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Third Declension, That Is, Consonant-Stem Nouns; Patterns I
Chapter 7: Third-Declension Nouns Chapter 7 covers the following: third declension, that is, consonant-stem nouns; patterns in the formation of the nominative singular of third declension; and the agreement between third- declension nouns and first/second-declension adjectives. At the end of the lesson, we’ll review the vocabulary which you should memorize in this chapter. There is only one important rule to remember here: the genitive singular ending in third declension is -is . We’ve already encountered first- and second-declension nouns. Now we’ll address the third. A fair question to ask, and one which some of you may be asking, is why is there a third declension at all? Third declension is Latin’s “catch-all” category for nouns. Into it have been put all nouns whose bases end with consonants ─ any consonant! That makes third declension very different from first and second declension. First declension, as you’ll remember, is dominated by a-stem nouns like femina and cura . Second declension is dominated by o- or u-stem nouns like amicus or oculus . Those vowels give those declensions a certain consistency, but the same is not true of third declension where one form, the nominative singular, is affected by the fact that its ending -s runs into the wide variety of consonants found at the ends of the bases of third-declension nouns, and the collision of those consonants causes irregular forms to appear in the nominative singular. That’s the bad news. The good news is that only one case and number is affected by this, the nominative singular. -
3.1. Government 3.2 Agreement
e-Content Submission to INFLIBNET Subject name: Linguistics Paper name: Grammatical Categories Paper Coordinator name Ayesha Kidwai and contact: Module name A Framework for Grammatical Features -II Content Writer (CW) Ayesha Kidwai Name Email id [email protected] Phone 9968655009 E-Text Self Learn Self Assessment Learn More Story Board Table of Contents 1. Introduction 2. Features as Values 3. Contextual Features 3.1. Government 3.2 Agreement 4. A formal description of features and their values 5. Conclusion References 1 1. Introduction In this unit, we adopt (and adapt) the typology of features developed by Kibort (2008) (but not necessarily all her analyses of individual features) as the descriptive device we shall use to describe grammatical categories in terms of features. Sections 2 and 3 are devoted to this exercise, while Section 4 specifies the annotation schema we shall employ to denote features and values. 2. Features and Values Intuitively, a feature is expressed by a set of values, and is really known only through them. For example, a statement that a language has the feature [number] can be evaluated to be true only if the language can be shown to express some of the values of that feature: SINGULAR, PLURAL, DUAL, PAUCAL, etc. In other words, recalling our definitions of distribution in Unit 2, a feature creates a set out of values that are in contrastive distribution, by employing a single parameter (meaning or grammatical function) that unifies these values. The name of the feature is the property that is used to construct the set. Let us therefore employ (1) as our first working definition of a feature: (1) A feature names the property that unifies a set of values in contrastive distribution. -
Subject-Verb Agreement
Subject-verb Agreement The subject and the verb of a sentence have a special relationship. Unfortunately, as in most relationships, the subject and verb may disagree at times and then the entire sentence can sound awkward. Identifying this error can be tricky, but there are a few methods that can help you fix that disagreement. Subjects are in italics and verbs are in bold. 1) Make the verb agree with its subject, not with a word that comes between. Note that phrases beginning with prepositions like ‘as well as,’ ‘in addition to,’ ‘accompanied by,’ ‘together with,’ and ‘along with’ do not make a singular subject plural: Incorrect: High levels of air pollution causes damage to the respiratory tract. Correct: High levels of air pollution cause damage to the respiratory tract. Incorrect: The governor, as well as his press secretary, were shot. Correct: The governor, as well as his press secretary, was shot. 2) Treat most subjects joined with ‘and’ as plural unless the parts of the subject form a single unit: Incorrect: Jill’s natural ability and her desire to help others has led to a career in the ministry. Correct: Jill’s natural ability and her desire to help others have led to a career in the ministry. Incorrect: Strawberries and cream were a last-minute addition to the menu. Correct: Strawberries and cream was a last-minute addition to the menu. 3) With subjects connected by ‘or’ or ‘nor’ make the verb agree with the part of the subject nearer to the verb: Incorrect: If a relative or neighbor are abusing a child, notify the police. -
AN INTRODUCTORY GRAMMAR of OLD ENGLISH Medieval and Renaissance Texts and Studies
AN INTRODUCTORY GRAMMAR OF OLD ENGLISH MEDievaL AND Renaissance Texts anD STUDies VOLUME 463 MRTS TEXTS FOR TEACHING VOLUme 8 An Introductory Grammar of Old English with an Anthology of Readings by R. D. Fulk Tempe, Arizona 2014 © Copyright 2020 R. D. Fulk This book was originally published in 2014 by the Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies at Arizona State University, Tempe Arizona. When the book went out of print, the press kindly allowed the copyright to revert to the author, so that this corrected reprint could be made freely available as an Open Access book. TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE viii ABBREVIATIONS ix WORKS CITED xi I. GRAMMAR INTRODUCTION (§§1–8) 3 CHAP. I (§§9–24) Phonology and Orthography 8 CHAP. II (§§25–31) Grammatical Gender • Case Functions • Masculine a-Stems • Anglo-Frisian Brightening and Restoration of a 16 CHAP. III (§§32–8) Neuter a-Stems • Uses of Demonstratives • Dual-Case Prepositions • Strong and Weak Verbs • First and Second Person Pronouns 21 CHAP. IV (§§39–45) ō-Stems • Third Person and Reflexive Pronouns • Verbal Rection • Subjunctive Mood 26 CHAP. V (§§46–53) Weak Nouns • Tense and Aspect • Forms of bēon 31 CHAP. VI (§§54–8) Strong and Weak Adjectives • Infinitives 35 CHAP. VII (§§59–66) Numerals • Demonstrative þēs • Breaking • Final Fricatives • Degemination • Impersonal Verbs 40 CHAP. VIII (§§67–72) West Germanic Consonant Gemination and Loss of j • wa-, wō-, ja-, and jō-Stem Nouns • Dipthongization by Initial Palatal Consonants 44 CHAP. IX (§§73–8) Proto-Germanic e before i and j • Front Mutation • hwā • Verb-Second Syntax 48 CHAP. -
The Syntax of Answers to Negative Yes/No-Questions in English Anders Holmberg Newcastle University
The syntax of answers to negative yes/no-questions in English Anders Holmberg Newcastle University 1. Introduction This paper will argue that answers to polar questions or yes/no-questions (YNQs) in English are elliptical expressions with basically the structure (1), where IP is identical to the LF of the IP of the question, containing a polarity variable with two possible values, affirmative or negative, which is assigned a value by the focused polarity expression. (1) yes/no Foc [IP ...x... ] The crucial data come from answers to negative questions. English turns out to have a fairly complicated system, with variation depending on which negation is used. The meaning of the answer yes in (2) is straightforward, affirming that John is coming. (2) Q(uestion): Isn’t John coming, too? A(nswer): Yes. (‘John is coming.’) In (3) (for speakers who accept this question as well formed), 1 the meaning of yes alone is indeterminate, and it is therefore not a felicitous answer in this context. The longer version is fine, affirming that John is coming. (3) Q: Isn’t John coming, either? A: a. #Yes. b. Yes, he is. In (4), there is variation regarding the interpretation of yes. Depending on the context it can be a confirmation of the negation in the question, meaning ‘John is not coming’. In other contexts it will be an infelicitous answer, as in (3). (4) Q: Is John not coming? A: a. Yes. (‘John is not coming.’) b. #Yes. In all three cases the (bare) answer no is unambiguous, meaning that John is not coming. -
1 Noun Classes and Classifiers, Semantics of Alexandra Y
1 Noun classes and classifiers, semantics of Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald Research Centre for Linguistic Typology, La Trobe University, Melbourne Abstract Almost all languages have some grammatical means for the linguistic categorization of noun referents. Noun categorization devices range from the lexical numeral classifiers of South-East Asia to the highly grammaticalized noun classes and genders in African and Indo-European languages. Further noun categorization devices include noun classifiers, classifiers in possessive constructions, verbal classifiers, and two rare types: locative and deictic classifiers. Classifiers and noun classes provide a unique insight into how the world is categorized through language in terms of universal semantic parameters involving humanness, animacy, sex, shape, form, consistency, orientation in space, and the functional properties of referents. ABBREVIATIONS: ABS - absolutive; CL - classifier; ERG - ergative; FEM - feminine; LOC – locative; MASC - masculine; SG – singular 2 KEY WORDS: noun classes, genders, classifiers, possessive constructions, shape, form, function, social status, metaphorical extension 3 Almost all languages have some grammatical means for the linguistic categorization of nouns and nominals. The continuum of noun categorization devices covers a range of devices from the lexical numeral classifiers of South-East Asia to the highly grammaticalized gender agreement classes of Indo-European languages. They have a similar semantic basis, and one can develop from the other. They provide a unique insight into how people categorize the world through their language in terms of universal semantic parameters involving humanness, animacy, sex, shape, form, consistency, and functional properties. Noun categorization devices are morphemes which occur in surface structures under specifiable conditions, and denote some salient perceived or imputed characteristics of the entity to which an associated noun refers (Allan 1977: 285). -
Number Systems in Grammar Position Paper
1 Language and Culture Research Centre: 2018 Workshop Number systems in grammar - position paper Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald I Introduction I 2 The meanings of nominal number 2 3 Special number distinctions in personal pronouns 8 4 Number on verbs 9 5 The realisation of number 12 5.1 The forms 12 5.2 The loci: where number is shown 12 5.3 Optional and obligatory number marking 14 5.4 The limits of number 15 5.4.1 Number and the meanings of nouns 15 5.4.2 'Minor' numbers 16 5.4.3 The limits of number: nouns with defective number values 16 6 Number and noun categorisation 17 7 Markedness 18 8 Split, or mixed, number systems 19 9 Number and social deixis 19 10 Expressing number through other means 20 11 Number systems in language history 20 12 Summary 21 Further readings 22 Abbreviations 23 References 23 1 Introduction Every language has some means of distinguishing reference to one individual from reference to more than one. Number reference can be coded through lexical modifiers (including quantifiers of various sorts or number words etc.), or through a grammatical system. Number is a referential property of an argument of the predicate. A grammatical system of number can be shown either • Overtly, on a noun, a pronoun, a verb, etc., directly referring to how many people or things are involved; or • Covertly, through agreement or other means. Number may be marked: • within an NP • on the head of an NP • by agreement process on a modifier (adjective, article, demonstrative, etc.) • through agreement on verbs, or special suppletive or semi-suppletive verb forms which may code the number of one or more verbal arguments, or additional marker on the verb. -
Person and Number Agreement in American Sign Language
Person and Number Agreement in American Sign Language Hyun-Jong Hahm The University of Texas at Austin Proceedings of the HPSG06 Conference Linguistic Modelling Laboratory Institute for Parallel Processing Bulgarian Academy of Sciences Sofia Held in Varna Stefan Müller (Editor) 2006 CSLI Publications http://csli-publications.stanford.edu/ Abstract American Sign Language (ASL) has a group of verbs showing agreement with the subject or/and object argument. There has not been analysis on especially number agreement. This paper analyzes person and number agreement within the HPSG framework. I discuss person and number hierarchy in ASL. The argument of agreement verbs can be omitted as in languages like Italian. The constraints on the type agreement-verb have the information on argument optionality. 1 Introduction1 During the past fifty years sign languages have been recognized as genuine languages with their own distinctive structure. Signed languages and spoken languages have many similarities, but also differ due to the different modalities: visual-gestural modality vs. auditory-vocal modality. This paper examines a common natural language phenomenon, verb agreement in American Sign Language (ASL, hereafter) through the recordings of a native signer within the framework of Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar (HPSG).2 Most analyses of signed languages have been based largely on transformational grammar. Cormier et al. (1999) discusses locus agreement in ASL, which is the first work in the HPSG framework. However, their work is limited to locus agreement with singular arguments. This paper examines person and number verb agreement. One type of verb shows agreement with object or/and subject arguments. Main focus in this paper is to show what constraints agreement verbs have, to explain the subject/object-verb agreement. -
A Case Study in Language Change
Western Michigan University ScholarWorks at WMU Honors Theses Lee Honors College 4-17-2013 Glottopoeia: A Case Study in Language Change Ian Hollenbaugh Western Michigan University, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/honors_theses Part of the Other English Language and Literature Commons Recommended Citation Hollenbaugh, Ian, "Glottopoeia: A Case Study in Language Change" (2013). Honors Theses. 2243. https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/honors_theses/2243 This Honors Thesis-Open Access is brought to you for free and open access by the Lee Honors College at ScholarWorks at WMU. It has been accepted for inclusion in Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks at WMU. For more information, please contact [email protected]. An Elementary Ghau Aethauic Grammar By Ian Hollenbaugh 1 i. Foreword This is an essential grammar for any serious student of Ghau Aethau. Mr. Hollenbaugh has done an excellent job in cataloguing and explaining the many grammatical features of one of the most complex language systems ever spoken. Now published for the first time with an introduction by my former colleague and premier Ghau Aethauic scholar, Philip Logos, who has worked closely with young Hollenbaugh as both mentor and editor, this is sure to be the definitive grammar for students and teachers alike in the field of New Classics for many years to come. John Townsend, Ph.D Professor Emeritus University of Nunavut 2 ii. Author’s Preface This grammar, though as yet incomplete, serves as my confession to what J.R.R. Tolkien once called “a secret vice.” History has proven Professor Tolkien right in thinking that this is not a bizarre or freak occurrence, undergone by only the very whimsical, but rather a common “hobby,” one which many partake in, and have partaken in since at least the time of Hildegard of Bingen in the twelfth century C.E. -
Causative Constructions
UC Berkeley Dissertations, Department of Linguistics Title Morphological Causatives in Korean: Problems in Grammatical Polysemy and Constructional Relations Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/1mr5z97n Author Park, Jeong-Woon Publication Date 1994 eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California Morphological Causatives in Korean: Problems in Grammatical Polysemy and Constructional Relations by Jeong-Woon Park B.A. (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies) 1983 M.A (Hankuk University of Foreign Studies) 1985 M.A. (University of California at Berkeley) 1990 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics in the GRADUATE DIVISION of the UNIVERSITY of CALIFORNIA at BERKELEY Committee in charge: Professor Charles J. Fillmore, Co-Chair Professor Eve Sweetser, Co-Chair Professor George Lakoff Professor Alan Timberlake Professor Peter Sells 1994 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The dissertation of Jeong-Woon Park is approved: Co-Chaii Dai t ??y Co-i fefcrCl/A___________ University of California at Berkeley 1994 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Morphological Causatives in Korean: Problems in Grammatical Polysemy and Constructional Relations Copyright © 1994 by Jeong-Woon Park Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Abstract Morphological Causatives in Korean: Problems in Grammatical Polysemy and Constructional Relations by Jeong-Woon Park Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics University of California at Berkeley Professor Charles J. Fillmore, Co-Chair Professor Eve Sweetser, Co-Chair This dissertation is an analysis of the Korean morphological causative con struction in comparison with a range of constructions related to it either for mally or semantically. -
The Acquisition of Inflection: a Case Study Joseph Galasso California State University—Northridge
The Acquisition of Inflection: A Case Study Joseph Galasso California State University—Northridge The study of syntactic development in children, for all intents and purposes, is reducible to a single minded inquiry into how the very young child (implicitly) knows to distinguish between lexical stems and functional affixes. Hence, the overriding question burning in the minds of most developmental linguists is morpho- phonological in nature. For instance, it would seem that the child must at least know (a priori) the stem before she can then engage in a dual-track process by which ambient separation of the morpho-phonological distinction attributive to past tense is carried out, say, between the paradigmatic representation of the English word play vs. play-ed /plei-d/ (a dual processing which provokes separation of the /play/-stem and the /d/-affix). Otherwise, it could be conceivable for the young child that the pair play-played would represent altogether two different lexical stems, and, stored as such, reflect two distinct though relatively similar semantic notions (a single processing): perhaps not unlike what we do find regarding derived words where an otherwise ‘two-morpheme’ analysis of [teach]-{er} is processed (tagged, stored and retrieved) as a ‘single-morpheme’ stem [teacher], similar to how the word [brother] is stored (see Clahsen et al. 2001). In this paper, we limit our discussion to exploring the developmental onset of inflection in child language acquisition and to seeing if such a maturational-based interpretation of the Dual Mechanism Model (DMM) is justified. We believe the findings provided in this study coincide with a maturational-based interpretation consistent with the Dual Mechanism Model, a processing model which seeks to distribute specific language processing tasks related to stem+affix separation to certain areas of the brain—inflection being just one such processing task. -
Chapter 7 the AWSOM Correlation in Comparative Bantu Object Marking Jenneke Van Der Wal Leiden University Centre for Linguistics
Chapter 7 The AWSOM correlation in comparative Bantu object marking Jenneke van der Wal Leiden University Centre for Linguistics The Bantu languages show much variation in object marking, two parameters be- ing (1) their behaviour in ditransitives (symmetric or asymmetric) and (2) the num- ber of object markers allowed (single or multiple). This paper reveals that a com- bination of these parameter settings in a sample of 50+ Bantu languages results in an almost-gap, the AWSOM correlation: “asymmetry wants single object marking”. A Minimalist featural analysis is presented of Bantu object marking as agreement with a defective goal (van der Wal 2015) and parametric variation in the distribu- tion of 휙 features on low functional heads (e.g. Appl) accounts for both the AWSOM and Sambaa as the one exception to the AWSOM. 1 Introduction: Bantu object marking The Bantu languages are around 500 in number (Nurse & Philippson 2003: 1), spread over most of sub-Saharan Africa. General typological properties include noun classes, agglutinative morphology and SVO basic word order. Finite verbs typically include derivational suffixes and inflectional prefixes. One of these pre- fixes can be the object marker, as shown in(1b). (1) Lugwere a. Swáya y-á-ßona óDéo.1 1.Swaya 1sm-fut-see 1.Deo ‘Swaya will see Deo.’ b. Swáya y-á-mu-ßoná. 1.Swaya 1sm-fut-1om-see ‘Swaya will see him.’ Jenneke van der Wal. 2020. The AWSOM correlation in comparative Bantu object marking. In Peter W. Smith, Johannes Mursell & Katharina Hartmann (eds.), Agree to Agree: Agreement in the Minimalist Programme, 199–234.