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EFFECTS of DROUGHT on FORESTS and RANGELANDS in the UNITED STATES 97 CHAPTER 5 Managing Effects of Drought in Hawai’I and U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands

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EFFECTS of DROUGHT on FORESTS and RANGELANDS in the UNITED STATES 97 CHAPTER 5 Managing Effects of Drought in Hawai’I and U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands CHAPTER 5 Managing Effects of Drought in Hawai’i and U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands Abby G. Frazier, Jonathan L. Deenik, Neal D. Fujii, Greg R. Funderburk, Thomas W. Giambelluca, Christian P. Giardina, David A. Helweg, Victoria W. Keener, Alan Mair, John J. Marra, Sierra McDaniel, Lenore N. Ohye, Delwyn S. Oki, Elliott W. Parsons, Ayron M. Strauch, and Clay Trauernicht A.G. Frazier is a Research Geographer, U.S. C.P. Giardina is a Research Ecologist, U.S. L.N. Ohye is a Hydrologic Planning Program Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifc Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacifc Manager, State of Hawai‘i, Department of Land Southwest Research Station and Institute of Pacifc Southwest Research Station and Institute of Pacifc and Natural Resources, Commission on Water Islands Forestry, and Research Fellow at the East- Islands Forestry, Hilo, HI 96720. Resource Management, Honolulu, HI 96813. West Center, Honolulu, HI 96848. D.A. Helweg is a Senior Liaison for Insular D.S. Oki is a Hydrologist, U.S. Geological Survey, J.L. Deenik is an Associate Specialist in Soil Fertility Relations, U.S. Geological Survey, National Climate Pacifc Islands Water Science Center, Honolulu, and Soil Quality, and Faculty Member, University of Adaptation Science Center, Volcano, HI 96718. HI 96818. Hawai‘i at M noa, Department of Tropical Plant and ā V.W. Keener is a Research Fellow, East-West E.W. Parsons is a Coordinator, State of Hawai‘i, Soil Sciences, Honolulu, Center, Honolulu, HI 96848. Division of Forestry and Wildlife, Pu‘u Wa‘awa‘a HI 96822. Forest Reserve, Kailua, HI 96740. A.Mair is a Hydrologist, U.S. Geological Survey, N. D. Fujii is a Drought and Water Conservation Pacifc Islands Water Science Center, Honolulu, A.M. Strauch is a Hydrologist, State of Hawai‘i, Coordinator, State of Hawai‘i, Department of Land HI 96818. Department of Land and Natural Resources, and Natural Resources, Commission on Water Commission on Water Resource Management, Resource Management, Honolulu, HI 96813. J.J. Marra is the Director, Regional Climate Honolulu, HI 96813. Services for the Pacifc Region, National Oceanic G.R. Funderburk is a Fire Management Offcer, and Atmospheric Administration, National C. Trauernicht is an Assistant Specialist Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, Hawai‘i National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information in Wildland Fire, University of Hawai‘i at Park, HI 96718. Service (NESDIS)/National Centers for Mānoa, Department of Natural Resources and T.W. Giambelluca is a Professor, University of Environmental Information (NCEI), Honolulu, Environmental Management, Honolulu, HI 96822. Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Department of Geography and HI 96818. Environment, Honolulu, HI 96822. S. McDaniel is a Botanist, Hawai‘i Volcanoes National Park, Resources Management Division, Hawai‘i National Park, HI 96718. 96 CHAPTER 5 Managing Effects of Drought in Hawai’i and U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands INTRODUCTION: CONTEXT AND PROBLEM FRAMING BOX 5.1 Geographic Scope How Is Drought Expressed in Hawai‘i and the U.S.-Affliated Pacifc Islands? This chapter covers the State of Hawai‘i and the U.S.-Affliated Pacifc Islands (USAPI). Hawai‘i Drought is a signifcant climate feature in Hawai‘i and comprises eight major islands: Ni‘ihau, Kaua‘i, the U.S.-Affliated Pacifc Islands (USAPI) (fgs. 5.1, 5.2), O‘ahu, Moloka‘i, Lāna‘i, Maui, Kaho‘olawe, and at times causing severe impacts across multiple sectors. Hawai‘i. The main Hawaiian Islands are in the Below-average precipitation anomalies are often Pacifc Ocean between 18.90°N and 22.24°N accompanied by higher-than-average temperatures and latitude, and 160.25°W and 154.80°W longitude reduced cloud cover. The resulting higher insolation (fg. 5.1). The climate of the Hawaiian Islands is and evapotranspiration can exacerbate the effects of extremely diverse, partly due to the large elevation reduced rainfall. These altered meteorological conditions range from 0 to 4205 m (13,796 feet), with mean lead to less soil moisture. Depending on the persistence annual rainfall from 200–10 270 mm (8–400 inches) and severity of the conditions, drier soil can cause plant (Giambelluca et al. 2013). stress, affecting both agricultural and natural systems. Hydrological effects of drought include reductions in The USAPI comprise six jurisdictions in the Pacifc streamfow, groundwater recharge, and groundwater Basin having special relations with the United States discharge to springs, streams, and near-shore (see fg. 5.2). Two of these jurisdictions, American environments. Samoa and Guam, are territories (as are the U.S. Virgin Islands), and one, the Commonwealth of the The effects of drought on reduced water supply also Northern Mariana Islands, is a commonwealth (as have social and economic consequences. Therefore, is Puerto Rico). The residents of these territories drought has been defned from at least fve different are U.S. citizens, except in American Samoa perspectives: (1) meteorological, (2) hydrological, (3) where the residents are U.S. nationals (U.S. State ecological, (4) agricultural, and (5) socioeconomic Department). Three other jurisdictions—the (see chapter 1). In this chapter, we explore how these Republic of Palau, the Republic of the Marshall drought perspectives are expressed in Hawai‘i and the Islands (RMI), and the Federated States of USAPI, and how resource managers address drought- Micronesia (FSM)—are now independent nations, related stressors to their systems. but they were formerly districts of the United Nations’ Trust Territories of the Pacifc Islands, Direct and Indirect Impacts created after World War II and administered by the United States (U.S. State Department). Meteorological drought—Droughts vary in duration, frequency, extent, and severity. A region with In combination, the islands in the USAPI occupy a meteorological drought is characterized by severe wide range of latitude and longitude, spanning an episodic droughts, with little or no rainfall for months, aggregate east-west distance of over 2,700 miles even in areas that normally have no dry season. El Nio (4345 km), from 20°30’N to 14°30’S and from events (the warm phase of El Nio Southern Oscillation 171°56’E to 131°07’E, which is greater than the [ENSO]) fall into this category. These moderate- width of the continental United States. All of these frequency events are typically responsible for shorter islands, except those of American Samoa, lie north lived but intense drought events that affect large areas. of the equator in the broad region of Oceania known as Micronesia. As a result, these Micronesian Drought can also be expressed as infrequent but islands have some general similarities in regard to long-duration events of moderate severity, or long- their overall climate regimes and meteorological term rainfall decline, where the baseline condition forcing mechanisms. The Samoan Islands, by appears to be changing when examined on longer time contrast, lie south of the Equator, and as a result scales. From the perspective of a resource manager, are subject to a somewhat different meteorological understanding the duration, frequency, extent, and regime (Polhemus 2017). severity of drought is critical to understanding the duration, frequency, extent, and severity of the drought EFFECTS OF DROUGHT ON FORESTS AND RANGELANDS IN THE UNITED STATES 97 CHAPTER 5 Managing Effects of Drought in Hawai’i and U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands Figure 5.1—State of Hawai‘i with eight major islands labeled. Background imagery: MODIS Image of Hawai‘i, NASA Earth Observatory. Map: A. Frazier, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Figure 5.2—Map of the U.S.-Affliated Pacifc Islands, showing EEZ (exclusive economic zone) boundaries and locations of major islands, atolls, and cities. Map courtesy of L. Brewington, East-West Center. EFFECTS OF DROUGHT ON FORESTS AND RANGELANDS IN THE UNITED STATES 98 CHAPTER 5 Managing Effects of Drought in Hawai’i and U.S.-Affiliated Pacific Islands response. For example, an agency’s response to El dry seasons, whereas La Niña events often result in Nio events, with a focus on short-lived but large-scale wetter-than-average wet seasons and drier dry seasons. emergency response campaigns, may differ from a response to baseline change or an increase in the Many historical drought events have been attributed to frequency of extended dry periods, with a focus on El Nio events, which produce atmospheric conditions longer lived institutional, infrastructure, and personnel unfavorable for rainfall (Chu 1995). However, the responses. relationship between El Nio events and drought is not simple: not all El Nio events result in drought, and effects A long-term network of climate stations is necessary differ depending on whether the El Nio is classifed as to understand and characterize meteorological drought. Central Pacifc (CP) or Eastern Pacifc (EP) because the Rainfall has been extensively monitored in Hawai‘i since latter is characterized by more atmospheric water vapor the early 1900s, owing to the expansion of plantation over the eastern Pacifc region (Bai 2017, Polhemus 2017). agriculture (Giambelluca et al. 1986), while rainfall Furthermore, successive El Nio and La Niña events monitoring for most of the USAPI began in earnest appear to be a dominant factor for long-duration drought in the 1940s, after World War II (Polhemus 2017). events in Hawai‘i (e.g., dry winter from El Nio followed by Because of prevailing winds, most land area in Hawai‘i dry summer with La Niña) (Frazier 2016). is characterized by a wet season from November to April and a dry season from May to October. However, Hydrological drought—Long periods of low rainfall dynamic features affect climate systems of the Pacifc. can reduce surface water and groundwater availability For example, because of their tropical location, rainfall (table 5.1), leading to hydrological drought. Reduced patterns in both Hawai‘i and the USAPI are strongly streamfow is the frst indication of the onset of controlled by large-scale modes of climate variability, hydrological drought, as prolonged precipitation including ENSO.
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