador del Programa del Diego Sánchez-Ancochea los partidos indígenas en los países andinos, Congreso de LASA 2014 en Chicago. University of Oxford el desempeño de los gobiernos de izquierda También sirvió como editor asociado de Daniela Spenser en América Latina, y la privatización de la LARR (2004–2006) y como miembro del CIESAS/Mexico City seguridad social en la región. Su comité de selección del Premio Literario investigación es interdisciplinaria por Bryce Wood (2007). Fue miembro del naturaleza, basándose en el trabajo de los consejo asesor del Archivo Electrónico de historiadores sobre los orígenes de la Datos Latinoamericanos (2008–2012) y del democracia, el trabajo de antropólogos y Proyecto de Recursos de Investigación sociólogos en áreas de política indígena y el Latinoamericanista (2008–2014). trabajo de economistas en el tema de la privatización de las pensiones. Ha llevado a Además de su trabajo de enseñanza y cabo investigaciones de campo en responsabilidades administrativas, Raúl ha

45 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

supervisado o co-supervisado 15 disciplinaria no basta si no logramos afiliados. Podemos construir una base de disertaciones de doctorado en U.T. Austin, reafirmar y expandir los logros alcanzados datos para facilitar la búsqueda de puestos y se ha desempeñado como miembro de hasta ahora para atraer investigadores de de trabajo y becas para nuestros miembros. otro 35 comités de doctorado. También ha grupos sub-representados: estudiantes, Debemos ampliar el número de talleres supervisado 20 tesis de maestría y 17 de académicos independientes y en posiciones sobre publicación e investigación que se tesis de licenciatura. En 2012, ganó el sin permanencia, e intelectuales indígenas y ofrecen durante los congresos y se debe primer premio anual de profesor afrolatinos. crear un programa de mentores para sobresaliente otorgado por los estudiantes apoyar a los investigadores jóvenes. Por de postgrado del Departamento de LASA también debe tratar de aumentar sus último, LASA también podría ampliar el Gobierno de la Universidad de Texas en miembros fuera de los Estados Unidos, número de opciones de publicación Austin. especialmente en América Latina, pero disponibles para los latinoamericanistas, también en Europa y Asia. Debemos patrocinando la creación de nuevas revistas Madrid Statement continuar organizando algunos de nuestros electrónicas. LASA es una gran asociación y en los congresos fuera de los Estados Unidos lo últimos cincuenta años ha crecido en forma que nos ayuda a aumentar nuestra Obviamente, muchas de estas actividades significativa. Sin embargo, podemos aún visibilidad y presencia en el extranjero y a cuestan dinero. Por ello, debemos seguir hacer mucho para mejorarla. En los afianzar la composición internacional de trabajando para expandir la dotación de próximos años LASA debe revitalizar sus nuestra membresía. LASA y obtener subvenciones especiales. congresos, aumentar sus recursos También tenemos que buscar la manera de tecnológicos, ampliar y diversificar aún más LASA también necesita expandir las ser aún más eficientes. LASA tiene la suerte su base de socios, y ofrecerles a éstos más actividades académicas que realiza entre de contar con personal administrativo oportunidades de desarrollo profesional. congresos. Debemos robustecer y difundir emprendedor e infatigable, quienes mejor las actividades de las secciones de constantemente buscan formas de ahorrar Nuestros congresos son la función más LASA y asignar recursos para las recursos. Ejemplo claro de ello es la importante de LASA y tenemos que actividades que ellas patrocinen. Es increíble App del programa que LASA ha asegurarnos que sigan siendo relevantes necesario ampliar el uso de las redes diseñado para los últimos congresos. LASA para académicos establecidos e sociales para mantener a nuestros también tiene la suerte de tener una investigadores que están comenzando sus miembros informados e interesados en las membresía brillante y comprometida que carreras. Debemos esforzarnos para atraer actividades de la asociación. A través de las está generando continuamente nuevas ideas a nuestros congresos a los intelectuales más redes, LASA puede llegar a ser un puente para fortalecer nuestra misión. Trabajando prominentes de la región. Hay que para una nueva generación de juntos podemos construir una asociación incrementar las becas del viaje de modo investigadores que trabaja en aislamiento aún más vibrante, inclusiva y productiva la que LASA pueda permanecer abierta a de otras disciplinas y sin posibilidad de que pueda ayudar a estimular el nuevas ideas y accesible a todos. Es entablar colaboraciones internacionales. surgimiento de una generación futura de necesario también promover paneles, intelectuales, investigadores y activistas talleres e iniciativas de investigación LASA debiera también crear una base de comprometidos con la región. interdisciplinaria para que nuestros socios datos con las áreas de especialización de sean expuestos a ideas y metodologías sus socios que sea accesible a las fuera de sus disciplinas. fundaciones, centros de investigación, y medios de comunicación. Nuestros Es importante también expandir la miembros constituyen la base del liderazgo membresía de LASA, acercándonos a intelectual de la región y LASA debe jugar académicos en disciplinas y áreas que un mayor rol promoviendo sus últimamente no han estado bien competencias académicas. representadas: por ejemplo, los estudios del Caribe, economía, lingüística, y las ciencias LASA también puede hacer más en de la información. Pero la diversidad términos del desarrollo profesional de sus

46 Aldo Panfichi Huamán Análisis de casos en América Latina y la agencies, including the Latin American Unión Europea (Barcelona: Octaedro Program of the Open Society Foundation Aldo Panfichi Huamán is professor of Editorial, 2014, with Mariana Alvarado); and the Andean and Southern Cone Office sociology at the Pontificia Universidad Lima, siglo XX: Cultura, socialización y of the Ford Foundation. Catolica del Perú (PUCP), and president of cambio, coeditor, with Carlos Aguirre the 2017 Centennial Commission of that (PUCP 2013); “Contentious Representation He has been an active member of LASA institution. He has a PhD in sociology from and Its Impact in Contemporary Peru,” in since his graduate student days and has the New School for Social Research and John Crabtree, ed., Fractured Politics: participated on panels and in round tables an MA and BA in social sciences with Peruvian Democracy Past and Present in at least ten international Congresses. concentration in sociology from the PUCP. (University of London, 2011); “Identity and Since 2005 he has served on a number of He has lived for four years in Santiago de Rivalry: The Football Clubs and Barras LASA committees, including being chair of Chile and six years in the United States. He Bravas in Peru,” in Rory Miller and Liz the Martin Diskin Memorial Lectureship has been a visiting scholar at the David Crolley, eds., Football in the Americas: and Dissertation committees, co-chair of Rockefeller Center for Latin American Fútbol, Futebol, Soccer (University of the selection committee for the Flora Studies at Harvard University, a visiting London, 2007, with Jorge Thieroldt); La Tristan Book Prize (Peru Section), member professor at the Universidad del País Vasco, disputa por la construcción democrática en of the Bryce Wood Award Committee for Program on International Migration, in América Latina, coeditor with Evelina best book published on Latin America, and Spain, and a guest lecturer at various Dagnino and Alberto Olvera (Fondo de track chair for “Social Movements and universities in Latin America. Cultura Económica, 2006), and Sociedad Civil Society in Latin America.” civil, esfera pública y democratización en Dr. Panfichi’s research interests include América Latina,vol. 1: Andes y Cono Sur Panfichi Statement urban politics and political representation, [Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Perú], I have been a member of LASA since my social movements and conflicts, and sports coordinador (Fondo de Cultura graduate student days in the early 1990s, and society. He has published over 50 Económica, 2003). and have participated actively in several books, book chapters and articles in commissions and sections as well as in publications in Latin America, the United Dr. Panfichi also has broad experience in most of the international Congresses since States, and Europe. He is active in various teaching and university governance, having that time. In this period, I have witnessed national and international academic been chair of the Social Science not only the amazing growth and diversity networks, including FLACSO and Department, president of the Center for in LASA membership but also the CLACSO as well as LASA, and his work Research in Sociology, Economics, Politics globalization of the study of Latin America has often taken a regional perspective. He and Anthropology (CISEPA), and and the Caribbean in universities and has participated in comparative research coordinator of the Master’s Program in research centers that I have had the fortune projects with colleagues at universities and Political Science, all at the PUCP. He was to visit around the world. academic centers in Argentina, Brazil, also director of the Network for the Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Development of the Social Sciences in Peru, As a Latin American, native of Peru and the Ecuador, Mexico, Venezuela, the United involving the Universidad del Pacífico, Andes, it fills me with satisfaction to see States, Holland, and the United Kingdom. PUCP, and the Instituto de Estudios this community grow so far beyond its Peruanos. In 2015 the Peruvian Ministry of origins 50 years ago, in U.S.-based area His recent publications include: “Formas Culture invited him to form part of the studies centers and exchange programs. It emergentes de representación política en el Jury for the prestigious Premio Nacional de is exciting to see new generations of Latin Perú del siglo XXI,” in Silvia Gómez Tagle, Cultura. He appears frequently on Peruvian Americans involved in collaborative ed., Alternativas para la democracia en television, radio, and in print media, where research with colleagues from neighboring América Latina (México: El Colegio de he is called upon to give scholarly opinions countries and from North America, but México, 2015); “Crecimiento y exclusión: on social, political, and cultural issues. In also from as far away as China and Japan. La calidad de la democracia en Perú,” in addition to his academic work and media Giorgio Alberti, ed., Movimientos e presence, he has been a consultant to While the expansion of LASA is seen most instituciones y la calidad de la democracia: various foundations and development graphically in our now-annual Congresses,

47 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

behind that lies the hard work of many with the U.S. still find it difficult to travel society responses to violence and violent people all year round. LASA members from for scholarly purposes. The universities in actors. This was the subject of her 2007 different generations, disciplines, and our region have many talented scholars and book Silencing Civil Society: Political origins contribute to making this more than students eager to join an organization like Violence and the Authoritarian State in just a professional association and more of ours as a way of sharing their own work Peru (Palgrave Macmillan), which received a community, with a shared identity despite and broadening their horizons. In order to an Honorable Mention for the WOLA- our differences. Members of LASA have make this possible, I believe it is essential to Duke Book Award for Human Rights in been my professors, study partners and hold more LASA meetings in our region. I Latin America, and which was published in coauthors, students, and former students. also consider it fundamental to expand Spanish as Violencia y autoritarismo en el But beyond those LASA members who each participation in LASA book fairs to more Perú: Bajo la sombra de Sendero y la of us personally know, I think we all Latin American university and professional dictadura de Fujimori (Instituto de Estudios consider ourselves colleagues in the presses, and to promote more regional and Peruanos, 2009; 2nd expanded edition, ongoing effort to understand and global distribution of our publications. 2011). She is also coeditor of Politics in the contribute to this beautiful and complex Andes: Identity, Conflict, Reform region. As LASA prepares to celebrate a half (University of Pittsburgh Press, 2004). century of promoting academic and My vision of LASA in the years ahead is as cultural exchange across the Americas and Currently, Dr. Burt’s research focuses on an association that will continue to beyond, it would be an honor for me to human rights, transitional justice, and promote multidisciplinary, transnational, help expand and deepen our membership historical memory. She has been an and multicultural exchanges. Given the and our commitment to progressive change international observer to the trials of challenges facing all of our countries today, in the years ahead. former heads of state Alberto Fujimori in I hope to see further involvement by Peru and Efraín Rios Montt in Guatemala colleagues in the natural sciences and and has written extensively in scholarly and environmentalism. Our region faces threats Jo-Marie Burt journalistic outlets about these proceedings to its biodiversity, its land and water and their significance locally and globally. supplies, and to its many native and Jo-Marie Burt is associate professor of Dr. Burt directs an ongoing research project indigenous peoples whose ancestral lands political science at George Mason monitoring domestic prosecutions of and lifestyles are at risk. In many parts of University, where she has taught since human rights violations in Peru, which was our countries, human rights and civil 2000. For the past four years she has launched with support from the LASA liberties remain a challenge to guarantee served as director of Latin American studies Otros Saberes Initiative. She is also a for all. When I think of LASA, I think of at GMU. Between 2010 and 2014, she was consultant on a two-year project with the people who are not only scholars but also codirector of the Center for Global Studies, Due Process of Law Foundation working progressives in the broadest sense, who and between 2007 and 2009, she was with practitioners of transitional justice in speak out about injustices and work to associate chair for undergraduate studies at Guatemala, El Salvador, and Peru, and change these societies. the Department of Public and International developing the research and advocacy Affairs. She is also a Senior Fellow at the capacity of civil society organizations Given my own vantage point, working in a Washington Office on Latin America engaged in strategic litigation for grave Latin American university, I also believe (WOLA), where she engages in research- crimes cases. Dr. Burt is completing a that it is necessary for LASA to incorporate based advocacy about human rights and manuscript entitled Guilty as Charged: The more colleagues from the different transitional justice in the region. She is Fujimori Trial and Its Significance for countries in South and Central America currently serving a second term as co-chair Global Justice, and she is working on and the Caribbean, especially younger of the Peru Section of LASA, and she is an another manuscript that traces transitional scholars and public university faculty who individual member of the Latin American justice efforts in Peru and Guatemala, do not have the resources to travel to the Transitional Justice Network. exploring the conditions that made United States or Europe with ease. This high-profile trials like the Fujimori and includes new generations of Cubans, who Dr. Burt’s early research focused on state Rios Montt trials possible, as well as the despite recent changes in their relations and insurgent violence in Peru, and civil

48 challenges of overcoming impunity in Report on the Americas. In 2002 and 2003, the Special Projects Funds, the Otros postconflict societies. she was a researcher for the Peruvian Truth Saberes Initiative, and travel grants to and Reconciliation Commission. She has facilitate broad participation in the annual Dr. Burt has received grants and fellowships been an expert witness for human rights Congress. In my case, I was the recipient of from Open Society Foundations, the United cases before the Peruvian courts as well as an Otros Saberes grant, which supported a States Institute of Peace, the Aspen the Inter-American Court for Human collaborative research project I developed Institute, the John D. and Catherine T. Rights. Dr. Burt is a member of the with the Coordinadora Nacional de MacArthur Foundation, the Inter-American Advisory Board of the Peruvian Forensic Derechos Humanos in Peru. We developed Foundation, the Latin American Studies Anthropology Team (EPAF) in Peru and the this project in response to a growing Association Otros Saberes Initiative, the International Advisory Board of the Luz concern that despite some very important Tinker Foundation, the Institute for the Ibarburu Observatory for Human Rights transitional justice successes—including the Study of World Politics, and the Thomas J. Investigations in Uruguay. In 2011, the 2009 conviction of former president of Watson Foundation. In 1988–1989, she Government of Peru recognized Dr. Burt Peru Alberto Fujimori for human rights was an International Human Rights Fellow with the Award in Merit, in the Grade of violations—judicial efforts in other grave of the Institute for International Education/ Grand Official, for Distinguished Service in crimes cases were stumbling. No one was Ford Foundation and worked at the Defense of Democracy, Rule of Law, and collecting systematic data about the status Servicio Paz y Justicia in Montevideo, the Promotion of Human Rights in Peru. of these cases. The Human Rights Trials in Uruguay, where she collaborated with and She holds a PhD in political science from Peru Project developed a database to track documented the campaign to overturn the Columbia University. and monitor human rights prosecutions in 1986 amnesty law. In 2006, she was a order to document the scope of Fulbright scholar at the Pontifical Catholic Burt Statement accountability efforts in postconflict Peru, University of Peru (PUCP). In 2010, she I’m honored to have been invited to be a detect trends, and identify problem areas returned to the PUCP as the Alberto Flores candidate for the LASA Executive Council. around which advocacy could be focused. Galindo Visiting Professor at the I have been a member of LASA since 1991, The project also monitors trials in specific Department of Social Sciences and taught a when I was a graduate student. LASA has cases, continues its advocacy work, and has course on comparative transitional justice been critical to my professional published articles in numerous print and processes. development, but not only as a space to online media outlets in Peru and present new research, to learn about the internationally. Dr. Burt has commented frequently on research of colleagues, and to network. It is Latin American politics for various national all these things, but it is far more: LASA is As a member of the LASA Executive and international news media, including an epistemic community that has helped Council, I would seek to strengthen and BBC World News, CNN, the New York me, and scholars and practitioners across expand initiatives such as Otros Saberes. Times, Time, the Washington Post, the the globe, connect to each other and Such programs provide unique Christian Science Monitor, Al Jazeera, maintain critical, vibrant dialogues about opportunities for collaborative research Democracy Now, El País, and Pacifica the field of Latin American studies, to think and for building connections between Radio, as well as print and electronic media critically about our role as researchers and scholars and activist and practitioner in several Latin American countries. She how we can make our research relevant in communities. Otros Saberes in particular is has authored articles in the Nation, the socially significant ways, and to develop critical in recognizing, developing, and Huffington Post, Truth-Out, Foreign Policy collaborations that are productive and incorporating competencies and in Focus, Open Democracy, NACLA meaningful. knowledges that exist beyond traditional Report on the Americas, and in Peruvian academic settings, and creating newspapers such as La República, El LASA is important to me because it actively opportunities for our members to produce Comercio, and Diario 16, among others. promotes the production of research of actionable research and more integrated consequence, research with real social theoretical understandings of complex Between 1995 and 2000, Dr. Burt was significance, and it has done so by social realities. associated editor and then editor of the developing innovative initiatives that have English-language magazine, NACLA benefited hundreds of its members, such as

49 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

As a member of the Executive Council, I económicas en Colombia y Perú, Dargent Statement would also endeavor to strengthen LASA’s contrastando esta mayor solidez con la Descubrí la importancia de los estudios existing partnerships, and develop new relativa debilidad de las tecnocracias en latinoamericanos en mis primeros años de ones, with universities, think tanks, and salud de ambos países. El libro Technocracy estudio en la Pontificia universidad academic associations based in Latin and Democracy in Latin America: The Católica del Perú donde muchos cursos America. Such partnerships can generate Experts Running Government (Cambridge situaban el caso peruano en un contexto new opportunities for meaningful research University Press) basado en dicha tesis fue regional más amplio. Luego, en la and collaboration. I would focus on publicado en enero de 2015. Comisión Andina de Juristas, ONG reaching out to new constituencies, especializada en temas de justicia y particularly the new generations of Latin Inició su carrera como investigador en la derechos humanos, confirmé este interés en American students. Sustaining such Comisión Andina de Juristas (2000–2001), los estudios regionales. Situar el Perú en el partnerships requires generating ways of ONG especializada en justicia y derechos contexto histórico, social y político de interacting and engaging in intellectual humanos en la región andina. Del 2003 al América Latina ha estado en el centro de exchanges beyond the annual meeting. 2004 fue abogado del Estado en la mi trabajo desde entonces. Por ello, ser Technology could be put to more effective Procuraduría Ad-Hoc para el Caso elegido miembro del Comité Ejecutivo de use in this regard to construct meaningful Fujimori-Montesinos. Ha escrito los libros LASA, una institución que tiene por networks and collaborations. For example, Demócratas precarios: Elites y debilidad objetivo fomentar el estudio de la región y LASA could develop a series of thematic democratica en el Peru y America Latina el diálogo interdisciplinario entre working groups that engage in more (Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, 2009), El académicos y activistas, sería un honor que structured exchanges and research Estado en el Perú: Una agenda de asumiría con gran responsabilidad. collaborations in an ongoing way investigación (Escuela de Gobierno y throughout the year. Políticas Públicas PUCP, 2013) y el ya Aposté por la Universidad de Texas en mencionado Technocracy and Democracy. Austin para realizar mis estudios doctorales I am currently serving my second term as Asimismo, ha publicado artículos en en ciencia política precisamente por la co-chair of the Peru section. I have revistas como Comparative Politics, Journal fortaleza de su programa en política expanded the use of new social media to of Latin American Studies, Journal of comparada, su amplia comunidad de generate new members and facilitate Politics in Latin America y Revista de expertos en América Latina y sus recursos section communications, and steered Ciencia Política, entre otras, y en una serie para el estudio de la región. Además de la fundraising efforts to fund travel of more de volúmenes editados, el más reciente Perú dimensión académica, en esta universidad young researchers and graduate students to in Theory (Paulo Drinot, ed., Palgrave existe un amplio diálogo entre alumnos, attend the annual Congress. It would be an Macmillan, 2014). profesores, activistas y en general cualquier honor to continue serving LASA as a interesado en la región, que resultó muy member of the Executive Council. En la actualidad es co-presidente de la positivo en mi formación. LASA es un Sección Perú de LASA y miembro del espacio central para promover este tipo de Comité Ejecutivo (2015–2017) de la diálogo en forma mucho más amplia. Eduardo Dargent Bocanegra Asociación Latinoamericana de Ciencia Política (ALACIP). Asimismo, es miembro He tenido en estos años la suerte de Eduardo Dargent (Lima, 1974) es profesor del Consejo Editorial de la Revista Política conocer diversas comunidades de asociado de ciencia política y director de la y Gobierno del Centro de Investigación y investigación en temas latinoamericanos y Maestría de Ciencia Política en la Pontificia Docencia Económicas (CIDE). Sus temas de valoro lo que estas asociaciones aportan a Universidad Católica del Perú. Estudio investigación son la política de las políticas nuestro trabajo y la sociedad. Además de derecho en la PUCP (BA), filosofía política públicas, el Estado, economía política y LASA, soy miembro de la Asociación en la Universidad de York, UK (MA) y partidos políticos. Actualmente viene Latinoamericana de Ciencia Política y parte tiene un PhD en gobierno (ciencia política) desarrollando una investigación comparada de su Comité Ejecutivo. Del mismo modo, en la Universidad de Texas en Austin. En su sobre la universidad pública en la región participo desde su inicio en la Red para el tesis doctoral estudia la fortaleza y Andina. Estudio de la Economía Política en America permanencia de las tecnocracias Latina (REPAL). Este rico diálogo

50 interdisciplinario, que evita los excesos y Claudia Ferman the University of Richmond, which has limitaciones de la especialización, es uno de experienced a continuous growth since its los aspectos que más valoro en el trabajo I hold a joint appointment at the inception. I created, and directed for many académico y de mi pertenencia a LASA. Department of Latin American, Latino and years, a Summer Abroad Program in Iberian Studies, and the Film Studies Cordoba City, Argentina, which is still an En mi propio trabajo he logrado realizar Interdisciplinary Program at the University innovative and quite healthy program. I estudios a profundidad sobre mi país y of Richmond. I studied literature at the have taught courses and seminars on Latin Colombia. He desarrollado contactos y Universidad de Buenos Aires and have a American literature and film, some of amistades con académicas y académicos de doctorate degree in Latin American which were coordinated with university ese país y más recientemente también en literature from Arizona State University. and community-wide events. Among these Chile. Actualmente estoy realizando dos I have developed a career as a are: “Political Action and Latin American investigaciones comparadas, una sobre la documentarian that combines my studies of Indigenous Film”; “Sex, Drugs, and Rock universidad pública en la Región Andina y literature and culture with the film medium. ’n’ Roll: Contemporary Writing in Latin otra más acotada sobre el impacto My research has mainly focused on Central America”; “Constructions of Identity,” a diferenciado del boom de recursos en American literature as well as on current National Endowment-sponsored seminar actividades ilegales en Bolivia y Perú. trends in Latin American literature and and lecture series; “Latin America Through Asimismo, conozco de cerca el trabajo de cinema, especially documentary cinema. I Film”; “2001: Truth in the Lens,” an ONG’s vinculadas al tema de la democracia have produced and directed documentaries International Symposium and Film Festival; y los derechos humanos, temas centrales examining the relations between print and “Latin American Film / Latin America para nuestra asociación. writing, digital culture, and film, which I as Subject of Film,” a seminar and film call “videolits.” These films concern the series sponsored by the Tucker-Boatwright Como miembro del comité organizador, writings of Ernesto Cardenal (Nicaragua), Festival of the Arts and NEH. pude contribuir al buen desarrollo de la Rigoberta Menchú (Guatemala), Alberto Octava Conferencia de la Asociación Fuguet and Sergio Gómez (Chile), Mariana As a LASA member, I was cofounder of the Latinoamericana de Ciencia Política Enríquez (Argentina), and Leonardo Film Studies Section (2002) and chaired the (ALACIP), llevado a cabo en la Pontificia Padura and Pedro Juan Gutiérrez (Cuba). section twice. I have participated in this Universidad Católica el año pasado. Uno These documentaries, for which I have section up until the present. I have de mis intereses de participar en el Comité received several recognitions, have been organized sessions and roundtables, Ejecutivo de LASA es colaborar con el shown at numerous venues: festivals, presented papers and workshops at the éxito de LASA 2017 en Lima. Considero museums, congresses, classrooms, and LASA Congresses, served in the LASA que nuestra asociación tiene mucho que special functions in Latin America and the Media Award Committee, and edited a ganar al profundizar su presencia en la United States. I am currently working on a dossier on Latin American film in the región y realizar algunas de nuestras film about Roberto Bolaño’s oeuvre. LASA Forum. Since 2003, I have been conferencias en universidades de América Among other distinctions, I have been directing and programming the LASA Film Latina es una forma de lograrlo. awarded fellowships from Fulbright-Hays Festival, which takes place concurrently Program, the Rockefeller Foundation, and with the Congress. Before becoming LASA Aspiro desde el Comité Ejecutivo de LASA the Virginia Foundation for the Humanities Film Festival director, I was awarded the a seguir contribuyendo a esta construcción at different points in my career. LASA Award for Merit in film three times de redes y diálogo amplio entre diversos for my documentary series “videolits.” My actores de la región. Estaría feliz de apoyar At the University of Richmond, I work organizing the LASA festival has been en este esfuerzo. contributed to the creation of the prompted by the conviction that the digital Department of Latin American and Iberian revolution has inaugurated forms of Studies (formerly the Spanish Section of the intellectual production, as well as means Modern Languages and Literatures for its transmission and dissemination of Department), and I was its first chair. I was great democratic potential and educational also instrumental in the creation of the power. Since the first edition I organized Interdisciplinary Film Studies Program at (Las Vegas), the LASA Festival has been

51 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

oriented toward building bridges between experiences, both personally and and educational capacity. My aspiration is Latin American audiovisual production, professionally. In the context of this to bring my experience in the field of academic activity, and the university plurality I am interested in supporting audiovisual communication to contribute classroom. The festival has consistently strategies so that LASA, its Congresses, to the strengthening and energizing of shown the many social, environmental, publications, and radius of action might be LASA, extending the benefits that the ethnical, cultural, and political complexities a more receptive and proactive space for institution and its Congress bring today to of the region through well-researched virtual communities and networks to its membership to other people in the documentation and high-quality create, share, or exchange information. region, promoting greater democratization filmmaking, and has been able to present This would include initiatives such as and access to the various saberes created in not only emergent social struggles and the digital and hybrid scholarship, and about the region. new trends in the work of community participation in social media, and Open organizations, but also the direct testimony Access. of some of its protagonists. When possible, Jane Landers directors, community organizers, and In each Congress, debates emerge on protagonists have attended the festival in critical questions regarding Latin American Jane Landers is the Gertrude Conaway connection with the presentation of their reality, past and present. Such discussions Vanderbilt Professor of History at productions. The LASA Film Festival has in sessions, workshops, precongress Vanderbilt University in Nashville, consistently grown in quality and relevance, sessions, roundtables, lectures, section Tennessee, where she served as associate and today it constitutes an integral part of meetings, ad hoc meetings, discussions in dean of the College of Arts and Science, LASA Congresses. corridors and bars, continue to resound grants officer for the Vanderbilt well after the end of the Congress International Office, and twice as director Ferman Statement throughout the length and breadth of our of the Center for Latin American Studies, a LASA has been the professional Americas. This breadth, flexibility, and Title VI Center funded by the Department organization in which I have always felt richness that the LASA Congresses offer of Education (DOE). Landers also directed represented and into which, almost every year must be preserved, without a four multiyear DOE/Fund for the exclusively, I have devoted my efforts and doubt, but we must also find ways of Improvement of Postsecondary Education conducted my professional activity. LASA promoting and extending them from one student exchange programs with Brazilian is a unique organization in many senses, Congress to another, and throughout the universities (USP, UFBa, UFRGS, UFPe), since interdisciplinarity is not its enunciated continent, reaching ambits and peoples that that exchanged over 50 students and ideal but an intrinsic part of its do not participate in the Congress or that produced two student-authored constitution. Congress participants are not are not even aware of the existence of this publications. Landers created a Brazilian only academics but also activists, institution and its Congresses. studies minor at Vanderbilt and is now indigenous organizations, film directors, codirector of Vanderbilt’s recently awarded community organizers, graduate students, LASA has enormous potential for Abdias Nascimento project grant from the musicians, librarians, artists, politicians, promoting ideas, disseminating information Brazilian government. Landers also created poets, writers, journalists, editors, collected in research of the highest the Circum-Atlantic Studies Seminar at representatives of academic and academic level, establishing avenues of Vanderbilt and has directed it since its nonacademic presses and foundations, etc., dialogue between different social actors, inception coming from everywhere in the Americas as and energizing academic circles. These also well as from Europe, and other parts of the have enormous educative potential, which Raised in the Dominican Republic, Landers world. These are realities and experiences can be broadened thanks to the new is an historian of colonial Latin America of a very distinct nature that rub shoulders communicative forms offered by the digital and the Atlantic world, specializing in the in every Congress, offering opportunities era (platforms, social media, streaming, history of Africans and their descendants in for dialogue that transcend disciplines, Open Access). I am interested in those worlds. She directs the Ecclesiastical countries, interest groups, organizations, participating in the LASA Executive and Secular Sources for Slave Societies institutions, and individuals. I feel fully Council precisely in order to promote Database, which is preserving the oldest identified with this plurality of voices and actions to multiply LASA’s communicative serial records for Africans and their

52 descendants in the Americas (http://www. American Historical Review, Slavery and important cultural and historic sites of vanderbilt.edu/esss/index.php). She and her Abolition, New West Indian Guide, The African history in the Americas. teams have preserved records of more than Americas, Colonial Latin American one million Africans and their descendants Historical Review, Journal of African Landers Statement in Brazil, Cuba, Colombia and Spanish American History, and a variety of Having attended LASA meetings since Florida dating from the sixteenth to the anthologies and edited volumes, including graduate school days, I am deeply honored nineteenth centuries, which are now online Cuban, Mexican, and Colombian to be nominated for the Executive for public use. She is the author of Atlantic publications. Her research has been Committee of the largest and most Creoles in the Age of Revolutions (Harvard supported by the Guggenheim Foundation, internationally diverse organization University Press, 2010) which was awarded the National Endowment for the devoted to Latin American studies. My the Rembert Patrick Book Award and Humanities, the American Council of interdisciplinary MA at the University of honorary mention for the Conference on Learned Societies, the Andrew W. Mellon Miami and five years of social work in that Latin American History’s 2011 Bolton Foundation, and the British Library city led me to the University of Florida, Johnson Prize for the best English-language Endangered Archives Programme. where my good fortune was to become the book on any aspect of Latin American historian for an interdisciplinary history. Her first monograph Black Society Landers has served as president of the investigation of Gracia Real de Santa in Spanish Florida (University of Illinois Conference on Latin American History, the Teresa de Mose in Spanish Florida, the first Press, 1999) was awarded the Frances B. Forum on European Expansion and Global free black town in what is today the United Simkins Prize for Distinguished First Book Interaction, and the Latin American and States. This project allowed me the chance in Southern History and was a CHOICE Caribbean Section of the Southern to work with archaeologists of the Outstanding Academic Title. Landers Historical Association. She has held other Caribbean, museum curators, education coauthored the college textbook The elected positions in those organizations and specialists, schoolteachers, documentarians, Atlantic World: A History, 1400–1888 in the American Historical Association. She government institutions, and the engaged (Harlan Davidson, 2007) and edited has served on the editorial boards of The public to bring the site’s story to life. This Colonial Plantations and Economy in Americas, Colonial Latin American Review, formative experience shaped my academic Florida (University Press of Florida, 2000,) and Slavery and Abolition. She has also career and since then I have been dedicated and Against the Odds: Free Blacks in the served as an historical consultant on not only to academic production but to Slave Societies of the Americas (Frank Cass, archaeological investigations, museum public outreach and engagement, bringing 1996). She also coedited Slaves, Subjects exhibits, and documentary films on the the lesser-known history of Africans in and Subversives: Blacks in Colonial Latin African experience in the Americas, Latin America into school curricula, America (University of New Mexico Press, including most recently, the PBS museums, documentaries, and digital 2006), and The African American Heritage documentary, “The African Americans: humanities, to reach the broadest audience of Florida (University Press of Florida, Many Rivers to Cross,” winner of the 2014 possible. This work has allowed me to 1995), which won the Rembert Patrick George Foster Peabody Award and 2014 engage with scholars from Colombia, Book Award and a commendation from the Emmy, Outstanding Historical Program. Mexico, Brazil, the Dominican Republic, American Society for State and Local She is on the advisory board of the Studies Cuba, Chile, and Argentina who also work History. She is currently working on three in the History of the African Diaspora on their country’s African heritage. Over monographs: “A View from the Other Side: African Biography Database, hosted at the the years I have also been deeply involved The Saint Domingue Revolution through Harriet Tubman Institute for Research on in administration, grant writing, program Spanish Sources,” which she delivered as the Global Diaspora of African Peoples, building, international student and faculty the 2015 Nathan I. Huggins Lectures at York University, Toronto. In 2015 she was exchanges, digital humanities, and public Harvard University; “African Kingdoms, appointed to a three-year term as the U.S. outreach. I would use my experience to Black Republics and Free Black Towns in member of UNESCO’s International advance LASA’s goals and international the Iberian Atlantic”; and “Atlantic Scientific Committee for the Slave Route visibility. I am, by nature, a collaborator, Transformations: The Many Lives of Project, where she works with colleagues and I would welcome the opportunity to Francisco Menéndez and his Free Black from Colombia, Mexico, Brazil, Paraguay, work on LASA’s international agenda to ‘Subjects,’” She has published essays in and Haiti to research and commemorate expand exchanges between Latin and

53 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

North Americans. Of particular interest to Socioeconomics (SASE) between 2007 and Politics and Society, Latin American me is the Otros Saberes project, which I 2013, and member of the Latin American Research Review, and Revista Uruguaya de have supported to underwrite the Program Board at the Research Council of Ciencias Políticas). Their forthcoming book participation of indigenous and black Norway between 2008 and 2012. At LASA, The Quest for Universal Social Policy in the scholars and activists in LASA he was co-chair of the Economics and South: Actors, Ideas and Architectures programming. Politics Section between 2007 and 2010, as (Cambridge University Press, 2016) well as member of the program committee explores the political preconditions for the (for the economics track) on two occasions. creation and expansion of universal social Diego Sánchez-Ancochea policies in Latin America and other parts of Sánchez-Ancochea’s research concentrates the developing world. Sánchez-Ancochea Diego Sánchez-Ancochea is director of the on income inequality, social policy, and and Martínez Franzoni are now studying Latin American Centre, associate professor economic transformation in Latin America. changes in social policy across the region in the political economy of Latin America His PhD thesis focused on state-society and, together with Rossana Castiglioni, at the University of Oxford, and member of relations and the impact of globalization in developing a Latin American research St. Antony’s College. Before joining Oxford Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic, network of social policy with funding from in 2008, he was lecturer and senior lecturer and various chapters were published in the a LASA-Ford grant as well as the Chilean at the Institute for the Study of the Journal of Latin American Studies, World government. Americas, University of London. Development, and several co-edited volumes. He was later involved in a Sánchez-Ancochea has also edited volumes Sánchez-Ancochea studied his BA (1997) Ford-LASA funded project on the middle- on Central America (Handbook of Central and MPA (1998) in Madrid at the income trap, directed by Eva Paus. The American Governance, Routledge, 2013, Universidad Complutense in Madrid and project resulted in a special issue of Studies with Salvador Martí), fiscal policy (The the Instituto Ortega y Gasset. He in Comparative International Development, Political Economy of the Public Budget in completed his PhD in economics at the which compares economic trajectories and the Americas, Institute for the Study of the New School for Social Research in 2004. policy responses in Ireland, Singapore, Americas, 2009, with Iwan Morgan), Chile, Jordan, and the Dominican Republic. transnational corporations (Transnational He has collaborated with many universities Corporations and Development Policy: in Europe and Latin America. He has been More recently he has explored with Juliana Critical Perspectives, Palgrave Macmillan, visiting researcher or lecturer at FLACSO- Martínez Franzoni (Universidad de Costa 2009, with Eric Rugraff and Andrew Dominican Republic, the Universidad de Rica) different dimensions of social policy Sumner), and regional integration (The Costa Rica, FLACSO-México, the in Latin America and beyond. Sánchez- Political Economy of Hemispheric University of Economics in Prague, the Ancochea and Martínez Franzoni began Integration: Responding to Globalization Universidad de Salamanca, and the their collaboration with the publication of in the Americass, Palgrave Macmillan, program Desigualdades at Freie Universität a special issue on Latin American 2008, with Kenneth C. Shadlen), as well as Berlin. capitalism in Economy and Society in an article on Bolsa Família with Lauro 2009. The special issue, which evaluated Mattei. Sánchez-Ancochea is currently coeditor of changes in social policy and economic the Journal of Latin American Studies, models in the region since the 1990s, was Sánchez-Ancochea Statement where he has been a member of the also coedited by Maxine Molyneux. LASA has been a central part of my Editorial Board since 2009, and associate Sánchez-Ancochea and Martínez Franzoni academic development. Since first joining in editor of Oxford Development Studies. He have also published the monograph Good Dallas in 2003 as a graduate student, I was a member of the management Jobs and Social Services: How Costa Rica have participated in all conferences but committee of the Society of Latin American Achieved the Elusive Double Incorporation one. For me, like for many other members, Studies (UK) between 2004 and 2008, (Palgrave Macmillan, 2013) as well as LASA has become a unique platform to coordinator of the Globalization and Socio- papers on social and market incorporation discuss research projects, foster Economic Development network at the (in Development Policy Review) and multidisciplinary collaborations, participate Society for the Advancement of universal social policy (in Latin American in policy debates, and meet friends. As a

54 heterodox economist who does a lot of different perspectives and methodological are El triángulo imposible: México, Rusia qualitative research, LASA has also been a inclinations. We have supported the work Soviética y Estados Unidos en los años safe haven. of heterodox economists and those—like veinte, foreword by Friedrich Katz (2008, me—working on economic issues through second edition 2004; published in English I am excited about the possibility of joining qualitative research. Yet the number of as The Impossible Triangle (Duke the Executive Council and cherish the economists and political economists University Press, 1999), based on research opportunity to work with LASA’s fantastic participating in our conferences has in the Soviet archives; Los primeros administrative team and academic stagnated. We should find new ways to tropiezos de la Internacional Comunista en colleagues on several fronts. First, I would engage with them and, particularly, expand México (1999), in English as Stumbling Its love to foster bridges between European the presence of young economists and Way through Mexico (University of institutions and those in the Americas. political economists. We should also Alabama Press, 2011); editor of Espejos de Latin American studies in some European promote more active conversations la guerra fría: Mexico, America Central y el countries are still in an infant stage and in between Latin American economists Caribe (2004), and coeditor with Gilbert others (like the United Kingdom) have working in the structuralist tradition and M. Joseph of In from the Cold: Latin suffered some blows in recent years. As a others. This will enhance multidisciplinary America’s New Encounters with the Cold truly international association, LASA is in a research and also promote richer economic War (Duke University Press, 2008). unique position to support collaborations debates across Latin America across the Atlantic and build ties with Spenser was born in Prague, European partners like the Society of Latin Finally, I would work to strengthen the Czechoslovakia. Following the Soviet-led American Studies. I would also be excited links between the academic and the policy military invasion in 1968, she left for to contribute to the organization of the first worlds. We should adapt our registration England, studied Spanish and Latin LASA conference in Europe. rules to facilitate the participation of policy American literature at King’s College, makers and public servants from national London, and anthropology at the London Second, I would work to strengthen the and international institutions at LASA. In School of Economics and Political Science. presence of young Latin American this way, we can expand our influence in In 1972 she immigrated to Mexico and researchers at LASA. Thousands of research policy debates, increase public engagement, lived and worked in Chiapas for a number students have presented their findings for and make our research more relevant. of years, with Paolo Freire’s texts under her the first time at one of our conferences. We arm. Spenser earned her MA degree at the need to make sure that many others across Universidad Nacional Autónoma de the region can participate through Daniela Spenser México in Latin American studies and a fundraising and direct engagement. We PhD in Latin American history at the should also devise new ways to support Daniela Spenser has been a researcher at University of North Carolina at Chapel graduate students, particularly from the Centro de Investigaciones y Estudios Hill, under the guidance of Gilbert Joseph. Central America and the Caribbean, Superiores en Antropología Social in through LASA-sponsored seminars at the Mexico City since 1980. She joined CIESAS Currently, Spenser is finishing a biography country level and a diversity of training to participate in a group project dealing of the Mexican politician and labor leader sessions. For example, LASA could help with the history of the German Vicente Lombardo Toledano (1894–1968), them in the process of publishing in entrepreneurial community in Mexico since a controversial figure in Mexico’s labor international journals through conference the nineteenth century, during the Second history. Through a study of the personal in sessions, Web resources, and even country- World War and the postwar years. That multiple contexts, she seeks to narrate and level events. research led her to a long-standing interest analyze the many sides of Mexico’s in political history. Spenser has worked on twentieth-century political and social, Third, it is extremely important to preserve the history of Mexican and Latin American domestic and transnational trajectory. economics and political economy at our communism and the study of the cold war. Research for this book was underwritten association. LASA conferences have always Her publications in Mexico and in the by the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial been a unique gathering place for United States have become standard Foundation. economists and political economists from classroom assignments. Chief among them

55 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

Spenser Statement embark on retrospective and prospective As we are entering the unpredictable year examinations of our region from the of 2016, Latin American Studies multidisciplinary perspectives that have Association’s experience, at 50, provides a characterized it in order to reexamine how rich reservoir of ideas about the social, we have come this far, examine critically political, cultural, economic, and linguistic where and why our analysis have misled us, processes that have brought us to this and glean from them new pointers. coyuntura. At the same time, LASA’s collective spirit offers a unique opportunity In the globalized world, I envisage LASA as to face the future with cautious and making fruitful connections with other creative optimism. specialized associations, beyond the current sections, in order to complement our LASA has always stimulated innovative understanding of the world in which we research, teaching initiatives, and live and examine in our work. transnational networking, and it cannot do otherwise in the coming years. We face several unforeseen scenarios, stemming from a number of recent factors: (1) the presidential election in the United States, the result of which will affect two major areas: migrations policies to the United States and the initiated and unfinished normalization of diplomatic, commercial, political, and migration relations with Cuba; (2) recent elections in Argentina; (3) recent elections in Venezuela; (4) peace agreements between the FARC and the Colombian government; (5) the violation of human rights; (6) the “Guatemalan Spring”; (7) the security factor stemming from terrorism, holdover from old colonialisms and new shifts in local and international alignments; (8) rising economic debts; (9) rampant corruption; (10) rising poverty; (11) stagnant development, to name those areas that will shape the immediate social, political, cultural, and economic environment in the new year.

As an international association in a trouble-driven area, LASA has never shied away from confronting difficult issues intellectually and politically. This I hope will continue. In order to fulfill its mandates and the collective spirit that has motivated it so far, LASA will no doubt

56 NEWS FROM LASA

Declaración de intelectuales, científicos y académicos hispanos contra xenofobia de Trump

Los abajo firmantes, hispanos que ejemplo, esos inmigrantes cosechan 200 build a big wall along the border with ocupamos puestos en la academia de los productos agrícolas, sirven en hoteles y Mexico. Trump’s hate speech appeals to the Estados Unidos, así como intelectuales, restaurantes, recogen la basura, ejercen, en worst emotions, such as xenophobia, artistas y científicos de México, América suma, oficios que los americanos locales se sexism and political intolerance; it recalls Latina y España, nos negamos a guardar rehúsan a desempeñar. California es el campaigns in the past against other ethnic silencio frente a las alarmantes principal fabricante de vino y de muchos groups that led to millions of deaths. declaraciones del candidato a la Presidencia productos agropecuarios en el país. Es Physical attacks on Hispanics and public de los EEUU Donald Trump. también el primer destinatario de turismo. assertions that Spanish should not be Estos sectores generan US$70.000 millones spoken in public have already occurred. Desde el anuncio de su candidatura, ha anuales, pero sin los trabajadores acusado a los inmigrantes mexicanos de ser mexicanos la economía del estado se iría a Mr. Trump’s verbal assaults are not based criminales, violadores y traficantes de la ruina. Algo similar ocurriría en el resto on tested facts, but only on his personal, drogas, ha prometido deportar a 11 del país. baseless opinion. Not only does he disdain millones de ellos y de construir un gran Hispanic immigrants (later it could be muro a todo lo largo de la frontera con Muchos de los firmantes somos inmigrantes other ethnic groups) but also exhibits a México. Su discurso de odio apela a las hispanos que hemos sido bien acogidos en dangerous attitude against his opponents: más bajas pasiones, como la xenofobia, el esta gran nación y contribuido con nuestro He stigmatizes them as stupid or weak, machismo y la intolerancia política. Todo trabajo, en diversos campos, al launches insults at interviewers for murky lo cual inevitablemente recuerda campañas conocimiento, los avances de las ciencias, a reasons, has insulted and expelled a que en el pasado se han dirigido contra la prosperidad, el entretenimiento y el prominent Hispanic reporter from a press otros grupos étnicos, y cuya consecuencia bienestar de todos los habitantes de los conference because the reporter asked him fue la muerte de millones de personas. De Estados Unidos. La conducta del Sr. Trump an uncomfortable question, and launches hecho, las agresiones físicas contra los es indigna de un candidato a la presidencia sexist comments about women, while his hispanos y los llamados a prohibir el uso del país más poderoso del mundo. supporters and personal bodyguards have público del español, han comenzado ya. Condenamos esa actitud y esperamos que attacked peaceful demonstrators. el pueblo estadounidense cese de tolerar sus Los ataques verbales del Sr. Trump no se absurdas posturas. The expulsion of Mexican immigrants basan en hechos comprobados sino en su would be catastrophic for states such as muy personal e infundada opinión. No sólo —— California, Arizona, New Mexico and desdeña a los inmigrantes hispanos Texas where most of the manual work is (después podrían seguir otros grupos Mexican. For example, in California those étnicos) sino que exhibe una peligrosa Statement from Hispanic Intellectuals, immigrants harvest 200 agricultural actitud contra sus oponentes, a quienes Scientists, and Scholars against Donald products, serve in hotels and restaurants, tacha de estúpidos o débiles. A los Trump’s Xenophobia and collect garbage, jobs that the locals entrevistadores, los ha acusado de tener don’t want to perform. California is the motivos turbios y expulsó de una rueda de The undersigned, Hispanics that occupy leading producer of wine in the country, in prensa a un prominente periodista hispano academic positions in the United States, as harvesting many agricultural products and que le planteó una pregunta incómoda. well as intellectuals, artists and scientists the principal destination for tourism. These Trump ha lanzado comentarios soeces from Mexico, other Latin American sectors generate $70 billion per year and, sobre las mujeres. Sus guardaespaldas y countries and Spain cannot remain silent without Mexican workers, the state’s seguidores atacan a manifestantes pacíficos. against alarming statements from the economy would go to ruin. Something candidate to the Presidency of the United similar would happen in the rest of the La expulsión de los inmigrantes mexicanos States, Donald Trump. Since the country. sería catastrófica para estados como announcement of his candidacy, Mr. Trump California, Arizona, Nuevo México y has accused Mexican immigrants of being Several of the signers are Hispanic Texas, donde la mayor parte del trabajo criminals, rapists and drug traffickers; he immigrants that have been well-received by manual es mexicano. En California, por promises to deport 11 million of them and this great nation and contributed with their

57 lasaforum winter 2016 : volume xlvii : issue 1

work, in various fields, to knowledge, Verónica Montecinos science progress, prosperity, entertainment Antonio Muñoz Molina and the well-being of all Americans. Mr. Moisés Naím Trump’s conduct is not worthy of a Enrique Norten candidate to the Presidency of the United Silvia Pedraza States, the most powerful country in the Elena Poniatowska world. All of us condemn his behavior and Alejandro Portes hope that the American people will no Luis Prados longer tolerate his absurdities. Rodrigo Rey Rosa Rafael Rojas Héctor Abad Faciolince Vicente Rojo Manuel Alcántara Ranulfo Romo Arturo Álvarez-Buylla Diego Sánchez-Ancochea Homero Aridjis Antonio Santamaría García Ariel Armory Arturo Sarukhán Roger Bartra José Sarukhán Demián Bichir Fernando Savater Silvia Borzutzky Javier Sicilia Carmen Boullosa Eduardo Silva Martín Caparrós Guillermo Soberón Acevedo Jorge Castañeda Edward Telles Jennifer Clement Mauricio Tenorio Junot Díaz Antonio Ugalde Ramón Díaz Alejandro Diego Valadés Jorge Duany Álvaro Vargas Llosa Jorge Edwards Mario Vargas Llosa Sebastián Edwards Enrique Vila-Matas Joaquín Estefanía Rolando Villazón Julio Frenk Juan Villoro Francisco Goldman Gabriel Zaid Francisco González Crussí Teodoro González de León Roberto González Echeverría Alejandro González Iñárritu Enrique Krauze Mario Lavista Antonio Lazcano Emmanuel Lubezki Valeria Luiselli Diego Luna Nora Lustig Carlos Malamud David Mares Ibsen Martínez Óscar Martínez Eduardo Matos Moctezuma Carmelo Mesa-Lago

58 Announcing

STUDIES IN LATIN AMERICA

A New Open-Access Short Works series from the Institute for the Study of the Americas at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and UNC Press

CALL FOR MANUSCRIPTS

The Institute for the Study of the Americas at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and UNC Press are pleased to announce a new joint initiative in open-access scholarly publishing.

Studies in Latin America is a new series of short, peer-reviewed works, approximately 20,000 to 35,000 words in length, to be published by the Institute for the Study of the Americas and distributed by UNC Press in digital open-access as well as in print and e-book formats. The Institute and UNC Press anticipate a wide distribution of the scholarship included in Studies in Latin America by taking advantage of the digital publishing environment.

Studies in Latin America will promote new scholarship on Latin America and the Caribbean focusing on the social sciences—principally anthropology, geography, history, political science, and sociology—and feature diverse methodological approaches and perspectives on vital issues concerning Latin America and the Caribbean, past and present. Studies in Latin America welcomes English-language manuscripts by senior scholars as well as by junior scholars. A formal peer-review process will be conducted as part of the publication decision.

For more information and inquiries about submissions, please contact Louis A. Pérez Jr., Director, Institute for the Study of the Americas, at [email protected] or at Global Education Center, CB 3205, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C. 27599.

Questions may also be addressed to Elaine Maisner, Senior Executive Editor, UNC Press, at [email protected] or tel. 919-962-0810.

Studies in Latin America website: studiesinlatinamerica.lib.unc.edu

Latin American Studies

From

CHICAGO

From FAST, EASY, AND IN CASH HÉLIO OITICICA Artisan Hardship and Hope in the Global Economy Folding the Frame Jason Antrosio and Rudi Colloredo-Mansfeld Irene V. Small REVOLUTIONARIES, REBELS AND ROBBERS “Antrosio and Colloredo-Mansfeld use material “Hélio Oiticica brilliantly manages to fill gaps in The Golden Age of Banditry in Mexico, Latin America from their fieldwork among artisan entrepreneurs in knowledge about this important artist while chal- and the Chicano American Southwest, 1850–1950 the Ecuadorean Andes to examine recent provoca- lenging conventional wisdom through both archival Pascale Baker tive arguments by economists, such as risk-taking, research and adept analysis of art works. This study This monograph delivers a comprehensive study of innovation, and winner-take-all competitions.”— will set a high bar for scholarship to come.”—Carrie banditry in Latin America and its cultural represen- Michael Chibnik, University of Iowa Lambert-Beatty, author of Being Watched tation. Paper $25.00 Cloth $45.00 Cloth $160.00 THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO PRESS www.press.uchicago.edu The Latin American Studies Association (LASA) is the largest professional association in the world for individuals and institutions engaged in the study of Latin America. With over 12,000 members, 60 percent of whom reside outside the United States, LASA is the one association that brings together experts on Latin America from all disciplines and diverse occupational endeavors across the globe. LASA’s mission is to foster intellectual discussion, research, and teaching on Latin America, the Caribbean, and its people throughout the Americas, promote the interests of its diverse membership, and encourage civic engagement through network building and public debate. 416 Bellefield Hall University of Pittsburgh Pittsburgh, PA 15260

lasa.international.pitt.edu