Functional Investigation on Automotive Interior Materials Based on Variable Knitted Structural Parameters

polymers

Article Functional Investigation on Automotive Interior Materials Based on Variable Knitted Structural Parameters

Mao Siyao 1,2, Su Liu 1,2,* , Zhang Peihua 1,2 and Long Hairu 1,2

1 College of Textiles, Donghua University, 2999 North Renmin Road, Songjiang District, Shanghai 201620, China; [email protected] (M.S.); [email protected] (Z.P.); [email protected] (L.H.) 2 Engineer Research Center of Technical Textile, Ministry of Education, Shanghai 201620, China * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +86-1862-157-0376

Received: 9 October 2020; Accepted: 19 October 2020; Published: 23 October 2020

Abstract: With the rapid development of technical textiles, more and more researchers have focused on developing high performance textiles to meet various needs. The automotive industry is a major market for technical textiles. Compared to other types of fabric, weft-knitted fabric has good extensibility and elasticity, as well as a hand-feel, and it is gradually becoming the preferred type of interior fabric for automobiles. This paper aims to develop an automotive fabric with good comfort and durability. Sixteen types of weft-knitted fabrics with eight different structures and two different materials (draw textured polyester and textured polyamide yarn) were fabricated using a computerized flat knitting machine. Their durability and level of comfort were examined by measuring the tensile and tear strengths, abrasion resistance and air permeability. A fuzzy comprehensive evaluation method was employed to compare the comprehensive properties of the fabric. The results indicated that the overall performance of DTPA fabric was better than DTPE fabric, and an optimum structure was selected for an automotive interior. Meanwhile, we found that the air permeability of the fabric could be increased by using tuck stitches and that the strength and dimensional stability of fabric could be increased by adding tuck stitches and weft-insert yarns. The findings contribute to the field of technical textiles and provide ideas for the development of high-performance textiles.

Keywords: weft-knitted structures; automotive interior; polymers; mechanical properties; fuzzy comprehensive evaluation

1. Introduction Technical textiles have been regarded as textile manufactured for their technical and functional features, rather than for their decorative and aesthetic characteristics. The rapid development of technical textiles has made them be widely used in various fields, such as garments [1,2], the military [3], the medical field [4], and transportation, and it has aroused the interest of a wide variety of researchers [5–7]. One of the largest markets for technical textiles is the automobile industry, which uses an average of 20 kg for each of the 45 million or so cars produced globally each year [8]. With advancements in living standards, cars have gradually become an indispensable part of life worldwide. Meanwhile, advancements in textile technologies mean that fabrics have begun to replace leather as the preferred automotive interior material, and using textiles is also considered to be environmentally friendly, functional and economical. Compared to woven and warp-knitted fabrics, weft-knitted fabrics can, to a large extent, provide a two-way stretch and have good elongation and elasticity [9]. Hence, automakers are increasingly favoring the usage of weft-knitted fabrics for different

Polymers 2020, 12, 2455; doi:10.3390/polym12112455 www.mdpi.com/journal/polymers Polymers 2020, 12, x 2 of 19

Polymers 2020, 12, 2455 2 of 19 etc. Some researchers have extended their studies to focus on improving the performance of fabrics used in the automotive industry, such as resistance to abrasion [10–12], tensile and tear properties interior[9,13,14], components, thermal stability such as [15,16], seat covers, flame dashboard retardance covers, [17,18] side and panels, physiological etc. Some researchersproperties have[19]. extendedResearchers their have studies also to focused focus on on improving other functional the performance properties of of fabrics automotive used in theinterior automotive materials, industry, such suchas sound as resistance absorption to abrasion[20–23] and [10 –water12], tensile and oil and repellency tear properties [24]. However, [9,13,14], most thermal of them stability focus [15 on,16 a], flamecertain retardance performance, [17, 18and] and there physiological are few studies properties on the [comprehensive19]. Researchers properties have also of focused knitted on fabrics. other functionalMeanwhile, properties details of automotivethe fabric structure interior materials, have not such been as soundprovided absorption in related [20– 23articles,] and water and andthe oilrelationships repellency between [24]. However, fabric structure most of them and the focus proper on aties certain of textiles performance, used for and the there automotive are few interior studies onare thestill comprehensive not clear. properties of knitted fabrics. Meanwhile, details of the fabric structure have not beenHence, provided this in study related proposes articles, andthe theuse relationshipsof weft-knitted between fabrics fabric with structure different and structures the properties that are of textilesfabricated used on for a computerized the automotive flat interior knitting are machine still not for clear. automotive upholstery and investigates their mechanicalHence, properties this study proposesand level theof usecomfort. of weft-knitted According fabricsto previous with di research,fferent structures some important that are fabricatedproperties onof athese computerized fabrics are flat examined, knitting machinesuch as fortheir automotive tensile strength, upholstery abrasion and investigates resistance, theirtear mechanicalstrength and properties air permeability, and level ofwhich comfort. are Accordingusually the to previousessential research,factors examined some important for automotive properties ofupholstery. these fabrics are examined, such as their tensile strength, abrasion resistance, tear strength and air permeability,Polyester which and polyamide are usually are the essentialcurrently factors the most examined used types for automotive of materials upholstery. in the automotive industryPolyester [25]. The and properties polyamide of arepolyester, currently which the make most it used an ideal types material of materials for automotive in the automotive interiors, industryinclude high [25]. Thetensile properties and tear of strengths, polyester, whichlow moisture make it anabsorbency, ideal material and forgood automotive abrasion interiors,and UV includeresistance. high Meanwhile, tensile and tearthe strengths,prominent low advantage moisture absorbency,of using polyamide and good abrasion is its excellent and UV resistance.abrasion Meanwhile,resistance; therefore, the prominent two types advantage of materials of using were polyamide selected is itsto excellentknit the samples. abrasion resistance;The comprehensive therefore, twoinfluence types of of different materials structures were selected and tothe knit type the of samples. yarn on Thethe fabric comprehensive was also analyzed. influence ofThis diff studyerent structureswill contribute and to the the type development of yarn on of the knitted fabric fabric was alsothat analyzed.is used for This automotive study will interiors. contribute to the development of knitted fabric that is used for automotive interiors. 2. Materials and Methods 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Materials 2.1. Materials Polyester and polyamide are currently the most used types of materials in the automotive Polyester and polyamide are currently the most used types of materials in the automotive industry. industry. Furthermore, compared to common yarn, draw texturing yarn (DTY) has a better Furthermore, compared to common yarn, draw texturing yarn (DTY) has a better resilience, hand feel resilience, hand feel and glossiness. Therefore, 300D draw textured polyester (DTPE) and draw and glossiness. Therefore, 300D draw textured polyester (DTPE) and draw textured polyamide yarn textured polyamide yarn (DTPA) are used in this study to fabricate the automotive interior fabric (DTPA) are used in this study to fabricate the automotive interior fabric samples, as shown in Table1, samples, as shown in Table 1, and the SEM micrographs of DTPE and DTPA using a QUANTA and the SEM micrographs of DTPE and DTPA using a QUANTA environmental scanning electron environmental scanning electron microscope (FEI, Check, Hillsboro, OR, USA) are shown in Figure microscope (FEI, Check, Hillsboro, OR, USA) are shown in Figure1a,b. 1a,b.

Figure 1. E-SEME-SEM micrographs micrographs of ( a)) DTPE DTPE and ( b) DTPA magniﬁedmagnified 1000,1000, 30003000 andand 50005000 times.times.

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Table 1. Speciﬁcation of materials used in automotive interior fabrics.

Material Yarn Count Color Provider DTPE 300D/96F White PM Yarns and Textiles DTPA 300D/96F White PM Yarns and Textiles

2.2. Samples Preparation Eight types of knit structures (four types of single knit fabrics and four types of double knit fabrics) were used as the samples. The single knit structures are plain knit, 1 1 plain knit, plain knit × with weft-inlay and double pique, numbered by 1, 2, 3 and 4. The double knit structures are interlock, variable half milano, interlock with weft-inlay and variable half cardigan, numbered by 5, 6, 7 and 8. All of the samples are produced on a STOLL ADF 32W (Reutlingen, Germany) computerized ﬂat knitting machine 7.2 gg (with the corresponding knitting parameters of eight structures listed in Table2).

Table 2. Knitting parameters of diﬀerent structures.

Structure No. NP Value Knitting Speed (mm/s) Yarn Tension (N) Pulling Value S1 11.3 0.55 2.5 4.0 S2 11.3 0.55 2.5 4.0 S3 11.3 0.50 2.5 4.5 S4 11.3 0.55 2.5 4.5 S5 10.0 0.55 2.5 5.5 S6 10.0 0.55 2.5 5.5 S7 10.0 0.50 2.5 5.5 S8 10.0 0.55 2.5 5.5

The characterizations of the fabric samples are listed in Table3, and the loop diagrams are shown in Figure2a–h. Images of eight structures captured by a microscope (ECLIPES LV 100N POL, Tokyo, Japan) and the simulation images are shown in Figures3a–h and4a–h. To obtain the optimal hand feel and fabric quality, two yarn ends were selected to knit the DTPE fabrics, while three yarn ends were used to knit DTPA fabrics, considering the individual properties of the two polymer materials.

Table 3. Characterizations of the fabric samples.

Sample No. Material Yarn Count CPC 1 WPC 1 Thickness (mm) Weight (g/m2) A1 7.6 9.8 1.32 383.64 A1 8.4 8.8 1.69 483.60 A3 6.4 10.0 1.77 455.56 A4 5.4 8.8 2.12 484.72 DTPE 300D 3 A5× 7.2 9.2 2.16 778.44 A6 7.4 7.2 2.35 780.80 A7 6.0 10.0 2.24 784.40 A8 5.8 6.8 2.93 849.04 B1 7.2 12.0 1.47 333.28 B2 8.0 9.6 1.81 414.72 B3 7.2 10.4 1.67 385.12 B4 6.0 9.2 2.15 416.40 DTPA 300D 2 B5× 6.8 12.8 2.25 621.04 B6 7.2 8.4 2.24 642.56 B7 6.4 10.4 2.16 671.32 B8 5.6 7.2 2.54 674.44 1 CPC denotes courses per centimeter, and WPC denotes wales per centimeter. Polymers 2020, 12, 2455 4 of 19 Polymers 2020, 12, x 4 of 19

FigureFigure 2. Loop 2. Loop diagrams diagrams of ofdifferent diﬀerent structures: structures: ( a) plainplain knit;knit; ( b()b 1) 1 ×1 plain1 plain knit; knit; (c) plain(c) plain knit knit with with × weft-inlay;weft-inlay; (d) (doubled) double pique; pique; (e (e) )interlock; interlock; ((ff)) variable variable half half milano; milano; (g) interlock(g) interlock with weft-inlay;with weft-inlay; and (h) and (h) variablevariable half cardigan.

Polymers 2020, 12, 2455 5 of 19 Polymers 2020, 12, x 5 of 19 Polymers 2020, 12, x 5 of 19

FigureFigure 3.3. FabricFabric photographsphotographs captured captured by by microscope: microscope: (a )(a plain) plain knit; knit; (b) ( 1b) 11 × plain 1 plain knit; knit; (c) plain (c) plain knit Figure 3. Fabric photographs captured by microscope: (a) plain knit; (b×) 1 × 1 plain knit; (c) plain withknit with weft-inlay; weft-inlay; (d) double (d) double pique; pique; (e) interlock; (e) interlock; (f) variable (f) variable half milano; half milano; (g) interlock (g) interlock with weft-inlay;with weft- inlay;knit with and weft-inlay;(h) variable ( dhalf) double cardigan. pique; (e) interlock; (f) variable half milano; (g) interlock with weft- andinlay; (h )and variable (h) variable half cardigan. half cardigan.

Figure 4. Simulation images of different structures: (a) plain knit; (b) 1 × 1 plain knit; (c) plain knit FigurewithFigure weft-inlay; 4.4. SimulationSimulation (d) double imagesimages pique; ofof didifferent ﬀ(eerent) interlock; structures:structures: (f) variable ((aa)) plainplain half knit;knit; milano; ((bb)) 11 ( g×) 1 1interlock plainplain knit;knit; with ((cc) )weft-inlay; plainplain knitknit × withandwith ( weft-inlay;hweft-inlay;) variable (half(dd)) doubledouble cardigan. pique;pique; ((ee)) interlock;interlock; ((ff)) variablevariable halfhalf milano;milano; ((gg)) interlockinterlock withwith weft-inlay;weft-inlay; andand ((hh)) variablevariable halfhalf cardigan.cardigan.

PolymersPolymers 2020, 202012, x, 12 , 2455 6 of 19 6 of 19

2.3. Testing Methods 2.3. Testing Methods BeforeBefore the thetesting testing was was carried carried out,out, allall of of the the samples samples were were stored stored in standard in standard atmospheric atmospheric conditionsconditions of 20 of ± 202 °C2 andC and 65 65± 2%2% relative relative humidi humidityty (RH)(RH) for for 24 24 h inh accordancein accordance with standardwith standard ISO ± ◦ ± 139:2005.ISO 139:2005.The experimental The experimental illustration illustration is shown is shown in in Figure Figure5 5a–d.a–d.

FigureFigure 5. The 5. Theexperimental experimental illustration: illustration: (a()a air) air permeability permeability testing; testing; (b) abrasion (b) abrasion resistance resistance testing; testing; (c) strip testing; (d) tear strength testing. (c) strip testing; (d) tear strength testing. 2.3.1. Air Permeability Testing 2.3.1. Air PermeabilityThe air permeability Testing testing was carried out on a YG461E air permeability tester (WenZhou TheFangyuan air permeability Instrument Co., testing Ltd., Wenzhou, was carried China) underout on standard a YG461E atmospheric air permeability conditions. The samplestester (WenZhou were cut into dimensions of 20 cm 20 cm in accordance with standard ISO 9237:1995. The pressure × Fangyuandiﬀerence Instrument on each sample Co., wasLtd., 200 Wenzhou, Pa. Each sample Chin wasa) tested under ten timesstandard in diﬀ erentatmospheric positions, andconditions. the The samplesaverage were was cut calculated into dimensions and used. of 20 cm × 20 cm in accordance with standard ISO 9237:1995. The pressure difference on each sample was 200 Pa. Each sample was tested ten times in different 2.3.2. Abrasion Resistance Testing positions, and the average was calculated and used. The abrasion resistance testing was carried out on a YG041E fabric abrasion tester (Ningbo Textile 2.3.2. AbrasionInstrument Resistance Factory, Ningbo, Testing China). Figure6 shows the illustration for the rubbing head of the abrasion and pilling tester. Three circular specimens with a diameter of 38 mm were extracted from Theeach abrasion sample in accordanceresistance with testing standard was GB carried/T 21196.3-2007 out on (China). a YG041E The weight fabric loss abrasion of each sample tester (Ningbo Textileafter Instrument 20,000 cycles Factory, was calculated. Ningbo, China). Figure 6 shows the illustration for the rubbing head of the abrasion and pilling tester. Three circular specimens with a diameter of 38 mm were extracted from each sample in accordance with standard GB/T 21196.3-2007 (China). The weight loss of each sample after 20,000 cycles was calculated.

Polymers 2020, 12, 2455 7 of 19 Polymers 2020, 12, x 7 of 19 Polymers 2020, 12, x 7 of 19

FigureFigure 6.6. Rubbing head ofof thethe MartindaleMartindale tester.tester. Figure 6. Rubbing head of the Martindale tester. 2.3.3.2.3.3. Strip TestingTesting 2.3.3. Strip Testing ToTo determinedetermine thethe tensiletensile strength,strength, stripstrip testingtesting waswas carriedcarried onon thethe YG028YG028 ElectronicElectronic fabricfabric strengthstrengthTo determine testertester (Ningbo(Ningbo the tensile DaheDahe strength, InstrumentInstrument strip Co.,Co., testin Ltd.,Ltd.g, Ningbo,Ningbo,was carried China)China) on inin the accordanceaccordance YG028 Electronic withwith standardstandard fabric strengthGBGB/T/T 3923.1-20133923.1-2013tester (Ningbo (China). Dahe For For Instrument every every structure, structure, Co., Ltd.five five , samplesNingbo, samples were wereChina) prepared prepared in accordance at ata uniform a uniform with size standard size of of50 GB/T50 mm3923.1-2013200 mm (China). (width Forlength) every in thestructure, course and five wale samples directions, were respectively. prepared at The a uniform distance betweensize of 50 mm × ×200 mm (width ×× length) in the course and wale directions, respectively. The distance mmthebetween × clamps 200 mmthe was clamps(width set at 100 was× mm,length) set and at the100in tester themm, course was and operated theand tester wale at a was loading directions, operated rate of respectively. 100at a mm loading/min. TheTherate average distanceof 100 betweenwasmm/min. calculated the The clamps average and used.was was set calculated at 100 mm, and used.and the tester was operated at a loading rate of 100 mm/min. The average was calculated and used. 2.3.4.2.3.4. Tear StrengthStrength TestingTesting 2.3.4. TearTheThe Strength teartear strengthstrength Testing testingtesting waswas alsoalso carriedcarried outout onon thethe YG028YG028 ElectronicElectronic fabricfabric strengthstrength testertester (Ningbo Dahe Instrument Co., Ltd., Ningbo, China). Five trapezoid-shaped pieces were cut from (NingboThe tear Dahe strength Instrument testing Co., was Ltd., also Ningbo, carried China) out on. Five the trapezoid-shapedYG028 Electronic pieces fabric were strength cut from tester thethe samplessamples inin bothboth thethe coursecourse andand walewale directionsdirections inin accordanceaccordance withwith standardstandard GBGB/T/T 3917.3-20093917.3-2009 (Ningbo(China), Dahe and theInstrument specifics Co., of the Ltd., samples Ningbo, are shown China) in. Five Figure trapezoid-shaped7. A tear with a length pieces of were 15 mm cut was from the(China), samples and in boththe specifics the course of the and samples wale directionsare shown inin accordanceFigure 7. A tearwith with standard a length GB/T of 15 3917.3-2009 mm was mademade inin advance.advance. TheThe distancedistance between between the the clamps clamps was was set set at at 25 25 mm, mm, and and the the loading loading rate rate was was set set at (China), and the specifics of the samples are shown in Figure 7. A tear with a length of 15 mm was 100at 100 mm mm/min./min. Each Each sample sample was was tested tested five five times, times, and and the the average average was was calculated calculated and and used. used. made in advance. The distance between the clamps was set at 25 mm, and the loading rate was set at 100 mm/min. Each sample was tested five times, and the average was calculated and used.

FigureFigure 7.7. SampleSample speciﬁcationsspecifications forfor thethe tearingtearing test.test.

Figure 7. Sample specifications for the tearing test.

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3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Air Permeability The results for the air permeability of the knit fabric samples are presented in Figure8 and Table4. It can be observed that the air permeability of DTPE samples is 29.7–90.0% higher than of DTPA samples. This is because the polyamide in the DTPA samples contributes to the higher elasticity of the samples so that the fabric has a higher stiffness, which reduces the porosity. At the same time, it can be observed that there are significant differences in the air permeability due to different structures. Specifically, A4 and B4, and A8 and B8 have the highest air permeability among single jersey samples and double jersey fabrics respectively. It can be up to 1.5–2.0 times higher than for other structures. The reason for this is because the used tuck stitches can form holes on the surface of the fabric, which allows more air to pass through the surface of the fabric. On the other hand, the air permeability of A3 and B3, and A7 and B7, which have a weft inlaid structure, decreases by 12.1–28.8% in comparison to other structures, as the weft-inlaid yarn will not form loops in fabrics and air permeability is therefore inhibited. In addition, the single jersey samples show a higher air permeability than the double jersey fabrics, which are thicker and therefore do not readily allow air to pass through.

Table 4. The test results of various properties for the samples.

Air Breaking Strength Breaking Tearing Strength Tearing Strength Samples Mass Loss Permeability in Course Strength in Wale in Course in Wale No. (mg) (mm/s) Direction (N) Direction (N) Direction (N) Direction (N) A1 1867.53 11.53 631.02 798.48 349.94 402.84 A2 1358.68 10.27 1085.60 810.14 448.45 504.57 A3 1298.69 11.37 1370.32 803.75 443.91 289.21 A4 1957.20 9.87 1155.68 796.20 450.71 329.88 A5 913.47 9.23 1264.16 2309.54 485.02 996.64 A6 919.24 8.43 1314.97 1865.92 585.95 707.61 A7 613.04 8.37 1546.68 1949.c 670.91 731.55 A8 951.89 7.77 1845.08 1514.55 757.60 563.55 B1 1007.18 0.97 660.90 705.80 233.41 331.17 B2 715.23 0.57 1171.48 865.60 382.97 385.70 B3 683.54 3.57 1119.63 722.24 357.26 269.80 B4 1437.42 0.27 1088.23 763.58 385.55 323.75 B5 490.61 0.13 1182.93 1680.60 550.29 704.27 B6 495.20 1.10 1318.13 1532.82 557.99 703.67 − B7 472.59 0.67 1407.82 1564.63 587.76 620.92 − B8 692.45 3.03 1645.19 1263.42 645.37 523.54 −

Therefore, aside from the material and structure, the thickness of fabric can also influence air permeability; see Figure9. There is no obvious linear relationship in Figure9a between the air permeability and thickness due to the particularities of the tuck stitches. When eliminating the tuck stitches (A4 and B4, and A8 and B8), the thickness of the fabric influences the amount of air flow that passes through the fabric, as depicted in Figure9b, which shows an inverse relationship (r = 0.88 and − r = 0.90, respectively). Thus, it can be concluded that the air permeability of the fabric is decreased − with an increase in the thickness of the fabric. Polymers 2020, 12, 2455 9 of 19 PolymersPolymers 2020 2020, ,12 12, ,x x 99 of of 19 19

FigureFigureFigure 8. Air 8. 8. Air permeabilityAir permeability permeability results results results of di of ofﬀ erentdifferent different structures. structures. structures.

FigureFigureFigure 9. Plotted 9. 9. Plotted Plotted relationship relationship relationship between between between air permeabilityair air permeability permeability and and and thickness: thickness: thickness: (a) all( a(a) ) samples,all all samples, samples, and and and (b) when( b(b) )when when eliminatingeliminatingeliminating tuck tuck tuck stitches stitches stitches (A4 (A4 and(A4 and B4,and andB4, B4, and A8and andA8 A8 and B8).and B8). B8).

3.2.3.2. Abrasion Abrasion Resistance Resistance AA testtest ofof thethe abrasionabrasion resistanceresistance ofof thethe sampsamplesles showedshowed thatthat DTPEDTPE andand DTPADTPA offeredoffered aa goodgood resistanceresistance againstagainst abrasionabrasion resistance,resistance, asas nono holesholes formedformed onon thethe surfacesurface afterafter 20,00020,000 cyclescycles ofof

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3.2. Abrasion Resistance A test of the abrasion resistance of the samples showed that DTPE and DTPA oﬀered a good Polymers 2020,, 12,, xx 10 of 19 resistance against abrasion resistance, as no holes formed on the surface after 20,000 cycles of testing. testing.Figures Figures10 and 1110 show and 11 the show surface the ofsurface the single of the jersey single and jersey double and jersey double samples jersey aftersamples the abrasionafter the abrasiontest, respectively. test, respectively.

Figure 10. SingleSingle jersey jersey fabrics fabrics after after 20,000 20,000 cycles of testing: A1A1––A4A4 forfor DTPE DTPE and and B1B1––B4B4 forfor DTPA. DTPA.

Figure 11. DoubleDouble jersey jersey fabrics fabrics after after 20,000 20,000 cycles of testing: A5A5––A8A8 forfor DTPE DTPE and and B5B5––B8B8 forfor DTPA. DTPA.

The figures figures show that the DTPA samples have a better resistance to abrasion than the DTPE samples do. After After 20,000 20,000 cycles cycles of of testing, testing, the the surf surfacesaces of of the the DTPE DTPE sample sampless show show obvious obvious pilling, pilling, and the the partial partial area area is is not not very very intact, intact, especially especially for for the the sample sample with with the theweft weft that that is inlaid is inlaid (A3). (A3). On theOn other the other hand, hand, while while the thesurfaces surfaces of the of theDTPA DTPA samp samplesles show show some some discoloration, discoloration, their their structure structure is stillis still largely largely intact intact and and only only a afew few hairs hairs appear appear on on the the surface. surface. The The reason reason for for this this result result is is that polyamide (DTPA) has an excellentexcellent abrasionabrasion resistance.resistance. Meanwhile, compared compared to to the double jersey fabrics, thethe singlesingle jerseyjersey fabricsfabrics have have a a poor poor abrasion abrasion resistance, resistance, and and there there are are obvious obvious signs signs of wearof wear on ontheir their surface. surface. Figure 12 and Table4 4 show show thethe massmass lossloss ofof thethe samples.samples. TheThe massmass lossloss ofof thethe DTPEDTPE samplessamples isis 3.2–71.0 timestimes more more than than that that of theof the DTPA DTPA samples. samp Amongles. Among the eight thedi eightfferent different types of types fabric structure,of fabric structure,A3 and B3 A3 have and higher B3 have mass higher losses mass (11.37 losses mg and(11.37 3.57 mg mg) and due 3.57 to mg) the due presence to the of presence floating of yarns floating that yarnscan be that easily can pulled be easily out. pulled Furthermore, out. Furthermore, the mass loss the of mass the singleloss of jersey the single samples jersey is higher samples than is higher that of than that of the double jersey samples, as the latter are thicker and have a higher mass per unit area. It can also be observed that the weight change of B6 to B8 is negative. The reason for this unexpected finding might be that the abrasion resistance of the samples is higher than the abradant itself and that the particles of the abradant rubbed off onto the samples and increased their weight.

Polymers 2020, 12, 2455 11 of 19 the double jersey samples, as the latter are thicker and have a higher mass per unit area. It can also be observed that the weight change of B6 to B8 is negative. The reason for this unexpected ﬁnding might bePolymers that the 2020 abrasion, 12, x resistance of the samples is higher than the abradant itself and that the particles11 of of 19 Polymers 2020, 12, x 11 of 19 the abradant rubbed oﬀ onto the samples and increased their weight.

FigureFigure 12. 12.Mass Mass loss loss of samplesof samples after after 20,000 20,000 cycles cycles of testing.of testing.

A correlationA correlation analysis analysis was was carried carried out out (Figure (Figure 13 ),13), showing showing that that the the abrasion abrasion resistance resistance of of the the samplessamples had had an an obvious obvious linear linear relationship relationship with with the thethe mass massmass per perper unit unitunit area areaarea (r =(r(r 0.51== 0.510.51 and andand r =rr 0.88,== 0.88,0.88, respectively).respectively). It can It can be concluded be concluded that the that abrasion the abrasi resistanceon resistance of the samples of the increasessamples withincreases an increase with an in theincreaseincrease mass inin per thethe unit massmass area perper of unitunit the fabric.areaarea ofof thethe fabric.fabric.

Figure 13. Relationship between mass loss and mass per unit area. Figure 13. Relationship between mass loss and mass per unit area. 3.3. Breaking Strength 3.3. Breaking Strength According to standard GB/T 33276-2016 (China), the breaking strength of automotive interior According to standard GB/T 33276-2016 (China), the breaking strength of automotive interior fabric shouldAccording be higher to standard than 350 GB/T N, and 33276-2016 after the (China), test, it can the be breaking seen that strength all the samples of automotive are up tointerior the fabric should be higher than 350 N, and after the test, it can be seen that all the samples are up to standard.fabric should Figure be 14 highera,b and than Figure 350 15 N,a,b and show after the the breaking test, it strengthcan be seen and that breaking all the elongation samples are of theup to the standard. Figures 14a,b and 15a,b show the breaking strength and breaking elongation of the samplesthe standard. in different Figures directions, 14a,b and and 15a,b the di showfference the between breaking the strength different and structures breaking can elongation be observed. of the samples in different directions, and the difference between the different structures can be observed. Meanwhile, the breaking strength and elongation of thethe samesame structurestructure inin differentdifferent directionsdirections areare also different. The figures show that the DTPE samples have a higher breaking strength than the DTPA samples because the polyester yarns in the DTPE samples are higher in strength. At the same time, thethe goodgood elasticityelasticity ofof thethe DTPADTPA samplessamples makesmakes thethe breaking elongation be 1.3–2.2 times higher than

Polymers 2020, 12, 2455 12 of 19

Meanwhile, the breaking strength and elongation of the same structure in different directions are also different. PolymersThe figures 2020, 12,show x that the DTPE samples have a higher breaking strength than the DTPA samples12 of 19 because the polyester yarns in the DTPE samples are higher in strength. At the same time, the good for DTPE samples. Furthermore, the double jersey samples have a higher breaking strength than elasticity of the DTPA samples makes the breaking elongation be 1.3–2.2 times higher than for DTPE the single jersey samples because knitted yarns on both sides allow a tight connection. samples. Furthermore, the double jersey samples have a higher breaking strength than the single jersey Specifically, A1 and B1 have the lowest breaking strengths in the course (631.02 N and 660.90 samples because knitted yarns on both sides allow a tight connection. N) and wale directions (798.48 N and 705.80 N), in which the loops can easily transfer the stress Specifically, A1 and B1 have the lowest breaking strengths in the course (631.02 N and 660.90 N) when the samples are subjected to external force. They also have a high breaking elongation in both and wale directions (798.48 N and 705.80 N), in which the loops can easily transfer the stress when the directions. Meanwhile, A2 and B2 have a higher strength and dimension stability than A1 and B1, samples are subjected to external force. They also have a high breaking elongation in both directions. due to the presence of float yarns behind the stitches. Therefore, the samples with a weft-inlaid Meanwhile, A2 and B2 have a higher strength and dimension stability than A1 and B1, due to the structure (A3 and B3, and A7 and B7) have a higher strength and lower breaking elongation in the presence of float yarns behind the stitches. Therefore, the samples with a weft-inlaid structure (A3 and course direction. It can be observed that A5 and B5 have the highest breaking strength in the wale B3, and A7 and B7) have a higher strength and lower breaking elongation in the course direction. direction (2309.54 N and 1680.60 N) because the yarns crisscross back and forth, and two rib stitches It can be observed that A5 and B5 have the highest breaking strength in the wale direction (2309.54 N bind each other, which increases the difficulty of fabric detachment. However, A5 and B5 also have and 1680.60 N) because the yarns crisscross back and forth, and two rib stitches bind each other, a higher breaking elongation in the weft direction than the other samples, as there are float yarns which increases the difficulty of fabric detachment. However, A5 and B5 also have a higher breaking and tuck stitches added. elongation in the weft direction than the other samples, as there are float yarns and tuck stitches added. The tensile displacement-load curves of different structures are similar, so for the convenience The tensile displacement-load curves of different structures are similar, so for the convenience of of comparison, only one of their curves is selected. Figure 16a,b shows the tensile displacement- comparison, only one of their curves is selected. Figure 16a,b shows the tensile displacement-load load curves of the DTPA S8 fluctuate in different directions. In the wale direction, the strength of curves of the DTPA S8 fluctuate in different directions. In the wale direction, the strength of the samples the samples gradually increases linearly and then suddenly declines. This is because in the initial gradually increases linearly and then suddenly declines. This is because in the initial stages of the stages of the testing, the stitches began to deform and the loops in the wale direction were forced at testing, the stitches began to deform and the loops in the wale direction were forced at the same time. the same time. Then, the yarns began to stretch until they finally ruptured. It was observed in the Then, the yarns began to stretch until they finally ruptured. It was observed in the experiment that the experiment that the tensile fracturing of the fabric in the wale direction took place almost tensile fracturing of the fabric in the wale direction took place almost immediately, but the stitches immediately, but the stitches were still robust apart from being elongated. were still robust apart from being elongated. The trend of the curve in the course direction shows fluctuating increases compared to that in The trend of the curve in the course direction shows fluctuating increases compared to that in the wale direction. This is because when the samples are subjected to stress, the stitches begin to the wale direction. This is because when the samples are subjected to stress, the stitches begin to fray, fray, as shown in Figure 17a, which leads to a reduction in strength. Some parallel yarns can be as shown in Figure 17a, which leads to a reduction in strength. Some parallel yarns can be found which found which begin to stretch, thus increasing the strength of the sample again. Therefore, there are begin to stretch, thus increasing the strength of the sample again. Therefore, there are fluctuations and fluctuations and many small peaks plotted. With an increased elongation, the yarns in the course many small peaks plotted. With an increased elongation, the yarns in the course direction rupture one direction rupture one by one until the fabric is completely damaged which can be seen in Figure by one until the fabric is completely damaged which can be seen in Figure 17b,c. 17b,c.

Figure 14. Cont.

Polymers 2020, 12, 2455 13 of 19 Polymers 2020, 12, x 13 of 19 Polymers 2020, 12, x 13 of 19

Figure 14. Breaking strength of samples along different directions: (a) course and (b) wale Figuredirections.Figure 14. Breaking14. Breaking strength strength of samples of samples along di alongﬀerent different directions: directions: (a) course and(a) course (b) wale and directions. (b) wale directions.

FigureFigure 15. 15.Breaking Breaking elongation elongation of samples of sample alongs dialongﬀerent different directions: directions: (a) course (a and) course (b) wale and directions. (b) wale directions.Figure 15. Breaking elongation of samples along different directions: (a) course and (b) wale directions.

Polymers 2020, 12, 2455 14 of 19 Polymers 2020, 12, x 14 of 19 Polymers 2020, 12, x 14 of 19

FigureFigure 16. 16.Plotted Plotted tensile tensile displacement-load displacement-load of DTPAof DTPA S8 along:S8 along: (a) ( coursea) course and and (b) ( waleb) wale directions. directions. Figure 16. Plotted tensile displacement-load of DTPA S8 along: (a) course and (b) wale directions.

Figure 17. Breaking process of fabric in the course direction: (a) stitch slipping, (b) some rupturing Figureand 17.(17.c) ruptured.Breaking processprocess of of fabric fabric in in the the course course direction: direction: (a) ( stitcha) stitch slipping, slipping, (b) some(b) some rupturing rupturing and (andc) ruptured. (c) ruptured. 3.4. Tearing Strength 3.4. Tearing Strength 3.4. TearingFigure Strength 18 and Table 4 show the tearing strength of the samples in the different directions. AccordingFigure 18 to and standard Table 4 GB/T4 show show 33276-2016 thethe tearingtearing (China), strengthstrength the ofoftearing thethe samplessamples strength inin of the theautomotive didifferentﬀerent interiordirections. directions. fabric Accordingshould be to higher standard than GBGB/T 30/T N. 33276-2016 It can be seen (China), in Fi thegure tearing 18a,b strengthand Table of 4 automotive that all of the interior samples fabric meet shouldthe requirement bebe higherhigher thanthan at more 3030 N.N. than It It can can 9.0–33.2 be be seen seen times. in in Figure Fi gure 18 18a,ba,b and and Table Table4 that 4 that all ofall the of samplesthe samples meet meet the requirementthe requirement at more at more than than 9.0–33.2 9.0–33.2 times. times.

Polymers 2020, 12, 2455 15 of 19 Polymers 2020, 12, x 15 of 19

FigureFigure 18. 18.Tearing Tearing strength strength of of samples samples along: along: (a )(a course) course and and (b )(b wale) wale directions. directions.

FigureFigure 18 18 shows shows that that the the tearing tearing strength strength of of the the DTPE DTPE samples samples is is 10–50% 10–50% higher higher than than that that of of thethe DTPA DTPA samples, samples, as as the the DTPE DTPE yarn yarn has has a highera higher strength. strength. Speciﬁcally, Specifically, the the tearing tearing strength strength of of A5 A5 andand B5 B5 in in the the wale wale direction direction (996.64 (996.64 N N and and 704.27 704.27 N) N) is is the the highest highest as as they they have have the the highest highest stitch stitch density,density, which which prevents prevents the yarnsthe yarns from from slipping. slipping. On the On other the hand,other A8hand, and A8 B8 showand B8 the show lowest the tearing lowest strengthtearing (563.55 strength N and(563.55 523.54 N N)and among 523.54 the N) double among jersey the samplesdouble jersey in the walesamples direction. in the This wale is because,direction. inThis the waleis because, direction, in the tuckwale stitches direction, can the easily tuck allow stitches tearing can as easily opposed allow to tearing the loop as stitches opposed and to the the tearingloop strengthstitches and is decreased the tearing by 15.7–43.5% strength is in decreased comparison by to 15.7–43.5% other double in jersey comparison structures. to other In addition, double thejersey single structures. jersey fabrics In addition, show a lower the single resistance jersey to fa tearingbrics show than thea lower double resistance jersey fabrics, to tearing which than have the moredouble interlacing jersey fabrics, between which the yarns. have more interlacing between the yarns. SimilarSimilar to to the the stretch stretch curves, curves, the the tear tear displacement-load displacement-load curves curves of the of DTPA the DTPA S8 in theS8 in course the course and waleand directions wale directions are selected are and selected shown and in Figure shown 19a,b. in ItFigure can be observed19a,b. It thatcan thebe tearobserved displacement-load that the tear curvesdisplacement-load diﬀer with the direction.curves differ The curveswith the in thedirectio walen. direction The curves have fewerin the peaks wale compareddirection tohave those fewer in thepeaks course compared direction. to The those load in between the course the peaks direction. and valleys The load is also between higher. Thisthe peaks is because, and whenvalleys tearing is also thehigher. samples This along is because, the wale when direction, tearing the the sample samples is torn along from the a wale prepared direction, perforation the sample and the is torn stitches from neara prepared the tear areperforation subjected and to force. the stitches Each time near a declinethe tear in are strength subjected is shown to force. on theEach curve, time ita candecline very in likelystrength be attributed is shown to on the the breaking curve, it of can the very yarns. likely On thebe attributed other hand, to slippingthe breaking of the of course the yarns. yarns On will the takeother place, hand, which slipping can also of causethe course a strength yarns decline will take in theplace, process which with can the also tearing cause of a thestrength samples decline along in thethe course process direction. with the Then, tearing the stitch of the yarns samples gradually along break the until course the samplesdirection. are Then, thoroughly the stitch damaged. yarns gradually break until the samples are thoroughly damaged.

Polymers 2020, 12, 2455 16 of 19 Polymers 2020, 12, x 16 of 19

FigureFigure 19. 19.Plotted Plotted tear tear displacement displacement load load of DTPA of DTPA S8 along: S8 along: (a) course(a) course and and (b) wale(b) wale directions. directions.

3.5.3.5. Comprehensive Comprehensive Evaluation Evaluation of Utility of Utility Performance Performance of Knitted of Knitted Fabric Fabric TheThe fuzzy fuzzy comprehensive comprehensive evaluation evaluation aims aims to make to make an overall an overall evaluation evaluation of the of objects the objects affected affected by variousby various factors factors [26]. The [26]. general The stepsgeneral of thesteps fuzzy of th comprehensivee fuzzy comprehensive evaluation evaluation method are method as follows: are as Thefollows: first step The is tofirst establish step is parameters to establish that parameters reflect the that performance reflect th ofe performance the object and of construct the object the and weightconstruct vector the in weight a suitable vector way. in Then,a suitable the fuzzyway. Th comprehensiveen, the fuzzy comprehensiv evaluation matrixe evaluation is established. matrix is Finally,established. the evaluation Finally, matrix the evaluation and weight matrix are combined and weight to obtain are combined the comprehensive to obtain evaluationthe comprehensive result. evaluationEight types result. of weft-knitted fabrics with different structures and two different materials were analyzed.Eight The types air permeability, of weft-knitted mass fabrics loss, breaking with differen strengtht structures and tearing and strength two different were selected materials as the were indicesanalyzed. for the The comprehensive air permeability, evaluation, mass loss, and theirbreaking test resultsstrength are and shown tearing in Table strength4. were selected as theFirst, indices the for factor the gathercomprehensive was set asevaluation,U, U = ( U1,and U2,their U3, test U4, results U5, are U6 ),shown and U1 in Tableto U6 4.represent air permeability,First, the massfactor loss, gather breaking was set strength as U, U= in the(U1, course U2, U3, direction, U4, U5, breakingU6), and strengthU1 to U6 in represent the wale air direction,permeability, tearing strengthmass loss, in thebreaking course directionstrength andin the tearing course strength direction, in the breaking wale direction, strength respectively. in the wale direction,Then, the tearing following strength equations in werethe course used to direction establish theand comprehensive tearing strength evaluation in the matrixwale direction,R [27]: respectively. r = (X X )/(X X ) (1) Then, the following equationsij wereij − usedimin to esimaxtablish− imin the comprehensive evaluation matrix R [27]: r = (X X )/(X X ) (2) ij imax − ij imax − imin rij = (Xij − Ximin)/(Ximax − Ximin) (1) where r is the element of the judgment matrix R, r [0,1]; X is the text value of the ith index for ij ij ∈ ij the jth sample; X is the maximum value of the ith index and X is the minimum value of the ith imax rij = (Ximax − Xij)/(Ximax − Ximinimin) (2) index. Among the test results, when the higher the value is, the better the performance is, Equation (1) where rij is the element of the judgment matrix R, rij∈[0,1]; Xij is the text value of the ith index for the jth sample; Ximax is the maximum value of the ith index and Ximin is the minimum value of the ith index. Among the test results, when the higher the value is, the better the performance is, Equation

Polymers 2020, 12, 2455 17 of 19 is used; otherwise, Equation (2) is used. The judgement matrix R obtained from the above equation is as follows:   0.940 0.000 0.000 0.058 0.222 0.183      0.597 0.087 0.374 0.065 0.410 0.323     0.556 0.011 0.609 0.061 0.402 0.027       1.000 0.114 0.432 0.056 0.415 0.083     0.297 0.158 0.522 1.000 0.480 1.000       0.301 0.213 0.563 0.723 0.673 0.602     0.095 0.217 0.754 0.775 0.835 0.635      T  0.323 0.258 1.000 0.504 1.000 0.404  R =    0.360 0.725 0.025 0.000 0.000 0.084       0.163 0.753 0.445 0.100 0.285 0.160     0.142 0.547 0.403 0.010 0.236 0.000       0.650 0.773 0.377 0.036 0.290 0.074     0.012 0.783 0.455 0.608 0.605 0.598       0.015 0.867 0.566 0.516 0.619 0.597     0.000 0.838 0.640 0.536 0.676 0.483     0.148 1.000 0.835 0.348 0.786 0.349  In this work, the method of the questionnaire is adopted to determine the weight coeﬃcient of each index. The investigated people are experts in the ﬁeld of knitted fabrics and related technicians. After the questionnaires were integrated, the weight vector A was shown as follows:

A = (0.2550,0.3670,0.1055,0.1055,0.0835,0.0835) (3)

Thus, the ﬁnal comprehensive evaluation result is calculated as follows:

Q = A R = (0.280,0.292,0.252,0.390,0.418,0.397,0.388,0.453,0.368,0.413,0.300,0.524,0.503,0.538,0.528,0.624) (4) · From the above results, it can be seen that the comprehensive evaluation of the 16 samples from high to low is B8, B6, B7, B4, B5, A8, A5, B2, A6, A4, A7, B1, B3, A2, A1 and A3. Through the questionnaire survey, it is found that abrasion resistance is a very important property in automotive fabric, especially in the fabric used for seat covers. Therefore, the comprehensive evaluation of DTPA fabric is significantly higher than that of DTPE. In the same way, eight samples of DTPE and DTPA were evaluated respectively, and the results are as follows. For DTPE fabrics, the results of the comprehensive evaluation from high to low is A8, A6, A7, A5, A4, A2, A1 and A3. Meanwhile, for DTPA fabrics, the results of the comprehensive evaluation from high to low is B8, B6, B7, B4, B5, B2, B1 and B3. It can be seen from the results that the effects of different structures on the performance are nearly the same. Compared with single jersey fabric, double jersey fabric has a better comprehensive performance, and the best performance of the eight structures is S8 (variable half cardigan structure).

4. Conclusions This study evaluated the mechanical properties and level of comfort offered by sixteen kinds of fabric samples with eight different structures and two different materials. Experiments were carried out to investigate their air permeability, abrasion resistance, and breaking and tearing strengths. The results are summarized as follows:

1. The air permeability of DTPE fabric is 29.7–90% higher than that of DTPA fabric. Among the eight diﬀerent structures, the fabric with tuck stitches can increase the air permeability by 50–100%, while those structures with inlaid yarn can reduce the air permeability by 12.1–28.8%; Polymers 2020, 12, 2455 18 of 19

2. Compared with DTPE fabric, DTPA fabric has a better wear resistance. After 20,000 cycles of abrasion testing, there were only a few hairs on the surface of the DTPA samples, and the structure was still intact, while the DTPE samples showed obvious pilling. A comprehensive comparison of the wear and mass loss shows that S3 (plain knit with weft-inlay) has the worst abrasion resistance due to the presence of ﬂoating yarns on the surface; 3. The good elasticity of DTPA makes the breaking elongation be 1.3–2.2 times higher than for the DTPE samples. The double jersey structures have higher breaking and tearing strengths as the yarns are more tightly connected, especially the S5 (interlock). Meanwhile, the addition of weft-inlaid yarns and tuck stitches can enhance the dimensional stability and strength of the fabric; 4. The comprehensive evaluation shows that the comprehensive performance of DTPA fabrics is higher than that of DTPE, and among the eight diﬀerent structures, S8 (variable half cardigan) is more suitable for automotive interior fabrics;

In summary, an appropriate structure and materials should be used to meet the mechanical requirements and level of comfort demanded of automotive interiors. This study has contributed to providing some guidance in the production of materials for automotive interior fabrics.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.L., L.H. and Z.P.; methodology, S.L.; software, M.S.; validation, S.L., L.H. and Z.P.; formal analysis, M.S.; investigation, M.S.; resources, S.L.; data curation, M.S.; writing—original draft preparation, M.S.; writing—review and editing, S.L.; visualization, M.S.; supervision, S.L.; project administration, S.L.; funding acquisition, S.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research was funded by Shanghai Pujiang Program, grant number 18PJC001, the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities, grant number 2232018D3-21 and National key Research and development program, grant number 2019YFF0302102. Acknowledgments: We would also like to thank Liu Yanping, Feng Bo and Wu Shuangquan for their kind help in experimental devices and materials’ donations. Conﬂicts of Interest: The authors declare no conﬂict of interest.

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