African Journal of Plant Science Volume 9 Number 2, February 2015 ISSN 1996-0824
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African Journal of Plant Science International Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences
Table of Content: Volume 9 Number 2, February 2015
ARTICLES
Ethnobotanical study of indigenous knowledge of plant-material culture in Masha and Yeki Districts, Southwest Ethiopia Seada Yassin, Balcha Abera and Ensermu Kelbessa
Hairy roots production in Phyllanthus odontadenius Müll. Arg. by seedlings transformed with Agrobacterium rhizogenes A4RS/pHKN29 Kikakedimau Nakweti R., Virginie Vaissayre, Diamuini Ndofunsu A, Luyindula Ndiku S., Jocelyne Bonneau and Claudine Franche
Morphometric study of accessions of Sesamum indicum L. collected from Nigeria Zhigila, Daniel Andrawus, Sawa, Fatsuma Binta Jafun and Abdul, Suleiman D.
In-situ morphological characterization of coconut in the Coastal Lowlands of Kenya Maurice E. Oyoo, Muhammed Najya, Stephen M. Githiri3, Pascal O. Ojwang, Francis K. Muniu, Emmanuel Masha and James O. Owuoche
Coffee leaf damaging insects’ occurrence in the forest coffee ecosystem of southwestern Ethiopia Chemeda Abedeta, Emana Getu, Emiru Seyoum, H. Hindorf and Techale Berhane
Integrated management of Cercospora leaf spots of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) through host resistance and fungicides in Eastern Ethiopia Solomon Debele and Amare Ayalew
Efficacy of selected plant extracts against Tribolium castaneum Herbst in stored groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Onoja Ojogbane Joel
Table of Content: Volume 9 Number 2, February 2015
Physiological nutrient use efficiency of banana hybrids across agro ecological regions in Uganda B. Ahumuza, T. A. Basamba, P. Van Asten and W. K. Tushemereirwe
Vol. 9(2), pp. 25-49, February 2015 DOI: 10.5897/AJPS2014.1241 Article Number: 544647150727 ISSN 1996-0824 African Journal of Plant Science Copyright © 2015 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www.academicjournals.org/AJPS
Full Length Research Paper
Ethnobotanical study of indigenous knowledge of plant-material culture in Masha and Yeki Districts, Southwest Ethiopia
Seada Yassin1, Balcha Abera1* and Ensermu Kelbessa2
1Department of Biology, College of Natural Sciences, Jimma University, Ethiopia. 2The Ethiopian National Herbarium (ETH), Department of Plant Biology and Biodiversity Management, College of Natural Sciences, Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia.
Received 3 November, 2014; Accepted 28 January, 2015
Plants have been used throughout human history as a source of food, medicine and material culture. Several studies on plant material culture from Ethiopia, were limited to a certain geographical areas and ethnic groups. The purpose of this study was, therefore, to investigate the plants and associated indigenous knowledge of three ethnic groups (Shekacho, Sheko and Mejengir), residing in the Masha and Yeki Districts of Sheka Zone, southwest Ethiopia. A total of 80 informants between the ages of 20 and 80 were selected by the help of local administrators and knowledgeable elders. Ethnobotanical data were collected through semi-structured interview, guided-field-walk and field observation. Simple statistical methods such as percentage, ranking and comparison were applied for data analysis. A total of 113 plant species distributed in 91 genera from 48 botanical families were reported by informants of three ethnic groups used in making plant-based material culture. Of the 19 use categories recorded, the highest (69; 49.3%) were reported by Shekacho followed by Mejengir (38; 27.1%), and Sheko (33; 23.6%) ethnic groups. Preference ranking and direct matrix exercises on selected plants used for construction and as multipurpose indicated the highest preference of people for Arundinaria alpina and Cordia africana followed by Ficus ovata, Baphia abyssinica and Cyathia manniana. According to priority ranking, agricultural expansion was identified as the most destructive factor of forest plants, followed by illegal wood harvest and construction. The current study recommends the establishment of plant material culture centre. Ex situ and in situ conservation measures should be taken in the study area for sustainable use of plant resources and preservation of indigenous knowledge.
Key words: Ethnobotany, preference ranking, direct matrix ranking, paired comparison, Ethiopia.
INTRODUCTION
Plants have been used throughout human history as a 1982; Balick and Cox, 1996; Sophia, 2005). Plant source of food, medicine and material culture (Schlereth, material culture varies enormously and depends on the
*Corresponding author: Email. [email protected].
Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License 26 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
availability of plant species, specific environmental ethnic groups remained unexplored. condition, and indigenous knowledge of a particular Therefore, this study aimed to assess and document ethnic group (Cunningham, 2001; Terashima, 2001; Tika the plant species, and associated indigenous knowledge and Borthakur, 2008). In developing counties, the and practices related to plant material cultures among diversity of plant species remain vital in material culture ethnic groups in the Sheka Zone, Southern Nations, for making homesteads, agricultural tools, fences, Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS), household furniture and/or utensils amongst the others southwest Ethiopia. The study was expected to play a (Parezo, 1996; Wiersum, 1997; Turner, 2000; Choudhary role in prioritizing plants used in the manufacture of et al., 2008; Hattori, 2006). According to Cotton (1996), material culture in the districts for further evaluation and plant-based material culture of a given society refers to conservation. the total range of objects produced from the plants by that society including functional items such as tools, shelter and clothing, as well as more decorative arts and Description of the study area and people crafts. A range of plant extracts and exudates have provided pigments, dyes, resins and adhesives which Sheka Zone is located in the Southern Nations, have fulfilled a variety of functional and aesthetic Nationalities and Peoples Regional State (SNNPRS), requirements (Dunkelberg, 1992; Johnson, 1992; Miller southwest Ethiopia. Sheka Zone covers about 2387.54 and Tilley, 1996; Aumeeruddy and Shengji, 2003). For km2 [(Sheka Zone Finance and Economy Development instance, Cotton (1996) mentioned that fibrous stem, Department (SZFEDD, 2012)]. The administration center roots and leaves have also provided materials for of Sheka Zone is located 676 km southwest of Addis basketry, cordage and textiles; specific types of wood Ababa. Geographically, the Zone lies between 7°24’- have been used for both construction and manufacturing 7°52’ N latitude and 35°13’-35°35’ E longitude and of a wide range of tools, toys and small utensils; seed consists of three districts, namely the Masha, Andracha and flowers have been used in making necklaces and and Yeki (Figure 1). The Zone is bordered by Oromia ceremonial garments. Regional State to the North, Gambella Regional State to Ethiopia is a land of topographical and climatic diversity the West, Kaffa Zone to the East and Bench Maji Zone to suitable for the distribution of diverse plant taxa (Gebra- the South. In total, there are 45 rural and 2 urban Egzabher, 1991). There are about 6,000 species of Kebeles (Kebele-The least administrative hierarchy in vascular plants in the country, out of which 10% are Ethiopia) in the two districts; Masha (town name, Masha) endemic (Gebra-Egzabher, 1991). Ethiopia has also and Yeki (town name, Teppi) consist of 21 and 26 diverse ethnic groups and varnishing cultures that Kebeles, respectively. possess a wealth of knowledge in the utilization of plants According to Central Statistical Agency, CSA (2009), in material culture (Bahru et al., 2012). Although, there is the total population of Sheka Zone was 226,090 residing a high utilization of in-county produce and imported in urban and rural areas with 114,661 males and 111,429 synthetic industrial products in Ethiopia, much of the rural females. Of the total population of Sheka Zone (226,090), human population still depends on plant-based material 27,406 (12.12%) live in Andracha District (14,000 males, culture due to a number of factors including the acces- 13,406 females), 122,469 (54.16%) in Yeki [(62,333 sibility, economic affordability, and cultural acceptability (50.89%)] were males and 60,136 (49.10%) were (Hadera, 2000; Tamene et al., 2000; Jotte, 2007; Institute females and 37,983(16.79%) live in Masha District of biodiversity conservation (IBC), 2008; Abera, 2013). [(18,660 (49.12%)] were males and 19,323 (50.82%) The dependence of plant-based material culture by were females. The rest 29,540 (13.06%) and 8,692 three ethnic groups (Shekacho, Sheko and Mejengir) (3.84%) live in Tepi and Masha town administrations, could partly be attributed to underdeveloped infrastruc- respectively (CSA, 2009). Of these, the study was tures and expensive industrial products (Gemedo-Dalle, conducted in Mesha and yeki Districts. 2004; Anonymous, 2008). Unless the indigenous know- There are different ethnic groups in the Sheka Zone ledge on plant-based material culture is documented and including Shekacho, Sheko, Mejengir, Kafficho, Amhara, the potential plant species conserved both plant and Oromo and Guraghe. The first three are indigenous knowledge sources, the knowledge could be lost forever peoples. According to Central Statistical Agency (CSA) especially in the current fast-growing and expansion of (2009), the ethnic composition of Sheka Zone is 34.7% agriculture, urbanization and modern life style that leads Shekacho, 20.5% Kafficho, 20.5% Amhara, 9.6% Oromo, to more acculturation. It is surprising that only two studies 5.0% Sheko, 4.8% Bench and 2% Mejengir. These (Bahru et al., 2012; Abera, 2013) have been reported on people do have their own culture, language, and life plant-based material culture limited to a specific geo- styles. graphical location and ethnic groups in Ethiopia. Further- The Shekacho and Sheko were from Omotic and more, due to the remoteness of the Masha and Yeki Mejengir from Nilotic language origins. This study Districts and lack of well-established infrastructure, the focused on two selected districts (Masha and Yeki) of indigenous knowledge of Shekacho, Sheko, Majengir Sheka Zone, inhabited by three major ethnic groups Yassin et al. 27
Figure 1. Map of the study districts.
namely Shekacho, Sheko, Mejengir [(Central Statistical Agents (DAs) and knowledgeable elders. A total of 80 informants Agency, (CSA, 2009)]. (50 males and 30 females) between the ages of 20 and 80 were identified, of whom 50 were randomly selected from the community by asking every individual in the house and working fields (30 from Shekicho and 10 each from the rest). The rest 30 informants were MATERIALS AND METHODS key informants (20 from Shekacho ethnic group and 10 from the rest two ethnic groups based on the number of population). An Ethnobotanical inventory and informant selection interview was conducted in the presence of principal investigator (translating the questionnaire from English to Amharic) and then by This study was conducted in eight Kebeles (Achani, Addis Alem, three local knowledge translators. Data were collected based on a Bechi, Kubeto, Depi, Kura, Kubero and Yeki) of Yeki and seven checklist of questions translated to the local languages of the three kebeles (Abelo, Beto, Chago, Gatimo, Masha, Yena and Yego) of ethnic groups (Shakinono, Shekogna and Mejengiregna). Essential Masha districts inhabited by three indigenous ethnic groups information about the plants such as local name, growth forms, and (Shekicho, Shako and Mejengir) between December 2011 and plant parts used were recorded during field survey whereas degree March, 2012. Prior to data collection, an official letter was received of management (wild/cultivated), and other related ethnobotanical from Jimma University Ethical Review Committee (ERC) while data (plants which were employed in the manufacture of particular verbal informed consent was obtained from each informant who items for construction, as a source of handcrafts and arts) were was participating during the study period. In addition, proposal documented by asking informants. write-up was guided under the supervision of advisor and co- advisors, evaluated and endorsed by two examiners and graduate committee of the College of Natural Science after public defense. Specimens collection and identification The informants who participated in the current study were identified and selected with the help of Kebele leaders, Developmental Voucher specimens were collected, preserved, pressed and dried 28 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
for identification. Preliminary identification was done in the field by summed using the following formula: using manuals and unidentified specimens were identified using herbarium materials, experts, and taxonomic keys in the various n (n-1) volumes of the flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea (Edwards et al., 1995, 1997, 2000; Hedberg and Edwards, 1995; Hedberg et al., 2006). 2 The collected specimens with voucher numbers, family, species, vernacular names, dates and sites of collection were recorded and n = the number of medicinal plants being compared. deposited at the Jimma Herbarium (Jimma University) and National Herbarium (Addis Ababa University). Data analysis
Preference ranking Ethnobotanical data were analyzed using both quantitative and qualitative methods as recommended by Martin (1995) and Cotton Martin (1995) noted preference ranking (PR) techniques as useful (1996). Direct matrix ranking, preference ranking, and paired for gathering information on the different needs, feelings and comparison were used to analyze the data. All the data was priorities of different categories of individuals within a community compiled, organized and entered into SPSS version 16 for and a numerical value was assigned to each item. Preference Windows and a descriptive statistics (percentage and frequency) ranking was conducted for nine plant species out of the total plants were computed to describe the ethnobotanical information on the selected based on their cultural value, strength, durability and their plants used for material cultures, associated knowledge and ability to protect themselves from termites. Of 30, 15 representative conservation. The qualitative data obtained from the focus-group key informants were randomly selected to identify the best- discussion was subjected for thematic analysis. Finally, all the preferred plant species for house construction and house hold results were presented in tables and figures. articles. Each informant was provided with nine plants reported to be used for these purposes and asked to assign the highest value (9) for plant species best preferred, against these materials and the RESULTS lowest value (1) for the least preferred plant and in accordance of their order for the remaining ones. These values were summed up and ranks were given to each plant species. In addition, PR was Plants diversity in material culture also applied to determine and rank the threat factors for the plant species in the study area following the same procedure stated In this study, a total of 113 plant species were recorded, above for nine plant species. being distributed in 91 genera and 48 botanical families. The family reported with the highest number of plant
Direct matrix ranking species was Rubiaceae (11 species, 9.7%), followed by Euphorbiaceae (8 species, 7.1%) and Astraceae (7 Direct matrix ranking technique was conducted for eight chosen species (Appendix 1). Of 113 plants species used for multipurpose species out of 113 (Appendix 1) based on their material culture, 47(41.6%) were tree species, 28(24.8%) cultural value, strength, durability and their ability to protect Trees/shrubs, 15 (13.3%) herbs, 13 (11.5%) climbers, 9 themselves from termites and seven use-categories from each (7.9%) shrubs and 1 (0.9%) was a fern (Figure 2). ethnic group in order to evaluate their relative importance to the local people and the degree of the existing threats related to their use values (Martin, 1995). Thereafter, the plant species were listed for 15 randomly selected key informants to assign use values to Source of plants used in material culture each species. Each chosen key informants were asked to assign use values (5 = best, 4 = very good, 3 = good, 2 = less used, 1 = Of the 113 useful plant species reported, 93 (82.3%) least used and 0 = not used). Using numerical scale in which the species were obtained from wild, 9 (7.9%) species were highest number is equal to the most preferred item whereas, the lowest to the least one. Then the informants were asked to rate found in cultivated fields and home-gardens, and 11 their preferences. Finally, the values of each species were summed (9.7%) species were obtained from both wild and up and ranked. For the Mejengir and Shako ethnic groups, the cultivated fields (Figure 3). ranking was done together because the most useful plants used in both of them were similar.
Plant part(s) and mode of preparation Paired comparison A total of 13 plant parts were reported to be used to Pair comparison was used for evaluating the degree of preference produce various kinds of plant-based material objects in of 8, 5, 5 selected plants by Mejengir Shekacho and shako ethnic Masha and Yeki districts. The most widely used plant part groups, respectively. Based on the information given by each ethnic group, availability of the plant species in the area, cultural value, for the preparations of materials was the stem, which strength, durability and their ability to protect themselves from accounts for (86; 62.8%) followed by leaves (20; 14.6%) termites for house construction. In this study, 15 selected and branch (6; 4.4%) (Table 1). However, the same plant informants of each ethnic group were asked to choose the best item parts (stem, leave and branch) were also reported to be from every pair according to personal perception. A list of pairs of used for a number of materials while various parts of a selected items with all possible combinations was made and sequence of the pairs and the order within each pair was plant may be used for a single material. As a result, the randomized and presented to selected informants following Martin total number of plant species increased from 113 to 137 (1995) and their responses were recorded and total scores were (Table 1). Out of the preparation methods, a large Yassin et al. 29
Figure 2. Growth habits of the plant species.
Plants condition
A large number (44; 4%) of plants were identified to be used in dried and fresh forms in material preparations. Relatively few plants (41; 36.3%) were used in fresh form and the rest plants 23 (23; 20.4%) were reported to be used as dried forms (Figure 4). As informants indicated a substance like cold water, ash, clay and animal dung was reported to be used for wetting, washing and decoration during the preparation of materials.
Figure 3. Source of plants used in plant-based material culture in the study area Comparison of plant material culture among ethnic groups
The result of this study indicates that the three investigated ethnic groups (Shekacho, Sheko and Mejengir) are entirely dependent on plant-based material cultures for local kitchen utensils and/or household furniture, agricultural tools, fences, and musical instru- ments and others. Although there are some common plant species and plant material cultures reported by three ethnic groups (due to the similarity of the topography and cultural knowledge), this study also
revealed that there is a significant difference (P<0.05) in Figure 4. Plants condition used in the the type of plant used and plant-based material culture preparations of plant-based material culture. between Shekacho and the rest but with no significant difference (P>0.05) between Sheko and Mejengir ethnic groups (Table 3). Of 19 uses recorded in this study, Shekacho ethnic group contributed a significantly higher number (59; 49.6%) of plants were reported to be (49.3%) as compared to 27 and 23.5% reported by prepared by carving followed by wrapping (15; 12.6%) Mejengir and Sheko ethnic groups, respectively. The and splitting (9; 7.6%) (Table 2). The use of similar difference is highly observed not only on the numbers but preparation methods for a single plant increased the total also on the kind of plant-based material cultures number of plant species from 113 to 119 (Table 2). produced by these ethnic groups. For example, different 30 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Table 1. Plant part used in preparation of plant material culture.
Plant part (s) used Number of plant species Percentage (%) Stem 86 62.77 Leaf 20 14.6 Branch 6 4.4 Twig 5 3.6 Fruit 4 2.9 Root 4 2.9 Bark 4 2.9 Inflorescence 2 1.5 Culm 2 1.5 Latex 1 0.7 Pseudostem 1 0.7 Leaf stalk 1 0.7 Seed 1 0.7 Total 137 100
Table 2. Modes of preparation of plant material cultures.
Mode of preparation Number of plants Percentage (%) Beating 1 0.8 Boiling 1 0.8 Burrowing 2 1.7 Carving 61 51.3 Latex collection 1 0.8 Mowing 4 3.4 Peeling 6 5.0 Pounding 2 1.7 Rubbing 7 5.9 Scooping and smoothing 1 0.8 Soaking 4 3.4 Splitting 9 7.6 Trampling 1 0.8 Weaving 4 3.4 Wrapping 15 12.6 Total 119 100
kinds of house construction (oval vs. round, one pole vs. species were used for house construction and to make two poles), musical instruments and household furniture utensils and house hold objects. However, the majority of (Appendix 1). In addition, in this study, there are several the plant species (69%) were reported by Shekacho material cultures (such as ornaments, handcraft, Coffin) ethnic informants followed by 43 (48%) and 39 (43%) that were not reported by Sheko and Mejengir ethnic from Mejenger and Shako ethnic groups (Table 4). informants but only by Shekacho informants (Table 3). Moreover, this result showed the use of several plant species for the production of one or more plant-based material cultures mainly reported by Shekacho ethnic Plant material culture categories versus number of informants. plants reported by three ethnic groups In addition, the difference was observed between Shekacho and the rest ethnic groups that there are plants Of the 19 major use categories of material culture items that were reported by Shekacho informants but not by the reported by all ethnic groups about 38% of the plant rest for the construction of fence, ornaments, making of Yassin et al. 31
Table 3. Number of plant material cultures used by Shekacho, Sheko, and Mejengir ethnic groups.
Ethnic groups Number of material cultures used Percentage (%) Sheko 33 23.6a* Mejengir 38 27.1a* Shekacho 69 49.3b* Total 140 100
*Means with standard deviations within the same column followed by same letters (a-e) are not significantly different (P < 0.05).
Table 4. Comparison of plants reported by Shekacho, Sheko and mejengir Ethnic groups used for the preparation of plant- based material objects.
Plant-based material culture Number of plant species used by Ethnic groups Total Percentage (%) Items Shekacho Shako Mejengir House construction 34 10 6 50 19.2a Fence 14 1 2 16 6.1c Musical instruments 18 2 4 24 9.2b Basketries or containers 9 1 4 14 5.4c Ornaments 9 - - 9 3.5d Tooth brush 6 1 2 9 3.5d Bathing brush 3 1 3 7 2.7d Agricultural implements 14 5 3 22 8.4b Utensils and house hold objects 32 10 8 50 19.2a Weapon and Tool handles 7 1 1 9 3.5d Decorations 2 - 3 5 1.9e Traps and Nets 8 1 1 10 3.8d Torches 3 2 1 6 2.3d Traditional marks and tattoos 1 - 1 2 0.8e Clothes 4 3 2 9 3.5d Coffin 2 - - 2 0.8e Hand cart 1 - - 1 0.4e Beehives 11 1 1 13 4.9c Foot bridge 1 1 1 3 1.2e Total 179 39 43 Percentage 69 43 48 261 100
*Means with standard deviations within the same column followed by same letters (a-e) are not significantly different (P < 0.05)
handcart and coffin. On the other hand, even though the for the same purposes. number of plant species reported to make a specific item varies enormously, about 84% of 19 material cultures were reported by all ethnic groups. Comparison of plant species for construction Out of these, higher significance differences (P<0.05) purposes was observed on the number of plant species used for house construction, and household furniture and/or Arundinaria alpina (bamboo), Cyathea manniana and utensils between Shekacho and the rest (Shako and Syzygium guineense were ranked, first, second and third, Mejenger) ethnic groups (Table 5). For example, 34 and respectively by key informants of Shekacho ethnic group 32 plant species were reported to be used by Shekacho for construction (Table 5). However, Cordia africana, for house construction and household furniture and/or Baphia abyssinica and Malotus oppositifolius were utensils making, respectively compared to 8 to 10 plant ranked first, second and third, respectively for con- species reported by Shako and Mejenger ethnic groups struction purposes as reported by key informants 32 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Table 5. Preference ranking of nine plants used for construction in Shekacho ethnic group.
Species name *R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 Total Rank Arundinaria alpina K. Schum. 9 9 8 9 8 9 9 8 9 8 9 7 8 8 8 126 1st Poaceae Cordia africana Lam., Boraginaceae 4 6 4 9 9 8 9 8 9 8 6 7 4 5 5 101 4th Cyathea manniana Lam. 8 9 9 9 9 8 9 8 9 8 6 7 8 7 8 122 2nd Cyatheaceae Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. 6 6 6 5 3 5 3 2 3 4 3 2 1 1 2 52 8th Meliaceae Galiniera saxifraga Hochst.) Bridson 4 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 5 5 5 5 4 4 6 65 6th Rubiaceae Hippocratea africana Willd.) Loes., 4 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 5 5 5 5 4 4 5 64 7th Celacteraceae Pouteria adolfi-friederici Engl.) 7 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 5 6 6 7 6 6 88 5th Baehni, Sapotaceae Schefflera abyssinica(Engl.) Harms, 6 4 4 5 3 5 3 2 3 4 3 2 1 1 2 48 9th Araliaceae Syzygium guineense subsp. 9 8 8 8 9 8 9 8 9 8 7 6 7 8 6 118 3rd afromontanum (Willd.) DC, Myrtacae
*Rs-Respondents
of Sheko and Mejengir (Tables 6 and 7) differing to Cordia africana as the most multipurpose plant Cordia africana and Galiniera saxifraga (49 and from Shekacho ethnic group. species followed by Ficus ovate and Pouteria 40 in the 2nd and 3rd places respectively) Ficus In house construction, Cyperus dichrostachyus, adolfi-friederici in the study area. sur, Hallea rubrostipulosa and Hippocratea Cyprus spp., Eagrotis teff, Psychotria orophilia, Diospyros abyssinica, Baphia abyssinica and africana are the other multipurpose species Rhamnus prinodes, Ricimnus communis, and Manilkara butuji were the other multipurpose ranking 4th, 5th and 6th respectively (Table 10). Pennisetum sp., are used in roof thatching. The species ranked, respectively. The least ranked The least ranked species in multipurpose aspect fibers obtained from the bark of Clematis species in multipurpose aspect varied between from the selected species were Croton longicauda, Combretum paniculatum, Dombia ethnic groups (Table 8, 9). This does not mean macrostachyus and Maesa lanceolata. According torrida, Jasminum abyssinicum, Justica that the least ranked species are the less in to the informants, the least ranked species are the schempriana, Oncinotis tenuiloba, Landolphia multipurpose but either threatened and/or less less threatened and the dominantly distributed buchanani provide as ropes for tying the roofs, preferred compared to other species. Thus, species in the area however, the survival of the walls and fences during construction. according to this rank, the survival of the most species with the highest rank is under question, multipurpose species is under question due to the especially Arundinaria alpina, which is locally daily demand of the ethnic groups, which is not threatened as it is dying because of aging (Table Comparison of multipurpose plant species supplemented with follow-up and regular planting. 11). (Direct matrix ranking) The highest value with the sum of 51 was given Some studies made in Ethiopia (Tamene, 2000; to Arundinaria alpina as one of the most Hadera, 2000; Hundei, 2001; Berhanu, 2002; The highest values was assigned by key multipurpose plant species in the area by key Amenu, 2007) have used the method of pair wise informants of Sheko and Mejengir ethnic groups informants of shekacho ethnic group followed by ranking where informants made their choices on Yassin et al. 33
Table 6. Preference ranking of nine plants used for construction in Mejengir ethnic groups.
Species name R1* R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 Total Rank Albizia gummifera(J. F. Gmel.) 4 2 5 6 6 7 3 6 6 5 6 4 5 6 2 73 4th C.A.Sm. Fabacae Diospyros abyssinica(Hiern) F. White, 7 6 6 7 7 8 8 7 5 7 8 5 7 7 6 101 3rd Ebenacae Baphia abyssinica Brummitt, Fabacae 7 7 8 9 8 9 8 7 7 7 8 8 7 8 7 115 2nd Mollotus oppositifolius (Geisel) 3 4 6 7 6 3 4 4 5 6 7 7 4 5 5 76 7th Muell.Arg., Euphorbiacae Trilepsium madagascariense DC., 4 6 4 5 3 5 3 1 3 4 3 2 1 1 2 47 9th Moraceae Erythrococa trichogyne(Muell. Arg) 5 5 5 4 5 6 7 6 6 5 5 5 5 6 7 82 6th Prain., Euphorbiaceae Anthiaris toxicaria Lesch., Moraceae 8 8 7 8 7 8 8 7 6 7 8 5 7 7 6 107 5th Celitis africana N.L.Burm.f., 5 5 5 4 5 6 7 6 6 5 5 6 6 6 7 84 8th Ulmaceae Cordia africana Lam., Boraginaceae 8 8 8 9 8 9 8 7 9 7 9 9 7 8 7 121 1st
*Rs- Respondents.
Table 7. Preference ranking of nine plants used for construction in Sheko groups.
Species name *R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 Total Rank Ficus ovate Vahl. Moraceae 4 2 5 6 6 7 3 6 6 5 6 4 5 6 2 73 8th Diospyros abyssinica F. White, 7 6 6 7 7 8 8 7 5 7 8 5 7 7 6 101 4th Ebenacae Baphia abyssinica Brummitt, 7 7 8 9 8 9 8 7 7 7 8 8 7 8 7 115 2nd Fabacae Hippocratea pallens (Willd.) Loes., 3 4 6 7 6 3 4 4 5 6 7 7 4 5 5 76 7th Celactrsae Lagenaria siceraria(Molina) Standl., 4 6 4 5 3 5 3 1 3 4 3 2 1 1 2 47 9th Curcubitaceae Antiaris toxicaria Lesch., Moraceae 5 5 5 4 5 6 7 6 6 5 5 5 5 6 7 82 6th Malotus oppositifolius Geisel) 8 8 7 8 7 8 8 7 6 7 8 5 7 7 6 107 3rd Muell.Arg., Euphorbiacae Hippocratea africana Willd.) Loes., 5 5 5 4 5 6 7 6 6 5 5 6 6 6 7 84 5th Celacteraceae Cordia africana Lam., Boraginaceae 8 8 8 9 8 9 8 7 9 7 9 9 7 8 7 121 1st
*Rs-Respondents 34 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Table 8. Comparison of multipurpose plants in Mejengir ethnic group.
Use categories List of species Musical Farming House hold Tool Total Rank Construction Weapon Beehives instruments implements articles handles Diospyros abyssinica F. White, 7 8 8 8 6 5 8 50 2nd Ebenacae Albizia gummifera(J. F. Gmel.) 8 6 8 4 4 8 3 41 4th C.A.Sm. Fabacae Baphia abyssinica Brummitt, 8 2 8 8 3 8 1 38 5th Fabacae Mollotus oppositifolius Geisel) 8 2 0 8 1 3 5 27 7th Muell.Arg., Euphorbiacae Trilepsium madagascariense 8 5 3 7 6 5 8 42 3rd DC., Moraceae Erythrococa trichogyne(Muell. 7 6 4 4 6 5 2 34 6th Arg) Prain., Euphorbiaceae Anthiaris toxicaria Lesch., 8 1 5 5 8 5 0 32 8th Moraceae Cordia africana Lam., 8 8 7 7 7 7 8 52 1st Boraginaceae
Table 9. Comparison of multipurpose plants in Sheko ethnic groups.
Use categories
List of species Musical Farming Household Tool Construction Weapon Beehives Total Rank instruments implements articles handles Ficus ovate Vahl. Moraceae 7 8 8 8 6 5 8 50 5th Diospyros abyssinica F. White, 8 6 8 4 4 8 3 41 2nd Ebenacae Baphia abyssinica Brummitt, Fabacae 8 2 8 8 3 8 1 38 3rd Hippocratea africana Willd.) Loes., 8 2 0 8 1 3 5 27 7th Celacteraceae Pouteria adolfi-friederici(Engl.) 8 5 3 7 6 5 8 42 4th Baehni, Sapotaceae Manilkara butuji Chiov. Sapotaceae 7 6 4 4 6 5 2 34 6th Mallotus oppositifolius (Geisel) 8 1 5 5 8 5 0 32 8th Muell.Arg., Euphorbiacae Cordia africana Lam., Boraginaceae 8 8 7 7 7 7 8 52 1st Yassin et al. 35
Table 10. Comparison of multipurpose plants in Shekacho ethnic groups through direct matrix.
Use categories List of species Musical Farming Household Tool Total Rank Construction Weapon Beehives instruments implements articles handles Cordia africana Lam., Boraginaceae 8 7 6 7 6 7 8 49 2nd Maesa lanceolata Forssk. Myrcinaceae 6 1 4 3 3 4 1 22 8th Hallea rubrostipulosa(K. Schum.) J. F. 7 5 3 7 5 3 8 38 5th Leroy, Rubiaceae Galiniera saxifraga(Hochst.) Bridson, 7 7 8 4 6 6 2 40 3rd Rubiaceae Ficus sur Forssk., Moraceae 7 2 5 7 8 2 8 39 4th Croton macrostachyus Del., 7 4 5 5 2 5 6 34 7th Euphorbiacae Arundinaria alpina K. Schum., Poaceae 8 8 6 8 7 6 8 51 1st Hippocratea africana(Willd.) Loes., 8 4 4 8 1 4 6 35 6th Celastraceae
Table 11. Paired comparison of eight plants used for construction and house hold equipments in Shekacho ethnic group in reference to cultural value.
R1-R15 Species Arundinaria Cordia Cyathea Syzygium Galiniera Hallea Macaranga Frequencies Rank Ficus sur alpina africana manniana guineense saxifraga rubrostipulosa capensis Arundinaria alpine K. Schum., - Aa Cm Aa Aa Aa Aa Aa 6x 1st Poaceae Cordia africana Lam., - - Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca Ca 6x 1st Boraginaceae Cyathea manniana Hook. - - - Sg Cm Cm Cm Cm 5x 2nd Cyatheaceae Syzygium guineense subsp. afromontanum (Willd.) DC. - - - - Sg Hr Sg Sg 4x 3rd Myrtaceae Galiniera saxifraga(Hochst.) - - - - - Hr Mc Fs 0x 6th Bridson Rubiacae Hallea rubrostipulosa (K. ------Hr Fs 3x 4th Schum.) J. F. Leroy. Rubiaceae Macaranga capensis Baill.) ------Fs 1x 5th Benth. Eupphorbiaceae Ficus sur Forssk. Moraceae ------3x 4th
N (n-1)/2, 8(8-1)/2 =8x7/2= 56/2= 28 36 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Table 12. Paired comparison of five plants used for construction and house hold equipments in Mejengir ethnic groups in reference to strength and cultural value.
R1-R15 Species Baphia Cordia Diospyros Ficus Hippocratea Frequencies Rank abyssinica africana abyssinica ovata africana Baphia abyssinica - Ca Ba Ba Ha 2x 3rd Brummitt, Fabacae Cordia africana Lam., - - Ca Ca Ca 4x 1st Boraginaceae Diospyros abyssinica F. - - - Da Ha 1x 4th White, Ebenacae Ficus ovate Vahl. - - - - Ha 0x 5th Moraceae Hippocratea africana Willd.) Loes., - - - - - 3x 2nd Celacteraceae
Table 13. Paired comparison of five plants used for construction and house hold equipments in Sheko ethnic group in reference to strength and cultural value.
R1-R15 Species Baphia Cordia Diospyros Trichilia Hippocratea Frequencies Rank abyssinica africana abyssinica prieuriana africana Baphia abyssinica - Ca Ba Ba Ha 2x 3rd Brummitt, Fabacae Cordia africana Lam., - - Ca Ca Ca 4x 1st Boraginaceae Diospyros abyssinica F. - - - Da Ha 1x 4th White, Ebenacae Trichilia prieuriana Sond. - - - - Ha 0x 5th Meliaceae Hippocratea africana Willd.) Loes., - - - - - 3x 2nd Celacteraceae
individual basis. and popularity of species used for construction and house hold equipments and they did paired comparison of five plants (Table 13). C. africana, Hippocratea Paired comparison on plants used in material culture africana, Baphia abyssinica, Diospyros abyssinica and by the Mejengir ethnic group Trichilia prieuriana were ranked 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th respectively. Most of the results among the Sheko and In this study, 10 informants from Mejengir ethnic group Mejengir ethnic groups are similar. were asked to indicate the efficacy and popularity of species used for construction and house hold equipments and they did paired comparison of five plants by using (N Local threats of plants used for material culture and (n-1)/2, 5(5-1)/2 =5x4/2= 20/2= 10) formula (Table 12). indigenous knowledge in the Study Areas Cordia africana, Hippocratea africana, Baphia abyssinica, Diospyros abyssinica and Ficus ovata were ranked 1st, nd rd th th It was observed that plants species in the study area 2 , 3 , 4 and 5 respectively. were being threatened. The major threat factor with the
highest rank assigned by informants was agricultural Paired comparison on plants used for material expansion followed by illegal wood harvest and culture by the Shako ethnic group construction (Table 14). The informants reported that there are beliefs, which The same to the above ethnic groups, 10 informants from have played great role for the preservation of plants. To Mejengir ethnic group were asked to indicate the efficacy cut a plant part is not allowed, even a climber. Hence, Yassin et al. 37
Table 14. Ranking of threat factors to plant species in Masha and Yeki districts responded by 15 informants.
Threat factors R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 Total Rank Agricultural expansion 9 8 7 8 9 9 9 8 9 6 8 9 8 9 8 124 1st Illegal wood harvest 8 8 8 7 7 8 8 7 5 7 8 5 7 7 6 106 2nd Construction 7 7 8 6 8 6 7 6 6 6 8 6 7 6 7 102 3rd Fuel wood 3 4 6 7 6 3 4 4 5 6 7 7 4 5 5 76 6th Deforestation 4 6 4 5 3 5 3 1 3 4 3 2 1 1 2 47 7th Settlement 5 5 5 4 5 6 7 6 6 5 5 5 5 6 7 82 5th Forest fire 5 8 7 5 7 5 8 7 6 7 8 5 7 7 6 98 4th
spiritual and religious beliefs of the three ethnic Jimma Zone, Oromia Regional State, southwest (2013) in the neighboring Ghimbi district of groups in Sheka, especially the Shekacho ethnic Ethiopia revealed 46 plant species (Abera, 2013). Oromia regional state, which may indicate their group have developed strong effect on its use and Most of the plant species reported were also relatively better abundance in the forest area as conservation. As reported by informants there are mentioned by authors in studies conducted compared to other growth forms. However, a powerful beliefs, rituals and spirits and taboos for elsewhere in Ethiopia; 26 plant species in study conducted in and around Awash National each ethnic group in Sheka zone. They believe Gemedo-Dalle (2004), 15 in Bahru et al. (2012), Park reported the dominance of shrubs used in that people who violate these taboos will die but 19 in Rainer (2011). The most possible reasons making plant material culture (Bahru et al., 2012). there is high violation of these traditional rules by for variations in number of plant species between Stem was the most used plant part in the dwellers from other parts of Ethiopia, mainly in the current and previous studies are due to manufacture of plant material culture in the Yeki district. difference in topography and traditional present study as compared to other plant parts. A knowledge of the study sites. study conducted in Kersa District, Jimma Zone of The majority of plants used in material culture in Oromia regional state in southwest Ethiopia also DISCUSSION the studied districts were obtained from the wild. showed the dominance of woody stem in the The results concur with that of other studies manufacture of plant material culture (Abera, Although the deterioration of forest species is conducted in Ethiopia (Bahru et al., 2012; Abera, 2013). This implies the presence of hardwood increasing in the study area due to agricultural 2013) and in India (Choudhay et al., 2008). Most plant species and the study area is largely expansion and other threat factors, there is still of the species collected from the wild are highly covered by forest. rich indigenous knowledge of making plant exposed to various threat factors and as a result According to current study results, a large material culture by Shekacho, Sheko and many of them including C. Africana, F. ovate, G. number of plants were identified to be used in Mejengir ethnic groups in Masha and Yeki districts saxifraga and Pouteria adolfi-friederici are rarely dried and fresh forms in material preparations. of Sheka Zone, Southwest Ethiopia. A total of 113 encountered. Special attention should be given to There were also many plants from which, parts plant species that are in use in these districts those more preferred and multipurpose plants that were claimed to either be used as dried or fresh serve as raw materials for various construction were indicated by preference ranking exercise as materials. Of the preparation methods, a large purposes, traditional arts and handcrafts. A study the most threatened ones. number of plants were reported to be prepared by conducted in and around the Awash National Park Tree was the most common growth habit used carving followed by wrapping and splitting. This in central Ethiopia reported 156 plant species in the manufacture of plant material culture in the might be due to the wide use of woody trees to (Bahru, 2012). Masha and Yeki districts. This finding is in make plant material culture in the study area. A Another study conducted in Kersa district, agreement with the reported study by Abera substance like cold water, ash, and clay was 38 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
reported to be used for wetting,washing and decoration the existence of common knowledge and cultural during the preparation of materials. Axes, blades, knives, diffusion across a range of diverse cultures and sickle and other sharp materials are used for cutting, geographical areas. In contrast, plants used in material carving, peeling and mowing during the preparation of culture also have certain cultural and ritual values within materials from the plants. Similarly, Abera (2013) particular ethnic groups, which indicate that IK distribution reported the use of dried and fresh materials, and mainly can be influenced by socio-cultural factors of different curving method for preparation. ethnic groups. Of the plant material cultures reported by ethnic Of the plant species used as material culture in the informants, Shekacho ethnic group contributed the study area, some were found to have multipurpose highest proportion as compared to Mejengir and Sheko values (use diversity). In this regard, the highest values ethnic groups. This may be due to the availability of a assigned for the respective plant species by key diversity of plant species and large population of informants were found to be as the most multipurpose Shekacho ethnic group (CSA, 2009) with a wide plant species as compared to the least ranked species. knowledge in the study area. A study conducted in and However, according to the informants, this does not around the Awash National Park of Central Ethiopia also mean that the least ranked species are the less in showed that the highest number of plant species and multipurpose but either threatened and/or less preferred plant material cultures were reported by Oromo compared to other species. Thus, according to this rank, informants as compared to Afar ones (Bahru et al., 2012). the survival of the most multipurpose species is under Local communities of the Shekacho, Sheko and Mejengir question due to the daily demand by the local community. ethnic groups in Masha and Yeki districts of Sheka Zone A study reported from in and around the Awash National are highly dependent on indigenous plant species for Park, central Ethiopia indicated that out of the total various construction, household furniture and/or utensils, recorded plant species, which serve as a source of dry fencing, roofs and/or walls thatching. Similarly, the material culture, 16% of the species were found to have 4 study conducted in east Shoa Zone, Ethiopia (Bahru et and 5 distinct uses each, while 34% with 6 uses to the al., 2012) indicated the similarity of the majority of the local people (Bahru et al ., 2012). plant species for house construction reported by Oromo In this study, the major threat factor with the highest and Afar nationals but with the frequent use of Acacia rank assigned by informants was agricultural expansion species (as exotic species) due to the scarcity of followed by illegal wood harvest and construction. These indigenous plant species as a result of deforestation for were probably due to the fertility of the land suitable for the purpose of agriculture. In addition, the fiber obtained agriculture. Specifically, timber production by business from the bark of several plant species provides ropes for people has severely accelerated the high rate of tying the walls and roofs during house construction. exploitation of plant species like Cordia africana as Roofs, in turn, were thatched with a variety of grass suggested from Yeki district informants. As a result, the species in the study area in agreement with the reported number of material objects made from plants is studies of Bahru (2012), Jacobs and Schloeder (1993). decreasing at an alarming rate and is replaced by On the other hand, plants with thorns were reported to be industrial products extending to the household of the rural used for fencing house, farmland and animal enclosures communities. The habitat of most plants is increasingly in the study area. However, almost all plant materials for becoming eroded due to over harvesting of trees for fuel, house construction including corrugated iron sheets, wood and urbanization throughout the region (Adal, stand metals and stone blockers are substituting the use 2004). The lack of ownership, diminished role of clan of plant species for house construction through time leaders in forest and expansion of private sector mainly in urban kebeles due to acculturation. investment for temporary benefit have brought cultural On the other hand, the rest of the plants in the study changes that alter the importance of traditional resource area were reported to be sources of handcrafts and management practices, exposing the community to traditional arts while others are used for ritual values, various socio-economic problems (Woldemaiam and tooth brush, tool handles, household utensils, fencing tool Fetene, 2007). In addition, as reported in Woldemariam and musical instruments. Likewise, Gemedo-Dalle et al. and Fetene (2007) during the last decades several new (2004), Bahru (2012) and Munishi et al. (2006) reported threat factors, such as investment projects for new coffee many plant species in Borana and central Shoa of and tea plantation development and fast population Ethiopia and Tanzania, respectively used as a source of growth due to immigration related to settlement schemes handcrafts, traditional arts, and ritual. and the agricultural development projects, have resulted The plant species of material culture in Masha and Yeki in increasing pressures on the forests. districts have also common cultural values for all ethnic The informants reported that there were beliefs, which groups of the study area due to cultural diffusion and have played great role for the preservation of plants by sharing of resources. Similarly, a study reported in Bahru the three ethnic groups. To cut a plant part is not allowed, et al. (2012) confirmed such similar use of plant species even a climber. Hence, spiritual and religious beliefs of between Oromo and Afar Nations in Ethiopia; it indicates the three ethnic groups in Sheka, especially the Shekacho Yassin et al. 39
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The National Herbarium, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and The authors have not declared any conflict of interest. Department of Systematic Botany, Uppsala, Sweden. Hedberg I, Friis I, Edwards S (2004). Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Volume 4, part 2. Asteraceae. The National Herbarium, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and Department of Systematic Botany, Uppsala, Sweden. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Hedberg I, Kelbessa E, Edwards S, Demissew S, Persson E (2006). Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Volume 5. Gentianaceae to The authors would like to thank Jimma University for Cyclocheilaceae.. The National Herbarium, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, and Department of Systematic Botany, Uppsala, Sweden. financial support, Sheka Zone Administration Office, IBC (Institute of biodiversity conservation) (2008). Ethiopia: Second Masha and Yeki District Offices, and local communities Country Report on the State of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and for their positive approach and provision of valuable Agriculture (PGRFA) to FAO, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp. 45. information. Jacobs M, Schloeder CA (1993). The Awash National Park management plan, 1993-1997. Nyzs-The wildlife conservation society International and the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization. Ministry of Natural Resources Development and Environmental REFERENCES Protection. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. NYZS- The Wildlife Conservation Society, NewYork, USA and the Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Abera B (2013). Plants used in material culture in Oromo community, Organization. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 285pp. Kersa distict, Jimma Zone, Southwest Oromia, Ethiopia. Afr. J. Plant Johnson M (1992). Research on traditional environmental knowledge: Sci. 7(7):285-299 its development and its role. In: M. 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sites of the Somali-Masai phytochorion in Northern Tanzania. In: Tika PS, Borthakur SK (2008). Ethnobotanical observations on Drylands Ecosystems: Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Bamboos among Adi tribes in Arunachal Pradesh. Indian J. Trad. Natural Resources Management. Proceedings of the Regional Knowl. 7:594-597. Workshop held at Hotel Impala, Arusha, Tanzania, June 7-9, 2006 Turner NJ (2000). Ethnobotany: future directions for the new (Nikundiwe, A. M. and Kabigumila, J. D. L., eds). pp.112-120. millennium. J. NASA, 16(1):15-18. Parezo NJ (1996). Material Culture, In: Levinson, David; Melvin Ember Wiersum KF (1997). Indigenous exploitation and management of Encyclopedia of Cultural Anthropology, 3:748. tropical forest resources: an evolutionary continuum in forest people Rainer WB, Swartzinsky PA, Worede P, Evangelista P (2011). Plant use interactions. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 63:1-16. in Odo-Bulu and Demaro, Bale region, Ethiopia J. Ethnobiol. Woldemariam T, Fetene M (2007). Forests of Sheka: Ecological, social, Ethnomed. 7:28. legal and economic dimensions of recent land use/land cover Schlereth T (1982). Material Culture Studies in America: American changes, overview and synthesis. In: Masresha Fetene (ed.), Association for State and Local History. Nashville. Multidisciplinary case studies on impact of landuse/ landcover Sophia T (2005). Maale Material Objects in their social and ritual changes, Southwest Ethiopia. MELCA Ethiopia, Addis Ababa. pp. 1- context. M. A. Thesis. Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, 20. Germany. World Bank (1998). Indigenous knowledge for development; a SZFEDD (Sheka Zone Finance and Economy Development framework for action knowledge and learning center Africa region. Department, Data Collection and Dissemination Process). (2012). Basic data of Sheka Zone, Masha, Ethiopia. Tamene B, Bekele T, Kelbessa E (2000). An Ethnobotanical study of the Semi-wetland Vegetation of Cheffa. Ethiopia. Terashima H (2001). The relationships among plants, animals and man in the African tropical rain forest. Afr. Study Monogr. 27:43-60.
Yassin et al. 41
Appendix 1. List of plant species used for material culture in Sheka Zone; Masha and Yeki district. (T = tree, Sh = shrub, T/Sh = tree/shrub, Sh/H= shrub/herb, H = herb, Cl = climber, F= fern: local names Sh1=Shakinono; Sh2= Shekogna and Mgr= Mejengiregna
Local Name Collection Form Methods of Scientific name Family (Mejengir, Shako Habit Parts used Uses for material culture and Notes number used preparation and Shakinono) “WUTO” (hole sealing) for roof 2237 Acanthus eminens Acanthaceae Peecho (Sh1) Sh Stem Fresh Splitting NB: - The fresh is chosen for bending •SY C.B.Clarke easily unless it is broken if dried. Beehive, beehive hanging, Torch or Alangium Chinense Dried and Carving and 2247 Alangiaceae Shotto (Sh1) T Stem Match (twig), Construction (Lour) Harms fresh Sharpening NB: have light stem Beehive hanging, beehive(YEGILO), Carving , fence, house construction, bathing (in Albizia gummifera (J. C’ato (Sh1); Fresh and 2202 Fabaceae T Stem peeling the Shako ethnic groups) F. Gmel.) C.A.Sm. Kasoy(Mgr) dried bark NB: They refer the dried one to handle easily Allophylus abyssinicus Stem and 2187 Sapindaceae She’o (Sh1) T Dried Carving Construction, farming implements (Hochst.) Radlkofer branch Beating up and Peeling Cloth (bark), Sac (to store grain), Antiaris toxicaria Tengi (Mgr & Stem, bark Fresh and the bark, 2210 Moraceae T vessel cleaning sponge, Blanket and Lesch. Sh2) and stem dried Soaking in the mat water and squeezing Apodytes dimidiata E. Fresh and beehive hanging (because of suitable 2235 Icacinaceae Wundabo (Sh1) T Stem Carving Mey. ex Am. dried branches) and construction In basketries, irrigation pipe, brooms(leaf), cooking utensil, water bottles, processing Ensete (MAARO), Culm, culms construction (fence and house), Arundinaria alpina K. sheath, Splitting and 2227 Poaceae Ho’o(Sh1) T/ Sh Fresh beehive (both culms and Culm Schum. branch and Weaving sheath are used), floor mat, chairs, twigs, DOLLO (water container), cups, GAMO (traditional tray), pipe used for smoking tobacco, bed, etc. Burrowing Shombok’o (Sh1, Small musical instruments (Whistle 2255 Arundo donax L. Poaceae T/ Sh Culm Dried (making a Sh2 and Mgr) and flute) hole) Tooth brush (twig), the most Baphia abyssinica Shifu(Sh2); Fresh and important plant for construction and 2256 Fabaceae T Branch, stem Carving Brummitt Duwe(Mgr.) dried farm implements in Shako and Mejengir ethnic group.
42 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Appendix 1. Contd.
Local Name Collection Form Methods of Uses for material culture and Scientific name Family (Mejengir, Shako Habit Parts used number used preparation notes and Shakinono) Fresh Burrowing Beehive hanging, wood to make 2152 Bersama abyssinica Fresen. Melianthaceae Booko (Sh1) T Stem and dried and carving mortar, fence, Pestle, ploughs. Wood is referred for musical instruments and for house construction because it is not eaten Brucea antidysentrica J. F. Fresh by ants and beetle. For carving a 2172 Simaroubaceae Nuqaasho (Sh1) T Stem Carving Mill. and dried pillow NB: The smoke and the plant smell are bad. Can be used as insect repellent 2192 Canthium oligocarpum Hiern Rubiaceae C’oche–afo (Sh1) Sh Stem Dried Sharpening Construction Beehive hanging, farm implements, Cassipourea malosana (Baker) Stem and 2151 Rhizophoraceae Waraallo (Sh1) T Dried Sharpening pestle, Weapon, “MATO”, trap, Alston. branch ornaments(branch) 2223 Celtis africana N.L.Burm.f. Ulmaceae Gonji (Mgr) T Stem Dried Carving Tools; wood used to make ploughs Chionanthus mildbraedii (Gig 2228 Oleaceae Shigawo (Sh1) T Stem Dried Carving Farm implement, tool handle & Schellenb.) Stearn Ermicho(Sh1); young Peeling or Clausena anisata (Willd.) Fresh 2195 Rutaceae Ermasoy T/ Sh stems and carving the Tooth brush Benth. and dried (Mgr);Enshu (Sh 2) branch tip Clematis longicauda Steud. ex 2160 Ranunculaceae Shego(Sh1) Cl Stem Fresh Wrapping Rope for construction of fence A. Rich. Construction Moye (mgr)/buno It is forbidden to cut it unless it fallen 2220 Coffee arabica L. Rubiaceae T/ Sh Stem Dried Carving (Sh1) down or out of use for drinking b/c they believe it has so many uses rather than material culture. Baaka or Colocasia esculenta (L.) To wrap market foods, plate, use for 2253 Araceae Goddarree (sh2 H Leaf Fresh Wrapping Schott. drinking water as cup. &Mgr)/Qiiddo (Sh1) 2232 Combretum paniculatum Vent. Comberetaceae Bergo (Sh1) Cl Stem Fresh Wrapping Rope for construction Construction (timber), house hold equipments, the bark peeled and Di’o (Sh1); Danpe Stem , Dried and 2199 Cordia africana Lam. Boraginaceae T Carving use as a rope, the buttress roots (Mgr); Danpa(Sh2) bark, leaf fresh use for musical instrument (drum), plate(leaf) Tool handle, beehive, house Stem and 2168 Croton macrostachyus Del. Euphorbiaceae Shomo(Sh1) T Dried Carving construction (roof), root for tool root handle(knife handle) Yassin et al. 43
Appendix 1. Contd.
Local Name Collection Form Methods of Scientific name Family (Mejengir, Shako Habit Parts used Uses for material culture and notes number used preparation and Shakinono) Carving and Cyathea manniana removing the 2159 Cyatheaceae Sesino(Sh1) T Stem Dried house wall construction and fencing Hook. spines and leaves Cympopogon citratus 2254 Poaceae Toocho (Sh1) H Leaf Fresh Rubbing Vessel cleaning specially for milk bottles (DC.) Stapf. Cyperus Fresh Roof thatching in the wild, Weave floor 2240 dichroostachyus Cyperaceae Tono (Sh1) H Leaf Mowing and dried mats. Hochst. Roof thatching ; the grass is sawn when it 2257 Cyprus sp. Cyperaceae Disho(Sh1) H Grass leaf Dried Mowing starts drying Deinbollia Stem and Fresh 2179 Sapindaceae Qaaso(Sh1) T/ Sh Carving Wedge, leaf bedding in forest (camp) kilimandscharica Taub. leaf and dried Strong wood for construction , farm implements, pestle, cloth (for males in Diospyros abyssinica 2213 Ebenaceae Kuri (Mgr) T Stem Dried Sharpening Shako ethnic groups), tool handle (Hiern) F. White NB: wood used for the pestle is always hard Dombeya torrida (J.F. Bark or Peeling and Fiber, bark peeled to make a rope and 2205 Sterculiaceae Bo’aro(Sh1) T Fresh Gmel.) P. Bamps Peel tearing used in construction and for trapping. Dracaena afromontana 2251 Dracaenaceae Fishino (Sh1) T stem Dried Splitting Fence Mildbr. Dracaena fragans (L.) Emo(Sh1)/ serte / 2198 Dracaenaceae T stem Dried Splitting Cloth, fence Ker Gawl. Tesit(Mgr) Dracaena steudneri 2252 Dracaenaceae yudo(Sh1) T Stem, leaf Dried Splitting Fence Engl. Drynaria volkensii Wrapping for 2173 Polypodiaceae Oko(Sh1) F Leaf Dried Seal beehive Hieron. sealing Jigemoy (Mgr) ; 2214 Ehretia cymosa Thonn. Boraginaceae Yoogaamo (Sh1) T/ Sh stem Dried Carving Farm implement Ekebergia capensis 2167 Meliaceae Ororo(Sh1) T Stem Dried Carving Beehive hanging, door, window, Sparrm.
Chopping the Fiber cloth, bedding, vessel and hand Pseudo pseudostem cleaning, bathing, shade, umbrella, pipe Ensete ventricosum Qocho /qaawo(Sh1) stem, leaf Dried 2244 Musaceae H to extract the (leaf stalk or “oqqo”). Leaves used to wrap (Welw.) Cheesman and leaf and fresh Oudu(sh2) fiber and the dough or “Kocho” before putting it in stalk weaving the fire wood stove so that it does not burn. 44 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Appendix 1. Contd.
Local Name Collection Form Uses for material culture and Scientific name Family (Mejengir, Shako Habit Parts used number used Methods of Notes and Shakinono) preparation Roof thatching , pillow and mattress Mowing with a (by trampling the straw/TUJJO (in Eragrostis tef (Zucc.) sickle and 2241 Poaceae Gasho (Sh1) H Culm Dried Shakinono) inside the pillow case Trotter trampling (walk made from Phoenix reclinata leaf ), over), then tying and broom 2200 Erythrina abyssinica Lam. Fabaceae Bero (Sh1) T Stem fresh Carving Construction Fence, hanging beehive, furniture, Fresh 2174 Erythrina brucei Schweinf. Fabaceae Kocho(Sh1) T Stem Carving Tools; wood used to make the pestle and dried for large mortars. Erythrococca trichogyne Bichirekucho (Sh1); Fresh Sharpening and 2194 Euphorbiaceae T/ Sh Stem Construction (Muell. Arg) Prain. Gidigr(Mgr) and dried carving 2239 Euphorbia ampliphylla E. Euphorbiaceae Qakaro (Sh1) T Stem Fresh Carving Beehive, fence, sliver for granaries Fresh For cleaning kitchen utensils, sliver 2218 Ficus exasperata Vahl Moraceae Balantay (Mgr) T Leaf Rubbing and dried for granaries Acha(Sh2); Fresh Carving , latex 2209 Ficus ovataVahl Moraceae T Stem, latex Torch(milky latex) dokey(Mgr) and dried collection Fresh Timber for furniture, Beehives (wood), 2178 Ficus sur. Forssk. Moraceae Et’o(Sh1) T Stem Carving and dried Coffin small mortar, tool handle Weapon, mortar, house roofing, “OKO”, farm Galiniera saxifraga Stem and Fresh Carving and 2157 Rubiaceae Diido(Sh1) T/ Sh implement, (Yoke and plough), (Hochst.) Bridson fruit and dried burrowing children use the fruit as weapon , sliver for granaries Girardinia bullossa Rubbing or Fiber for hunting net, sack, Cloth 2204 (Steudel) Wedd. Urticaceae Shekirato(Sh1) H Leaf Fresh pounding
Hallea rubrostipulosa (K. Stem and Dried Beehive, mortar, beehive hanging, 2190 Rubiaceae Oppo(Sh1) T Carving Schum.) J. F. Leroy leaf and fresh timber for door, plate (leaf) Hibiscus macranthus Dried Fiber /Rope; bark peeled for rope 2185 Malvaceae Gaahijo(Sh1) H Stem Peeling Hochst. ex A.Rich. and fresh used in construction and stem for trap Wrapping , Used to make strong cordage for Hippocratea africana P’ijo (Sh1), splitting and 2231 Celastracae Cl Stem Fresh rope, containers and construction, (Willd.) Loes. Pizoy(Mgr) Soaking in water if dried house hold equipments 2184 Hippocratea goetzei Loes. Celastracae T’ero(Sh1) Cl Stem Fresh Wrapping Construction (fence) , sieve
Yassin et al. 45
Appendix 1. Contd.
Local Name Collection Form Methods of Uses for material culture and Scientific name Family (Mejengir, Shako Habit Parts used number used preparation notes and Shakinono) Hippocratea pallens 2258 Celastraceae Gelenchi (Mgr) Cl Stem Fresh Splitting Basketries, construction Planchon.ex Oliver Fresh 2163 Ilex mitis (L.) Radlk. Aquifoliaceae Qeto(Sh1) T Stem Carving beehive, fence, and dried Dried 2219 Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae Gebuy (Mgr) T/ Sh Stem Sharpening Fence and fresh Jasminum abyssinicum 2182 Oleaceae Hawuto(Sh1) Cl Bark Fresh Wrapping Rope; used in house construction Hochst. ex DC. rope and small stems for Justicia schimperiana Fresh construction(roof) and (MAGER) 2193 (Hochst. ex Nees) T. Acanthaceae Shesharo(Sh1) Sh Stem Peeling and dried because it is not eaten by termites Anders. easily, Scooping, Kitchen utensils, and household Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Boto (sh1); Gini Scrubbing and 2259 Cucurbitaceae Cl Fruit Dried objects (cups, containers, vessels, Standl. (Mgr) smoothing the bowls and ladles. inside of the gourd Landolphia buchananii Yeebo (Sh1), Splitting and Rope , basketries for chicken house 2233 Apocynaceae Cl Stem Fresh (Hall. F.) Stapf Yakat (Mgr) wrapping and other household objects Wrapping in a 2249 Lepidium sativum L. Brassicaceae Shiipo(Sh1) H Twig Dried Broom, Shed for livestock bunch Lepidotrichilia volkensii Fresh 2183 Meliaceae Shaayo (Sh1) T Stem Carving Tools; wood to make ploughs. (Gurke) Leroy and dried Tinbe –gube 2236 Leucas deflexa Hook. f. Lamiaceae H inflorescence Fresh Rubbing Vessel cleaning (Sh1) Lippia adoensis Hochst. ex milk utensils cleaning (Fresh or 2243 Verbenaceae Shoobbo (Sh1) T/ Sh Leaf Fresh Rubbing Walp. dried sharpening the stalk of the 2188 Lobelia giberroa Hemsl. Campanulaceae Gedrano (Sh1) T/ Sh Inflorescence Dried Musical instruments for children infllorecense after removing the flower Macaranga capensis (Baill.) 2158 Euphorbiaceae Werango (Sh1) T Stem Fresh Sharpening Construction (mager) Benth. Dried Construction, house hold 2154 Maesa lanceolata Forssk. Myrsinaceae Chego (Sh1) T/ Sh Stem Carving and fresh equipments , sliver for granaries
46 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Appendix 1. Contd.
Local Name Collection Parts Methods of Uses for material Scientific name Family (Mejengir, Shako Habit Form used number used preparation culture and Notes and Shakinono) Mallotus oppositifolius Birekechi or Dasoy Dried and Construction (wall), 2211 Euphorbiaceae T/ Sh Stem Sharpening (Geisel) Muell. Arg. (Mgr) fresh farming implements Leaf and peeling and soaking 2206 Malva verticillata L. Malvaceae T’oso (Sh1) T/ Sh Fresh Bathing brush bark in the water Fresh and 2212 Manihot esculenta L. Euphorbiaceae Anchute (Mgr) T/ Sh Stem Splitting the stem Fence dried Gawo (Sh 1) Goji Fresh and Musical instruments, 2262 Manilkara butugi Chiov. Sapotaceae T Stem Carving (Mgr) dried construction Spines use for Maytenus gracilipes making tattoos (Welw. ex Oliv.) Exell Stem and Fresh and Carving and 2176 Celastraceae Atato(Sh1) Sh (traditional marks) subsp. arguta (Loes.) spine dried Sharpening and stems for Sebsebe making ornaments Maytenus undata (Thunb.) Getto (Sh1), Fresh and 2153 Celastraceae Sh Stem Carving Ornaments ,comb Blakelock. p’ey(Mgr) dried Microglossa pyrifolia House hold articles 2263 Astraceae Nibasho (Sh1) Sh Stem Fresh Splitting (Lam.) 0. Kuntze like sieve (“chimo”) Millettia ferruginea subsp. Fresh and 2175 Fabaceae Yaago(Sh1) T Stem Carving Construction (timber) darassana (Hochst.) Bak. dried Cloth, ornamental Momordica foetida Schum. Wrapping on the 2217 Cucurbitaceae Munji (Mgr) Cl Leaf Fresh uses for dancing on & Thonn. head celebrations 2250 Ocimum basilicum L. Lamiaceae Kefo (Sh1) H Leaf Fresh Rubbing Vessel cleaning Bee hive, farm Olea welwitschii (Knobl.) Fresh and 2201 Oleaceae Yeho(Sh1) T Stem Carving implements, tool Gilg & Schellenb. dried handle 2161 Oncinotis tenuiloba Stapf Apocynaceae C’eno(Sh1) Cl Stem Fresh Wrapping Rope for a fence , House hold article (the dried fruit Fruit and 2234 Oncoba spinosa Forssk. Flacourtiaceae Shurato(Sh1) T Dried Burrowing burrowed to put seed butter and salt), ornaments(seed) House construction, Carving and 2208 Oxyanthus speciosus DC. Rubiaceae A’emato(Sh1) T/ Sh Stem Fresh fence, weapon like sharpening spear
Yassin et al. 47
Appendix 1. Contd.
Local Name Collection Parts Methods of Uses for material culture and Scientific name (Mejengir, Shako Habit Form used number used preparation Notes Family and Shakinono) Fresh and 2196 Pavetta abyssinica Fresen. Rubiaceae Qorbandaro(Sh1) T/ Sh Stem Carving Construction dried Peta/elti or Fresh and 2216 Pennisetum sp. Poaceae H Leaf Mowing Roof thatching solakak(Mgr) dried Leaves and midribs are woven Leaf, and sewn as handcraft, stem, containers, floor mat, broom, Zenbaba (yeebo) Fresh and Weaving and 2226 Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Arecaceae T petiole, basketries and hat; sheathes (Sh1) dried sewing midrib and are used for Sieve, leaves for sheath ornamental and the thick midribs use for tooth brush. Bathing brush (sponge ) during Phytolacca dedocandra Yingo(sh1); Root and Pounding & 2156 Phytolaceae Sh Fresh itching problem (leaf); root for L’Herit. Shorshu(Sh2) leaf rubbing cloth washing Polyscias fulva (Hiern) Fresh and Beehive making, fence and 2181 Araliaceae Karasho(Sh1) T Stem Carving Harms dried construction Pouteria adolfi-friederichi Fresh and Beehive, house hold articles, 2238 Sapotaceae Sha’o (Sh1) T Stem Carving (Engl.) Baehni dried timber, saucer Pouteria alnifolia (Bak.) Stem and Fresh and 2222 Sapotaceae Fana (Sh2) T Carving Ornamental (comb) Roberty branch dried Prunus africana (Hook. F.) Fresh and Mortar (large one), beehive 2166 Rosaceae Omo(Sh1) T Stem Carving Kalkm dried hanging, tool handle 2260 Psychotria orophila Petit Rubiaceae Neche Aimato(Sh1) Sh Stem Fresh Carving Construction (roof) 2197 Rhamnus prinoides L’Herit. Rhamnaceae Geesho(Sh1) T/ Sh Stem Fresh Carving Construction (roof) Construction (roof), except for clan leaders home. In 2180 Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Eho(Sh1) Sh Stem Fresh Carving Shekacho ethnic group it is forbidden for traditional house of gepitatos. Rothmannia urcelliformis Stem, fruit Carving and Coloring handcrafts, 2261 Rubiaceae Diibo (Sh1) T/ Sh Fresh (Hiern) Robyns and leaf Boiling construction (fence). Carving and 2189 Rubus steudneri Schweinf. Rosaceae Garoo(Sh1) Cl Stem Fresh house construction, fence bending Carving the 2245 Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae Chediramo (Sh1) H Twigs Fresh tip of the Tooth brush (twigs). twigs. Rytigynia neglecta (Hiern) 2246 Rubiaceae Nachato(Sh1) T Stem Fresh Carving Side wall construction (mager) Robyns 48 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Appendix 1. Contd.
Local Name Collection Parts Form Methods of Uses for material culture and Scientific name Family (Mejengir, Shako Habit number used used preparation Notes and Shakinono) Schefflera abyssinica Beehive hanging, beehive, timber, Fresh & 2162 (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Araliaceae Manjo(Sh1) T Stem Carving house hold equipments (furniture), dried Harms farming implements (yoke) Schefflera volkensi Fresh & 2171 Araliaceae Qero(Sh1) T Stem Carving Construction (door support) (Engl.) Harms dried Root, Fresh & Wrapping, tying Broom, vessel cleaning, tooth 2242 Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae Sheto (Sh1) H twig dried in a bunch brush(root) Solanecio gigas (Vatke) 2203 Asteraceae Donbirako (Sh1) T Stem Fresh Carving Construction C. Jeffrey Solanecio mannii (Hook. chickens basket for laying and 2177 Asteraceae Eqibelo(Sh1) T/ Sh Stem Fresh Weaving f.) C. Jeffrey hatching egg Sorghum bicolor (L.) Wrapping in a Broom, granaries and Vessel 2264 Poaceae Donqe(Mgr) H Twig Dried Moench. bunch cleaning Syzygium guineense Fresh & 2169 subsp. afromontanum Myrtaceae Yino(Sh1) T Stem Carving pole for house construction, wall dried (Willd.) DC. Fresh & 2229 Teclea nobilis Del. Rutaceae Molawo (Sh1) T / Sh Stem Carving Tools; wood to make ploughs. dried Tiliachora troupinii Menisperm Stem Wrapping and 2230 Acho (Sh1) Cl Fresh house construction, cordage Cufod. aceae (liana) soaking if dried Fresh & 2224 Trichilia dregeana Sond. Meliaceae Luya /desha (Sh1) T Stem Carving Construction dried Trichilia prieuriana A. Fresh & Carving and 2225 Meliaceae Deka (Sh2) T Stem Construction Juss. dried sharpening Trilepsium Fresh & 2215 Moraceae Gebo /gemuy(Mgr) T Stem Carving Construction madagascariense DC. dried Urera hypselodendron Uritacacea Stem 2170 Imano(Sh1) Cl Fresh Wrapping Cordage used for construction (A. Rich.) Wedd. e (liana) Vangueria 2207 Rubiaceae Gujimato(Sh1) T/ Sh Stem Fresh Carving Spear handle madagascariensis Gmel. Vangueria volkensii K. Fresh & Construction and simple farm 2248 Rubiaceae Ambilato (Sh1) T/ Sh Stem Carving Schum. dried implements Vepris dainelli (Pichi- Fresh & Tool handles; wood to make ploughs 2155 Rutaceae Mergeto(Sh1) T/ Sh Stem Carving Serm.) Kokwaro dried handle (“Irf- in Amharic language”) Stem , Vernonia amygdalina Girawo(Sh1) ; Gesi Construction, Fence, Vessel cleaning 2164 Asteraceae T/ Sh branch Fresh Carving Del. (Mgr) , tooth brush and sliver for granaries and leaf
Yassin et al. 49
Appendix 1. Contd.
Local Name Collection Methods of Uses for material culture Scientific name Family (Mejengir, Shako Habit Parts used Form used number preparation and Notes and Shakinono) 2165 Vernonia auriculifera Hiern Asteraceae Dengrato(Sh1) T/ Sh Stem Fresh Carving Fence and granaries Vernonia hochstetteri Sch. 2191 Asteraceae Kusino(Sh1) T/ Sh Stem Fresh Carving House construction Bip. ex Walp. YEY (movable bed) in mgr Soyoma or 2221 Vernonia lasiopus Hoffm. Asteraceae T/ Sh Stem Fresh Carving ethnic groups, cloth (skirt in Degorgnan (Mgr) Shako ethnic groups), torch
Collected by •SY = Saeda Yassin
Vol. 9(2), pp. 50-55, February 2015 DOI: 10.5897/AJPS09.024 Article Number: 6A87C5C50731 ISSN 1996-0824 African Journal of Plant Science Copyright © 2015 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www.academicjournals.org/AJPS
Full Length Research Paper
Hairy roots production in Phyllanthus odontadenius Müll. Arg. by seedlings transformed with Agrobacterium rhizogenes A4RS/pHKN29
Kikakedimau Nakweti R.1*, Virginie Vaissayre2, Diamuini Ndofunsu A1., Luyindula Ndiku S.1, Jocelyne Bonneau2 and Claudine Franche2
1Laboratoire de Biotechnologie et Biologie moléculaire, Division Sciences de la vie, CGEA/CREN-K., Kinshasa, République Démocratique du Congo. 2Rhizogenes Lab, UMR-DIADE, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD), Montpellier, France.
Received 3 March, 2009; Accepted 25 December, 2014
Phyllanthus odontadenius Müll. Arg is one of the most important medicinal plants in the genus Phyllanthus (Phyllanthaceae). It is used in different regions in the world for the treatment of various diseases for example malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum causing millions deaths in tropical and subtropical regions. In this work, we experimented P. odontadenius seeds germination and seedlings infected by Agrobacterium rhizogenes A4RS/pHKN9. We obtained 36% of seeds that germinated for 84.6% of seedlings transformed which showed positive gfp activities. The number of hairy roots formed in infectious sites for seedlings infected with A. rhizogenes A4RS/pHKN29 is valued at 6.3±2.71 against 0 for control seedlings. Diagrams showed that mean length for the new-formed roots were 1.92±0.55 cm and 1.59±0.49 cm for hairy root.
Key words: Phyllanthus odontadenius, hairy roots, Agrobacterium rhizogenes, malaria, secondary metabolites.
INTRODUCTION
In many tropical and subtropical regions, malaria remains sunset and sunrise (WHO, 2007; Orhan et al., 2006; one of the main global health problems of our time, Mitaine-Offer et al., 2002). causing more than 1 million deaths per year, with about The widespread resistance of P. falciparum against 90% of deaths and 60% cases occurring in South Africa classical antimalarial drugs through the tropics (Olliaro in the Sahara. It is caused by the protozoan parasite and Yuthavong, 1999) has led to a research of new drugs Plasmodium falciparum and transmitted by female with new modes of action (Tona et al., 2004). It is well Anopheles mosquitoes, which bite mainly between known that plant species used in traditional or folk
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected].
Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License
Kikakedimau et al. 51
medicine synthesize and accumulate various secondary before autoclaving). 200 mg/l of kanamycin and 300 mg/l of metabolites (Cimanga et al., 2004). P. odontadenius is streptomycin were prepared for incorporation. Previously, bacteria one of most important medicinal plants in the genus suspensions were prepared using single colonies of bacteria in LB medium supplemented with related antibiotics and cultured Phyllanthus (Phyllanthaceae) used in different regions in overnight at 28°C shaken at 120 rpm (Zhao et al., 2006) .The the world for the treatment of various diseases (Unander cultured A4RS/ pHKN29 was transferred on LB agar for 1 or 2 days et al., 1991; Bajaj, 1999; Luyindula et al., 2004). infection later on hypocotyl Phyllanthus seedlings. In recent years, rapid procedures for obtaining trans- genic roots have been developed using Agrobacterium Maintenance of hairy root cultures rhizogenes, a soil pathogen which elicits adventitious, genetically (Ri-T-DNA) transformed roots (Chabaud et al., Axenic P. odontadenius seedlings were infected directly with A. 2006). A. rhizogenes mediated transformation has also rhizogenes strain A4RS/ pHKN29 using a needle G26. Each of the been used to produce transgenic hairy root culture and infected seedlings was cultured on solid MS/2 medium (Murashige plantlets have been regenerated (Anand, 2010). Several and Skoog, 1962; Saitou et al., 1999; Bhattacharyya and studies on A. rhizogenes (Tepfer, 1983, 1984, 1990; Bhattacharya, 2004) and incubated in darkness. After the first appearance of hairy roots, seedlings were transferred to hormone- Chabaud et al., 2006) have shown that although many free solid MS/2 medium gelled with 0.8% agar containing 3% dicotyledonous plants are susceptible to infection by sucrose and 500mg/l cefotaxime. About three weeks after infection, these bacteria and can be transformed and produce hairy several hairy roots appeared at the wounded sites. These were cut roots, some of these species have no ability to off and cultured in hormone-free MS/2 semi-solid medium regenerate plantlets through their hairy roots. containing 500 mg/l cefotaxime for one week. This process was Although Phyllanthus niruri hairy roots have been repeated three times to eliminate completely bacteria from the transformed roots (Ridgway et al., 2004). For investigation, number previously reported (Ishimaru et al., 1992; Bajaj, 1999) of hairy roots was counted seedling by seedling. They were cut and and showed the main constituents contained in these transferred on M/2 medium in square plate for growth. hairy roots. The objective of this work was to compare firstly the standard methods and modifications to those methods for P. odontadenius seeds germination from Localization of hairy root gfp activity and calli produced at hypocotyl plants Kinshasa in DRC (Democratic Republic of the Congo) and secondarily to investigate P. odontadenius hairy Seedlings observation was made directly on seedling cultivated in roots production using A. rhizogenes A4RS/pHKN29 for Petri dish (plates) on solid MS/2 medium incubating after 2 weeks later identification or isolation of secondary metabolites with bi-ocular lens MZFIII (Leica). The filters used were the GFP1 against P. falciparum causing malaria disease. (excitation 480/40 nm; stopped: 510 nm).
Number and length measurement MATERIALS AND METHODS Number and length for transformed roots or untransformed roots Plant material and culture methods (10) were measured with OPTIMAS 6.1 programs. Means were determined for each measurement. Seeds of P. odontadenius from CGEA/ CREN-K in Kinshasa (DRC) were subjected to six essays of germination (A, B, C, D, E and F). Firstly, seeds were surface scarified with sulfuric acid 96% and disinfected firstly with 70% (v/v) ethanol for 1 min, and then in 0.1% RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (p/v) aqueous mercuric chloride (HgCl2) for 3 min (Zhao et al., 2006). Secondarily, seeds were dipped in 20% Domestos for 10 Seeds germination of P. odontadenius min followed by four rinses with sterile water. Then seeds were dipped in 200 ppm gibberellic acid (GA3) solution during 4 h (Jimenez et al., 2007). Thirdly, H medium (Hoagland and Arnon, Table 1 shows 36 ± 16.59% as total number of P. 1938) was prepared then adjusted to pH 5.6 and solidified with 8 g/l odontadenius seeds that germinated and seeds not agar before autoclaving at 121°C for 15 min. Seeds were placed dipped in GA3 that did not germinate. 36±16.59% divided aseptically on hormone-free H medium and incubated at 27°C for as well as 76.4% for Jimenez et al., 2007 protocol (F) and 2 16 h photoperiod with 50 µmol/m /s. Leaved seedlings were used 23.6% for Casuarina Protocols (E). 41.87% of seedlings for inducing hairy roots. from Jimenez et al. (2007) protocols were infected with A.
rhizogenes A4RSpHKN29 with 5.4% only for seedlings Bacterial strain culture from Casuarina protocols. On the other hand, 4.13% of seedlings obtained were immature for their infection with A. rhizogenes, strain A4RS harboring pHKN29 plasmid, containing A. rhizogenes A4RSpHKN29. Others protocols used GFP only, was used as a binary vector for the generation of control have not produce germination or seedlings because hairy roots (Kumagai and Kouchi, 2003; Nakatsukasa-Akume et al., 2005), activated by culturing on Luria and Bertani (LB) medium (LB sulphuric acid showed a fatal effect on P. odontadenius medium: 1 L containing 10 g Bacto-tryptone, 5 g of yeast extract, 10 seeds germination and on the other hand, gibberellic acid g of sodium chloride salt and 15 g of agar with pH adjusted to 7.2 (GA3) has positive or stimulate effect in raising of
52 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Table 1. Percentage of P. odontadenius seeds germination.
Percentage of seedlings Percentage of seedlings Percentage of Percentage of Protocol Percentage of infected with not infected with control seedlings immature types germination (%) A4RSpHKN29 (%) A4RSpHKN29 (%) (%) seedlings (%) F 76.4 41.87 16.50 13.91 4.13% E 23.6 5.4 7.3 0 10.9% Total 36±16.59% of seeds germinated in the total
F: Protocol F: Protocol of Jimenez et al. (2007); E: Protocol E: Protocol of Casuarina (Rhizogenesis Laboratory, IRD); Gfp: Green fluorescent proteins; A4RSpHKN29: Agrobacterium rizogenes strain A4RS harboring pHKN29 plasmid.
Table 2. Distinctive morphological features for seedlings infected with A4RSpHKN29.
Wounded Presence of Absence of Seedlings with Seedlings without Parameter seedlings calli calli gfp gfp Seedlings wounded with 100% 73.10% 26.90% 84.60% 15.40% A4RS/pHKN29 Seedlings not wounded with 100% 0 100% 0 100% A4RS/pHKN29
GFP: Green fluorescent protein.
Figure 1. Enzymatic evidence and callus transformation.
dormancy seeds (Tourte, 2002). rizogenesA4RS/pHKN29. All seedlings wounded without A. rizogenesA4RS/pHKN29 did not present calli or gfp on the infected sites. Figure 1 show enzymatic evidence and Localization of hairy root gfp activity and calli callus transformation. produced on hypocotyl plantlets
Observations made under LEICA microscopic in order to Hairy roots counting and length measurement certify gene reporter expression of gfp are illustrated in Table 2 and Figure 1. Hairy roots number by seedlings in the infected sites and Table 2 shows that 73.1% plantlets wounded with A. their length are presented in Figures 2 and 3. Figure 2a rhizogenes A4RSpHKN29 have produced calli on shows that the infected plantlets produced most new- infected sites against 26.9 and 84.6% seedlings formed roots with 6.17±3.37 in the wounded sites of P. presenting positive gfp on the infected sites against odontadenius seedlings against 4.83±1.83. These two 15.4% with negative gfp on the infected sites with A. values did not present difference at P=5% (F-cal. = 0.73
Kikakedimau et al. 53
Figure 2. Number of newly-formed roots on plantlets wounded sites and length of newly-formed root on the wounded sites of P. odontadenius.
Figure 3. Autonomous growth of hairy roots on MS/2 in square disk.
˂ F-Tab. = 5.05). Hairy roots obtained with infected DISCUSSION plantlets by A. rhizogenes A4RSpHKN29 were 6.3±2.71 against zero for control seedlings. The main objective of this investigation was to establish Figure 2b shows that control seedlings produced protocol of germination and hairy roots production for P. newly-formed roots in the wounded sites which measured odontadenius, an important herbal medicinal plant. In this 1.92±0.55 cm against 1.59±0.49 cm. These two values work, we have been showed on one hand, the role of do not differ at P=5% (F-cal. = 0.97 ˂ F-Tab. = 5.05). gibberellic acid in seeds germination or seeds lifting dormancy and embryo lifting dormancy (Tourte, 2002). On the other hand, the sulphuric acid toxicity when it is Proof of autonomous hairy roots growth used in P. odontadenius seeds scarification which did not germinate after their dipping in gibberellic acid solution Hairy roots obtained by infection of P. odontadenius 200 ppm. Contrary to the results obtained by Jimenez et seedlings were cut and transferred into the square disk al. (2007) with the higher percentage (60%) of P. niruri for their autonomous growth in on MS medium with seeds germination in vitro, we obtained 36% of cefotaxime 300 mg/ml. The growth of hairy roots is germinated seeds. These results are better than the illustrated in the Figure 3. various results (3.8 - 30.20%) obtained by Unander et al. Figure 3 shows that all hairy roots (1, 2, 3 and 4) (1995) after the experiments on factors affecting marked respectively (a-a’), (b-b’), (c-c’) and (d-d’) placed germination. Authors reported that the hours after on MS/2 in square plate were increasing in length. The harvest, the temperature, hours of exposure to light and means length was 0.88±0.62 cm as presented in Figure the environment of seeds derived are the important 4. factors in P. amarus seeds germination.
54 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Figure 4. Length of increasing hairy roots on MS/2 in square disk.
The variation in our results shows the explanation in the new-formed root of control seedlings. Unander et al. (1995) and by the Kinshasa environment However, this experiment did not show difference issue (DRC) and the cultured media (MS and H). Another between number and length of hairy roots (Figure 2) fact, we have obtained new-formed roots with all obtained and new-formed roots from seedlings of P. seedlings, wounded with needle and infected or odontadenius uninfected with A4RS/pHKN29. This uninfected with A. rhizogenes. It can be caused by the experiment has also noticed the difference in the length stress due to wounds by needle and by gibberellic acid of the roots produced by seedlings of P. odontadenius used in seeds germination. These factors will be active and the non-multiplication of roots from the non-tainted on auxin hormone tenor which is increasing frequently seedlings when they were put in cultures on MS/2 without whether by synthesis stimulations or by auxin - oxydase phyto-hormones whereas this growth is manifested for inhibitions for the uninfected seedlings (Augé et al., the roots from tainted seedlings with A4RS/pHKN29. 1984). Then basic peroxydases have been particularly involved in the metabolism of auxinique catabolism, the application of gibberelic acid has been known in the Conclusion increase of endogenous auxins (Zrÿd, 1988). A. rhizogenes A4 strain, resistant to rifampicine and This survey revealed that A. rhizogenes A4RSpHKN29 spectinomycine, have been shown their efficiency in the encouraged the transgenic root production when the hairy roots production in Coffee (Coffea arabica) (Alpizar seedlings of P. odontadenius from germination of seeds et al., 2008). Pirian et al. (2012) reported that the A4 (36%) were soaked beforehand in the gibberellic acid strain was less efficient than AR15834, 9534 and C318 in (200 ppm) for four hours. The proof of effectiveness of the hairy root induction of Portulaca oleracea for transformation has first been shown by the presence of adrenalin production. All strains used by these authors the calluses instead of infection and then by the positive were rifampicin resistant. gfp activity when those roots are observed under the Further, the infected or uninfected seedlings have been luminescent microscope. The growth of hairy roots on distinguished by the presence of callus, principle MS/2 in square disk was also the characteristic which characteristic of A. rhizogenes strain A4RS/ pHKN29 and confirm transgenic root production in P. odontadenius. the green fluorescent protein (gfp) activities produced by the reporter gene coding gfp (Kumagai and Kouchi, 2003; Nakatsukasa-Akume et al., 2005) in the seedlings Conflict of Interest infected by A4RS/pHKN29. Another characteristic was the growth of hairy roots on MS/2 in the square plate than The authors have not declared any conflict of interest.
Kikakedimau et al. 55
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Mitaine-Offer AC, Sauvain M, Valentin A, Callapa J, Mallié M, Zèches- Hanrot M (2002). Antiplasmodial activity of Aspidosperma indole alkaloids.. Urban & Fischier Verlag. Phytomed. 9:142-145. IAEA is acknowledged for the fellowship awarded under Murashige T, Skoog F (1962). A revised medium for rapid growth and Technical Cooperation Project ZAI/5/016 between the bio assays with tobacco tissue cultures. Physiol. Plant. 15:473-497. DRC and International Atomic Anergy Agency (IAEA) Nakatsukasa-Akune M, Yamashita K, Shimoda Y, Uchiumi T, Abe M, through the CGEA/CREN-K which gave permission to Aoki T, Kami-Zawa A, Ayabe S, Higashi S, Suzuki A (2005). Suppression of root nodule formation by artificial expression of the leave the country (DRC) to do some months internship in TrEnodDR1 (coat protein of white clover cryptic Virus 1) gene in France; the authors are grateful to Research Institute for Lotus japonicas. Mol. Plant Microbe Interact 18:1069-1080. Development (RID)/Montpellier through M. Didier Olliaro PL and Yuthavong Y (1999): An overview of chemotherapeutic BOGUSZ (supervisor) for providing a framework for the targets for antimalarial drug discovery. Pharmacol. Therapeut. 81:91 - 110. successful completion of a course on Modern Techniques Orhan I, Sener B, Atici T, Brun R, Perozzo R, Tasdemir D of Molecular Biology. (2006).Turkish freshwater and marine macrophyte extracts show in vitro antiprotozoal activity and inhibit FabI, a key enzyme of Plasmodium falciparum fatty acid biosynthesis. Phytomed. 13:388- 393. REFERENCES Pirian K, Piri K, Ghiyasvand T (2012). Hairy roots induction from Portulaca
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Vol. 9(2), pp. 56-64, February 2015 DOI: 10.5897/AJPS2014.1180 Article Number: 53F9FFD50735 ISSN 1996-0824 African Journal of Plant Science Copyright © 2015 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www.academicjournals.org/AJPS
Full Length Research Paper
Morphometric study of accessions of Sesamum indicum L. collected from Nigeria
Zhigila, Daniel Andrawus1*, Sawa, Fatsuma Binta Jafun2 and Abdul, Suleiman D.2
1Botany Programme, Department of Biological Sciences, Gombe State University, Tudun Wada, Gombe, Gombe State, Nigeria. 2Biological Sciences Programmes, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, Bauchi State, Nigeria.
Received 15 March, 2014; Accepted 28 January, 2015
Sesamum (Sesamum indicum L.), is a very beneficial plant with manifold implementation in human life hence the identification of different species on the basis of morphological basis is indeed a need especially in less developed parts of the world. Morphometric studies of 12 accessions were carried out in order to find out characters which may be used for the delimitation of the accessions. Both quantitative and qualitative characteristics of the leaves, stems, flowers, stipule, node, fruit pods and growth type were studied and coded. Numerical analysis of these character data using cluster analysis – average linkage, single linkage, complete linkage and centroid method delimit the 12 accessions into five cluster groups which conform to the results of the morphological analysis. The results of these morphological variability analyses may set the foundation to detect promising accessions for mapping out future breeding schemes and also will be helpful for other researchers working on other aspects such as medicinal or nutritive consumption of different accessions of this multi-purpose crop.
Key words: Morphology, Sesamum indicum, accessions, taxonomy.
INTRODUCTION
Sesamum (Sesamum indicum L.), a member of the order widely considered to prevent diseases of different kinds Tubiflorae, family Pedaliaceae is perhaps the oldest (Pham, 2011). Farri (2012) reported that it is used in oilseed known and used by humans (Weiss, 1971). It is culinary and traditional medicines for its nutritive, preven- an important annual oilseed crop in the tropics and warm tive and curative properties. Beside food, sesame also subtropics, where it is usually grown in small plots finds its uses in application areas such as pharmaceutics, (Bedigian and Harlan, 1986). Renowned for its high oil industrial and as biofuel. Sesame is a very drought- content with seeds that can contain up to 60% oil, the oil tolerant plant, often called a survivor crop because of its has a composition that provides good health benefits ability to survive in regions where most crops fail (Pham, including high levels of unsaturated fatty acids (80%) and 2011). antioxidants. Possibly for this reason, sesame oil is It can survive in both tropical and temperate conditions
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel: +23480 6558 8811.
Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License Zhigila et al. 57
Table 1. List of accessions studied. varietal parentage. Thus, progress in crop improve-ment depends to a great extent on the ability of the breeder to S/N Accessions of S. indicum select high yielding varieties with good plant 1 Adaw-ting characteristics. 2 Adaw-ting (improved) In view of the above facts, the present study was 3 Adaw-wula undertaken to develop a system of varietal identification 4 Ex-Gombe 1 in S. indicum that can be used for further improvement 5 Ex-Gombe 2 through morphological characters. This research will also 6 Ex-Gombe 3 be helpful for other researchers working on other aspects such as medicinal or nutritive consumption of different 7 Ex-Gombe 4 species of this plant. 8 Ex-Gombe 5 9 Ex-Gombe 6 10 Ex-Sudan MATERIALS AND METHODS
11 Kenana 4 Collection of materials 12 Lale-duk Twelve (12) sesame accessions were used in this study, which consisted of the list of the accessions in Table 1. The field experiment was carried out at the Research Farm, Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University, Bauchi, Nigeria. and grows well on stored soil moisture with minimal irrigation or rainfall. Sesame is a short-day plant and is normally self-pollinated, although cross pollination Data collection ranging from 5 to over 50% occurs (Rheenen, 1980; Pathirana, 1994). It is an erect herbaceous annual plant At maturity (at about 12 weeks after planting), quantitative that has two growth characteristics, indeterminate and morphological characters which include plant height, leaf length, leaf breadth, petiole length, pod length, pod breadth and pod size determinate, with the plants reaching heights of up to two were measured using standardized centimetre rule and electronic meters. Most varieties show an indeterminate growth digital calliper. The mean and the corresponding standard errors of habit, which is shown as a continuous production of new ten measurements taken for each character as suggested by Lawal leaves, flowers and capsules as long as the environment et al. (2007) were recorded. The average number of primary remains suitable for growth (Carlsson et al., 2008). The branches per plant, number of leaves per plant and number of pod per plant were also recorded. Qualitative morphological features growth period range from 70 to 150 days depending on which include growth type, leaf shape, leaf type, leaf margin, leaf the variety and the conditions of cultivation (Ashri, 1998). arrangement, leaf surface, form of stipule, colour of dot at stipule, India and China are the world’s largest producers of leaf orientation, leaf colour, leaf apex, leaf base, stem type, stem sesame, followed by Myanmar, Sudan, Uganda, Ethiopia, texture, stem colour, calyx colour, corolla colour, type of cymose Nigeria, Tanzania, Pakistan and Paraguay (FAOSTAT, inflorescence, flower aestivation, flower shape, flower colour, 2008). Nigeria is a major exporter of sesame, which is fixation of anther, fruit type, fruit shape, fruit size, fruit colour (immature, mature and dry colour), fruit end shape, fruit lobes and rated second to cocoa in export volume. Nigeria has the fruit surface were recorded based on visual assessment. potential to become the largest sesame seed producer in Terminologies used throughout were those of Pandey and Misra Africa and the world because FAO (2012) reported that (2009). Nigeria exported 140,800 tonnes of sesame seed worth $139 million in 2010. Numerical taxonomy Alege et al. (2013) reported that the wide diversity in a sizeable number of sesame characteristics poses a Selection of operation taxonomic units (OTUs) problem to proper identification of the plant’s taxon and addressed this identification problem by indicating the Altogether, data matrix comprising forty-two characters by twelve vegetative and pod characteristics that are species accessions were used for the cluster analysis which was based on specific for the purpose of their easy and quick iden- Adansonian principles (Sokaland Sneath, 1973; Pandey and Misra, 2009) which suggested that many characters should be used for tification. According to Abubakar et al. (2011), a prere- classif ication purposes. These included both qualitative and quisite of any genetic improvement programme is a focus quantitative morphological characters. on morphological, anatomical and genetic variability in the local germplasm so that breeding strategies can be Data analysis mapped out. Morphological and anatomical characters of plants have been used by many authors in plant The data matrix was analyzed using hierarchical cluster analysis. identification (Sapir et al., 2002; Agbagwa and Ndukwu, The agglomeration schedule employed were the average linkage 2004; Noraini and Cutler, 2009; Soladoye et al., 2010; between groups, complete linkage, single linkage and the centroid method, Squared Euclidean distance as recommended by Lawal et Sharma et al., 2010). Taxonomic identification has been al. (2007) was used to measure the distance between OTUs. The the basis on which plant breeding effort are founded such ranges of variations of these characters among the OTUs were that diagnostic characters are assigned to specific or observed and noted. For the qualitative characters, the character 58 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Table 2. Qualitative morphological characters of accessions of S. indicum studied.
Leaf Leaf Leaf Leaf leaf Leaf Stem Stem Stem Spot at Acc. Leaf type Leaf shape margin base apex surface arrangement colour texture colour type stipule 1 Unipinnate Lanceolate Serrated Acute Acute Glabrous Dou Opposite Green Glabrous L Green Postrate Brown 2 Unipinnate Lanceolate Entire Acute Acute Pubescent Alt Spiral Green Glabrous L Green Postrate Yellow 3 Unipinnate Lanceolate Entire Acute Acute Pubescent Opp Spiral Green Glabrous L Green Postrate Brown 4 Unipinnate Lanceolate Entire Acute Acute Glabrous Opp Spiral Green Pubescent L Green Postrate Brown 5 Unipinnate Lanceolate Entire Acute Acute Glabrous Opposite Green Glabrous Green Postrate Brown 6 Bipinnate Cordate Biserrated Cordate Acute Pubescent Opp Spiral Green Pubescent Green Postrate Brown 7 Unipinnate Lanceolate Entire Obtuse Acute Glabrous Alternate Green Glabrous L Green Postrate Yellow 8 Unipinnate Ovate Serrated Obtuse Acute Pubescent Alt Spiral Green Pubescent L Green Postrate Brown 9 Unipinnate Ovate Serrated Acute Obtuse Pubescent Opp Spiral Green Pubescent L Green Postrate Brown 10 Unipinnate Lanceolate Entire Acute Acute Pubescent Opposite Green Pubescent L Green Postrate Yellow 11 Unipinnate Lanceolate Entire Acute Acute Pubescent Opp Spiral Green Pubescent L Green Postrate Brown 12 Unipinnate Lanceolate Entire Acute Acute Glabrous Opp Spiral Green Glabrous L Green Postrate Yellow
opp = Opposite, alt = alternate, L = light, dou = double.
states were written out against the respective characters in anther, capsule fruit type, oblong fruit shape, Morphometric features in accessions of S. a table. For the quantitative characters, the following green immature fruit colours, yellow mature fruit indicum studied are shown in Table 5. The formulae were used to determine the number of states K = and brown dry fruit colour, hairy fruit surface and average plant heights range from 67.86 to 115.08 1.0 + 3.332 log n, where K = number of states and n = number of OTU’s. The character values in the number of tetralobed fruit lobes (Tables 2 to 4). The dia- cm in all the accessions with the lowest mean states were divided based on the range of variations (Hill, gnostic morphological features used in the recorded in accession lale-duk (67.86 cm) and the 1980). The programmes were run on a personal computer delimitation of accessions are the leaf shapes highest mean in Adaw-wula (115.08 cm). The using the IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences which were observed to be ovate, lanceolate and number of branches per plant showed a wide (SPSS) version 20. cordate (Figures 3 to 5); leaf margins- entire, variation in the accessions; it ranges from 1.6 (Ex- serrate or double serrate; leaf bases- acute, Gombe 1) to 89.2 cm (Lale-duk). cordate or obtuse; leaf apices- acute or obtuse The lowest leaf length mean (3.32 cm) and leaf RESULTS (Figures 3 to 5 and Table 2); leaf arrangement- breadth (2.26 cm) were recorded by Lale-duk, opposite (Figure 7), alternate (Figure 6), double while the highest leaf length (12.29 cm) and leaf Tables 2 to 6 and Figures 1 to 11 give the opposite, alternate spiral or opposite spiral; leaf breadth (4.52 cm) by Ex-Gombe 2 and Ex-Gombe summaries of the results of this study. The surfaces- pubescent or glabrous; stem texture- 6, respectively. The accession showing the qualitative morphological studies showed a very pubescent or glabrous; stem colour- green or light highest average number of pods per plant in all close relationship between the twelve accessions. green; dot at stipule- black or yellow; corolla the samples studied was Lale-duk (120.20) and All the accessions had the same unipinnate leaf colour- cream or purplish white; cymose the lowest recorded by Ex-Gombe 6 (17.00). The type, green leaf colour, indeterminate growth type, inflorescence- monochasial cyme, dichasial cyme length ranges between0.82 – 4.34 cm. Fruits of erect stem type, lateral stipule form, green calyx or polychasial cyme; fruit end form-dentate, adaw-wula are the largest among the accessions colour, campanulate form of calyx, valvate flower cirrhose or cordate (Figure 10) and fruit sizes- with the average size of 232.81 mm while Lale- aestivation, bell flower shape (Figure 8), basifixed small, medium or large (Table 3 to 4 and Figure 9). duk recorded the smallest fruit size (75.32 mm). Zhigila et al. 59
Table 3. Floral morphological characters in accessions of S. indicum studied.
Accessions Corolla colour Cymose inflorescence Adaw-ting Dark pink Dichasial cyme Adaw-ting (improved) Dark pink Polychasial cyme Adaw-wula Dark pink Polychasial cyme Ex-Gombe 1 Dark pink Polychasial cyme Ex-Gombe 2 Light pink Polychasial cyme Ex-Gombe 3 Light pink Monochasial cyme Ex-Gombe 4 Dark pink Dichasial cyme Ex-Gombe 5 Light pink Dichasial cyme Ex-Gombe 6 Dark pink Dichasial cyme Ex-Sudan Dark pink Polychasial cyme Kenana 4 Dark pink Monochasial cyme Lale-duk Dark pink Dichasial cyme
Table 4. Fruit pod morphological features in accessions of S. indicum.
Accessions Fruit size Fruit end form Adaw-ting Medium Dentate Adaw-ting (improved) Medium Dentate Adaw-wula Large Cirrhose Ex-Gombe 1 Small Dentate Ex-Gombe 2 Medium Cirrhose Ex-Gombe 3 Medium Cirrhose Ex-Gombe 4 Medium Cirrhose Ex-Gombe 5 Large Cirrhose Ex-Gombe 6 medium Dentate Ex-Sudan Medium Cirrhose Kenana 4 Large Cirrhose Lale-duk Small Cordate
The results of hierarchical clustering procedures are cluster 5 (Ex-Sudan and Ex-Gombe 1). Although presented in the form of phenograms, which are branching occurred at low phenon levels which showed diagrams of relationship. The abscissa shows the broad similarities among the accessions, there are some spacing out of the accessions employed in the study accessions that stand as outliers and do not correspond while the ordinate on the other hand represents degree of to any group. similarity between and among the accessions. Figures 1 and 2 are phenograms of 42 x 12 data matrix obtained from average linkage cluster analysis and complete DISCUSSION linkage cluster analysis using both qualitative and quantitative morphological characters. The varietal description for identification of crop The analysis of the values indicated five cluster accessions has assumed critical importance in national groupings (Figures 1 to 2 and Table 6). Complete linkage and international seed programmes and there is a (CL) clustering method showed that cluster 1 is considerable need for the development of reliable comprised of Ex-Gombe 6, Adaw-ting (improved) and methods and identifiable characters for the purpose. The Adaw-ting; cluster 2 constitute accession Kenana 4, characters for which a variety is distinct from other could Adaw-wula, Ex-Gombe 3 and Ex-Gombe 2; cluster 3 has be morphological, chemical and biochemical in nature only accessions lale-duk while two accessions each which aids in varietal identification (Suhasini, 2006). make up cluster 4 (Ex-Gombe 5 And Ex-Gombe 4) and The use of plant diagnostic characteristics to identify a 60 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Table 5. Quantative morphological characters in accessions of S. indicum.
Leaf Plant height No. of branches No. of leaves Leaf length Petiole No. of pods Fruit length Fruit breadth Acc. breadth Fruit size (cm) per plant per plant (cm) length (cm) per plant (mm) (mm) (cm) 1 90.58±3.00 2.00±0.63 43.60±1.33 7.44±0.33 4.20±0.15 2.42±0.11 45.20±6.43 26.93±1.78bc 8.90±0.27 185.88±19.74 2 96.38±5.81 3.20±0.49 45.60±3.83 9.18±0.59 3.48±0.34 3.20±0.39 25.80±1.62 24.87±0.67bc 7.78±0.17 154.35±6.56b 3 100.22±10.01 2.40±0.40 38.00±2.43 12.29±1.11 4.42±o.25 4.34±0.29 45.00±6.77 27.16±1.51bc 8.84±0.16 190.33±13.36 4 102.60±1.43 24.80±5.12 166.40±2.23 7.90±0.67 3.92±0.27 1.88±0.18 89.20±18.76 26.94±1.72bc 7.57±0.21 162.01±13.98 5 90.66±2.34 1.6±0.40 46.20±1.62 10.92±0.62 4.18±0.58 3.14±0.32 17.00±2.53 24.48±0.52bc 7.15±0.17 139.34±5.11b 6 67.86±4.66 89.2±26.98 227.10±10.43 3.32±0.13 2.26±0.14 1.36±0.04 120.20±9.05 13.63±0.38a 7.00±0.13 75.32±3.16 7 101.70±12.89 3.6±0.75 56.00±3.75 9.66±0.57 2.32±0.45 0.82±0.04 48.60±3.46 27.35±2.18bc 9.52±0.20 206.16±17.86 8 85.70±4.53 22.40±4.44 63.60±6.85 8.28±0.40 4.52±0.29 0.98±0.15 65.00±7.81 23.94±0.77bc 7.60±0.22 144.18±8.30 9 89.08±6.71 16.80±3.67 167.20±2.06 8.08±0.44 3.56±0.23 2.74±0.32 45.20±6.95 25.73±1.18bc 7.39±0.17 151.39±8.11b 10 97.04±7.14 2.80±0.49 16.8±1.24 11.04±0.4 2.72±0.27 1.24±0.19 70.00±5.36 30.75±1.98b 8.71±0.37 212.81±19.58 11 115.08±6.84 3.80±0.20 47.00±3.87 11.62±0.86 3.88±0.32 3.86±0.17 46.20±2.15 31.65±2.28b 9.24±0.18 232.18±20.93 12 93.52±8.33 2.80±0.49 43.20±4.60 10.2±0.48 2.66±0.27 2.40±0.08 39.00±4.44 26.68±3.31bc 8.52±0.49 183.12±30.52
Table 6. Groups of accessions according to the method of analysis.
Method of Cluster membership analysis Group 1 Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Ex-Sudan, Adaw-wula, Adaw-ting, Adaw- Average Ex-Gombe 6 Kenana 4 Lale-duk Ex-Gombe 5 ting (improved), Ex-Gombe 4, Ex-Gombe Linkage 2, Ex-Gombe 3 Ex-Gombe 6, Adaw- kenana 4, Adaw- Complete Ex-Gombe 5, ting (improved), Adaw- wula, Ex-Gombe 3, lale-duk Ex-Sudan, Ex-Gombe 1 Linkage Ex-Gombe 4 ting Ex-Gombe 2 Ex-Sudan, Adaw-wula, Adaw-ting, Adaw- Single Ex-gombe 6 Kenana 4 Lale-duk Ex-Gombe 5 ting (improved), Ex-Gombe 4, Ex-Gombe Linkage 2, Ex-Gombe 3 Ex-Sudan, Adaw-wula, Adaw-ting, Adaw- Centroid Ex-Gombe 6 Kenana 4 Lale-duk Ex-Gombe 6 ting (improved), Ex-Gombe 4, Ex-Gombe Linkage 2, Ex-Gombe 3
variety has been classical taxonomic approach for all of the accessions are unipinnate with hetero- of leaf shape (lanceolate), Kashiram (1930)and both varietal purity and varietal identification geneous leaf shapes, lanceolate (Figure 3), ovate Weiss (1971) observed varied leaf shapes such (Suhasini, 2006; Pandey and Misra, 2009). The (Figure 4) and cordate (Figure 5). as lobed, lanceolate and linear in sesamum geno- general appearance of the leaves of S. indicum in Though, Suhasini (2006) observed only one type types. All the accessions have acute or Zhigila et al. 61
Figure 1. Dendrogram using nearest neighbour squared Euclidean distance in accessions of S. indicum.
Figure 2. Dendrogram using furthest neighbour squared Euclidean distance in accessions of S. indicum. 62 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
obtuse acute biserrate
darkt pink Light pink
Opposite leaf arrangement entire Yellow dot at stipule cordate
acute
Figure 6. Surface view of node with Figure 3. Surface view yellow spot at stipule. of lanceolate leaf shape with entire margin, acute leaf base and apex.
obtuse darkt pink acute biserrate Light pink
Opposite leaf arrangement Yellow dot at stipule entire cordate
acute
Figure 7. Surface view of Ex-Gombe 3 showing opposite leaf arrangement and light pink flower.
Figure 4. Surface view of ovate leaf shape with biserrate margin.
obtuse darkt pink acute biserrate Light pink
Opposite leaf arrangement Yellow dot entire at stipule cordate acute
Figure 5. Surface view of cordate leaf shape Figure 8. Surface view of Adaw- with obtuse apex. ting showing dark pink corolla. Zhigila et al. 63
obtuse leaf apices, entire, serrate or biserrate leaf margins; acute, cordate or obtuse leaf bases; opposite, alternate, double opposite, alternate spiral or opposite spiral leaf arrangement and pubescent or glabrous leaf surfaces which suggest these features to be inherent characters. The leaf colour is one of the important characteristics used for grouping of the accessions. The leaf colour depends upon the intensity of chlorophyll pigmentation which in turn varies with genotypes according to their genetic constitution. The genotypic variation in colour of the leaf is also governed to some extent by the varied response to environmental conditions such as light intensity and nutrition (Suhasini, 2006). Thus, in the present investigation, leaf colour of the sesamum accessions varied from light green to green. Changes in plant morphological features in terms of variation have been attributed to small-scale Figure 9. Side view of S. indicum. evolutionary processes, a view supported by the works of Serebrayanaya and Shipunov (2009) in different species
of plants. In addition to this, leaf size variation in taxonomy forms a basis for evolutionary changes in plants; also, it can modify the distribution of leaf biomass between support and functional tissues (Xu et al., 2008). With the stem textures being pubescent or glabrous; stem colour- green or light green; dot at stipule– black or yellow (Figure 6). The floral morphology showed the presence of four to five, green, gamosepalous calyx and four to five light pink observed in 3 accessions (Figure 7) or dark pink observed in 9 accessions (Figure 8) gamopetalous corolla. The petal colour of the flower is one of the small important characters for characterization. Similar results cordate were observed by Kashiram (1930) in sesamum, medium large Tarasatyavathi et al. (2004) and Kumar et al. (2005) dentatestudied cirrhose petal colour in jute accessions and reported that the actions of the genes were responsible for variations in Figure 10. Surface view of the three types of pod sizes. the petal colour of the genotypes. The genes determine the colour of the petal by developing or blocking of anthocyanin pigmentation
The pod characteristics influence the yielding ability of the plant. Variations were observed for various characteristics such as number of pods per plant, pod length, pod breadth, pod size and pod shape, pod beak and number of locules per pod which help in classifying the accessions into different group (Tables 4 and 5). There was no variation in fruit shape as all the accessions were observed to have oblong fruit shape with four lobes. The variation in pod number may be due to pod bearing ability of the accession itself. The fruit end forms have great diagnostic features among the small accessions. The accessions were observed to have cordate cirrhose, dentate or cordate fruit end form (Table 4). medium large Suhasini (2006) reported that the inheritance of capsule length was found to be conditioned by two to five pairs of dentate cirrhose factors with a heritability value of 50 to 70%, indicating Figure 11. Surface view of three the genetic influence in determining the pod length. The types of pod beaks. number of locules per pod did not vary with the accession;
64 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
all the accessions were observed to have four locules. Escribano MR, Santalla M, Casquero PA, De Ron AM, (1998). Patterns Similar results by Suhasini (2006) in chickpea sesame of Genetic Diversity in Landraces of Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) from Galicia. Plant Breed. 117:49-56. accessions showed that the genotypic expression of four FAOSTAT Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and six loculed pods is mainly controlled by the gene (2008). Available from: actions as four locules expression is governed by http://faostat.fao.org/site/567/default.aspx#ancor. [Accessed dominant gene and six loculed by recessive gene in 27/01/2013]. Farri C (2012). Available: Sesamum. http://farriconsultingng.blogspot.com/2012/02/sesame-seed-export-in- In hierarchical cluster analysis, accessions were nigeria-non-oil.html grouped based on the coded data matrix of both Harch BD, Basford KE, DeLacy LH, Lawrence PK (1997). The analysis quantitative and qualitative traits. Harch et al. (1997) and of large scale data taken from the World groundnut (Arachishypogaea L.) germplasm collection I. Two-way quantitative Escribano et al. (1998) used quantitative and qualitative data. Euphytica. 95:27-38. traits to determine genetic diversity among the world Hill RS (1980). A Numerical taxonomic approach to the study of groundnut collection and common bean, respectively. angiosperm leaves. Botanical Gazette, 141:213-229. The dendrograms constructed from the pooled data Kashiram K (1930). Studies in Indian oil seed (4) the types of Sesamum indicum D.C. Mem. Department of Agriculture. Ind. J. Bot. 18:127- (Figure 1) clearly showed, five major clusters namely 147. cluster 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5. Only one accession (lale-duk) Kumar D, Arpitha DAS, Mahato P, Lakshman SS, Mandi S (2005). was found on cluster 3 in the four methods of analysis. Identification key for notified varieties and varieties of common Figures 1 to 2 and Table 6 show that Ex-gombe 6, knowledge of jute (Corchorus olitorius (L.) and C. capsularis (L.)). Ind. J. Genet. 65(3):236-238. kenana 4 and ex-gombe 5 were found in cluster 1, 2 and Lawal OJ, Ayodele AE, Chukwuka KS (2007). Morphological studies in 4, respectively, using the average linkage, single linkage Lycopersicon esculentum Mill. lines in Southwestern Nigeria. J. Biol. and centroid linkage methods (Table 6). These indicated Sci. 7(5):737-744. the morphological diversities between and within these Noraini T, Cutler DF (2009). Leaf anatomical micromorphological characters of some Malaysian Parashorea (Dipterocarpaceae). J. accessions, hence, the need to delimit the taxa. Trop. For. Sci. 21(2):156-167. In conclusion, the present analysis using morphological Pandey SN, Misra SP (2009). Taxonomy of Angiosperms. Ane Books features in accessions of S. indicum indicated the Pvt. Ltd. ParwanaBhawa, Darya Ganj, New Delhi, India, pp. 225-232. existence of variation among the samples which can form Pathirana R (1994). Natural cross-pollination in sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). Plant Breed. 112(2):167-170. a basis for developing a system of varietal identification Pham TC (2011). Analyses of Genetic Diversity and Desirable Traits in and the possibility of improving the crop. Specifically, the Sesame (Sesamum indicum L., Pedaliaceae): Implication for accession lale-duk showed the highest representation of Breeding and Conservation. Doctoral Thesis Swedish University of distinct morphological characters in all the groups. Agricultural Sciences, pp. 65-69. Raw materials Research and Development Council (RMRDC) (2004). However, additional effort using other taxonomic markers Report on Survey of Agro- Raw materials in Nigeria: Beniseed. to support the present findings with a view to enhance the Publisher raw materials research and development council Garki- delimitation of the accessions of S. indicum for mapping Abuja, pp. 87-89. out breeding schemes for improved yield is hereby Rheenen HAV (1980). Aspects of natural cross-fertilization in sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). Trop. Agric. 57(1):53-59. recommended. Sapir Y, Shmida A, Fragman O, Comes HP (2002). Morphological variation of the Oncocyclus irises (Iris: Iridaceae) in the Southern Levant. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 139:369-382. Conflict of interest Serebrayanaya A, Shipunov, A (2009). Morphological Variation of Plants on the Uprising Isls of Northern Russia. Ann. Bot. Fennici The authors have not declared any conflict of interest. 46:81-89 Sharma A, Sehrawai SK, Singhrot RS, Tele A (2010). Morphological chemical characterization of Psidium species. Not. Boanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca 38(1):28-32. REFERENCES Sokal RR, Sneath PHA (1973). Princiciples of Numerical Taxonomy. Abubakar BY, MuA’zu S, Khan AU, Adamu AK (2011). Morpho- W.H. Freeman and Company. San Francisco, pp. 201-202. anatomical variation in some accessions of Moringa oleifera Lam. Soladoye M, Sonibare MA, Chukwuma EC (2010). Morphometric study from Northern Nigeria. Afr. J. Plant Sci. 5(12):742-748. of the genus Indigofera Linn.(Leguminosae- Papilionoideae) in South- Agbagwa IO, Ndukwu B (2004). The value of morpholo-anatomical Western Nigeria. Int. J. Bot. 6(3):227-234. features in the systematic of Cucurbita L. (Cucurbitaaceae) species in Suhasini KS (2006). Characterization of sesame genotypes through Nigeria. Afr. J. Biotech. 3(10):541-546. morphological, chemical and rapid markers. Thesis submitted to the Alege GO, Mustapha OT, Ojo S, Awosemo BM (2013). The University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad in partial fulfilment of the Morphological, Proximate And Mineral Responses Of Sesame To requirements for the Degree of Master of Science (Agriculture) in Different Nutrient Sources , Glob. J. Bio-Sci. Biotech. 2(1):12-16. seed science and technology. College of Agriculture, Dharwad Alege GO, Akinyele BO, Agianaku E (2009). Effect of nutrient sources University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharwad, pp. 34-36. on the vegetative and pod attributes of sesame in Anyigba. Appl. Tarasatyavathi C, Bharadwaj CH, Husain SM, Karmakar PG, Tiwari SP, Trop. Agric. 1:60-63. Joshi OP, Yogendra M (2004). Identification key for soybean (Glycine Ashri A (1998). Sesame breeding. Plant Breed. Revision 16:179-228. max) varieties released or notified in India. Indian J. Agric. Sci. Bedigian D, Harlan JR (1986).Evidence for cultivation of sesame in the 74(4):215-218. ancient world. Economic Botany, 40:137-154. Weiss EA (1971). 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Vol. 9(2), pp. 65-74, February 2015 DOI: 10.5897/AJPS2014.1202 Article Number: A6ACEF550740 ISSN 1996-0824 African Journal of Plant Science Copyright © 2015 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www.academicjournals.org/AJPS
Full Length Research Paper
In-situ morphological characterization of coconut in the Coastal Lowlands of Kenya
Maurice E. Oyoo1*, Muhammed Najya2, Stephen M. Githiri3, Pascal O. Ojwang1, Francis K. Muniu4, Emmanuel Masha5 and James O. Owuoche1
1Egerton University, Department of Crops, Horticulture and Soil Sciences, P.O. Box 536-20115 Egerton, Kenya. 2Pwani University, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, P.O Box 195-80108, Kilifi, Kenya. 3Jomo Kenya University of Agriculture and Technology, Horticulture Department, P.O. Box 62000-00200 Nairobi, Kenya. 4Kenya Agricultural Research Institute P.O Box 16-80109 Mtwapa, Kenya. 5Kenya Coconut Development Authority, P.O. Box 84351, Nkrumah Rd Mombasa, Kenya.
Received 17 June, 2014; Accepted 21 January, 2015
Characterization of in situ coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) genotypes using morphological descriptors is of primary importance for genetic resources. Variations in five traits were recorded on 48 selected coconut palms located at 0 to 177 m above sea level in the Coastal Lowlands of Kenya. The objective of our study was to characterize coconut palms in the coastal Kenya using morphological markers. Data was recorded on palms that included tall, dwarf and hybrid varieties. Data was analyzed using Genstat Ver 14.2 software. Phylogenetic tree construction, using the neighbour joining method, revealed that the germplasm fell into three major clusters comprising of 2, 25 and 21 genotypes, respectively. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the first component (CP1) accounted for 65.54% of the total variation and was associated with the number of green leaves. The second component (PC2) explained 19.71% of the total variation and was associated with stem height. The results from this study indicate that morphological variation for coconut germplasm at the Kenyan coast exists for both qualitative and quantitative characters. Coconut palms did not cluster on the basis of their origin based on the counties grown.
Key words: Morphological characterization, Cocos nucifera L., variation, genetic resources, genetic diversity, cluster analysis.
INTRODUCTION
Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.), is a monocotyledonous important crop at the Kenyan coast, providing its growers plant of the family Arecaceae (Palmaceae), subfamily with a source of livelihood. It also plays a significant role Cocoideae and the monospecific genus Cocos. It is an in the economic, cultural and social life of over 80
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected].
Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License 66 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
tropical countries in the world. Coconut is cultivated recorded ecotypes of coconut (Coconut Genetic mainly as an oil seed crop. The oil is rich in lauric acid Resources Network Database v. 2.2 COGENT/IPGRI), and besides being cooking oil it has a variety of other with evaluation and characterization being mainly carried uses (Harries, 1995). Almost every part of the coconut out on morphological and reproductive traits (Fernando et tree can be used in either making commercial products or al., 1995). meeting the food requirements of rural communities Currently, coconut production in Kenya is low despite (Teulat et al., 2000). Perera et al. (2000) considered its potential and adequate farmer-to-farmer dissemination Southeast Asia as the centre of origin of coconut, whilst of market access (Muhammed et al., 2012). The present Melanesia is thought to be the most likely region for level of productivity is low, which is probably due to pest coconut domestication along the coasts and islands and disease attacks, old and unproductive orchards and between Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific inadequate production of quality planting material for (Harries, 1995). Coconut has been found distributed in replanting and new planting (Muhammed et al., 2013). many parts of the world including Central and South Decline of soil fertility, lack of a reliable and fast means of America, East and West Africa, Southeast Asia, East generating clean planting materials, general lack of value Asia and the Pacific islands. According to Ohler (1984) additions and poor agronomic packages contribute to low dissemination was achieved by seeds floating in sea production (Muhammed et al., 2013). currents and subsequent germination on the shore, The tall and dwarf coconut types as well as their followed by further human dispersal. Geographic isola- intermediates, which are thought to be their hybrids, have tion, introgressive hybridization, mutation, and selection traditionally existed at the Kenyan coast. However, no are the most likely causes of population differentiation of genetic or morphological diversity studies on coconut at coconut. The mode of dispersal of coconut is likely to the Kenyan coast have been conducted and documented. have resulted in founder effects influencing population Therefore, an in situ morphological characterization of the differentiation (N’Cho et al., 1993). Tall and dwarf types coconut grown at the coastal lowlands of Kenya was are the two main stature and breeding habit categories conducted with a view to understand and document the used as the primary classification of coconut (Menon and morphological diversity among coconut populations at the Pandalai, 1958). Tall coconuts (talls) grow to a height of Kenyan coast. Knowledge of the degree of morphological about 20-30 m and are allogamous, late flowering, and relationships is of importance for crop improvement and their nuts are medium to large in size. They are hardy may help in establishing core collection for future and thrive in a wide range of environmental conditions. research work. Dwarf coconuts (dwarfs) grow to a height of about 10-15 m and are autogamous, early flowering, and generally MATERIALS AND METHODS produce a large number of small nuts with distinctive colour forms (Menon and Pendalai, 1958). Introgression The study was conducted in the coastal lowlands of Kenya in April of talls and dwarfs and further selection and dis- 2013. A total of 48 samples were included in the study. There were semination by man produced the wide range of varieties 45 tall palms designated East African Talls (EAT), including the and pan-tropical distribution of coconut seen today suspected hybrids and three East African Dwarfs (EAD) that (Harries, 1978). broadly represented all varieties of coconut from different coconut- growing regions at the Kenyan coast. For the character The improvement of crop genetic resources depends assessment, eight varieties were included that researchers and on continuous infusion of desired traits of wild relatives, farmers considered as hybrids. Of these, 15 palms were sampled traditional varieties and use of improved breeding methods. from gardens/house yards, 16 from small farm fields while 17 were These require an assessment of diversity to select sampled from large farm fields. Samples were specifically taken superior varieties (Mondini et al., 2009). Diversity analyses from areas where the palms grown were morphologically different and there was a marked change in altitude or cropping systems, in coconut palm to date have been done by morphologi- where a formidable barrier such as a mountain or a river existed or cal traits, biochemical and molecular markers (Dasanayaka where local people were ethnically different (in terms of dialect) et al., 2009). Using morphological and biochemical markers from previous collection sites. This strategy aimed at reducing have disadvantages due to the long juvenile phase of the chances of sampling duplicates. Selected areas in coastal regions plants, high cost, long-term of field evaluation, potential were sampled to cover different agro ecological zones, designated environment factors’ influence on the phenotype and as Coastal Lowland (CL), Sugarcane zone (CL2), Coconut - cassava Zone (CL3), Cashew-cassava Zone (CL4) and Millet- limited number of available phenotypic markers livestock zone (CL5) (Table 1 and Figure 1). The range of altitudes (Manimekalai et al., 2006). However, morphological covered was 0 m above sea level at Faza in Lamu County to 177 m markers are easy to study. Assessment of the genetic above sea level at Rabai, Kilifi County. Palms with similar features diversity present within a species is a prerequisite for growing in ecologically distinct sites, were assumed to be of future sustainable breeding efforts and germplasm different eco-strains and were both sampled and characterized. For management. Molecular markers provide an important every palm tree sampled, Global Positioning System (GPS) data was recorded and the tree photographed while notes were taken on technology for evaluating levels and patterns of genetic the general structure and appearance of the population, origin of diversity and have been utilised in a variety of plant the population and the collection sources. Adjacent palm status was species (Rafalski et al., 1996). To date, there are over 300 also recorded. Oyoo et al. 67
Table 1. Names and sources of the Kenyan coast coconut germplasm used in the study.
Characterized germplasm code Local Name County District Division Location Village Dialect Type KLF/MAG/MAG/GOG/NGA/03 Nazi Kilifi Magarini Magarini Gogoni Ngarite Giriama Tall KLF/MAG/MAG/GOG/NGA/01 Nazi Kilifi Magarini Magarini Gogoni Ngarite Giriama Tall KLF/MAG/MAG/GOG/NGA/04 Nazi Kilifi Malindi Magarini Gogoni Ngarite Giriama Tall KLF/MAG/MAG/GOG/NGA/02 Nazi Kilifi Malindi Magarini Gogoni Ngarite Giriama Tall KLF/MAL/MAL/GED/CHA/03 Nazi wa panda Kilifi Malindi Malindi Gede Chafisi Giriama Tall KLF/MAL/MAL/WAT/JIB/01 Mnazi Kilifi Malindi Malindi Watamu Jimba Giriama Tall KLF/MAL/MAL/WAT/JIB/02 mnazi Kilifi Malindi Malindi Watamu Jimba Giriama Tall KLF/RAB/KAM/KAM/MBU/09 Mtsamuri Kilifi Rabai Kambe/Ribe Kambe M'bungoni Kambe Tall KLF/RAB/KAM/PAN/MAE/10 - Kilifi Rabai Kambe/Ribe Pangani/Maereni Maereni Kambe Tall KLF/RAB/MWA/MIK/MAW/08 Mtsamuli Kilifi Rabai Mwawesa Mikahani Mawe Mabomu Rabai Dwarf KLF/RAB/RAB/RAB/BUN/02 - Kilifi Rabai Rabai Rabai Buni Rabai Tall KLF/RAB/RAB/RAB/BUN/03 Mnazi msemwa Kilifi Rabai Rabai Rabai Buni Rabai Tall KLF/RAB/RAB/RAB/BUN/04 Mnazi Mtune Kilifi Rabai Rabai Rabai Buni Rabai Tall KLF/RAB/RAB/RUR/JIB/05 Mnazi wa Kawaida Kilifi Rabai Rabai Ruruma Jimba B Rabai Hybrid KLF/RAB/RAB/RUR/JIB/06 Mnazi wa Kawaida Kilifi Rabai Rabai Ruruma Jimba B Rabai Hybrid KLF/RAB/RAB/RUR/JIB/07 Mnazi wa Kawaida Kilifi Rabai Rabai Ruruma Jimba B Rabai Hybrid KWL/KWA/MAT/KIK/KIG/02 Mnazi Kwale Kwale Matuga Kikoneni Kigato Digo Tall KWL/KWA/MAT/KIK/KIG/01 Mnazi Kwale Kwale Matuga Waa Kigato Digo Tall KWL/KWL/MAT/WAA/KOM/05 Gao Kwale Kwale Matuga Waa Kombani Digo Tall KWL/KWL/MAT/WAA/KOM/04 Gao Kwale Kwale Matuga Waa Kombani Digo Tall KWL/KWL/MAT/WAA/MWA/03 mnazi Kwale Kwale Matuga Waa Mwatate Digo Tall KWL/KWL/MAT/WAA/TSU/06 Kisamili/Kipemba Kwale Kwale Matuga Waa Tsunguni Digo Dwarf KWL/MSA/LUN/KIK/KAM/03 Kipini Kwale Msambweni Lungalunga Kikoneni Kambe Digo Tall KWL/MSA/LUN/KIK/KAM/05 Tonga Kwale Msambweni Lungalunga Kikoneni Kambe Digo Tall KWL/MSA/LUN/KIK/KAM/02 Nazi yaKinyamwezi Kwale Msambweni Lungalunga Kikoneni Kambe Digo Tall KWL/MSA/LUN/KIK/KAM/01 Kipemba Kwale Msambweni Lungalunga Kikoneni Kambe Digo Tall KWL/MSA/LUN/KIK/KAM/04 Kisamli Kwale Msambweni Lungalunga Kikoneni Kambe Digo Tall KWL/MSA/MSA/MIL/MAB/01 - Kwale Msambweni Msambweni Milalani Mabatani Digo Hybrid LMU/LMUE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/38 Mnazi waKawaida Lamu LamuEast Faza Faza Faza Arab Tall 68 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Table 1. Contd.
Characterized germplasm code Local Name County District Division Location Village Dialect Type LMU/LMUE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/41 Mnazi Mfupi Lamu LamuEast Faza Faza Faza Bajuni Hybrid LMU/LMUE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/40 Mnazi Mfupi Lamu LamuEast Faza Faza Faza Bajuni Hybrid LMU/LMUE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/36 Mnazi wa Kawaida Lamu LamuEast Faza Faza Faza Arab Tall LMU/LMUE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/42 Kongoo Lamu LamuEast Faza Faza Faza Bajuni Hybrid LMU/LMUE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/43 Kongoo Lamu LamuEast Faza Faza Faza Bajuni Tall LMU/LMUE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/37 Mnazi wa Kawaida Lamu LamuEast Faza Faza Faza Arab Tall LMU/LMUE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/39 Mnazi wa Yellow Lamu LamuEast Faza Faza Faza Arab Tall LMU/LMUW/AMU/AMU/POW/50 Jongo Lamu LamuWest Amu Amu Power Bajuni Tall LMU/LMUW/AMU/MKO/MAK/49 Mnazi Mfupi Lamu LamuWest Amu Mkomani Makafuni Bajuni Hybrid LMU/LMUW/AMU/MKO/MAK/48 Mnazi wa Pombe Lamu LamuWest Amu Mkomani Makafuni Bajuni Tall LMU/LMUW/AMU/MKO/MAK/47 Zipue Lamu LamuWest Amu Mkomani Makafuni Bajuni Tall LMU/LMUW/AMU/MKO/MSU/46 Kongoo Lamu LamuWest Amu Mkomani Msumarini Bajuni Tall LMU/LMUW/AMU/MKO/MSU/45 Mnazi wa Kipemba Lamu LamuWest Amu Mkomani Msumarini Bajuni Dwarf LMU/LMUW/AMU/MKO/MSU/44 Kongoo Lamu LamuWest Amu Mkomani Msumarini Bajuni Tall TR/TD/KIP/KIP/BAH/35 - Tana River Tana Delta kipini kipini Bahongo Arab Tall TR/TD/KIP/KIP/WAK/31 Mnazi Kongoo Tana River Tana Delta kipini kipini Wakehoya Meru Tall TR/TD/KIP/KIP/WAK/32 - Tana River Tana Delta kipini kipini Wakehoya Meru Tall TR/TD/KIP/KIP/WAK/33 Mnazi Kongoo Tana River Tana Delta kipini kipini Wakehoya Arab Tall TR/TD/KIP/KIP/WAK/34 Kithamli Tana River Tana Delta kipini kipini Wakehoya Arab Tall
A total of five traits were characterized, which included RESULTS AND DISCUSSION morphology was categorized as spherical (14 stem, crown, leaf and fruit morphology as well as stress trees), hemispherical (seven trees), V-shaped severity of the crop assessment using the descriptors listed In this study, seven trees had yellow stalks and (seven trees) and X-shaped (19 trees). Twenty for coconut by Bioversity International (Batugal et al., 2005). The characters assessed for the 47 selected palms immature nuts; two had red yellow; one had red; one trees were observed to have almost round are listed in Table 2. In addition, vegetative, reproductive 12 exhibited green; 19 had green yellow; four fruit shape while 15, nine and eight trees had parts, apple and nut traits were assessed based on the showed red yellow-green (brown) while two trees ovoid, oblate and pointed fruit (without husk) protocol of the coconut descriptor list of the International had orange stalks as well as immature nuts. The respectively. Tree height ranged from 12.1 m Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI, 1995). fruit morphology from five trees were oblong; 13 (KLF/RAB/KAM/PAN/MAE/10) to 1.4 m The quantitative and qualitative morphological traits of coconut characterized were classified using dissimilarity ovoid; 26 angled and four round. Seventeen trees (TR/TD/KIP/KIP/WAK/34). Width of scar at 1.5 m coefficients and the neighbour joining from the usual sampled had no boles while 18 and 13 exhibited height varied from 1.2 m Euclidean distance of complete linkage clustering method. low and high bole categories, respectively. Crown (KLF/RAB/KAM/PAN/MAE/10) to 0.4 m Oyoo et al. 69
Figure 1. Map of the Coastal Lowlands of Kenya indicating the sites where in situ characterization of coconut (Cocos nucifera) was conducted in this study.
(KLF/RAB/BUN/03). On vertical descriptors, 31 trees LMU/MUW/AMU/MKO/MSU/44 and were characterized as erect, one angled, one bowed TR/TD/KIP/KIP/BAH/35. while 15 had curved stems. The number of green leaves The Counties and their respective divisions where the showed variation ranging from 51 study was conducted are given in Table 1. In addition, (LMU/MUW/AMU/AMU/POW/50) to 9 global positioning system (GPS) data is shown in Figure (TR/TD/KIP/KIP/BAH/35). Longest petiole length 1. Generally, genotype clustering did not follow the recorded was 3.5 m for KWL/MSA/MSA/MIL/MAM/01 and geographical origins from which the genotypes were the shortest was 0.6 m, recorded for sampled, suggesting an exchange of germplasm among 70 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Table 2. Descriptors for coconut characters as listed by IPGRI .
Trait type Character assessed Height from the ground to the oldest green leaf (m) Height of 10 leaf scars starting from 15 m from ground surface (m) Width of leaf scar at 1.5 m height (m) Stem Morphology Height of 10 leaf scars starting from 15 m from ground surface (m) Vertical descriptors of the stem Bole category Stem type - dwarf, tall or hybrid
Crown morphology Number of green leaves Overall appearance /Shape of crown
Length of leaf 14 (m) Leaf Morphology Petiole length (m)
Fruit appearance Fruit morphology Fruit (without husk) appearance/shape Color of immature nuts
Stress severity assessment General biotic stress susceptibility
Table 3. Principle component loadings (latent vectors) of 11 traits in 48 genotypes of coconut at the coastal lowlands of Kenya.
Trait PC1 PC2 PC3 PC4 Plant height (m) -0.004 -0.115 0.036 0.025 Width of leaf scar at 1. 5 m height -0.003 0.019 0.032 0.008 Bole Category 0.016 0.146 0.922 -0.203 Crown morphology -0.006 0.007 -0.014 -0.234 Fruit appearance (with husk) -0.004 0.026 0.063 -0.079 Fruit appearance (without husk) 0.014 -0.062 -0.329 -0.718 Length of 14th leaf (m) 0.009 -0.016 0.049 0.098 No of green leaves 0.999 -0.021 -0.010 0.035 Petiole length (m) 0.002 -0.009 0.022 0.041 Stem height (m) 0.019 0.980 -0.156 -0.002 Vertical descriptor of the stem 0.040 0.007 0.090 -0.608 Percent variation 65.54 19.71 8.14 2.74 Latent roots 2649.2 796.4 328.9 110.9 Cumulative percent of total variation 65.54 85.25 93.39 96.13
the coastal population probably due to the fact that that coconut at the coast share a common ancestry. farmers could have acquired planting materials from Principal Component Analysis (PCA) showed that the first fellow farmers across the region. It is evident from our four components explained 96.13% of the total variation results that many genotypes from different origins over- (Table 3). Principal component 1 (PC1) accounted for lapped; an indication of morphological redundancy in the 65.54% and was associated with the number of green characterized germplasm. leaves. PC2 explained 19.71% of the variation and was Coconut can cross-pollinate and it is possible that crop associated with stem height. PC3 accounted for 8.14% of at the coast has several hybrids which could not be the total variation and was mainly associated with bole discriminated by morphological analysis probably due to category and fruit husk appearance, while PC4 explained environmental influence on the traits and not necessarily 2.74% of the total variation and was associated with Oyoo et al. 71
KL F /M AG/M AG/GOG/ NGA/0 3 LM U/LM UE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/36 KL F /M AG/M AG/GOG/ NGA/0 4 KWL/KWL/MAT/WAA/KOM /05 LM U/LM UE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/37 LM U/LM UW/AMU/M KO/M AK/47 KWL/M SA/LUN/KIK/KAM /01 KWL/M SA/LUN/KIK/KAM /02 KLF/RAB/RAB/RAB/BUN/02 KWL/KWL/MAT/WAA/MWA/03 KWL/KWL/MAT/WAA/KOM /04 TR/TD/KIP/KIP/WAK/32 KWL/M SA/LUN/KIK/KAM /03 KLF/RAB/RAB/RAB/BUN/03 TR/TD/KIP/KIP/WAK/33 LM U/LM UW/AMU/M KO/M AK/48 KL F /M AG/M AG/GOG/ NGA/0 1 TR/TD/KIP/KIP/WAK/31 KLF/MAL/MAL/WAT/JIB/01 KLF/RAB/KAM /PAN/M AE/10 TR/TD/KIP/KIP/WAK/34 KLF/MAL/MAL/WAT/JIB/02 LM U/LM UE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/39 KLF/RAB/M WA/M IK/M AW/08 LM U/LM UW/AMU/M KO/M SU/45 KLF/RAB/KAM /KAM /M BU/09 KWL/KWL/M AT/WAA/TSU/06 LM U/LM UE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/38 KL F /M AG/M AG/GOG/ NGA/0 2 KWL/KWA/M AT/KIK/KIG/01 KLF/M AL/M AL/GED/CHA/03 LM U/LM UW/AMU/M KO/M SU/46 KWL/KWA/M AT/KIK/KIG/02 LM U/LM UW/AMU/M KO/M SU/44 LM U/LM UW/AM U/AM U/POW/50 KWL/M SA/LUN/KIK/KAM /04 LM U/LM UE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/43 TR/TD/KIP/KIP/BAH/3 5 KWL/M SA/LUN/KIK/KAM /05 KLF/RAB/RAB/RAB/BUN/04 LM U/LM UE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/40 LM U/LM UE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/41 LM U/LM UE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/42 KWL/MSA/MSA/MIL/MAB/01 KLF/RAB/RAB/RUR/J IB/07 KLF/RAB/RAB/RUR/J IB/06 KLF/RAB/RAB/RUR/J IB/05 LM U/LM UW/AMU/M KO/M AK/49
1.00 0.98 0.96 0.94 0.92 0.90 0.88
Cluster distance
Figure 2. Dendrogram of the similarities among 48 coconut genotypes using the nearest neighbour method of cluster analysis.
vertical stem descriptors. of 10 leaf scar starting from 1.5m from the ground; as did Dissimilarity coefficients and the neighbour joining from genotypes KLF/MAG/MAG/GOG/NGA/03, the usual Euclidean distance of complete linkage clus- KLF/MAG/MAG/GOG/NGA/04, tering method divided the 48 coconut genotypes into two LMU/LMUE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/36, major clusters (Figure 2). Genotype KWL/KWL/MAT/WAA/KOM/05 and LMU/LMUW/AMU/MKO/MAK/49 was grouped in a cluster LMU/LMUE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/37. They were dwarf, had the of its own while other genotypes were grouped together. same crown morphology, vertical stem type as well as LMU/LMUW/AMU/MKO/MAK/49 was the shortest nut at length of 14th leaf (m). Other genotypes that belonged to on 2.28 m. Genotypes the same cluster were LMU/LMUW/AMU/MKO/MAK/48, KLF/RAB/RAB/RUR/JIB/05,KLF/RAB/RAB/RUR/JIB/06 KLF/MAG/MAG/GOG/NGA/01, TR/TD/KIP/KIP/WAK/31 and KLF/RAB/RAB/RUR/JIB/07 formed a minor cluster and KLF/MAL/MAL/WAT/JIB/01. They were all tall palm mainly due to their tall palm types, stalk color and height types with brown stalk, erect vertical stem as well as high 72 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Plate 1. Appearance and colour of the palm fruits of some of the nuts at the coasts of Kenya. A, ovoid and green; B-angled and yellow red; C, angled and yellow; D, yellow.
Plate 2. The bole categories of palm tress at the coastal lowlands of Kenya. E, Low bole; F, no bole; G, high bole.
bole type and same length of the 14th leaf. Similarly, close undergone preferential selections for yield, nut size, nut proximity was observed for LMU/LMUE/FAZ/FAZ/FAZ/38, shape, nut colour, kernel thickness and tolerance to KLF/MAG/MAG/GOG/NGA/02, drought, pest and disease as argued by Perera et al. KWL/KWA/MAT/KIK/KIG/01, (1996). KLF/MAL/MAL/GED/CHA/03 and In some cases it was evident there could have existed LMU/LMUW/AMU/MKO/MSU/46. hybrid varieties as some EATs bearing green yellow or It is clear from the dendrogram, PCA and as shown by red green fruits could be seen suggesting hybridity the Plates 1 to 4 that coconut germplasm at the Kenyan between the EATs, which usually bear green fruits and coast is diverse in various morphological categories. It is the EADs that commonly bear yellow fruits. There also our view that in Kenya, just as reported in Sri Lanka existed tall palms with yellow nuts, and intermediates with (Fernando et al., 1995), coconut can be found growing in the dwarfs suggesting under-dominance of yellow nuts a range of environmental conditions other than the over green ones. Selecting for variations explained by the optimal conditions and maintain their productivity despite PCA and cluster patterns obtained from different geno- the stress and management conditions which included types and probably environments could be useful for palm trees not of uniform age, unweeded fields, progeny selection of genetically diverse genotypes for improve- generations mixed in a population, no pure stands and ment programs in coconut. However, owing to the fact lack of fertilization. In almost all instances, even the age that morphological characters are under heavy control of of the palms was not known. In addition, we noted that the crop growing environment, diversity studies using coconut plantations in Kenya, especially of EATs have DNA markers is recommended for thecharacterized Oyoo et al. 73
Plate 3. Fruit appearances/shapes of some of the nuts at the coastal lowlands of Kenya. H, almost round; I, almost round; J, almost round; K, pointed.
Plate 4. Crown morphology of some of the palm trees at the coasts of Kenya. L-X, shaped; M, spherical.
germplasm in this study. Regional Office for Asia, the Pacific and Oceania (IPGRI-APO), Serdang, Selangor DE, Malaysia. Dasanayaka PN, Everard JMDT, Karunanayaka EHand Nandadasa HG (2009). Analysis of coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) diversity using Conflict of interests microsatellite markers with emphasis on management and utilisation of genetic resources. J. Nat. Sci. Found. Sri Lanka 37 (2):99-109. The authors have not declared any conflict of interest. Fernando WMU, Fernando S, Vidanaarachchi V, Peries RRA, Everard JMDT, Periapperuma K, Karunaratne S (1995). Coconut biotechnology research with emphasis on tissue culture—The Sri Lankan experience. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Plant ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Tissue Culture Conference, held at University of Dhaka, Bangladesh, 10-12 December 1995. Harries HC (1978). Evolution, dissemination and classification of The authors are grateful to Dr. Rahab Muinga, Kenya Cocosnucifera L. Bot. Rev. 44:265-320. Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), the Provincial Harries HC (1995). Coconut (Cocosnucifera L.) In: Evolution of Crop Director of Agriculture, Coast and Managing Director, Plants. 2nd ed. Edited by J. Smartt and NW Simmonds. Longman, Kenya Coconut Development Authority (KCDA). The London and New York. pp. 389-394. IPGRI (1995).Descriptors for coconut (Cocosnucifera L.). International study was funded by the National Commission Council of Plant Genetic Resourse Institute, Rome, Italy. Science, Technology and Innovation (NACOSTI), Kenya. Manimekalai R, Nagarajan P (2006). Assessing genetic relationships among coconut (Cocosnucifera L.) accessions using inter simple sequence repeat markers, Sci. Hortic.108(1):49-54. REFERENCES Menon KPV, Pandalai KM (1958). The coconut. A Monograph. Indian Central Coconut Committee, Government Press, Madras, India. Int. Batugal P, Ramanatha Rao V, Oliver J (2005). Coconut Genetic J. Agric. Sci. pp. 86-102. Resources. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute – Mondini L, Noorani A, Pagnotta MA (2009). Assessing Plant Genetic 74 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Diversity by Molecular Tools. Divers. 1:19-35. Perera L, Russell JR, Provan J, Powell W (2000). Use of microsatellite Muhammed N, Hashim S, Shauri H, Malinga J, Kashindi G (2012). DNA markers to investigate the level of genetic diversity and Dissemination of market access and technology information among population genetic structure of coconut (Cocosnucifera L.) Genome coconut farmers: a case study of Kilifi County in Kenya. 2(5):153-156. 43:15-21. Muhammed N, Nyamota R, Hashim S and Malinga JN (2013). Zygotic Rafalski A, Vogel MJ, Morgante M, Powell W, Andre C, Tingey SV embryo in vitro culture of Cocosnucifera L. (sv. East AfricanTall (1996). Generating and using DNA markers in plants. In Non- variety) in the coastal lowlands of Kenya. Afri. J. Biotech. 12 mammalian Genome Analysis: A Practical Guide. Edited by B. Biren (22):3435-3440. and E. Lai. Academic Press, London.pp. 75-134. N’Cho YP, Sangare N, Bourdeix R, Bonnot F, Baudoun L (1993). Teulat B, Aldam C, Trehin R, Lebrun P, Barker JHA, Arnold GM, Karp Assessment of a few coconut ecotypes: A biometrics approach. 1. A, Baudouin L, Rognon F (2000). An analysis of genetic diversity in Study of tall populations. Oleagineux, 48:121-132. coconut (Cocosnucifera L.) populations from across the geographic Ohler JG (1984). Coconut Tree of Life.Plant production and range using sequence-tagged microsatellites (SSRs) and AFLPs, protection.Paper 57, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Theor. Appl. Genet. 100(5):764-771. Nations, Rome. Perera L, Peries RRA, Fernando WMU (1996). Collection and Conservation of coconut biodiversity in Sri Lanka. Int. Plant Genet. Res. Newslett. 106:1-4.
Vol. 9(2), pp. 75-81, February 2015 DOI: 10.5897/AJPS2013.1111 Article Number: EC4041650763 ISSN 1996-0824 African Journal of Plant Science Copyright © 2015 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www.academicjournals.org/AJPS
Full Length Research Paper
Coffee leaf damaging insects’ occurrence in the forest coffee ecosystem of southwestern Ethiopia
1 2 2 3 1 Chemeda Abedeta *, Emana Getu , Emiru Seyoum , H. Hindorf and Techale Berhane
1Jimma University, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 1492, Jimma, Ethiopia. 2Addis Ababa University, College of Natural Sciences, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 3Institut für Pflanzenkrankheiten Nussallee, D-53115 Bonn University, Germany.
Received 19 September, 2013; Accepted 9 February, 2015
Insects are diverse and abundant in forest ecosystems, but poorly documented in afromontane rainforests in Southwestern Ethiopia where Coffea arabica L. originated and is distributed worldwide. Therefore, the present study was initiated to study the occurrence of coffee leaf damaging insect pests in the afromontane rainforest of southwestern Ethiopia. Accordingly, surveys on insect pest of coffee were conducted to investigate pest status and; their damaging intensity in three (Yayu, Berhane-kontir and Bonga) forest coffee ecosystems. Based on general uniformity of forest coffee population, each forest coffee was stratified into three forest sites and 16 trees were systematically selected for leaf insect damage assessment. Survey and damage assessment results reveal that, coffee leaf damaging insect pests in afromontane rainforests of Southwestern Ethiopia include 12 insect families from five insect orders. Mean incidence data showed, significant different (P< 0.05) during different survey seasons within and between three forest coffee populations. Among the frequently occurred and damage causing insect pests were Leucoplema doherthyi, Cryphiomystis aletreuta, coffee giant looper and Leucoptera species and had 72.20 ± 1.42, 14.41 ± 5.15, 10.73 ± 4.30 and 2.63 ± 1.24 proportion damage across forest coffee populations, respectively. There is also high variation among major coffee leaf damaging insect during different seasons (rainy, rainy to dry transition, dry and dry to rainy season transition season). Generally, there were differences in insect pest incidence between and within forest coffee populations with regard to coffee leaf damaging insects and relatively low incidence observed compared to other coffee production systems. The present findings complement other research results meant for the conservation of remnant forest and its biodiversity especially to explore the natural enemies in these forest ecosystems.
Key words: Coffea arabica L., forest coffee, southwestern Ethiopia, insect pests, season.
INTRODUCTION
Coffee is an evergreen perennial crop grown in ecosys- year (Wrigley, 1988). According to Le Pelley (1968), one tems, which favors insect pest to survive from year to particular consequence for this reason is; it is not
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected].
Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License 76 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
possible without coffee to employ the useful method of use of the wild populations of C. arabica in the montane rainforests pest control applied for as annual crops particularly of Ethiopia”. It was undertaken in Yayu (Gaba-dogi), Berhane-kontir cultural control like “closed season” during which the crop and Bonga forest coffee populations, which are located 580, 620 and 420 km away from Addis Ababa to southwestern part of the is completely removed from the field. In general, suc- country, respectively. Yayu forest coffee population is found in culent green shoots, leaves, flowers, and young fruits of western part of Oromia Regional State, while Berhane-kontir and coffee plant parts are attacked by different chewing and Bonga coffee populations are found in the Southern Nation sucking insects (Wrigley, 1988; Mugo, 1994). Nationalities Peoples Regional state‟ (SNNPRs). The forest coffee Despite the existence of suitable natural conditions for populations are representatives of the different agro-ecologies for forest coffee production areas with elevations ranging from 1050 to coffee production, the average national yield is very low 1900 m.a.s.l. and all exhibit tropical humid climate. From each in Ethiopia. Insect pests are among a number of factors forest coffee population, three representative sites of approximately that contribute to low yield (Mesfin, 1989; Million, 2000). one hectare was selected for the study. Plots were ecologically Over 49 species of insect pests were recorded on coffee described including the slope, aspect (direction) and altitude within in Ethiopia, which were categorized as major, potential different gradient. Clinometer and compass were used to measure and minor pests (Million, 1987; Esayasl et al., 2006). the slope and the aspect, respectively. Co-ordinates for the study sites were recorded using Geographic Positioning System (GPS) Antestia bugs, Antestiopsis intricata (Ghesquiere and (Table 1). Carayon) and Antestiopsis facetiodes (Greathead) and In order to characterize shade structure (canopy coverage), coffee leaf miner, Leucoptera caffeina (Washbour) are forest inventories was made at each site. A 20 by 20 m plot considered as major insect pests of coffee particularly in replicated three times was used to describe the shade status for large scale farms. Coffee berry borer, Hypothenemus each site. Shade canopy coverage was visually estimated and hampei (Ferriere) is a potentially important insect pest of classified into three classes: Low, medium and dense shade tree coverage which coincides with < 40, 40 - 60% and > 60% canopy coffee in Ethiopia. Coffee insect pest status and category coverage, respectively. have been studied in plantation, garden and to some extent in semi-forest coffee production systems, but there is no single study so far conducted in forest coffee Experimental tree selection, insect specimen collection and ecosystem, where coffee is grown as wild and used as damage assessment organic product. A reconnaissance survey was carried to find out general Furthermore, the diversity and the economic value of information about each forest coffee populations, to select and tag the Ethiopian coffee gene pool and its forest habitat as experimental trees in each forest site. Based on general uniformity well as the institutional framework of forest users have of coffee trees, shade status and elevation of forest coffee been studied. The in-situ conservation of wild coffee population, each population was classified into three forest sites offers an interesting approach in biodiversity conservation (Table 1). Forest coffee population refers to three forest localities, while sites are strata in each population. Latter on from each site 16 including both flora and fauna (Chemeda et al., 2011a, b; trees were systematically selected employing the zigzag sampling COCE, 2007). However, still the status of insect pest has method and tagged for leaf damage assessment. Furthermore, not been assessed and described; and no reliable infor- each tree was stratified into three-canopy layer and a pair of branch mation exists in such genetically diversified ecosystems. from each layer was selected for the assessment of leaf damaging In order to supplement in-situ conservation of the insects. genetically diversified forest coffee plant and associated Insect samples were collected during different coffee fruit phenological stages four times in all selected forest populations. fauna for sustainable use, it is crucial to study the status Specimens were collected using different methods including hand of insect pests in different afromontane rainforest coffee collection, aspirator and sweep net. Collected insect samples were populations and examine the extent of damage they labeled with information including co-ordinates, altitudes, slopes, inflict. Hence, the current study was initiated to obtain date of collection and developmental stage of the pest. All insect base line information on the status of forest coffee leaf specimens were identified at the Biosystematics Department of the International Center for Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), damaging insect pests to contribute significantly to the Nairobi, Kenya. overall conservation of forest coffee which is considered Damage assessment was made by counting total and damaged as source of organic coffee to the world market. leaves from lower, middle and upper canopy branch leaves in July, Therefore, the study was initiated with the objective to October, January and April 2007/08 cropping season, representing investigate occurrence and incidence of coffee leaf rainy, autumn (rainy to dry season transition), winter (dry season) damaging insect pests in afromontane rainforests of and spring (dry to rainy season transition) of the year, respectively. The percentages of damaged leaves were computed from the southwestern Ethiopia. cumulative number of damaged leaves to total number of leaves for each canopy branches.
MATERIALS AND METHODS Data processing and analysis Description of the study sites Forest coffee populations, sites, seasons (referring to data collected The study sites were selected based on previous studies of joint month) and percentage leaf damage were considered for statistical project between the Center for Development Research (ZEF), Bonn analysis. All measurements of count data of damaged leaves were University, Germany and the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural tested for normality using SAS software Proc Univariate. Data Research (EIAR), Ethiopia, which focuses on “conservation and violate the assumption of ANOVA or normality was square root Abedeta et al. 77
Table 1. Descriptions of forest coffee study sites.
Forest coffee 1 Shade Aspect or Forest site 2 Elevation (m) Co - ordinates Slope (%) Population status Direction PIVSI Low 1493 N-08° 24' 11'' E-035° 47' 44'' 10 East Yayu PIVSII Medium 1491 N-08° 23' 98'' E-035° 47' 40'' 16 West PIVSIII Dense 1496 N-08° 23' 10'' E-035° 47' 62'' 20 West
PIIISI Medium 1051 N-07° 07'43'' E-035° 26' 16'' 15 North Berhane-Koniter PIIISII Dense 1084 N-07° 07' 16'' E-035° 26' 29'' 13 N-East PIIISIII Low 1134 N-07° 06' 52'' E-035° 26' 33'' 20 East
PIISI Medium I744 N-07° 20' 01'' E-035° 13' 39'' 5 East Bonga PIISII Dense 1739 N-07° 20' 31'' E-035° 13' 32'' 10 East PIISIII Medium 1894 N-07° 19' 04'' 'E-035° 03' 31'' 8 N-West
1PII, PIII and PIV = Codes given to Bonga, Berhane-Kontir and Yayu forest populatins, while SI, SII and SIII are Site one, Site two and three, respectively. 2Low = shade coverage < 40%, Medium= shade coverage 40% - 60%, and Dense = shade coverage > 60%.
Table 2. Coffee leaves damaging insects in the forest coffee ecosystem of southwestern Ethiopia.
Common name Order Family/species Occurrence / status Collected FCP* Black thread scale Homoptera Diaspididae Rare 2 and 3 Brown totrix Lepidoptera Tortricidae Rare 2 and 3 Coffee aphid Hemiptera Aphididae Rare 2 and 3 Lyonetiidae Coffee leaf miner Lepidoptera Frequent 1, 2 and 3 Leucoptera spp. Coffee cushion scale Homoptera Stictococcidae Rare 2 and 3 Coffee hawk moth Lepidoptera Sphingidae Rare 2 and 3 Coffee thrips Thysanoptera Thripidae Rare 1 and 2 Epiplemidae Coffee leaf skeletonizer Lepidoptera Leucoplema doherthyi Warren) Frequent 1, 2 and 3 Dust brown beetle Coleoptera Tenebrionidae Rare 1 and 3 Coffee giant looper Lepidoptera Geometridae Frequent 1, 2 and 3 Helmet scale Homoptera Coccidae Rare 2and3 Mussel scale Homoptera Diaspididae Rare 2 and 3 Gracillariidae Serpentine leaf minor Lepidoptera Frequent 1, 2 and 3 Cryphiomystis aletreuta (Meyrick) Stinging caterpillar Lepidoptera Limacodidae Rare 2 and 3 Systates weevil Coleoptera Curculionidae Rare 2 and 3
*1Yayu, 2Berhane-Kontir and 3Bonga forest coffee populations (FCP).
transformed to normalize the data and to meet assumption of RESULTS ANOVA before executing statistical analysis. Transformed percentage damaged leaves were compared using the SAS package for windows-v8 (SAS Institute Inc. Cary NC, USA). One- Level of damage by coffee leaf insect pests way ANOVA with nested design was performed to analyze coffee plant-insect relations. Surveys result of coffee insect pests in afromontane Nested design of SAS proc mixed was used to analysis variation rainforests of southwestern Ethiopia recorded 12 insect in infestation across locations and data collection months (seasons). Wherever significant difference ANOVAs (F-ratios) was families from five insect orders (Table 2). Not all insect found for means at the 5% probably level, means were separated pests collected frequently occurred in all forest coffee using Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) test. ecosystems. Based on number of recorded site and 78 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Table 3. Mean (± SE) damaged coffee leaves during different survey seasons and forest coffee populations in afromontane rainforests of southwestern Ethiopia.
Season during data Forest coffee population P- value collected Yayu Berhane- Kontir Bonga Rainy 35.73 ± 2.127bA 46.05 ± 1.611aA 17.40 ±1.053cA .0001 Transition (rainy to dry) 8.47 ± 0.579 C 8.82 ± 0.552D 9.16 ± 0.664C 0.7150 Dry 11.01± 0.903b B 13.40 ± 0.875abC 14.18 ± 1.241a B 0.0325 Transition (dry 10.04 ± 0.580cB 21.10 ± 0.741a B 16.83 ± 0.814b A .0001 to rainy season) P-value .0001 .0001 .0001 -
Means followed by the same letter(s) within a raw (lower case) and means followed by the same letter within a column (upper case) are not stastically significant at 5%, Tukey´s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) test.
frequency of occurrence, insects in forest ecosystems of 10% leaf infestation. However, there was a significant southwestern Ethiopia were categorized into two: rarely difference (P < 0.05) among forest coffee populations and frequently occurring insect pests of coffee. Generally (Table 3). rarely occurred insects were recorded once or twice in one and/two forest populations, however frequently occurring insect pests cause visible damage symptoms Major coffee leaf damaging insects and recorded for more than two times in all forest coffee populations. Of the insect pests of coffee leaves, L. Coffee leaf skeletonizer, Leucoplema doherthyi doherthyi, C. aletreuta, Leucoptera spp and Coffee giant looper, Geometridae were very common and causing It can be noticed that all the coffee tree under observation visible damage on coffee leaves in all forest coffee forest showed damage caused by insects. However, damage surveyed in southwestern Ethiopia. proportion caused varies among the major coffee leaf The mean incidence of coffee leaf damage varied damaging insects at different seasons and forest coffee between 10 and 56% with an average of 33% across the populations. Coffee leaf skeletonizer was among the study coffee populations during rainy season. Of the total most commonly occurring insect pests causing coffee sites, 62% of them showed leaf damage incidence leaf damage and showing the highest proportion of between 20 and 50%, 12% had more than 50% incidence damage incidence (59%) out of 33% leaf damage and only 25% had less than 20% leaf damage with the incidence caused by the four most frequently occurring lowest mean incidence of 10% recorded at Bonga forest coffee leaf insect pest during rainy season data collected. coffee population. Analysis of Variance result showed a Also, data collected three month later revealed, the pest significant difference (P < 0.05) among forest coffee showed the highest proportional damage incidence (70%) populations in level of coffee leaf damage insect pest with across forest coffee populations with and as high as 84 the highest mean recorded at Berhane-Kontir (46.05%) and 78% for data collected during dry and dry to rainy followed by Yayu (35.73%) and Bonga coffee population season transition, respectively (Table 4). Considering (17.40%) (Table 3). However, there is no significant Yayu, Berhane-konter and Bonga forest coffee popula- difference (P > 0.05) among forest coffee populations in tions, coffee leaf skeletonizer shared about 71, 72 and the level of leaf damage during rainy to dry season 74% proportional damage, respectively to other three transaction survey period (Table 3). However, the mean major coffee leaf damaging insects (Figure 1). incidence vary from 4-15% with the mean of 9% at Bonga, 8% at Berhane-Kontir and 8% at Yayu forest coffee populations. Similarly, dry season survey result Serpentine leaf miner, Cryphiomystis aletreuta revealed, there was significant difference (P<0.05) between Yayu and Bonga forest coffee populations. Among all commonly occurring insect pests of coffee, However, there was no significant difference between coffee leaf skeletonizer ranked first followed by Berhane-Kontir and Yayu, and Berhane-Kontir and serpentine leaf miner with 72 and 14% proportion Bonga forest coffee population. But, variations in mean incidence throughout the study seasons and forest coffee damages were observed across forest coffee populations, respectively. Coffee serpentine leaf miner populations (Table 3). showed 20, 14, 15 and 8% proportion incidence in rainy, Data collected during dry to rainy season revealed that, rainy to dry, dry and dry to rainy seasons data collected 79% of the forest coffee populations showed more than time, respectively, compared to other coffee leaf Abedeta et al. 79
Table 4. Mean (± SE) proportion damage of coffee leaf by major insect pests coffee during different seasons in afromontane rainforest southwestern of Ethiopia.
Season Serpentine leaf miner Coffee leaf miner Coffee leaf skeletonizer Coffee gaint looper Rainy 20.56 ± 1.09 9.12 ± 6.69 59.37 ± 8.90 10.95 ± 9.76 Transition (rainy to dry) 14.14 ± 14.10 1.09 ± 1.11 66.91 ± 11.04 17.93 ± 14.51 Dry 15.11 ± 12.89 0.08 ± 0.13 84.20 ± 12.31 0.62 ± 0.74 Transition (dry to rainy) 7.84 ± 5.64 0.25 ± 0.24 78.32 ± 8.09 5.25± 3.19
± = Mean plus or minus standard error of mean
Figure 1. Mean (± SE) damage proportion by coffee leaf insect pests in three forest coffee ecosystems of southwestern Ethiopia. SLM= Serpentine Leaf Miner; CLM= Coffee Leaf Miner; CLS = Coffee Leaf Skeletonizer; CGL= Coffee Gaint Looper. Error bar (±) = Mean plus or minus standard error of mean
damaging insect pests (Table 4). However, 15% (Yayu), respectively (Figure 1). 21% (Berhane-konter) and 8% proportional damage were observed at Bonga forest coffee population compared to other leaf damaging insects (Figure 1) Coffee leaf miner, Leucoptera spp.
Among all commonly occurring insects pests of coffee Coffee gaint looper leaf, coffee leaf miner ranked at last with the mean proportional incidence of 3% across seasons and forest Coffee gaint looper ranked third in terms of proportional coffee populations. Coffee leaf miner showed variation in incidence as it showed incidence of 10% (rainy), 18% terms of proportional incidence of 9% in rainy season and (rainy to dry season transition), 0.20% (dry) and 13% 0.08% in dry season compared to the other coffee leaf (dry to rainy season transition) (Table 4). Also, 10%, 6% damaging insects (Table 4). The target pest showed and 16% proportional damage were recorded at Yayu, about 5% damage as maximum at Yayu and 2% as Berhane-konter and Bonga forest coffee populations, lowest proportional damage at Bonga forest coffee popu- 80 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
lation compared to other leaf damaging insects (Figure Coffee serpentine miner comes after coffee leaf 1). skeletonizer in importance in forest coffee populations of the study areas. However, there was no report on the incidence of coffee serpentine leaf miner from Ethiopia, DISCUSSION but Million and Bayisa (1986) stated that the pest was very common in most coffee growing areas of Ethiopia Twelve (12) insect families from five insect orders of though their population was highly suppressed by the coffee leaf damaging insect were recorded in natural enemies. The authors also reported, coffee afromontane rainforests of southwestern Ethiopia. serpentine miner can easily build its population and reach Afromontane rainforests in southwestern part of the damaging level if its parasitoids are killed by pesticides country are characterized by complex ecosystems, in as witnessed by the application of dieldrin to control ants which many components including insect pests interact in Mizan Teferi. towards a prevailing equilibrium with natural enemies Coffee gaint looper ranked third in level of incidence in towards a steady state. As a result, occurrence and forest coffee populations with about 11% infestation distribution of coffee insect pests was relatively low, among all major coffee leaf damaging insects. Waikwa probably due to the efficient role of natural enemies in (1981) also reported that Coffee gaint looper is most stable ecosystems as there is minimum human interven- common and densely populated in areas of hot weather tion in these protected ecosystems. Different authors coffee growing areas in Kenya. Similarly, Crowe (2004) reported vegetation diversity play key role in insect pest stated this insect pest became prominent in Kenya in management and their population response (Altier and 1961 following the spraying of parathion. However, coffee Nicholls, 1999; Andow, 1991; Gibson and Jones, 1977). leaf miner, Leucoptera species showed relatively the Generally, data collected during different seasons high- lowest proportional incidence among major leaf damaging lights that there is variation within and between forest insects across forest coffee populations. However, study coffee populations in seasonal abundance and effects of by Million and Bayisa (1986) and Million (1987, 2000) coffee leaf insects pests. This result is in line with the reported that coffee leaf miner comes next to Antestia hypothesis that, for tropical rainforests the rainy season is bug in importance causing heavy defoliation when there the most favorable period for the activities of leaf eating is sever infestation in other coffee production systems insects (Gombauld and Rankin-de-Merona, 1998), which other than forest. Studies conducted at Agaro Sub- totally agree with current study of coffee leaf damaging Center, southwestern Ethiopia indicated that percentage insects with highest incidence of 33.06%, when the leaf damage due to this insect pest ranged from 2.2 - amount of rain fall was very high compared to the other 55% with an average of 13% infestation (IAR, 1986). seasons. Furthermore, difference in genetic diversity of The result of this study indicated that there was no wild coffee populations as well as the intensity of cultural coffee tree free from insect pest attack. At least one practices from one forest populations to another and insect pest species is associated with it. However, within the same forest coffee ecosystem could be damage was mostly negligible and very low. And, gene- resulted in variations in the extent of insect incidence rally incidence of forest coffee insect pests observed was across forest coffee populations. Similarly, damage relatively low compared to the other coffee production intensity by major coffee leaf damaging insects showed a systems in the country and other coffee producing great variation in their intensity across forest coffee countries. populations. As the result, present research findings suggest that, Coffee leaf skeletonizer was observed in all forest these coffee stands may not urgently recommend coffee populations during all seasons varying and more additional control for leaf damaging insects, but it abundantly compared to other leaf damaging insects. supplements other research findings to conserve remnant Million and Bayisa (1986) reported coffee leaf forest and its biodiversity in southwestern part of the skeletonizer as potentially occurring insect pests of coffee country. Especially, it can serve as areas for exploration in plantation and other production system; however the of different natural enemies for key and chronic pests of intensity was lower than coffee leaf miner. It reveals that coffee production worldwide. different coffee production systems resulted with different level of occurrences/and damage level with the same Conflict of interest insect pest in the country. Similarly, report from Kenya by Waikwa (1981) indicated that coffee leaf skeletonizer is a The authors have not declared any conflict of interest. common pest of coffee in the lower and medium altitudes of coffee growing areas. However, Crowe (2004) reported REFERENCES that coffee leaf skeletonizer considered is a minor pest of coffee Arabica and Robusta in Kenya, Uganda and Altieri MA, Nicholls CI (1999). Biodiversity, ecosystem function, and insect pest management in agricultural ecosystems. In: Biodiversity in Democratic Republic of Congo without mentioning Agro-Ecosystems, (Collins, W. W. and Qualset, C. O., eds.), CRC incidence can be inflected by the target pest. Press, Boca Raton, Florida. pp. 69- 84. Abedeta et al. 81
Andow DA (1991). Vegetational diversity and arthropod population Le Pelley RH (1968). Pests of coffee. London, Longman, 590pp. response. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 36:561-586. Mesfin A (1989). Managing coffee research in Ethiopia. Paper Chemeda A, Emana G, Emiru S, Hindorf H (2011a). Species presented to IAR ISNAR research management workshop. January composition, incidence and parasitoids of Ceratitid fruit flies in wild 23-28, 1989, Debrzei, Ethiopia. Coffea arabica L. southwestern Ethiopia. Ethiop. J. Biol. Soc. Million A (1987). Insect pests of coffee with special emphasis on 10(2):213-221. Antestia, Antestiopsis intricata in Ethiopia. Insect. Sci. Appl. 8:977- Chemeda A, Emana G, Emiru S, Hindorf H (2011b). Occurrences of 980. coffee berry insect pests in the Afromontane rainforests of Million A (2000). Significance of Arthropod pests of coffee in Ethiopia. southwestern Ethiopia. East Afr. J. Sci. 5:41-50. In: Proceeding of the workshop on control of Coffee Berry Disease Conservation and use of the wild populations of Coffea arabica L. in the (CBD) in Ethiopia. August 13-15, 1999, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. montane rainforests of Ethiopia (COCE I) (2007). Conservation and 66-71. use of the wild populations of Coffea arabica L. in the montane Million A, Bayisa M (1986). A review of coffee insects and their control rainforests of Ethiopia. Final report for period 2002 to 2006. Bonn, in Ethiopia. In: Proceeding of the first Ethiopian crop protection Germany, 274pp. symposium, 4-7 February 1985, (Tsedeke, A., ed.). Addis Ababa, Crowe TJ (2004). Coffee pest in Africa. In: Coffee growing, processing Ethiopia. pp. 163-174. and sustainable production, (Wintgens, J.N., ed.). Wiley- Mugo HM (1994). Coffee insect pests attacking flowers and berry in VchVerlagGmbh and Co. Kga A. Weinheim. pp. 441-445. Kenya. Kenya coffee 59(691):1777-1783 Esayas M, Million A, Chemeda A (2008). Coffee insect pests in SAS Institute (2000/2001). Carry, NC, USA. Ethiopia. In: Girma, A., Bayetta, B., Tesfaye, S. Endale, T., and Taye, Waikwa JW (1981). Coffee Research Foundation, Kenya. Annual report K. eds. Coffee diversity and knowledge, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. pp. for the period 1979-1980, Nairobi, Kenya. 279-290. Wrigley G (1988). Coffee: Tropical Agricultural Series. Longman Gibson IAS, Jones T (1977). Monocultures as the origin of major forest Scientific and John Willey and Sons, Inc., New York. 639pp. pests and diseases. In: Origins of Pests, Parasite, Disease and Weed Problems., (Cherrett J. M and. Sagar, G. R. eds.). Blackwell Scientific Publications, UK. pp. 139-161. Gombauld P, Rankin-de-Merona J (1998). Influence of season on phenology and insect herbivory on sampling of tropical rain forests in French Guiana. Ann. Des. Sci. For. 55(6):715-725. Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) (1986). Jimma Agricultural Research Center progress Report for the Period 1983 / 84, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Vol. 9(2), pp. 82-89, February 2015 DOI: 10.5897/AJPS2014.1260 Article Number: B941C8350764 ISSN 1996-0824 African Journal of Plant Science Copyright © 2015 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www.academicjournals.org/AJPS
Full Length Research Paper
Integrated management of Cercospora leaf spots of groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) through host resistance and fungicides in Eastern Ethiopia
Solomon Debele1* and Amare Ayalew2
1School of Agriculture, Madawalabu University, P. O. Box 247, Bale-Robe, Ethiopia. 2School of Plant Sciences, Haramaya University, P. O. Box 138, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia.
Received 19 December, 2014; Accepted 15 January, 2015
Cercospora leaf spots caused by Cercospora arachidicola and Cercosporidium personatum are the most widespread diseases of groundnut that result in severe yield losses in Ethiopia. Field trials were conducted at Babile and Dire Dawa to evaluate the effect of integrated use of host resistance and fungicides on the temporal epidemics of leaf spots and yield of groundnut. The experiments were conducted during the 2010 main cropping season using three groundnut varieties and six fungicide treatments. The experiment was laid out as RCBD in a factorial arrangement with three replications. Severity, disease progress rate, area under disease progress curve (AUDPC) and yield of groundnut were used to evaluate the effects of treatments. High levels of disease control were achieved by weekly application of chlorothalonil at both locations. Up to 25 and 65% severity levels were recorded on sprayed and unsprayed plots of the varieties, respectively. Fungicide applications also significantly reduced disease progress rate and AUDPC value on the susceptible variety. Seed yield harvested from fungicide sprayed plots was consistently greater than the yield harvested from unsprayed plots.
Key words: Arachis hypogaea L., Cercospora leaf spots, disease progress rate, disease severity and integrated disease management.
INTRODUCTION
Groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), also known as peanut, Its cultivation is mostly confined to countries ranging from is an important leguminous oilseed crop belonging to the 40° N to 40° S. Major groundnut producing countries are family Fabaceae (Mali and Bodhankar, 2009). It is one of China, India, Nigeria, U.S.A and Indonesia, respectively. the most popular and universal crops cultivated in over Groundnut is very important cash crop for small scale 100 countries in six continents but mainly Asia, Africa and farmers of developing countries. In Ethiopia, it is grown America with a world production of 37.1 million metric over an area of 41,761 ha, with an annual production of tons from an area of 23.1 million hectares (FAO, 2007). 46,887 t (MoARD, 2009).
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected].
Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License
Debele and Ayalew 83
Groundnut is one of the three economically important beneficial microorganisms used as bioagents and oilseed crops consisting of nigerseed/noug and sesame nitrogen fixer in the soil. In addition, farmers in the arid in Ethiopia. It serves as a source of cash income for and semi-arid areas of Africa in general including many small-scale farmers and the country also obtains Ethiopia are resource poor and so most of them cannot foreign currency by exporting the crop (Geleta et al., afford the cost of chemical control measure as the sole 2007). However, eastern Ethiopia holds primary position method of disease management. Plant disease can be in producing and supplying for both domestic and export effectively managed by a combination of fungicides markets as compared to other parts of the country. and host plant resistance (Pande et al., 2001). Groundnut is commonly cultivated by farmers under rain- The use of resistant varieties to a particular disease is fed conditions. Particularly in East Hararghe Zone, the one of the main methods of disease management. crop ranked third next to maize and sorghum in area Therefore, the planting of moderately resistant cultivars coverage and seed production. will reduce the use of fungicides and associated Despite its importance, the average national yield of expenses and increase economic gain. Thus farmers will groundnut in Ethiopia is very low. This might be due to a benefit economically from planting resistant varieties number of biotic and abiotic constraints. Among the biotic (Johnson and Beute, 1986). Therefore, development of constraints, fungal diseases are one of the major factors integrated disease management programs could be affecting the production and productivity as well as the effective in decreasing the production costs and quality of the crop. Amongst the fungal diseases, improving productivity and quality as well as reducing the Cercospora leaf spots, caused by Cercospora arachidicola detrimental effects of chemicals on the ecosystem. So, (early leaf spot) and Cercosporidium personatum (syn. this study was conducted to determine the effect of Phaeoisariopsis personata) (late leaf spot) are the major integrated use of host resistance and fungicides spray destructive diseases of groundnuts worldwide including intervals on the epidemics of Cercospora leaf spots and Ethiopia (Backman and Crawford, 1984; Smith et al., yield of groundnut. 1992). The damages done by these diseases generally ranged from defoliation to reduction in pod, seed and haulm yield (Brenneman and Culbreath, 2000). Yield MATERIALS AND METHODS losses due to Cercospora leaf spots are as high as 50% Experimental sites in the USA (Shokes and Culbreath, 1997; Hagan et al.,
2006). Field experiments were conducted at Babile and Dire Dawa Cercospora leaf spots are widespread and economically research stations of the Haramaya University during the main important diseases of groundnut in Ethiopia, and they can cropping season in 2010. The sites are located in a semi-arid and cause about 65% yield losses in high diseases pressure arid agroclimatic zone in the country and they differ mainly in their areas of the country (Teklemariam et al., 1985). The altitude, temperature, and annual total rainfall. Babile is situated in study on leaf spot and rust resistance, which was Oromia Regional State at 30 km East of Harar at 9° 08' 40" N latitude, 42° 21' 30" E longitudes and at altitude of 1650 m.a.s.l. The conducted at Babile and Bisidimo, showed that most of district is characterized by weather conditions conducive for leaf the genotypes tested suffered a high disease severity spots epidemic development. It receives annual rainfall of over 600 and yield was not obtained from most plots due to heavy mm (Mitiku, 1989; Tadele and Tana, 2002). Mean annual maximum defoliation of leaves in different years depending on and minimum temperatures are 28.05 and 15.52°C, respectively. weather conditions (Abraham, 2009). Although, the The type of the soil at Babile research field is a well drained sandy loam with pH of 7.0 (Mitiku, 1989). While Dire Dawa is located at 40 diseases are highly destructive in the areas, farmers do km North of Haramaya University at 9° 31' N latitude, 41° 51' E not apply any control measures like fungicides longitudes and at altitude of 1160 m.a.s.l. It receives annual rainfall applications and selection of improved varieties. of 520 mm, and has mean maximum and minimum temperatures Therefore, it is necessary to develop suitable disease ranging from 28.1-34.6 and 14.5-21.6°C, respectively. The management practices for groundnut crop in Ethiopia. dominant soil type is well-drained loamy sand with a pH of 8 (Tana As indicated by different studies in different countries, et al., 2002). effective control of Cercospora leaf spot can be achieved by applying recommended fungicides. Significant yield Experimental materials and treatments improvement (up to 75%) was observed with fungicide applications (Naab et al., 2005). Synthetic fungicides that Three groundnut varieties currently under production and differing combat phytopathogenic fungi can increase crop yields in their resistance level to leaf spots were used. The varieties were: and provide stability of crop production and market Oldhale (local variety), Betisedi (ICG-273) and Werer-962 (ICGV- quality (Kishore et al., 2007). Chemical method still plays 86928). The varieties Betisedi and Werer-962 were released in a vital role in the management of plant diseases. Ethiopia in 1993 and 2004 by Werer Agricultural Research Center, respectively. Werer-962 is a late maturing variety and resistant to However, repeated application of fungicides could lead to leaf spots. Different severity levels of leaf spots were created by reduced efficacy, greater production costs and varying intervals of application of chlorothalonil (Odeon 825 WDG) -1 environmental pollution. It can also kill or negatively affect and carbendazim (Bavistin 50% DF) at the rate of 1.4 and 0.5 kg ha ,
84 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
respectively. Chlorothalonil was sprayed at intervals of 7, 14 and treatments. Disease progression from each treatment was calculated 21-days on each variety while carbendazim was sprayed at by transforming the percent disease severity values to the logistic intervals of 14 and 28-days. Foliar spray with the fungicides was model as ln(y/1-y), where y is leaf spot severity in proportion (Van started after the appearance of the symptoms of the disease using der Plank, 1963). The transformed data were then regressed over a manual Knapsack sprayer. Unsprayed plots were left as a control time (as DAP) so as to get the disease progress rate, which is the to allow maximum leaf spots development on each variety. At coefficient of the regression line. Babile, eight sprays were made on the most frequently sprayed plots (7-days interval), three sprays were made on the plots that received chlorothalonil every 21-days and carbendazim every 28 Assessment of seed yield days and five sprays were made on the plots that received chlorothalonil and carbendazim every 14-days. Seed yield data were recorded from each plot at harvest. Yield data were recorded from the central two rows of each plot by leaving the border two rows to avoid border effects. The yields were presented Experimental design and management on per ha basis.
A randomized complete block design in a factorial arrangement was used with three replications at both locations. The total treatment Statistical analysis combination of 18 (three varieties × six fungicide treatments) were used. 10 and 60 cm spacing between plants and rows were used, Data of disease severity from each assessment date, AUDPC respectively. Spacing between blocks and adjacent plots were 1 m. values, disease progress rates, and seed yield were subjected to Each plot had a size of 2.4 × 4 m and consisted of four rows (with analysis of variance (ANOVA) to determine the effects of treat- two harvestable central rows) of the groundnut plants. Planting of ments. The two locations were considered as different environment the crop was done on 30 April at Babile and 8 May in 2010 at Dire because of the significant variation in weather conditions during the Dawa. Seeding was done at the rate of two seeds per hill and experiments. Due to this reason, data were not combined for seedlings were thinned to one plant per hill two weeks after analysis. Analyses of variances (ANOVA) were performed using emergence. Leaf spot was allowed to develop naturally on each SAS computer software (SAS System 9). Comparison of treatment cultivar without any artificial inoculation at Babile. Specifically, the means was made using least significance difference (LSD) test at experimental field at Dire Dawa is not known to be planted with 5% level of significance. groundnut in previous years. Due to this reason, equal amount of infected groundnut residues were applied on each plot at the time of planting to enhance the development of Cercospora leaf spot. All RESULTS AND DISCUSSION agronomic practices, including N and P fertilizers, were done for all treatments as required at both locations. Disease severity
Disease assessment Varieties by spray interval interactions showed very highly significant (P < 0.001) difference at final date of The disease severity was assessed at weekly intervals by assessment at Babile and Dire Dawa. This might indicate estimating the percentage of leaf area affected using a 1-to-9 scale a differential cultivar effect on Cercospora leaf spot of Subrahmanyam et al. (1995) on all leaves of 10 randomly development at different spraying intervals. Almost com- selected and tagged plants in each plot beginning from the disease appearance, where 1 = no disease, all leaves healthy and 9 = plete control was achieved by application of chlorothalonil almost all leaves defoliated; leaving bare stems; some leaflets may at 7-day intervals on all varieties at both locations. At remain; but show severe leaf spots; 81-100% leaf area damaged by Babile, the highest leaf spot severity (65.3%) was the disease. Disease scoring was done for both Cercospora leaf observed on unsprayed plots of the susceptible variety spots (early and late) together and separate data for the two leaf “Betisedi” while the lowest (24.6%) was observed on spots was not presented because the chemicals control both plots sprayed chlorothalonil at 7-days interval of the diseases equally. In all assessments, disease severity was averaged for the 10 plants in each plot. The severity grades were moderately resistant variety “Werer-962” at assessment converted into percentage severity index (PSI) for analysis using of 106 DAP (Figure 1B and C). Carbendazim spray at 28- the formula of Weeler (1969). days interval reduced the disease severity significantly as The area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) from PSI compared to unsprayed plots of each cultivar. Disease was calculated for each plot using the formula of Shaner and severities of plots sprayed fungicide at 14- and 21-days Finnery (1977):
intervals were not significantly different from each other on the moderately resistant variety “Werer-962”. This th Where, n = total number assessment times, ti = time of the i study is in agreement with that of Culbreath et al. (1992) assessment in days from the first assessment date, xi = percentage who reported that the application of chlorothalonil, or of disease severity at ith assessment. AUDPC was expressed in percent-days because severity(x) will be expressed in percent and alternating applications of chlorothalonil and tebuconazole time (t) in days. AUDPC values were used in the analysis of or azoxystrobin at 21-days or longer intervals, can variance to compare amount of disease among plots with different provide good control of early and late leaf spot when
Debele and Ayalew 85
70 35 60 A D 30 50
25
40
PSI PSI 30 20
20 15
10 10
70 35 60 B 30 E 50
25
40 PSI PSI 20 30 15 20 10 10
70 35 60 C 30 F 50
25
40
PSI PSI 30 20
20 15 10 43 50 57 64 71 78 85 92 99 106 10 Days after planting 83 90 97 104 Days after planting Chloro d 7 Chloro d 14 Chloro d 21 Carb d 14 Carb d 28 Unsprayed
Figure 1. Cercospora leaf spot progress curves under different fungicides spray intervals on three groundnut varieties (A) Oldhale, (B) Betisedi and (C) Werer-962 at Babile and (D) Oldhale, (E) Betisedi and (F) Werer- 962 at Dire Dawa in 2010 main cropping season. Disease severity was assessed every 7-days starting from 43 DAP at Babile and starting from 83 DAP at Dire Dawa.
combined with a cultivar possessing moderate levels of at 7-days interval of the variety “Werer-962” at 104 DAP resistance to those pathogens. The ultimate value of (Figure 1E and F). In plots sprayed with chlorothalonil at partial resistance to control of groundnut leaf spot was a 7-days interval (a total of two sprays), mean leaf spot means to reduce fungicide use (Gorbet et al., 1982). severity ranged from 13-16% on all varieties. Except At Dire Dawa, the highest PSI value (32.2%) was also chlorothalonil at 7-days intervals, disease severities of all observed on unsprayed plots of the variety “Betisedi” fungicides treatments were not significantly different from while the lowest (13.7%) on plots sprayed chlorothalonil the unsprayed plots on the moderately resistant variety.
86 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Table 1. AUDPC of Cercospora leaf spot on three groundnut AUDPC values both at Babile and Dire Dawa. At Babile, varieties sprayed with chlorothalonil and carbendazim at Babile and the highest AUDPC value (452.4%-days) was calculated Dire Dawa in 2010 main cropping season. from unsprayed plots of the variety “Betisedi” while the
lowest AUDPC value (172.7%-days) was from plots Fungicides AUDPC (%-days) sprayed chlorothalonil at 7-days interval of the variety Cultivars Treatments Babile Dire Dawa “Werer-962” (Table 1). AUDPC values of 401.3%-days (Spray Intervals) and 452.4%-days were calculated from unsprayed plots Oldhale Chl 7-days 188.0 99.7 of the varieties Oldhale and Betisedi, respectively, which Chl 14-days 204.6 136.1 had the highest disease severity at Babile. The AUDPC Chl 21-days 238.2 137.4 value of unsprayed plots of the variety Werer-962 was Carb 14-days 213.1 140.0 lower by 38 and 89%-days as compared to unsprayed
Carb 28-days 251.2 123.1 plots of the varieties Oldhale and Betisedi, respectively.
No spray 401.3 143.9 At Dire Dawa, the lowest AUDPC value (90.7%-days)
Mean 249.4 130.0 was also calculated from plots sprayed chlorothalonil at
Betisedi Chl 7-days 192.3 115.4 7-days interval of the variety “Werer-962” while the Chl 14-days 225.4 147.8 highest AUDPC value (198.3%-days) was from
Chl 21-days 305.5 156.9 unsprayed plots of the variety “Betisedi” (Table 1). Our
Carb 14-days 235.8 162.0 finding is in agreement with that of Mukankusi et al. (1999) who stated that weekly applications of fungicides Carb 28-days 313.1 159.4 resulted in the lowest Cercospora AUDPC and the No spray 452.4 198.3 highest yields. Shokes et al. (1982) also reported that Mean 287.4 156.6 earlier initiation of fungicide applications on a calendar Werer-962 Chl 7-days 172.7 90.7 schedule reduced severity and defoliation, and resulted in Chl 14-days 183.4 120.6 higher yield. Chl 21-days 198.5 112.8
Carb 14-days 184.7 116.7
Carb 28-days 216.2 116.7 Disease progress rate
No spray 363.1 119.3
Mean 219.8 112.8 Disease progress rate showed significant difference
Site Mean 252.20 133.15 among the varieties and fungicide treatments both at
LSD (0.05) 22.96 8.53 Babile and Dire Dawa. The varieties by spray intervals
CV (%) 5.49 3.86 interactions effect were not significant at the 5% probability level. Therefore, the main effects (varieties Chl = chlorothalonil and Carb = carbendazim. and spray intervals) were used for comparison of the
rates (Table 2). Leaf spot developed at different rates on the varieties. At Babile, the fastest leaf spot progress In general, Cercospora leaf spot was less severe on (0.042 units per day) occurred on the variety Betisedi the varieties at Dire Dawa. This might be due to the while the slowest progress was from the variety Werer- prevailing weather conditions of the area. Dire Dawa is 962 (0.033 units per day). The varieties Betisedi and characterized by severe drought (arid) conditions and Oldhale were not significantly different from each other in during the experiment, the mean minimum and maximum terms of disease development rate. At Dire Dawa, the temperatures were higher as compared to the previous rate of disease development was relatively slower. Leaf year and RH of the area was also low. On the other hand, spot increased by 0.030, 0.029 and 0.017 units each day for Cercospora leaf spot, prolonged periods of humidity on the cultivar Betisedi, Oldhale and Werer-962, respec- and leaf wetness, as well as a late rainy season favor tively. The moderately resistant variety Werer-962 reduced sporulation which results in greater disease (Smith et al., the rate of disease development consistently over the 1992; Butler et al., 1994; Nutter and Shokes, 1995). locations. Johnson and Beute (1986) reported that
reduced infection rates may delay the onset of defoliation Area under the disease progress curve (AUDPC) beyond some critical point in host development and yield accumulation. The ultimate value of partial resistance to The AUDPC is a very convenient summary of plant control of groundnut leaf spot was as a means to reduce disease epidemics that incorporates initial intensity, the fungicide use (Gorbet et al., 1982). rate parameter and the duration of the epidemic which The fungicides spray intervals also created very signifi- determines final disease intensity (Madden et al., 2008). cantly variable (P<0.001) rates of leaf spot development. Varieties by fungicides spray interval interactions showed The fastest disease progress was observed on unsprayed very highly significant (P < 0.001) difference in terms of plots than on sprayed plots as shown by the results at
Debele and Ayalew 87
Table 2. Disease progress rate of Cercospora leaf susceptible variety “Betisedi” decreased as the intervals spot on three groundnut varieties sprayed with between sprays increased. However, the yields obtained chlorothalonil and carbendazim at Babile and Dire from different spray treatments of the moderately Dawa in 2010 main cropping season. resistance variety Werer-962 were not significantly
different from each other except yield of unsprayed plots. Disease progress rate Treatment This means all fungicides intervals increased yields of (units/day) this variety almost in the same amounts. Our finding also Cultivars Babile Dire Dawa agree with that of Gorbet et al. (1990) who reported that Oldhale 0.040 0.029 moderate resistance cultivars gave little or no additional Betisedi 0.042 0.030 yield response when the fungicide schedule was Werer-962 0.033 0.017 intensified from 20 to 10-days. Gorbet et al. (1982) also Mean 0.038 0.026 stated that there is no difference in yields between LSD (0.05) 0.005 0.007 applications of chlorothalonil at 14 and 20-days intervals. The ability to use pyraclostrobin at 21-days intervals and Spray Interval maintain control of early leaf spot similar to that of Chl 7-days 0.015 0.010 application of currently available fungicides at 14-day Chl 14-days 0.031 0.028 intervals represents potential savings in time, fuel, labor Chl 21-days 0.043 0.027 and equipment costs (Culbreath et al., 2002). Carb 14-days 0.028 0.035 At Dire Dawa, however, Cercospora leaf spot appeared Carb 28-days 0.041 0.022 at the end of the season (about 75 DAP) on all disease No spray 0.072 0.031 resistant and susceptible varieties and it did not cause serious leaf defoliation up to the time of harvest. Due to Mean 0.038 0.026 these reasons, significant differences were not detected LSD (0.05) 0.007 0.010 in yield among fungicide treatments. However, the Chl = chlorothalonil and Carb = carbendazim varieties significantly differed in their seed yield and, this might be due to their differences in genetic makeup level.
The highest seed yield (1108.8 kg/ha) was obtained from both locations. At Babile, leaf spot epidemics developed the variety “Werer-962” while the lowest seed yield (895.4 at 0.072 units per day on unsprayed plots (Table 2). This kg/ha) was obtained from Betisedi. The yield obtained rate is about five times faster than the rate on plots from Werer-962 was not significantly different from the sprayed chlorothalonil every 7-days interval (0.015 units yield of Oldhale. The yield losses caused by leaf spot are per day). This indicated that leaf spot development was mainly because of decrease in photosynthetic leaf area at much higher rate on unsprayed check plots as caused by necrotic spots and defoliation (Boote et al., compared to other spray intervals. At Dire Dawa also, the 1980; Bourgeois and Boote, 1992; Naab et al., 2005). lowest disease progress rate was obtained from plots The time of leaf spot diseases occurrence depends on sprayed fungicides and from the variety Werer- 962 the weather conditions and the field cropping history (Table 2). The finding of this study is in agreement with (Virginie, 1999). that of Beard et al. (2004) who reported that application In general, seed yield harvested from fungicide sprayed of fungicide can retard the rate of disease progress. plots was consistently greater than the yield harvested Application of fungicides consistently resulted in greater from unsprayed plots. The highest yield was obtained groundnut yields and biomass as compared to untreated from fungicide sprayed plots of moderately resistant control (Nutsugah et al., 2007). variety when compared with the yield of susceptible varieties. Therefore, integrated use of host resistance and foliar applications of fungicides are recommended to Seed yield reduce the epidemic level of Cercospora leaf spots and to achieve optimum yield of groundnut.
Interactions between effects of varieties and foliar spray intervals showed very highly significant (P < 0.001) Conflict of interest differences in terms of seed yield at Babile but not at Dire Dawa. At Babile, the highest yield (1750.8 kg/ha) was The authors did not declare any conflict of interest. obtained from plots sprayed chlorothalonil at 7-days interval of the variety “Werer-962” while the lowest yield (687.9 kg/ha) was from unsprayed plots of the variety ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “Betisedi” (Table 3). Fungicides spray at different intervals also significantly varied seed yield harvested from the We would like to thank Masresha Lebie, Chelemew Filtamo, variety “Betisedi”. This result indicates the yield of Azeb Tegenu and Ayinalm Tesfa at Babile and Teka Adane
88 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Table 3. The effect of integrated use of host resistance and fungicide treatments on the yield of groundnut at Babile and Dire Dawa in 2010 main cropping season.
Treatment Seed yield (kg/ha) Treatments Seed Yield (kg/ha) Cultivars Spray Intervals Babile Cultivars Dire Dawa Oldhale Chl 7-days 1658.3 Oldhale 1049.9 Chl 14-days 1590.1 Betisedi 895.4 Chl 21-days 1475.1 Werer-962 1108.8 Carb 14-days 1430.9 Mean 1018.0 Carb 28-days 1413.4 LSD (0.05) 130.2 No spray 974.1 Spray Intervals Betisedi Chl 7-days 1504.0 Chl 7-days 1030.6 Chl 14-days 1476.1 Chl 14-days 1019.0 Chl 21-days 993.7 Chl 21-days 1017.9 Carb 14-days 1324.1 Carb 14-days 1014.0 Carb 28-days 1054.2 Carb 28-days 1020.6 No spray 687.9 No spray 1006.2 Werer-962 Chl 7-days 1750.8 Mean 1018.0 Chl 14-days 1700.4 LSD (0.05) 184.18 Chl 21-days 1685.4 CV (%) 18.9 Carb 14-days 1681.7 Carb 28-days 1631.4 No spray 1167.9 Site Mean 1400.0 LSD (0.05) 131.54 CV (%) 5.7
Chl = Chlorothalonil and Carb = Carbendazim.
at Dire Dawa research site for their unreserved help during Culbreath AK, Brenneman TB, Kvien CK (1992). Use of a resistant the field experiments. We also thank Haramaya peanut cultivar with copper fungicides and reduced fungicide applications for control of late leaf spot. Crop Prot. 11:361-365. University for providing us materials with good working FAO (2007). Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nation, environment which facilitated our research works and FAO Statistical Database Ministry of Education (MOE) for financial support during http://faostat.fao.org/faostat/collections?subset=agriculture. the study period. Geleta T, Sakhuja PK, Swart WJ, Tana T (2007). Integrated management of groundnut root rot using seed quality and fungicide seed treatment. Inter. J. Pest Manag. 53(1):53-57. Gorbet DW, Knauft DA, Shokes FM (1990). Response of peanut REFERENCES genotypes with different levels of leaf spot resistance to fungicide treatments. Crop Sci. 30:539-533. Abraham T (2009). Increasing Crop Production through Improved Plant Gorbet DW, Shokes FM, Jackson LF (1982). Control of peanut leaf spot Protection-Volume II. Plant Protection Society of Ethiopia (PPSE). with a combination of resistance and fungicide treatment. Peanut Sci. PPSE and EIAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 263p. 9:87-90. Backman PA, Crawford MA (1984). Relationships between yield loss Hagan AK, Campbell HL, Bowen KL, Pegues M (2006). Evaluation of and severity of early and late leaf spot disease of peanut. calendar and AU-Pnuts fungicide schedules for the control of late leaf Phytopathol. 74:1101-1103. spot and rust on peanut in southern Alabama. Alabama Agric. Exp. Beard C, Jayasena K, Thomas G, Loughman R (2004). Managing Stem Stn. Bull. 663. 15 p. Rust of Wheat. Plant Pathology, Department of Agriculture, Western Johnson CS, Beute MK (1986). The role of partial resistance in the Australia. management of Cercospora leaf spot of peanut in North Carolina. Boote KJ, Jones JW, Smerage GH, Barfield CS, Berger RD (1980). Phytopathol. 76:468-472. Photosynthesis of peanut canopies as affected by leaf spot and Kishore GK, Pande S, Harish S (2007). Evaluation of essential oils and artificial defoliation. J. Agron. 72:247-252. their components for broad-spectrum antifungal activity and control of Bourgeois G, Boote KJ (1992). Leaflet and canopy photosynthesis of late leaf spot and crown rot diseases in peanut. Plant Dis. 91:375- peanut affected by late leaf spot. Agron. J. 84:359-366. 379. Brenneman TB, Culbreath AK (2000). Peanut disease control. Pp. 96- Madden LV, Hughes G, Van den Bosch F (2008). The Study of Plant 97. In: “2000 Ga. Pest Control Handbook” (Guillebeau, P. ed.). Univ. Disease Epidemics. The Am. Phytopathol. Soc. St. Paul, Minnesota, Ga. Coop. Ext. Serv. Special Bull. 28. 20p. USA. Butler DR, Wadia KDR, Jadhav DR (1994). Effects of leaf wetness and Mali GV, Bodhankar MG (2009). Antifungal and phytohormone temperature on late leaf spot infection of groundnut. Plant Pathol. production potential of Azotobacter chroococcum isolates from 43:112-120. groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.) Rhizosphere. Asian J. Exper. Sci. Culbreath AK, Stevenson KL, Brenneman TB (2002). Management of 23(1):293-297. late leaf spot of peanut with benomyl and chlorothalonil: A study in Mitiku H (1989). Description of selected physio-chemical properties of preserving fungicide utility. Plant Dis. 86:349-355. the soil at Babile. Soil Section Research Progress Report, Alemaya
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University of Agriculture, Ethiopia. Shokes FM, Gorbet DW, Sanden GE (1982). Effect of planting date and MoARD (Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development) (2009). Animal date of spray initiation on control of peanut leaf spot in Florida. Plant and Plant Health Regulatory Directorate. Crop Variety Register Issue Dis. 66:574-575. No. 12. June, 2009, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 123p. Smith DH, Pauer GDC, Shokes FM (1992). Plant disease of Mukankusi C, Adipala E, Kyamanywa S, Epieru G, Warren H, Wilson international importance. Diseases of Vegetables and Oil seed. 232p. HR, Odeke V (1999). Efficacy and economic benefit of different Subrahmanyam P, McDonald D, Waliyar F, Reddy LJ, Nigam SN, chemical spray regimes on the management of the major pests and Gibbons RW, Rao VR, Singh AK, Pande S, Reddy PM, Subba-Rao diseases of groundnut in eastern Uganda. Afr. J. Plant Prot. 9:69-81. PV (1995). Screening methods and sources of resistance to rust and Naab JB, Tsigbey FK, Prasad PVV, Boote KJ, Bailey JE, Brandenburg late leaf spot of groundnut. ICRISAT Information Bull. no. 47. RL (2005). Effects of sowing date and fungicide application on yield Tadele T, Tana T (2002). Agronomic performance of sorghum and of early and late maturing peanut cultivars grown under rain fed groundnut cultivars in sole and intercrop cultivation under semiarid conditions in Ghana. Crop Prot. 24:325-332. conditions. J. Agron. Crop Sci. 188:212-218. Nutsugah SK, Abudulai M, Oti-Boateng C, Brandenburg RL, Jordan DL Tana T, Schutz W, Milberg P (2002). Germination ecology of the weed (2007). Management of Leaf Spot Diseases of Peanut with Parthenium hysterophorus in eastern Ethiopia. Annal Appl. Biol. Fungicides and Local Detergents in Ghana. Plant Pathol. J. 6(3):248- 140:263-270. 253. Teklemariam W, Asfaw T, Mesfin T (1985). Review of Research on oil Nutter FW, Shokes FM (1995). Management of foliar diseases caused crop disease in Ethiopia. Pp. 292-312. In: Tsedeke A. (ed.). A review by fungi. In: Peanut Health Management. Hasan A, Melouk HA, of Crop Protection Research in Ethiopia, proceedings of the first Shokes FM (eds.), pp. 65-73. Am. Phytopathol. Soc. St. Paul, Ethiopian crop protection system, 4-7 February 1985, IAR, Addis Minnesota. Ababa, Ethiopia. Pande S, Narayana RJ, Upadhyaya HD, Lenne JM (2001). Farmers Van der plank JE (1963). Plant diseases: Epidemics and control. New participatory integrated management of foliar diseases of groundnut. York. Academic press, 334p. Inter. J. Pest Manag. 47:121-126. Virginie MA (1999). Use of Weather-based Modeling for Disease Shaner E, Finney RE (1977). The effect of nitrogen fertilization on the Management of Early Leaf Spot of Peanut and Glume Blotch of expression of slow mildewing resistance in Knox wheat. Phytopathol. Wheat. M.Sc. Thesis, North Carolina State: North Carolina State 67:1051-1056. University. Shokes FM, Culbreath AK (1997). Early and Late Leaf Spots. In: Weeler JB (1969). An introduction to plant diseases. Wiley, London, Compendium of Peanut Diseases, Kokalis-Burelle N, Porter DM, 347p. Rodriguez-Kabana R, Smith DH, Subrahmanyam P (Eds.), 2nd Ed. Am. Phytopathol. Soc., St. Paul, MN, USA, pp. 17-20.
Vol. 9(2), pp. 90-96, February 2015 DOI: 10.5897/AJPS2014.1248 Article Number: 5C4440050765 ISSN 1996-0824 African Journal of Plant Science Copyright © 2015 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www.academicjournals.org/AJPS
Full Length Research Paper
Efficacy of selected plant extracts against Tribolium castaneum Herbst in stored groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.)
Onoja Ojogbane Joel
Department of Biological Sciences (Botany Option), Faculty of Natural Sciences, Kogi State University, Anyigba, Kogi, Nigeria.
Received 23 November, 2014; Accepted 21 January, 2015
The efficacy of powders of plant parts from Azadirachta indica, Lawsonia inermis, Annona senegalensis and Hyptis suaveolens at 10, 15 and 20 g/250 g seeds was tested using Complete Randomized Design (CRD) against the storage pest Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) in groundnut in the laboratory. At 28 days after application, mean number of seeds damaged was 0.33±0.33 for A. indica and 2.33±0.33 for L. inermis at 20 g concentration when compared to untreated seeds (10.00±1.15). Aluminium phosphide gave complete control (0.00±0.00). Twenty grammes (20 g) at 28 days of A. indica was efficacious as aluminium phosphide in protecting seeds against damage by T. castaneum. All powders provided some control of T. castaneum. The percentage mortality of adult pest in 20 g of A. indica (53.33%), L. inermis (33.33%) is high compared to H. suaveolens (16.66%) and A. senegalensis (20.00%) as compared to untreated (0% mortality). At the end of 6 weeks of storage, the weight loss from original weight of 250 g was 40.89 g (16.36%) for untreated seeds, 1.88 g (0.75%) for A. indica and 5.05 g (2.02%) for seed treated with L. inermis at 20 g concentration each. Aluminium phosphide-treated seeds suffered minimal weight loss (0.16 g, 0.06%) at 20 g concentration. A. indica and L. inermis are recommended for post-harvest control of T. castaneum in stored groundnut for planting.
Key words: Plant extracts, biocidal activity, Tribolium castaneum, groundnut.
INTRODUCTION
Groundnut is an important oil and protein source to a large reported are much higher between 7,500 kg and 11,000 portion of the population in Asia, Africa and the Americas. kg pods/ha in experimental farms situated at Shandong It is predominantly used for oil extraction in many Asian province in China. In Southern Africa, the average ground- and African countries. In China, the average pod yields have nut yields are lower at 700 kg/ha, in comparism to hovered around 1.8 t/ha and total production has reached potential yields of 4,000 kg pods/ha. Obviously, soil 7.0 mt annually (Ryan, 1992). However, potential yields fertility, abiotic and biotic stress, factors limit groundnut crop
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Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License Onoja 91
growth and yield in many ways. However, in response to 1986), Piper nigrum (Rajapakse, 1990), Zanthoxylum it a measurable progress in incorporating disease and xanthoxyloides (Ogunwolu and Odunlami,1996), root pest resistance, and tolerance to abiotic stress factors have bark of Annona senegalensis (Aku et al.,1998), Capsicum been achieved, during the previous two decades. Breeding frutescens (Echezona, 2006; Ofuya, 1986), plant mixtures options to enhance yield, its quality and/or to impart (Arannilewa et al., 2006), essential oil derived from tolerance to biotic and abiotic stress factors have been Artemisia sieberi (Negahban et al., 2007), powders from carefully prioritized on a regional basis by the international the seed of neem (Azadirachta indica A. Juss) (lvbijaro, and national groundnut agencies to suit consumer 1983) and neem leaf extracts (Epidi et al., 2005), leaf preferences (Ryan, 1992). powders of the Dragon tree (Dracaena arborea) and Groundnut, also known as peanuts, is considered a very Vitex grandifolia (Epidi et al., 2008) and methanol leaf healthy snack. Groundnut is the member of the legume extracts of Vitex negundo, V. trifolia, V. peduncularis and family and is native to regions like South America, Mexico V. altissima (Kannathansan et al., 2007). Others are and Central America. However, it is successfully grown in vegetable oils from groundnut, palm kernel, coconut (Hall other parts of the World as well. The name of the plant and Herman, 1991; Lale, 1995), rhizomes of ginger combines the morpheme ‘pea’ and ‘nut’. In the culinary (Vijayalakshmi et al., 1997), leaf extracts of Teprosia sense, it is regarded as a nut, but in the botanical sense, vogeli (Mallaya, 1985), oil from fresh garlic (Ho et al., the fruit of the plant is a woody legume. Since that is the 1997), leaves and seeds of Ocimum basilium (Grainge case, the groundnut is actually a kind of pea. The and Ahmed, 1988) and leaves of Dracaena arborea groundnut is also known by different names like (Boeke et al., 2004). The Derived Savanna is known to earthnuts, manila nuts and monkey nuts. Throughout the have a wide array of plant species with great insecticidal World, they are known for their nutrition and health potentials yet to be discovered. Furthermore, different benefits. insects react in varying ways to different plant products. In storage, groundnut pods/seeds are attacked by In this study, powders from four plant species viz several stored products pests including the groundnut Lawsonia inermis, Hyptis suaveolens, Annona borer Caryedon serratus (Oliver), the merchant grain senegalensis and Azadirachta indica were evaluated for beetle Oryzaephilus mercator (Fauvel), the khapra beetle their efficacy against T. castaneum. In several studies H. Trogoderma granarium, the black fungus beetle Alphitobius suaveolens essential oil has shown useful insecticidal spp., the flat grain beetle Cryptolestes ferrugineus, the properties against many foodstuff pests (Peerzada, 1997; tropical warehouse moth Ephestia cautella (Walker), the Othira et al., 2009). H. suaveolens essential oil shown a Indianmeal moth Plodia interpunctella (Hubner), the rice toxic activity against Plutella xylostella (L.) (Lepidoptera moth Corcyra cephalonica (Stainton). It is known that Plutellidae) larvae and Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) more than 100 species of insects are capable of infesting (Coleoptera Bruchidae) adults (Kéïta et al., 2006; Tripathi stored groundnuts (Redlinger and Davis, 1982; Ofuya and Upadhyay, 2009). In recent studies, it was reported and Lale, 2001). Of these, insect pests of groundnut, T. that H. suaveolens essential oil had a marked toxic and castaneum are the first to colonize a new stock. It repellent activity against adults of both S. granarius and consumes the endosperm and causes caking, musty S. zeamais (Motschulsky) (Coleoptera Dryophthoridae) smell and loss of grain weight (Davey et al., 1959). It is (Conti et al., 2010; 2011). also known to cause up to an economic damage rate of L. inermis (Lythraceae) commonly called henna 30 and 40%, respectively, of stored millet and wheat flour produces a burgundy dye, lawsone. This molecule has an (Ajayi and Rahman, 2006). affinity for bonding with protein, and thus has been used Over the years, synthetic chemical pesticides have to dye skin, hair, fingernails, leather, silk and wool. The provided an effective means for pest control. The short- dye molecule, lawsone is primarily concentrated in the comings of the use of chemicals which include; resistance leaves, and is in the highest levels in the petioles of the by insects, adverse effect of non-target species, pollution leaf. Women use Henna (L. inermis) to dye or decorate of the environment including; soil, water, air and hazard their feet, hand, and skin and are not easily affected by of residue necessitated the evolution of natural insect- fungal infection and bacterial infection. Henna has been cides of plant origin (Deedat, 1994). Plants are composed found to exhibit antibacterial, antifungal and of chemical directly beneficial for the growth and dermatological properties (Wren, 1988). A. senegalensis development of the plant. Rather they are part of the (Annonaceae) generally known as ‘African custard-apple’ plant’s defense against plant feeding insects and other is a potent medicinal plant generally used traditionally in herbivores (Rosenthal and Janzen, 1979). Recently, a the treatment of many diseases. Larvicidal effect of plant number of plant materials have been explored as extracts belonging to the family of Annonaceae including sustainable alternatives for controlling short-lived insect Annona muricata, A. cherimolia, A. squamosa, etc pests during storage of grains and found to be quite against Anopheles sp., A. aegypti and Culex effective. Some of these botanical pesticides that have quinquefasciatus was reported (Saxena et al., 1993, been reported to be efficacious against pests wchich Isman, 2006; Bobadilla-Alvarez et al., 2002). A. include powders from Piper guineensis (Ivbijaro and Agbaje, senegalensis has shown his insecticidal effect on different 92 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
development stages of Caryedon serratus (Coleoptera: beetles were introduced into each of the jars. Aluminium phosphide Chrysomelidae) (Gueye et al., 2011). In northern part of (10, 15 and 20 g) was used as a standard and a control jar was Cameroon, both the leaves of A. senegalensis and B. included. The open end of each jar was covered with a lid lined with mosquito net to prevent escape of the insects. For 14, 21 and 28 dalzielii were used locally to protect maize, millet and days after introduction of the adult, the number of damaged seeds sorghum against weevils’ attacks (Ngamo et al., 2007). (seeds with holes) in each sample were determined by counting. Neem tree (A. indica) is a tree in the mahogany family The experiment was a completely randomized design (CRD) Meliaceae; is evergreen tree found in most tropical replicated thrice. countries. Traditional and Ayurvedic uses of neem include the treatment of fever, leprosy, malaria and tuberculosis. Various folk remedies are used as an Experiment 2: Effect of the different plant powders on recovery of adult beetle of T. castaneum two weeks after treatment of anthelmintic, antifeedant, antiseptic, diuretic, groundnut emmenagogue, contraceptive, febrifuge, parasiticide, pediculicide and insecticide (Makeri et al., 2007; In a similar but separate experiment observations were taken on Subramanian et al., 1996; NRC, 1992; Mukherjee et al., the number of surviving adults two weeks after treatment. Adults 1955; Ernst, 2007). In view of the importance of these were considered dead if they did not move when touched or tilted. plants for their insecticidal properties, the insecticidal efficacies are to be tested on T. castaneum (Herbst). Experiment 3: Effect of the plant powders on weight of The objectives of the study included to find the effect of groundnut seeds 6 weeks after introduction of plant powders different concentration(s) of powders of L. inermis, H. suaveolens, A. senegalensis, A. indica on T. castaneum This experiment was also similar to experiment 1 except that the set and to evaluate the effects of these plants on the quality up was left for 6 weeks. At the end of 6 weeks, the content of each of groundnut seeds vis-a-viz weight and deterioration. jar was poured into a 5 mm sieve and mechanically shaken to separate the groundnut seeds from both the insects and the plant powder. The seeds were thereafter weighed. The effect of the plant powders on the weight of groundnut was determined by subtracting MATERIALS AND METHODS the final weight from the original weight of 250 g:
Study area W0 = W1-W2
This study was carried out in the Biological Science Laboratory of Where W0= weight difference; W1 = original weight (before Kogi State University, Anyigba, Kogi State, Nigeria. infestation); W2 = final weight (after infestation).
Sources and preparation of plant extracts Data analysis Fresh leaves of Neem (A. indica), Horehound (H. suaveolens L.), Wild custard apple (A. senegalensis Pers.) and Henna (L. inermis The data obtained is represented as Mean±SEM and were L.) were collected from Kogi State University environs. The plants presented in Tables 1 to 3. were authenticated at the department of Botany, Kogi State University. The leaves were air dried for 2 weeks. When fully dried they were separately ground into fine powder. The powders were RESULTS kept in air tight jars prior to use.
At 14-21 days after introduction of plant powders, Preparation of groundnuts untreated seeds had more holes than seeds treated with plant powders and aluminium phosphide (Table 1). Mean Groundnut kernel (A. hypogaea L.) was purchased from Anyigba main market, Kogi State. Healthy groundnut seeds were carefully number of seeds damaged was quite low at 21 and 28 selected into a container and were preserved. days for A. indica (0.66±0.33 and 0.33±0.33) and L. inermis (4.00±0.57 and 2.33±0.33) at 20 g concentration as compared with the control. Furthermore, A. indica and Source of pest (Tribolium castaneum Herbst) L. inermis powders were more efficacious in protecting The red flour beetle (Tribolium castaneum Herbst) were naturally groundnut seeds against damage than powders of A. obtained from infested stored groundnuts in Anyigba main market senegalensis and H. suaveolens. Seed damaged assess- and kept in a jar containing groundnut to feed on. The adult beetles ment at 28 days post introduction showed that aluminium of uniform size were used for the experiments. phosphide-treated seeds were not damaged.
At 14 days after introduction of plant powders, no live Experiment 1: The effects of the plant powders on damage of adults were recovered from aluminium phosphide-treated groundnut seeds by Tribolium castaneum seeds (100% mortality). However, more adults were recovered from untreated seeds (0% mortality) than The four different powders were evaluated for their ability to protect seeds of groundnut against damage by T. castaneum. Three doses those treated with plant powders (Table 2). Fewer adults (10, 15 and 2g) of each plant powders were thoroughly mixed were recovered from seeds treated with A. indica (53.3% with250 g of groundnut in separate 2 L capacity jars. Thirty adult mortality) and L. inermis (33.33% mortality) at 20 g Onoja 93
Table 1. The effect of the plant powders on number of damaged groundnut seeds by Tribolium castaneum at 14, 21 and 28 days after introduction.
Treatment (g) 14 days 21 days 28 days A. indica 10 8.33±0.33 3.00±0.57 2.33±0.33 15 5.00±0.57 1.33±0.33 0.66±0.33 20 3.33±0.33 0.66±0.33 0.33±0.33 L. inermis 10 7.00±0.57 4.66±0.33 3.66±0.33 15 5.33±0.33 4.66±0.88 2.33±0.66 20 4.33±0.33 4.00±0.57 2.33±0.33 H. suaveolens 10 16.33±0.33 9.66±0.33 8.33±0.88 15 13.00±1.15 8.66±0.66 7.33±0.88 20 11.33±0.88 6.00±0.57 4.33±0.33 A. senegalensis 10 16.00±0.57 8.33±0.33 4.66±0.33 15 9.66±0.88 5.66±0.88 3.66±0.66 20 8.66±0.33 4.00±0.57 3.33±0.33 Phostoxin (ALP) 10 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 15 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 20 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 0.00±0.00 Control 18.66±0.88 14.66±1.45 10.00±1.15
Values are Mean±SEM
concentration which showed the highest % mortality of T. is an indication that these two plants can serve as castaneum as compared to H. suaveolens (16.66% protectants against T. castaneum. It is possible that the mortality) and A. senegalensis (20.0% mortality) at 20 g plants factors conferring protection on the seeds against concentration. T. castaneum may have repellent and antifeedant and At 6 weeks after introduction of plant powders, there toxic properties. If repellent and antifeedant, the adult was a drop of 40.89 g (16.36%) in the weight of untreated pest would not be inclined to bore into the seeds to feed. seeds from the original weight of 250 g compared to If toxic, the adult pest may not do more than scarify the seeds treated with A. indica and L. inermis whose weight seeds before dying. If death does not occur immediately, loss was 1.88 g (0.75%) at 20 g concentration and 5.05 g the factor(s) may have a debilitating effect on the adult (2.02%) at 20 g concentration, respectively. H. pest, and their life cycle may be unusually prolonged. suaveolens weight loss was 8.75 g (3.75%) at 20 g Whatever is the case, the resultant effect is fewer number concentration and A. senegalensis powders weight loss of holes and/ or scarifications on the seeds. Epidi et al. was 7.72 g (3.08%) at 20 g concentration (Table 3). (2005) reported that neem leaf extract was efficacious Aluminium phosphide-treated seeds suffered minimal against insect pest. Ivbijaro (1983) report shows the weight loss of 0.16 g (0.06%) at 20 g concentration. toxicity of neem seed (Azadirachta indica A. Juss). The number of live adults recovered would further demonstrate the efficacy of the different plant powders. DISCUSSION Fewer adults of T. castaneum were recovered from A. indica and L. inermis treated lots compared to other plant Recently, post-harvest loss of grain due to insect pests powders. Further, the number of adults recovered from has become a major concern all over the world such that the control was much higher than that from the ground demand for good quality products, which are free from leaf powder indicating that the materials did not support chemical residues, is high and increasing rapidly normal growth and development and caused mortality of (Kashi,1981). The significantly fewer number of holes T. castaneum. found on groundnut seeds treated with ground leaves of These further show that these plants have great potential A. indica and L. inermis compared to untreated groundnut in protecting stored grains against T. castaneum. 94 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Table 2. Effect of the different plant powders on the recovery of adults of T. castaneum at 14 days after treatment of groundnut.
Treatment (g) Percentage mortality (%) A. indica 10 33.33 15 40.00 20 53.3 L. inermis 10 26.66 15 33.33 20 33.33 H. suaveolens 10 10.00 15 13.33 20 16.66 A. senegalensis 10 16.66 15 16.66 20 20.00 Phostoxin (ALP) 10 100 15 100 20 100 Control 0
Table 3. Effects of the plant powders on weight of groundnut seeds at 6 weeks after introduction of plant powders.
Difference in weight of groundnut Treatment (g) W0/250 ×100 (%) W0=W1-W2 A. indica 10 4.85 1.94 15 3.27 1.31 20 1.88 0.75 L. inermis 10 7.38 2.95 15 6.11 2.44 20 5.05 2.02 H. suaveolens 10 15.53 6.21 15 11.18 4.47 20 8.75 3.75 H. senegalensis 10 12.48 4.99 15 9.53 3.81 20 7.72 3.08 Phostoxin (ALP) 10 0.44 0.18 15 0.28 0.11 20 0.16 0.06 Control 40.89 16.36
T. castaneum inflicts serious damage on groundnut protectants against T. castaneum was clearly demonstrated kernels, feeding on the embryo and endosperm (Davey et by the reduction in weight of the untreated groundnut al., 1959). The efficacy of the plants powder as grain seeds compared with the treated ones. A. indica and L. Onoja 95
inermis possibly through a combination of repellency, serving as alternatives to synthetic pesticides because of feeding deterrence and toxicity limited feeding by T. their high efficiency and environmental friendliness. castaneum hence recording the least weight loss. The use of essential oils derived from plant materials in the control of weevil pests of stored products is legendary Conflict of interest and it is a practice quite as old as civilization itself. Essential oils are commonly used because they are quite The author did not declare any conflict of interest. efficacious against all life stages of insects. Moreover, it has been widely reported that terpenes from a variety of essential oils derived from vegetative sources have ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS potent insect pest control properties, which affect the biology of target insects in different ways by acting either The author is thankful to the Department of Biological as ovicides, repellants, antifeedants, fumigants, contact Sciences, Kogi State University, Anyigba, Kogi State, toxicants or insecticides (Hough-Goldstein, 1990; Nigeria for providing facilities for this research and also Watanabe et al., 1993; Rice and Coats, 1994; Tsao et al., thankful to Elder S. J. Onoja for the funding of this 1995). It is therefore, possible that the efficacy seen with research. the dried leaves of the four botanicals against the pests (T. castaneum) could be attributed to these and other REFERENCES constituents. Aluminium phosphide (ALP) is used as a rodenticide, Ajayi FA, Rahman SA (2006). 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Vol. 9(2), pp. 97-105, February 2015 DOI: 10.5897/AJPS2014.1238 Article Number: B4CEF465076 ISSN 1996-0824 African Journal of Plant Science Copyright © 2015 Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www.academicjournals.org/AJPS
Full Length Research Paper
Physiological nutrient use efficiency of banana hybrids across agro ecological regions in Uganda
B. Ahumuza1*, T. A. Basamba2, P. Van Asten3 and W. K. Tushemereirwe1
1National Banana Research Programme, P.O. Box 7065, Kampala, Uganda. 2Department of Agricultural productions, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda. 3International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, P.O. Box 7878 Kampala, Uganda.
Received 22 October, 2014; Accepted 2 February, 2015
Banana is an important source of food and income for millions of people in sub-Saharan Africa and Uganda in particular. This makes it one of the most important food crops in the country. However, production is limited by both biotic and abiotic constraints. Among the biotic constraints, is the decline in soil fertility. In addressing some of these biotic and abiotic constraints, banana breeding programmes are developing and releasing new banana varieties with limited information of their efficiency to capture soil nutrients. This study was to establish the physiological nutrient use efficiency of three new banana varieties namely FHIA17, M9 and M2 at harvesting time. The study was carried out in 8 (eight) districts of Uganda. Soil and tissue samples were collected from already established banana plantations for analysis of N, P, K, Ca and Mg. Tissue samples were collected by destructive sampling. Means of nutrients within district were separated using the Least Significant Difference (LSD) test at 5% level of significance (SAS, 2008). The nutritional status of bananas and the concentrations in various organs were, with respect to N, P, K, Ca and Mg, levels subjected to ANOVA. The relationship between plant content of the five nutrients and their concentration in the soil was determined by coefficient of correlation (r). The results showed no major significant nutrient use efficiencies between cultivars with FHIA 17 having the highest nutrient use efficiency. There were a few positive correlations between soil and plant nutrients.
Key words: Nutrient concentrations, Banana cultivars, destructive sampling, nutrient interactions.
INTRODUCTION
Bananas are grown on about 1.5 million ha of land and crops in the country (FAO, 2004). The most commonly represent 38% of total arable land in Uganda (NARO, grown bananas in Uganda are those belonging to the 2000). This makes it one of the most important food genome AAA, while AAB and ABB million genomes are reported to be late introductions in East people (Karamura, 2001). The East African highland Africa (Simmonds, 1982). The East African highland bananas are by far the most widely distributed cultivar in cooking and juice bananas (Musa spp. AAA-EA) and the region, stretching from Eastern Democratic Republic exotic juice bananas (Musa spp. ABB) are important of Congo to the southern fringes of the Ethiopian staple foods in East Africa, providing more than 25% of highlands and down to Mbeya in Southern Tanzania. carbohydrates and 10% of the calorie requirement for 70 Concerns about banana yield decline, have been
98 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
voiced so often that it is now considered as an fijienisis), banana bacterial wilt], poor husbandry and established fact (Baijuka and Wuijsen, 1998). However, moisture stress (Gold et al., 1999; NARO, 2000). most reports are based on farmers‟ perception (Gold et Bananas require large nutrient quantities which must al., 1993). be supplied through fertilizer application in order to obtain In Uganda, a substantial proportion of the bananas are optimum yields. Bananas require nitrogen, phosphorus grown near the homestead (Zake et al., 2000). Plots near and potassium in large amounts for proper growth and the homestead generally receive more organic household production, and fertilizers not only improve soil nutrient residues and are often more mulched than fields further status but also increase plant productivity (Guo et al., away. Bananas are grown primarily for home consumption 2009). Regular inspection of soil nutrient status plays an but are increasingly becoming a source of income for important role in diagnosing nutrient deficiencies and many households. They have a high industrial potential sometimes toxicities that can affect crop growth and through juice, wine and assorted post-harvest food stuff result in low yield. Plants that are efficient in absorption production. For example, in South-western Uganda, there and utilization of nutrients greatly enhance the efficiency is a common proverb “Ataine Rutookye n'ente tashwera” of applied fertilizers, reducing cost of inputs, and preventing meaning “One without a banana plantation and cows does losses of nutrients to ecosystems. Inter and intra-specific not qualify to marry, for he would not sustain a family” variation for plant growth and mineral nutrient use efficiency (Tumuheirwe et al., 2003). To most people in the Central is known to be under genetic and physiological control region of the country, Matoke, a common recipe from and are modified by plant interactions with environmental cooking bananas, is synonymous to food (Pekke, 2004). variables. There is need for breeding programs to focus Both the high production and consumption of banana on developing cultivars with high Nutrient use efficiencies reflects the important role bananas play in food security (NUE). Identification of traits such as nutrient absorption, of the Ugandan people and justifies why it is important to transport, utilization and mobilization in plant cultivars improve and protect the crop. should greatly enhance fertilizer use efficiency. The Whereas, it is the major food crop for at least 30% of development of new cultivars with higher NUE, coupled the people in Uganda (FAO, 1995), production decline in with best management practices (BMPs) will contribute to the country is a reality (Bekunda and Woomer, 1996). sustainable agricultural systems that protect and promote This decline has been attributed to low soil fertility, pest soil, water and air quality. To deal with nutrition problems and diseases such as Fusarium Wilt, Black Sigatoka and and determine the role of management practices, nutrient Banana Bacterial wilt (Gold et al., 1993; Wortman et al., analysis of soil and plant tissues is an accurate, reliable 1994). Soil nutrient deficiencies have been caused by and quantitative approach to diagnose and precisely continuous cultivation, crop harvests, soil erosion and a host correct nutrient deficiencies or toxicities. It is a useful tool of socio-economic and post-harvest problems (Rubaihayo in diagnosing nutritional disorders and helps in crop et al., 1993). The most affected area of the country in management decisions. banana production decline is the Lake Victoria Basin, a So, it is important to know the nutrient efficiencies of high rainfall region lying within 25 to 30 Km around Lake banana plants and soil nutrient status for better plant Victoria (Bekunda and Woomer, 1996). nutrition management and achieving better production. Uganda is the second largest centre of banana diversity This study is specifically on hybrids because, they in the world, with a total of 95 banana varieties currently appear to have higher yields, resistant to some diseases grown among banana producers (Karamura, 1998). A like black sigatoka, they have bigger biomass and so typical household in Uganda grows an average of 7 there was need to establish their yield performance, and banana varieties simultaneously with a maximum of 27 their nutrient use efficiency. The information would be of varieties (Tumuhairwe et al., 2003). However, banana great importance during up scaling and information on production has declined over the years from 8.5 to 5.6 their growth requirements would be availed and this tonnes /ha due to low soil fertility as one of the major would help farmers to manage the hybrids well. constraints (Zake et al., 2000). Most farmers perceive continuous cropping and erosion as the main causes of soil fertility decline (Bekunda et al., 1999). Others MATERIALS AND METHODS attribute low banana yields to poor soil fertility, increasing Study area and experimental design pest pressure [especially the banana weevil
(Cosmopolites sordidus), Nematodes (Radopholus The study was carried out in 8 districts of Mukono, Jinja, Kamuli found similis), Helicocotylencus multicinctus and Pratylechus in western Uganda, Wakiso and Mityana in the central and Kyenjonjo, goodeyi], disease [black Sigatoka (Mycosphaerella Kabarole and Mubende in western Uganda where plantations of the
*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected].
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Ahumuza et al. 99
studied cultivars had already been established. An augmented Soil and plant nutrient analyses incomplete block design was used in already established farmers' fields. The fields were planted with three hybrids namely FHIA17, Composite soil samples (of 5 sub- samples per plot) were taken M2 and M9, including a local check cultivar Mbwazirume as a from 45 fields where the plant samples were collected at a depth of control. 30 cm. These were plantations where fertilizers had not been applied. The samples were then taken to the laboratory and preparation and handling was based on procedures as described Data collection by Okalebo et al. (2002). Samples were oven-dried at 40°C for two consecutive days, and were thoughly mixed and ground using a mortar and a pestle to pass through a 2 mm sieve. The soils were Physiological nutrient use efficiency and plant nutrient analyzed at the National Agricultural Research Laboratories, concentration Kawanda in central Uganda. Soil pH was determined using deionised water at sediment to water ratio of 1:2.5. Soil texture was Nutrient use efficiency was computed as the fruit yield produced per determined using the hydrometer method (Bouyoucos, 1936). Soil kg of plant nutrients accumulation in above ground biomass or organic carbon was determined by oxidation with excess aqueous product yield per content of nutrient. Total plant biomass (above potassium dichromate mixed with sulphuric acid, followed by ground) was defined as the sum of dry weights of the fingers, titration against ferrous ammonium sulphate (Okalebo et al., 2002). peduncle, leaves and pseudo stem. Total nutrient uptake was Total N was determined by Kjeldahl oxidation and semi-micro calculated from measurements of N, P, K, Ca and Mg mass fractions Kjeldahl distillation (Bremner, 1960). Exchangeable bases (K, Mg in fingers, peduncle, leaves and pseudo stem biomass and dry and Ca) were extracted using excess 1M ammonium acetate weights of the plant parts at harvest (Nyombi et al., 2009). In order solution. Exchangeable K was then determined by flame photometry, to calculate nutrient totals in the plant, the following equation was while Mg was determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. used. Phosphorus in the extract was determined using the molyb- denum blue colorimetric method (Okalebo et al., 2002). (LSD) test TAGN = 0% MFW*NCF+%MPW *NCP+%MLW*NCL+% MPsW*NCPs+%MCW*NCC at 5% level of significance (SAS, 2008). The nutritional status of bananas, with respect to N, P, K, Ca and Mg, was evaluated by comparing the analytical data with established Where,TAGN = Total above ground nutrient in the plant at maturity, critical levels. The relationship between plant content of the five 0%, MFW = finger weight at 0% moisture, NCF = nutrient nutrients and their concentration in the soil was determined by concentration in the finger, MPW = peduncle weight at 0% coefficient of correlation (r). All laboratory analyses were done in moisture, *NCP = nutrient concentration in the peduncle, MLW = duplicate to increase precision of results. leaf weight at 0% moisture, NCL = nutrient concentration in the leaf, Above-ground dry matter was computed as the sum of fruit, %MPsW = pseudo stem weight at 0% moisture, NCPs = nutrient peduncle, corm, leaves and pseudo stem. All directly measured concentration in the pseudo stem, %MCW = corm weight at 0% plant parameters were based on oven-dried plant material. moisture, NCC = nutrient concentration in the corm. The samples were then moved to the laboratory for analysis of total N, P, K, Ca and Mg. Handling and preparations were based on Data Analysis procedures as described by Okalebo et al. (2002). From the bunches of each variety, a few fruits were picked, their peel and Response variables for growth parameters and yield components pulp separated and total sample fresh weights taken. These were checked for normality using t test and found to be relatively samples were later oven dried at 70°C for 48 h and the dry matter normally distributed, necessitating no data transformation. Exploring weight recorded. the effect of cultivar, agro ecological zone and farm soil texture on genotype performance was done by exposing the data to Analysis The dry matter of the whole plant was also calculated using the of Variance (ANOVA) using the general Linear Model (GLM) in SAS following equation: software. Means within each agro ecological zone and later by district were separated using the Least Significant Difference (LSD).
(Sdf*tff/fsf)+(sdl*tfl/fsl)+(sdps*tfps/fsps)+(sdp*tfp/fsp)+(sdc*tfc/fsc) The nutritional status of bananas, with respect to N, P, K, Ca and Mg, was evaluated by comparing the analytical data with established Where, Sdf = Sample dry matter of the fingers, Tff = total fresh critical levels. The relationship between plant content of the five weight of the finger, Fsf = fresh sample weight of fingers, Sdl = nutrients and their concentration in the soil was determined by sample fresh weight of the leaf, Tfl = total fresh weight of the leaf, coefficient of correlation (r). Fsl = fresh sample weight of the leaves, sdps = sample fresh weight of the pseudo stem, tfps = total fresh weight of the pseudo stem, fsps = fresh sample weight of the pseudo stem. Sdp = sample fresh RESULTS AND DISCUSSION weight of the peduncle, Tfp = total fresh weight of the peduncle, Tsp = fresh sample weight of the peduncle, Sdc = sample fresh weight of the corm, Tfp = total fresh weight of the corm, Fsp = fresh sample Tables of mean Nutrient element concentration in weight of the corm. different organs of various banana cultivars Destructive sampling was carried out and three (3) sub-samples taken from the corm, pseudo stem, peduncle, functional leave and Generally, most of the nutrient elements in the various fingers on the banana plants. The samples were obtained from the organs were not statistically significant except for a few. upper, middle and lower parts of the plant parts, that is, leaves, The major differences were observed in organs of FHIA pseudo stem, corm, fingers and peduncle; Total fresh weight of the 17 and M2. For example, Ca in the peduncle and in the whole bunch, pseudo stem, peduncle, leaves and fingers were measured and recorded. The samples were oven died at 70°C for fingers of FHIA17 was significantly different from those of 48 h and dry weight recorded. The harvest index (fruit yield) as a M2 (Figures 1-6). Ca in the peduncle is said to have the proportion of above ground was determined from the sub sample. potential to reduce finger drop, since its major purpose is
100 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
3.5 3 2.5 2
1.5 content in the in content
1
peduncle 0.5 0
nutrient % %
Figure 1. Percentage nutrient content in the peduncle. Figure 4. Percentage nutrient content in the pseudostem.
Figure 2. Percentage nutrient content in the fingers. Figure 5. Percentage nutrient content in the pseudostem.
N Ped= Nitrogen concentration in the Peduncle; P ped = phosphorus concentration in the Peduncle; K ped = potassium concentration in the Peduncle; Caped = calcium 3.5 concentration in the Peduncle; Mg ped = magnesium concentration in the Peduncle; N fgr = Nitrogen 3 concentration in the fingers; P fgr = Phosphorus concentration in the fingers; K fgr=Potassium concentration in the fingers; Cafgr = Calcium concentration in the fingers; 2.5 Mg fgrs= Magnesium concentration in the fingers; N pseudo
= Nitrogen in the pseudo stem; P pseudo= phosphorus in the
2 pseudo stem; K pseudo =potassium in the pseudo stem; Ca pseudo= Calcium in the pseudo stem; Mg pseudo=
content in the in content 1.5 Magnesium in the pseudo stem; N corm =Nitrogen
corm concentration in the corm; P corm = Phosphorus 1 concentration in the corm; K corm = Potassium concentration in the corm; Ca corm= calcium concentration in the corm; Mg corm = magnesium concentration in the 0.5 nutrient corm; N leaves = Nitrogen concentration in the leaves; P leaves=Phosphorus concentration in the leaves; K leaves= % % 0 Potassium concentration in the leaves; Ca leaves = Calcium concentration in the leaves; Mg leaves = Magnesium concentration in the leaves; Mbwazi= Mbwazirume.
for desert, this reduces post-harvest losses (Nowakunda
et al., 2000). Most of the differences were in FHIA17, this Figure 3. Percentage nutrient content in the corms. could be because of its genetical make up because it is
Ahumuza et al. 101
Figure 6. Bunch weights (kgs) for the various cultivars in the different districts.
an AB while the rest are not. M9, M2 and Mbwazirume phase. It is redistributed within the plant (Vorm and Diest, did not have major differences, this is probably because, 1982) to allow further accumulation of dry matter. they are genetically related since the two hybrids were Where potassium supply is abundant, large amounts of bred from the east African highland bananas (AAA) and potassium is absorbed during the latter half of the Mbwazirume is one of the AAA cultivars (Barekye et al., vegetative phase Twyford and Walmsley (1973) and have 2002). a special effect on the maturation process (Fox, 1989). The few significant differences, could probably be Even when potassium supply is abundant, potassium because the mechanism of nutrient uptake is similar for uptake during the life cycle is appropriate to meet the all the cultivars. The results showed that FHIA 17 had the needs of the main plant crop but it is not relevant to highest nutrient concentrations meaning that its nutrient ratoons, since in stools the mother plant and followers uptake is higher than the rest of the cultivars. Total are present at the same time. nutrient uptake and concentration does not depend on In general, M2 had the lowest nutrient use efficiency the cultivars but other factors which may include, soil (Table 1). This suggests that cultivar FHIA17, which was moisture, management practices and soil ph. Most the best in terms of nutrient use efficiency has a greater nutrients in the plant were found to be below average, ability of converting absorbed nutrients into fruits (Ortiz- average or just slightly above average, probably because Monasterio et al., 2003). FHIA17 was followed by M9 in sampling was done at harvest stage. terms of nutrient use efficiency. FHIA17 nutrient Generally, the concentration of plant nutrients fell with concentration is significantly different from that of other age. It was also established that all nutrients reach the cultivars, it means that, it is able to utilize acquired same proportion in the fruits irrespective of the amounts nutrients into fruits/bunch more than any other cultivar. supplied, (Esguerra, 2009). Insufficient potassium supply The results also showed high N and P use efficiency for reduces the total dry matter production of Banana plants FHIA 17 in Kamuli as compared to Kyenjojo, meaning and the distribution of dry matter within the plant. The there are less N and P in Kamuli. There was also higher bunch is the most drastically affected organ and hence K nutrient use efficient by FHIA17 in Wakiso as the importance of potassium in banana growing. Turner compared to Mityana. The results also showed high Ca and Barkus (1980) found that while low potassium supply use efficiency by FHIA17 in Mityana as compared to halved the total dry matter produced, the bunch dry Wakiso, and high Mg use efficiencies in Kyenjojo as matter was reduced by 80% and the roots were compared to Mityana (Table 1). M2 had higher N nutrient unaffected. It was suggested that of the various organs use efficiency in Kamuli than in Kyenjonjo and there was competing for potassium, those nearest to the source of higher P use efficiency in Kamuli than in Mubende. supply is the most successful in obtaining their The results also showed higher K, Mg and Ca use requirements. Studies of the ontogenic course of efficiency in Kabarole than in Kyenjojo. M9 had a higher potassium uptake under field conditions have shown an N, K, Mg and Ca use efficiency in Mubende as compared overall decrease in whole plant concentration of to other districts and higher P use efficiency in Mukono potassium in the dry matter from sucker to fruit harvest. as compared to Kyenjojo. M9 had a higher N and P use The potassium uptake is proportionally greater than dry efficiency in Kamuli and higher K, Mg and Ca use matter accumulation early in the life of the plant. Under effiency in Kabarole as compared to other districts. restricted potassium supply, the highest potassium Mbwazirume had a higher N, K, Mg and Ca nutrient use uptake rate occurs during the first half of the vegetative efficiency in Mubende as compared to other districts and
102 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
Table 1. Nutrient use efficiencies of different banana cultivars in different districts.
Average Average Average Average Average NUE Cultivars District NUE (N) (%) NUE (P) (%) NUE (K) (%) NUE (Ca) (%) (Mg) (%) Jinja 38.1 270.5 10.4 56.5 72.2 Kamuli 83.8 750.7 18.2 170.1 85.8 FHIA 17 Kyenjojo 30.0 185.4 5.7 41.8 60.5 Mukono 63.1 430.6 16.1 111.8 117.3 Wakiso 41.2 499.1 8.9 107.2 114.8 Total average NUE (%) 49.4*** 388.5*** 12.0*** 89.0** 89.0*** CV (%) 11 9 18 14 10.3 Kyenjojo 33.2 290.5 11.9 53.1 73.9 Mityana 78.7 1009.1 7.3 107.2 34.4 M2 Mubende 35.9 246.7 9.6 80.7 68.2
Mukono 38.3 328.3 8.4 100.4 59.9 Wakiso 31.3 287.2 24.2 60.2 34.3 Total average NUE (%) 39.3* 353.9** 11.0*** 79.1** 61.3* CV (%) 8.5 13.7 18 8 17 Jinja 43.9 364.2 9.7 107.8 129.3 Kabarole 46.9 240.9 34.3 179.1 88.9 Kamuli 55.8 486.8 13.8 117.2 198.5 M9 Kyenjojo 32.0 288.2 8.1 85.9 33.8 Mityana 33.2 245.0 9.9 141.5 62.0 Mubende 40.2 239.8 12.8 90.6 111.3 Mukono 50.5 394.7 12.4 120.0 86.1 Wakiso 37.1 290.9 10.3 91.3 64.4 Total average NUE (%) 41.9** 316.6* 13.3*** 117.8*** 87.0*** CV (%) 14 15.4 15 19 12 Jinja 47.7 359.6 7.0 79.0 68.7 Kyenjojo 46.8 241.0 10.3 112.2 98.3 Mbwazi Mityana 47.7 339.2 10.3 178.3 62.7 Mubende 51.6 299.3 12.1 230.5 119.3 Mukono 49.1 396.7 9.9 68.6 96.3 Wakiso 41.7 248.1 9.6 107.9 48.4 Total average NUE (%) 47.8*** 331.9** 9.7* 110.6*** 85.5** CV (%) 11.6 17 9.1 9.7 13
*, ** and *** denotes significant differences at p≥0.05, 0.01 and 0.001 respectively, between districts. Mbwazi =Mbwazirume.
higher P use efficiency in Mukono district as compared to which had plants with low nutrient use efficiency. These other districts. Generally, there was high nutrient use agro ecological zones have Acrisols type of soil that has efficiency in the districts of Kabarole, Kyenjojo and got clays with low cation exchange capacity (FAO 1988). Mubende and these are the districts that had bigger High nutrient use efficiency for elements suggests bunches, meaning that the farms in the above districts deficiency for those various elements in the different have average nutrients. These three districts are found in areas, while low nutrient use efficiency suggests the agroecological zone of western mid altitude sufficiency of these nutrients (Ortiz-Monasterio et al., farmlands, this zone has got a combination of soil types 2003).The variations in the elements use efficiency is namely Andosols, Histosols and Chernozems, these are probably generally due to the different soil types, soil all dark soils formed from volcanic materials and rich in management, altitude and climate among others. organic matter, the farms in zone are fairly managed The bunch weights for the various cultivars between compared to farms in the districts of Wakiso, Jinja, the districts were not significantly different. These results Kamuli, Mukono and Mityana that belong to zones of support results for the nutrient use efficiencies of various southern and eastern lake Kyoga and lake Victoria crescent cultivars in the different districts.
Ahumuza et al. 103
Table 2. Correlation matrix of soil properties and plant nutrient concentration.
P K Ca Mg Total Total Variables N (%) pH OM Total N Total P Total K (ppm) (cmolc/kg) (cmolc/kg) (cmolc/kg) Ca Mg N (%) 1 P (ppm) 0.41* 1 K cmolc/kg 0.34 * 0.521 1 Cacmolc/kg 0.63* 0.383 0.602 1 Mg cmolc/kg 0.64 * 0.411 0.53 0.848 1 pH -0.19 -0.03 0.265 0.368 0.24 1 OM 0.73* 0.34* 0.29* 0.60* 0.62* 0.04* 1 Total N 0.004 0.171 0.095 0.089 0.0059 -0.03 0.070 1 Total P 0.116 0.15 0.20 0.23 0.11 0.15 0.15 1 Total K _0.317 -0.17 -0.00 -0.13 -0.17 0.14 -0.2 0.55 0.46 1 Total Ca -0.05 -0.00 -0.12 -0.04 -0.05 -0.17 -0.0 0.64 0.44 0.61 1 Total Mg -0.07 -0.08 -0.14 0.00 -0.03 -0.11 0.3 0.450 0.283 0.372 0.338 1
OM= Organic matter; NS=not significant.
Correlation between soil nutrients and plant nutrient minimizes erosion; it prevents soil compaction, improves concentrations in banana plants water infiltration and releases nutrients in an available form (Rietberg, 2008). The results showed a negative correlation coefficient of total Potassium in the plant and Nitrogen in the soil - Conclusion and Recommendations .0.317 (p<0.012) (Table 2) suggesting that high Nitrogen in the soil leads to maximum dilution of Potassium in the It was observed that nutrient use efficiency depends on plant (Bolvin et al., 2004). All the nutrient concentrations other factors such as soil type, altitude, farm in the plant were significantly positively correlated to each management and nutrient interactions (antagonism) and other. Similarly, the entire nutrients in the soil were many others other than cultivar. positively correlated to each other, this is because, Fhia 17 was the best in terms nutrient use efficiency. different nutrient elements affect the uptake of others as M2 proved to be the poorest in terms of nutrient use reflected in (Table 2). efficiency, this means that it does well in areas with fertile On the other hand, N and P in the plants are also soils and good management like Kabarole and Kyenjojo positively correlated to all the other studied nutrients in districts that are found in agroecological zone of the soil but the correlation is not significant, whereas K, Rwenzori footslopes and fortportal. Cultivars with high Ca and Mg in the plants are negatively correlated with all nutrient use efficiency like FHIA 17 do better in marginal the studied nutrients in the soil, except for Mg in the plant land compared to the rest of the cultivars because FHIA and Ca in the soil which are positively correlated, It was 17 has the potential to convert the available nutrients into observed that pH was low in most places. At acidic pH fruit unlike the other cultivars and farmers should be values, phosphate ions react with aluminum (Al) and iron provided with suckers for those cultivars.Total nutrient (Fe) to again form less soluble compounds. The uptake, uptake and concentration does not depend on the cultivars translocation and perhaps assimilation of cations and but other factors which may include, soil moisture, anions by plants depend not only on the concentration management practices and soil ph. and availability of these ions in the nutrient medium but All the nutrient concentrations in the plant were signi- also on the presence of other cations and anions. The ficantly positively correlated to each other. Similarly, the absorption of ca, for instance, may be depressed by entire nutrients in the soil were positively correlated to each excessive amounts of potassium or magnesium but other and therefore better soil management practices are favored by nitrate. The mechanism of these interactions recommended. is not always clear; in many cases it depends on ion competition on colloidal surfaces either at the surface of a cell or within the cytoplasm. Conflict of interest Organic matter was shown to be significantly positively The authors did not declare any conflict of interest. correlated with all the nutrients. The higher the organic matter, the higher the nutrient elements in the soil and vice versa. This is because organic matter serves as a ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS revolving nutrient bank account, meaning that it holds nutrients (Cations Exchange Capacity). Organic matter The authors are greatly indebted to NARO- Uganda for also improves on soil structure, maintains tilth and providing the study sites. The authors also wish to extend
104 Afr. J. Plant Sci.
their sincere gratitude to the funders of this study, that is, NARO (National Agricultural Research Organisation) (2000). Annual Biosciences for eastern and central Africa (BecAnet), Report 1999–2000. Nowakunda K, Rubaihayo PR, Ameny MA, Tushemereirwe WK (2000). without their financial support, this study would not have Consumer acceptability of introduced bananas in Uganda. been successful. INFOMUSA, 9(2):22-25. Nyombi K, Van Asten PJA, Leffelaar PA, Corbeels M, Kaizzi CK, Giller KE (2009). Allometric growth relationships of East Africa highland bananas (Musa AAA-EAHB) cv.Kisansa and Mbwazirume. Ann. Appl. REFERENCES Biol. 155:403-418.
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Appendix 1. Source of funding and time frame.
Activity Time frame Item Amount Source of funds Fuel (L) 600,000 BECANET Data collection 20012 February- June SDA 200,000 BECANET Labor 100,000 BECANET
Sample analysis 2012 July-August Sample analysis 550,000 Becanet Total 1,450,000
Becanet, Biosciences for eastern and central Africa.
African Journal of Plant Science
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