ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES
ANDERS HOVE AND DAVID SANDALOW FEBRUARY 2019 ABOUT THE CENTER ON GLOBAL ENERGY POLICY
The Center on Global Energy Policy provides independent, balanced, data-driven analysis to help policymakers navigate the complex world of energy. We approach energy as an economic, security, and environmental concern. And we draw on the resources of a world- class institution, faculty with real-world experience, and a location in the world’s finance and media capital.
Visit us at www.energypolicy.columbia.edu
@ColumbiaUenergy
ABOUT THE SCHOOL OF INTERNATIONAL AND PUBLIC AFFAIRS
SIPA’s mission is to empower people to serve the global public interest. Our goal is to foster economic growth, sustainable development, social progress, and democratic governance by educating public policy professionals, producing policy-related research, and conveying the results to the world. Based in New York City, with a student body that is 50 percent international and educational partners in cities around the world, SIPA is the most global of public policy schools.
For more information, please visit www.sipa.columbia.edu ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES
ANDERS HOVE AND DAVID SANDALOW FEBRUARY 2019
1255 Amsterdam Ave New York NY 10027 www.energypolicy.columbia.edu
@ColumbiaUenergy ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5
INTRODUCTION 7
GLOSSARY 9
BACKGROUND: ELECTRIC VEHICLES 10
A. Electric Vehicle Deployment Today 10
B. Electric Vehicle Deployment Projections 11
C. Electric Vehicle Policies 13
i. China 13
ii. United States 14
1. EV CHARGING TODAY 16
A. EV Charging in China 16
B. EV Charging in the United States 19
C. Role of Charging Infrastructure in EV Purchase Decisions 21
D. Comparison — China and the United States 22
2. EV CHARGING PROJECTIONS 23
3. EV CHARGING POLICIES 26
A. EV Charging Infrastructure Policy in China 26
i. General 26
ii. Utility Rate Design 28
B. Charging Infrastructure Policy in the United States 29
i. General 29
ii. Utility Rate Design 31
C. Comparison - China and the United States 34
4. EV CHARGING TECHNOLOGIES 35
A. Charging Level 35
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B. Charging Standards 36
i. China 36
ii. United States 36
C. Charging Communication Protocols 38
D. Costs 38
E. Wireless Charging 39
F. Battery Swapping 39
5. EV CHARGING BUSINESS MODELS 41
A. Independent Charging Networks 41
i. China 41
ii. United States 43
B. Utility Companies 44
i. China 44
ii. United States 44
C. Auto Manufacturer Charging Networks 46
D. Shopping Malls, Hotels and Restaurants 47
i. China 47
ii. United States 47
E. Fueling Stations 49
F. Sharing Economy 49
G. Mobile Charging Units 50
H. Commercial Parking Lots 52
I. Municipal EV Charging 53
J. Comparison — China and the United States 54
6. CONCLUSION 56
NOTES 60
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 84
ABOUT THE AUTHORS 85
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
At least 1.5 million electric vehicle (EV) chargers have now been installed in homes, businesses, parking garages, shopping centers and other locations around the world. The number of EV chargers is projected to grow rapidly as the electric vehicle stock grows in the years ahead.
The EV charging industry is a highly dynamic sector with a wide range of approaches. The industry is emerging from infancy as electrification, mobility-as-a-service and vehicle autonomy interact to produce far-reaching changes in transportation.
This report compares EV charging in the world’s two largest electric vehicle markets -- China and the United States – examining policies, technologies and business models. The report is based on more than 50 interviews with industry participants and a review of the Chinese- and English- language literature. Findings include:
1. The EV charging industries in China and the United States are developing largely independently of the other. There is little overlap among the key players in the EV charging industries in each country.
2. The policy frameworks with respect to EV charging in each country differ.
●● The Chinese central government promotes the development of EV charging networks as a matter of national policy. It sets targets, provides funding and mandates standards. Many provincial and local governments also promote EV charging.
●● The United States federal government plays a modest role in EV charging. Several state governments play active roles.
3. EV charging technologies in China and the United States are broadly similar. In both countries, cords and plugs are the overwhelmingly dominant technology for charging electric vehicles. (Battery swapping and wireless charging have at most a minor presence.)
●● China has one nationwide EV fast charging standard, known as China GB/T.
●● The United States has three EV fast charging standards: CHAdeMO, SAE Combo and Tesla.
4. In both China and the United States, many types of businesses have begun to offer EV charging services, with a range of overlapping business models and approaches. A growing number of partnerships are emerging, involving independent charging companies, auto manufacturers, utilities, municipalities and others.
●● The role of utility-owned public chargers is larger in China, especially along major long- distance driving corridors.
●● The role of auto maker EV charging networks is larger in the United States.
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5. Stakeholders in each country could learn from the other.
●● US policy makers could learn from the Chinese government’s multiyear planning with respect EV charging infrastructure, as well as China’s investment in data collection on EV charging.
●● Chinese policymakers could learn from the United States with respect to siting of public EV chargers, as well as US demand response programs.
●● Both countries could learn from the other with respect to EV business models
As the demand for EV charging grows in the years ahead, continued study of the similarities and differences between approaches in China and the United States can help policymakers, businesses and other stakeholders in both countries and around the world.
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INTRODUCTION
We are in the early stages of a major infrastructure build-out. In China, the United States and other countries around the world, hundreds of thousands of electric vehicle chargers are being installed in homes, businesses, parking garages, shopping centers and other locations. The number of chargers is projected to grow rapidly in the years ahead as the electric vehicle stock grows.
This build-out will require new behavior patterns and business models. For more than a century, the vast majority of vehicles have been refueled at retail stations dispensing gasoline and/or diesel. Electric vehicle charging is different than this familiar model for a number of reasons, including:
●● Most recharging of electric vehicles takes place at home or work.
●● EV charging is slower than filling a conventional vehicle with liquid fuel.
●● EV charging is cheaper than filling a conventional vehicle with liquid fuel (which is good for the driver but means less revenue potential for businesses that provide charging).
●● Electric utilities are more central players in EV charging than traditional fueling.
●● Many governments are supporting the growth of EV charging infrastructure to help achieve a range of social objectives.
As a result of these and other factors, the EV charging industry is currently a highly dynamic sector with a wide range of approaches. The industry is emerging from infancy as electrification, mobility-as-a-service and vehicle autonomy interact to produce some of the most far-reaching changes in the transportation sector in a century.
This report compares electric vehicle charging in the world’s two largest electric vehicle markets—China and the United States—based on more than 50 in-person interviews and a review of the Chinese- and English-language literature. The report starts with background on electric vehicles and EV charging infrastructure today. The report then explores three questions:
1. What policies are shaping the growth of EV charging?
2. What technologies are being used?
3. What business models are emerging as the EV charging industry grows?
A final section offers conclusions and lessons each country could learn from the other.
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Figure 1A: Breakdown of interviews for this report - country
Source: Authors
Figure 1B: Breakdown of interviews for this report - sector
Source: Authors
RMB-U.S. Dollar Conversion
During January 2019, the Chinese RMB and U.S. dollar exchanged at a rate of roughly RMB 6.8 to $1. During the past 10 years, the two currencies have exchanged within a range of roughly RMB 6.0 to $1 to RMB 7.0 to $1, with an average exchange rate of just over RMB 6.5 to $1.1
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GLOSSARY
Term Abbreviation Explanation Electric vehicle EV A vehicle propelled solely or in part by an electric motor powered by batteries that can be recharged from a source outside the vehicle. (Includes both all-electric vehicles and plug- in hybrids.) All-electric vehicle AEV/BEV A vehicle propelled solely by an electric motor powered by / battery electric batteries that can be recharged from a source outside the vehicle vehicle. Plug-in hybrid PHEV A vehicle propelled in part by an internal combustion engine and in part by an electric motor powered by batteries that can be recharged from a source outside the vehicle. Internal combustion ICE An engine that runs on liquid fuels including gasoline or diesel. engine New energy vehicle NEV A term used in China for vehicles not powered by an internal combustion engine. Last year roughly 99% of NEVs sold were plug-in electric vehicles (all-electric or plug-in hybrids). Electric vehicle EVSE Charging infrastructure for electric vehicles. This broad term supply equipment encompasses all types of charge posts and levels of charging / Electric vehicle stations. service equipment Charging point / A piece of equipment for charging an electric vehicle, other charging post than an unmodified wall outlet Charging station A location with multiple charging points/posts. Level 1 charger L1 An EV charger using a standard 120 volt outlet. Often referred to as “trickle charging,” this is the slowest type of charger. Level 2 charger L2 An EV charger using a 240 volt electrical circuit, similar to a dryer or an electric stove top. DC fast charger DCFC A 480 volt charger that can deliver as much as hundreds of kWs of power. This is the fastest type of charger. Combined Charging CCS An EV charging standard that originated in the EU; supported System by many automakers including Volkswagen, General Motors and Hyundai. Charge de Move CHAdeMO An EV charging standard that originated in Japan; supported by many automakers including Nissan and Mitsubishi. Tesla Supercharger A proprietary EV 480 volt supercharger network deployed by Tesla, with its own proprietary standard.
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BACKGROUND: ELECTRIC VEHICLES
A. Electric Vehicle Deployment Today
In 2018, roughly 1.25 million electric vehicles were sold in China—a 62% increase over 2017 sales. Electric vehicles were roughly 4.5% of light-duty passenger vehicles sold.2
As of January 2019, there were roughly 2.6 million electric vehicles on the roads in China.3
In the United States, roughly 361,000 electric vehicles were sold in 2018—an 81% increase over 2017 sales. Electric vehicles were roughly 2% of light-duty passenger vehicles sold.4
As of January 2019, there were roughly 1.1 million electric vehicles on the roads in the United States.5
The figures above do not include either low speed electric vehicles (LSEVs) or electric bicycles.
●● LSEVs have top speeds of roughly 40 kilometers per hour/25 miles per hour. In 2016, more than 500,000 LSEVs were sold in China.6 In the United States, LSEVs are largely confined to gated communities, golf courses, malls, airports, public parks and tourist facilities.7
●● Electric bicycles are wildly popular in China. Roughly 200 million electric bicycles are in use, with roughly 30 million sold each year.8 Sales of electric bicycles in the United States are in the range of 200,000 units per year.9
The average range of Chinese EVs is much less than the average range of U.S. EVs. In China,
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the average range of the top 10 selling all-electric vehicle models is less than 200 km/124 miles. In the United States, the average range of the top 10 selling all-electric vehicles is more than 400 km/248 miles. This suggests a need for greater density of EV charging infrastructure in China.10
Figure 2: Electric Vehicle Sales
Source: IEA (2010-2017); Inside EVs (2018)
Table 1: Comparison of China and U.S. light-duty EV sales
China U.S.
Electric vehicle sales (2018) 1,250,000 361,000 Growth in 2018 vs prior year 73% 81% EV market share (new sales) 4.5% 2.1%
All-electric vehicle sales (2018) 984,000 235,700 Growth in 2018 vs prior year 50.7% 227%
Total Electric vehicles on road 2.6 million 1.1 million
Source: China Car Association, Xinhua, China Passenger Car Market Information Alliance, Inside EVs
B. Electric Vehicle Deployment Projections
Forecasts of EV deployment vary widely. Some recent examples include:
●● The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) forecasts that 11.6% of passenger cars worldwide will be EVs by 2040.11
●● The International Energy Agency’s 2017 World Energy Outlook projects 280 million EVs on the road by 2040, which would represent 14% of the global fleet of roughly 2 billion vehicles at that time.12 The IEA’s 2018 Global EV Outlook projects 125 million EVs on
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the road by 2030 under the IEA’s New Policies Scenario (representing 6% of the global light-duty vehicle stock).13
●● BP’s “Evolving Transition” scenario suggests that 15% of vehicles will be EVs by 2040, but 30% of vehicle miles traveled will be powered by electricity.14
●● Morgan Stanley forecasts that EVs will represent around 25% of global vehicle stock by 2040 and surpass 55% of vehicle stock by 2050.15
●● In its 2018 EV Outlook, Bloomberg New Energy Finance projects that 55% of new car sales and 33% of the world’s vehicle fleet will be EVs by 2040.16
●● A “fast adoption” scenario set forth in one International Monetary Fund working paper suggests 90% penetration by 2042.17
●● The analysts at RethinkX, a consulting firm working on disruptive technology, project that transport-as-a-service and autonomous vehicle technology will enable EVs to replace virtually all privately owned and commercial vehicles as early as 2030.18 In contrast, a 2016 Mckinsey study projects a 15% market share for autonomous vehicles and less than 10% for shared vehicles (autonomous or not).19
The wide range of forecasts reflects different assumptions concerning battery costs, public policies and the impacts of mobility-as-a-service and vehicle autonomy, among other factors.
EV deployment rates in China will be strongly affected by government targets. The Chinese government new energy vehicle targets currently include sales of 2 million per year by 2020 and 20% of total vehicle production and sales—or over 7 million vehicles annually—by 2025.20 According to a technology road map of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (MIIT), EVs could reach 40% of new vehicle sales in China by 2030.21 The projections in other studies vary:
●● A 2017 Tsinghua University study estimated EVs would account for 7% of vehicle sales in Beijing in 2030 without policy supports or technology breakthroughs and over 70% of sales and half the vehicle stock with aggressive policy support and technology progress.22
●● Bloomberg New Energy Finance forecasts EVs to reach 10% of Chinese new vehicle sales by 2025 and surpass 50% by 2035.23
●● The World Wildlife Fund expects China to reach over 90% of EV sales within 10–20 years.24
Forecasts of EV penetration in the US market vary:25
●● In the US Energy Information Administration’s 2018 “Reference Case,” EVs reach 7% of new vehicle sales in 2025 and 19% in 2050.26
●● The consultancy Energy Innovation estimates that EV sales will reach 10% of new US vehicle sales soon after 2025, 20% around 2030 and 65% by 2050.27
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●● Bloomberg New Energy Finance forecasts that EVs will reach 10% of new US vehicle sales by 2025 and 50% by 2035.28 C. Electric Vehicle Policies i. China
The Chinese government promotes electric vehicles with a variety of policies including subsidies, rebates, quotas for vehicle manufacturers and tax exemptions. Many provincial and local governments do the same. City policies favoring EVs in obtaining license plates have been especially important.
National subsidies have been a major incentive for consumers to purchase EVs. China’s central government began subsidizing EV purchases for government and public fleets in 2009 and individual car buyers in 2013. Subsidies in 2013 ranged from RMB 35,000 to RMB 60,000, depending on the vehicle’s electric range, and have been reduced regularly since.29 Subsidies were paid directly to manufacturers, based on vehicle registrations and sales. These subsidies attracted many companies into EV manufacturing, including some with no car manufacturing experience. Criticism of the subsidies, along with reports of fraud by companies receiving subsidies, prompted a policy redesign.30
In early 2018, the Chinese central government updated its EV subsidies, linking automaker fuel economy credits with new electric vehicle (NEV) production targets.31 Subsidies are now available for vehicles with range over 150 km on the test cycle used in China, which is based on the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC).32 An NEDC range of 400 km is needed to receive the highest subsidy.33 Requirements tied to battery performance were also made more stringent: batteries must have energy density over 105 Wh/kg to receive a subsidy and at least 140 Wh/kg to receive the full subsidy.34 Local governments are permitted to offer additional subsidies up to 50% of the level of national subsidies.35 Government officials have said EV subsidies should phase out by 2020.36
In addition to subsidies, China has promoted EVs with nonfinancial incentives, including exemption from city license plate lotteries or restrictions. This has been an especially important incentive since applicants often wait years to acquire a license plate for a conventional vehicle. (In Beijing in 2016, 2.7 million people registered for a license plate lottery with only 90,000 plates available for conventional vehicles. In 2018, the number of conventional vehicle license plates available fell to just 40,000.37 In Shanghai, EV plates are available for free, while regular plates cost over $12,000.38) Initially, license plates for EVs were available through a simple queue.39 Today, EV plates are distributed by lottery, with more plates available for EVs than conventional vehicles.
In addition, cars with EV plates may have privileges such as access to restricted traffic zones. Many large Chinese cities, including Beijing, restrict drivers of passenger cars from entering the city on certain days based on license plate number, while exempting EVs from such limits. A few cities in China use special parking access or discounts, lane access and congestion zone discounts to promote EVs.40
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In September 2017, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology finalized its new energy vehicle (NEV) quota, which requires all carmakers with over 30,000 annual vehicle sales in the country to produce 10% NEVs in 2019 and 12% in 2020. The policy also integrates NEV quotas with new corporate average fuel consumption (CAFC) requirements. A trading mechanism incorporates mandates for both NEV and CAFC attributes. An analysis by the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) suggests the credit trading mechanism will enable carmakers to meet the 2020 quota with about 4% NEVs.41
Fleet EVs remain a sizeable portion of China’s EV market. Cities including Taiyuan and Shenzhen continue to electrify taxi, bus, ride-hailing and bus fleets at a rapid pace. In May 2018, Shenzhen announced it would allow EVs only in taxi and ride-hailing fleets and require all commercial trucks to be EVs—along with installing over 5,000 dedicated taxi charging posts by 2020.42
Chinese policy makers have several motivations for pursuing policies related to electric vehicles, including promoting domestic manufacturing of batteries and vehicles, decreasing dependence on imported oil and reducing emissions:
●● In 2014, President Xi Jinping said that electric mobility is an emerging technology in which China has the ability to leapfrog other global automakers.43 Many of China’s EV policies benefit domestic manufacturers and promote use of Chinese-made batteries in vehicles while encouraging foreign carmakers to share technology with Chinese joint- venture partners.44
●● Reducing oil imports is a second important objective of Chinese EV policies. Since 2017, China has been the world’s largest oil importer.45 Oil accounts for over 10% of China’s import volume by value.46 Gasoline demand is rising quickly due to increased car ownership and driving.
●● Cutting emissions of urban air pollutants and greenhouse gases is another motive for pursuing EVs. Transportation sector emissions are a major contributor to ambient PM2.5 haze in major cities of China.47 Adopting EVs has significant potential to benefit urban air quality, even though much of China’s electricity presently comes from coal. Over the medium to long term, vehicle electrification will be essential to decarbonizing the transportation sector in China.48 ii. United States
The US federal government offers EV purchasers a tax credit of $2,500 to $7,500 per vehicle, depending on battery size. The tax credit is available for the first 200,000 vehicles sold by each manufacturer, after which it begins to phase out for that manufacturer.49 Federal fuel efficiency standards also provide incentives for manufacturers to sell electric vehicles.50
Many US states have tax credits or rebates for the purchase of EVs. Among the most generous are Colorado, California, Delaware and Massachusetts. Georgia, Illinois, Maryland, South Carolina and Tennessee have offered tax credits or rebates in the past but have now retired or scaled back those programs.51
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Many observers consider the multistate zero emissions vehicle (ZEV) program to be the most important EV policy in the United States.52 The program requires ZEVs to account for roughly 8% of vehicle sales in ZEV states by 2025. (The ZEV states are California, Connecticut, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Rhode Island and Vermont.) To date the mandate has mostly encouraged EV sales in California, which accounted for 50.7% of EV sales in the United States in 2016. This is due in part to a “travel provision” that allowed automakers to earn credit for vehicles sold in California in the other seven states with ZEV mandates. This travel provision is now being scaled back, and EV sales in other ZEV states may grow as a result.53
High occupancy vehicle (HOV) lane exemptions have been an important incentive for EV purchases in the United States. More than 10 states (including California, Colorado and New York) allow EVs access to HOV lanes.54
Federal and state government goals in promoting electric vehicles include reducing emissions, improving fuel economy and promoting US technology leadership.
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1. EV CHARGING TODAY
A. EV Charging in China
In January 2019, the Chinese Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Agency (EVCIPA) reported 808,000 EV chargers in China. Of these, roughly 330,000 were public chargers and 480,000 were home chargers. The number of chargers reported by EVCIPA grew 80% since January 2018.55
(Other data suggests the number of EV chargers in China could be even higher. According to EVCIPA as well as interviews conducted for this report, most EVs sold for personal use in China are accompanied by a home charging unit. Roughly 1.5-2 million EV’s have been sold in China for personal use. Although not all home charging units sold with EVs are installed, this suggests the number of home EV chargers could be higher than 480,000.)
China’s first-tier cities have taken the lead in EV charging infrastructure. This partly reflects the legacy of earlier central government policies, in particular the EV pilots that began in 2009 under the Ten Cities, Thousand Vehicles program. At the end of 2018, Beijing, Shanghai and Guangdong Province (home to Shenzhen and Guangzhou) accounted for just under 40% of charging posts nationwide.56
Nevertheless, EV charging infrastructure is growing rapidly throughout China. The majority of provinces added over 1,000 new charging posts in 2018. Several provinces grew the number of charging posts by over 100%. Most provinces in China now have more than 2,000 public charging posts.57
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According to industry experts interviewed for this study, most home EV charging in China takes place with chargers distributed by carmakers at the time of purchase and installed according to official procedures. Nevertheless, in some Chinese cities it is not unusual to see informal “fly-line” charging with extension cords passed through windows and doors to vehicles parked at the curb.58 Fly-line charging to the curb reflects a shortage of private parking and lack of access to charging even when private parking is available. Such practices, if left uncontrolled, could create distribution grid reliability issues, as many older Chinese urban neighborhoods have insufficient distribution capacity for heavy volumes of EV charging.59
FIgure 3: Photos of informal “fly line” charging in Beijing
Source: Anders Hove (left, March 2018) and Rob Earley (right, July 2017)
Highway corridors for EV charging have now been installed between Beijing and Shanghai as well as other major cities. Utilization of these facilities is heaviest on weekends and major public holidays. During February 2018, the amount of electricity consumed at State Grid chargers along highways more than doubled versus the prior month due to the annual Spring Festival holiday.60
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FIgure 4: China State Grid highway charging corridors as of early 2018
国家电网高速公路快充网络图（2018版）
四平 毛家店服务区 49.2km
昌图服务区 24 .2km
开原服务区 33.6km
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服务区 万庄 服务区 -丰 41.4km
36km 2 48.8km 山 m 0.3km 4 香河服务区宝坻服 玉田 唐 k 44 服务区 8 .6 km 服务区 k 31 秦皇岛 34.4km m 宝坻 32km 务区 68km 宝坻温泉 服务 34 G5 廊坊 停车区 唐山 .4k 涿州 涿州 服务区 m 服务区 63k 涞源北 涞水 服务区 徐官屯 宁河 服务区 昌黎 m 康庄服务区 服务区 28km
服务区 服务区 服务区 唐山-唐曹 服务区 服务区 2 36.8km .3km 唐海 50km 泗村店 1 小韩庄 区 55 乐亭 43km .6km 停车区 易县 67.7km 37.2km 曹 服务区 服务区 m -唐 45 七里海服务区 唐海 服务区 G15 km 0km 3 km k 5km 应县 3 7k 服务区 8 牛驼 9 24. 37km m m 53. 固安 . 36.9k 涞源东 6 37.3km 服务区 服务区 2 39km 33k服务区 服务区 定兴 m 霸州 淮淀 三十里堡服务区 .9km 后奕 31 30km 汉沽 浑源 定兴服务区 服务区 km 服务区 雄县 服务区 .8 唐曹 68.8km 崔庄 服务区 王庆坨 38 服务区 12k 服务区 灵丘服务区 康家庄服务区 服务区 西青 服务区 m 王庄堡 m 15.6km 服务区 30.3km k m 服务区 芦北口 九里服务区
108.9km 24. 满城 31 51k 服务区 2km 30.6km 60km 服务区 坨 m -王庆 k 服务区 服务区 42km 口 16 阜平服务区 芦北 m 桑岗服务区 雄县 44.1k 阜平西 徐水西 38.1km 保定 顺平 km 大营服务区 服务区 22.5km 33km 31 服务区 徐水服务区 服务区 静海 服务区 保定 18.6km 服务区 28.6km 曲阳 30 22. G18 km 服务区 . 文安 8 天津南 服务区 唐县 28 1km km 任丘 服务区 原平服务区 荣乌高速 服务区 47 服务区 大港 天津 大连 km 服务区 57km 27. km 29km km 1km 唐官屯 服务区 曲阳 27 37 服务区 望都 保定 西演 服务区 高阳服务区 5.5km 服务区 服务区 58.6km 行唐 m 服务区 15k 21km 55 青县 服务区 .1k m 木门店 服务区 定州 38.8km 肃宁服务区 服务区 44km 灵寿 m 渤海新区 24k 服务区 11 54.1km 沧州 48km 服务区 大盂服务区 岗南 平山 服务区 35km 河间 3.9km 31.7km G45 服务区 服务区 服务区 鹿泉 正定 服务区
33km 服务区 服务区 藁城北 饶阳服务区 井陉北 13.3km m .6k 服务区 m 服务区 29 30km 46k 41km 黄骅 海兴 46.4km m 太原 k 深州服务区 献县 沧州 服务区
9
. 服务区 -太原 km 12.3 北 78.5 石家庄 7 64km 服务区 km G5 3 2 石家庄 深州-辛集 服务区 孟村 盂县服务区 武强-深州 41.1km 2 17k
服务区 78.6km 63.5km 39.2km m . 阳曲服务区 5 藁城 武强 服务区 36km 太原服务区 44.6km k G2 井陉 m 西兆通服务区 服务区 52.8km 服务区 东光 沧州 .1km 43.6km 服务区 无棣服务区 48 石家庄南 武强-衡水 服务区 68.8km 28.9km 辛集 太原北服务区 G4 衡水-辛集 39.5km km 服务区 服务区 70.7km 65.1km 太原 90 41.8km 衡水 服务区 吴桥 38.9km 阳信-无棣 利津服务区 晋中 元氏 宁晋 45.8km G25 清徐 阳泉 衡水 服务区 G3 服务区 服务区 服务区 52km 王潼-衡水湖 84km 26km 78.2km 蓬莱服务区 服务区 晋中-太原北 服务区 乐陵服务区
49 33.9m 53km 蓬莱-福山 吕梁 .1 15km km 赵 王潼 72km 40.1km 58km 51km 32km 县 服 南 服务区 阳信服务区 72km 吴城 杏花 柏乡 服 务 宫 衡水湖 德州东服务区 60km 滨州服务区 务 冀州 德州东-德州 阳信-滨州 G18 福山服务区 烟台 服务区 服务区 区 27km 服务区 38.9km 太原北-太谷 太谷服务区 服务区 G20 服务区 27.9km 50km 73.5km 区 南江 招远服务区 巨鹿 德州 50km 66.6km 服务区 栖霞 乳山- 43km 福山 蓬莱-乳山 m 29.4km 服务区 84.7km 66.4km 京港澳高速 32.9km 服务区 东营服务区 101.8km 67km 服务区 邢台 29.3k 26km 53km 服 清 夏 21.4km 3 km 尹支江 服务区 济阳 8 57
务 河 k 48km 威 津 平遥服务区 服务区 m 县北 区 服务区 m 莱州服务区 榆社服务区 50k 服务 服 平原服务区 高青服务区 务区 区 务 邹 68km 乳山服 龙泉寺邢台 1 寿光服务区 文登-乳山 G5 清家沟 m 南和 区 禹城 平 威县 0.9km G2 高青-淄博 淄 青 93.9km
58km k 服务区 41.5km 夏津-高唐 39.4km 乳山 服务区 9 服务区 服务区 服务区 服 博
. 州 海阳- 44km 30.6 43km km （京沪） 6km 1 济南 务 服 64. 禹城 高青-邹平 服 3 - 26km km 度-莱西 45km 45.9km 区 48km 务 务 平 23.8km 40k G18 125 41.5km 服务区 邢台西 区 平度 文登 文登 25.5km m 天桥服务区 济南-天桥 区 -海阳 威县南 青州-潍坊 务区 96km 灵石服务区 服务区沙河 70.2km 27.8km 服 26km 高唐服务区 29.3km 41.4km 61.8km 莱西 服务区 m 潍坊-平度 服务区 (京台)-天桥 济南-邹平 36.5km 临西 济南 67.4k 81.2km 服务区 武乡服务区 59.2km 66.9km 57.5km 46km 邱县 服务区 济阳南-章丘 6 海阳服务区 服务区 3.7km 青州 更乐服务区 邯郸服务区 聊城服务区 济南 69km 高密-平度 G15 47km 8.2km 216km 39.3km 肥乡服务区 53.8 41km 服务区 潍坊 6 25km 馆陶服务区 服务区 km 章丘 111km 高 东阳关服务区 长清-济南(京台) 服务区 服务区 密 39km 36.1km 济南 -胶 霍州服务区 0.7km 34.9km -天桥 40. 州 8 .9km 章丘 2 3km 襄垣服务区 G22 56 服务区 58km 7.9km 邯郸 G45 服 高 72km 即墨服务区 29.4km 武安服务区 28.5km 临朐服务区 G20 23.1km 服务区 务 密 30km 漳河服务区 长清 即墨-胶州 21.5km 35.4km 区 51 59.8km 冠县服务区 .1km 54km 磁县 服务区 济南 雪野湖 胶州 19.5k 临朐-沂源 54km 京昆高速 m 服务区 G3 临朐-沂水 服务区 服务区 6.1km 长治服务区 大名服务区 东昌府 泰安 11 47.1km 服务区 服务区 G2 青银高速 豫冀界服务区 .5km 诸城西 诸城西-胶州
39.6k 17 沂源服务区 沂水 m m 60km 103km
-宁阳 k 泰山 莱芜 服务区 40.7km 服务区 1 70km 52.5km 青岛 24.3km 5 临汾服务区 G35 服务区 G25 37 5 51km km 7km G22 二广高速 濮阳服务区 东平 莱芜服务区 诸城西-胶南 50km 安阳服务区 98.6km G55 服务区 泰安 60km 沂水北-沂源 沂水北-沂水 102km 安阳 汶上-东平 40.5km 宁阳 新泰-莱芜(滨莱) 66.6km 16.7km 63km 胶南服务区 临汾 43.4km 服务区 青兰高速 46km 沂水北 高平服务区 34.7km 43km 濮阳南服务区 服务区 m 梁山服务区 46km G2 52k 襄汾服务区 56.6km 新泰服务区 80km 39km G4 济宁 服务区 曲阜服务区 沂南服务区 鹤壁服务区 滑县服务区 59km 韩城服务区 河津服务区 42.4km 56km 54km 日照服务区 晋城服务区 泗 水-曲阜 沂南服务区 阜 33.4km 菏泽服务区 宁-曲 32.8km 7 80km 济宁-鱼台 济 2km .5km 泗水 49km 99.7km 28
封丘服务区 55km 巨野 服务区 7 泗 8 水-邹城 费县服务区 m 邹城-济宁 k 服务区 60.7k 费县-沂南 G2 5k .9km m m .2km 新乡服务区 km 56 21.1km 95. 57.9km 34.5km 25 大广高速 45 鱼台服务区 1 曹州服务区 邹城 费县-临沂 44.8km 服务区 29.5km 莒县-临沭 菏泽 44.2km 临沂 58.5km 兰陵-临沂 20.9km 60km
澄城服务区 原阳 2 G3 51.4km
4 朱砂服务区
服务区 . 8 滕州 兰陵服务区 沙河-赣马
郑州北-原阳 k 临沭 51.7km 22.4km m 开封 45.3km 服务区 临沂 赣马 75.5km 47.7km 京台高速 28.3km 富平服务区 开封-原阳 曹县服务区 服务区 永济服务区 64.7km 服务区 庄 服务区 巩义服务区 6 服务区
m 8
峄城-枣43k . 三门峡服务区 渑池西停车区 洛阳服务区 63km 35km 1 30.5km
60k k 兰陵-郯城 沙河 m 沙河- 枣庄 m 41km 郑州北 开封-郑州东 90.9km 48.1km 峄城服务区 22. 浦南 服务区 服务区 49.7km 4km 51km 62km 服务区 G30 沙河-锦屏山 连云港 灵宝服务区 郑州东 浦南 43.7km 77.9km 48km 渑池服务区 郑州北-郑州东 38.8km 汉城服务区 29.6km 服务区 扶沟 40km 郯城服务区 东海 服务区 28km 民权 G30 130km 郑州 服务区 G35 服务区 锦屏山-浦南 渭南西服务区 服务区 砀山服务区 38.5km 20.6km 锦屏山 锦屏山-灌云 132km G3 42.7km 连霍高速 80.5km 60km 洛阳 53.9km 服务区 宝鸡 43km 34.4km 青山泉 华山服务区 宁陵服务区 G2 38.9km 新郑服务区 徐州 服务区 54.2km 西安 议堂 新沂 灌云服务区 灞桥服务区 11.7km 青山泉-古黄河 64.3km 72km 武功服务区 汝阳服务区 汝州服务区 98.2km 71.1km 18.3km 刘集服务区 54 34.9km 服务区 服务区 32km G30 116km .9km 商丘服务区 56km 27.2km 32.6 43km 洩湖服务区 港头 km 宝鸡西服务区 商州服务区 刘集-古黄河 邵楼-青山泉 127.3km 56.3km 57.8km 53.3km 39.6km 响水服务区 眉县服务区 华胥服务区 服务区 沭阳 7.1km 朱雀服务区 G30 邵楼服务区 5.6km 107.6km 92.6km 服务区 夏邑服务区 126.4km 邵楼-古黄河 38.3km 金丝峡服务区 26.9km 44.3km 丹凤服务区 45.6km 许昌服务区 61.8km 秦岭服务区 G35 古黄河 37.1km 重阳服务区 许昌 48. 高作 庄里 7km 服务区 服务区 蒋庵 68.9km 服务区 服务区 滨海服务区 山阳服务区 35.5km 辛集服务区 川星 小栗园服务区 高作-重岗山 46.6km 56.1km 油坊坪服务区 23 68.9km 镇平服务区 濉溪 30.7km .1km 56.1km 服务区 8.3km 53.4km 西峡服务区 漯河服务区 服务区 宿州 成子湖 王兴-川星 平顶山服务区 71.5km 周口服务区 80.9km 118.2km 65.6km 王兴 90.7km 成子湖 46.5km G36 52.2k -重岗山 双河服务区 1 服务区 60.4km 2km m 08.5km 服务区
112. 52.1 石弓服务区 33.4km 73.7km 46.6km 王兴-六洞 38.4km 宿州 G25 射阳服务区 km 48.33km 52.8km 重岗山 服务区 兴-成子湖 宁陕服务区 符离 王 车桥服务区 黑虎崖服务区 天竺山服务区 沈丘服务区 44.7km 虞姬 服务区 56km 52.7km
3 服务区 服务区 2 王兴-古盐河 项城 . 29.6km 41.3km 3 65km 84.9km 石龙湖 86.8km 南阳东服务区 31.1km 服务区 马集服务区 k 37.6km 服务区 m 洪泽湖 古盐河 -吕望 37.9km 明 m 40.7km 驻马店服务区 71.7km 伍 .2k 24.6km 服务区 服务区 九龙口 唐河服务区 28km 70 宁洛高速 68.3km 六洞 洋县服务区 服务区 郭猛 泌阳服务区 68.7km 明祖陵 服务区 汉汇服务区 君王 18.5km 洪泽湖 服务区 40.6km 7.4km 王 6 7 服务区 65km 大丰服务区 2 新蔡 服务区 49km 三角元服务区 大溪河-君 服务区 3 . 89.2km 1.5km 6 伍明服务区 吕望 八仙台 范水 k 服务区 角元 桥头 m 39.2km 服务区 服务区 服务区 59.9km 宁强 32.8km 伍明-三 服务区 37.6km 36.8km 74km 40.3km 阜阳 66km 服务区 四方湖 46.1km 56.8km 汉中服务区 郧西服务区 毛集服务区 服务区 京沪高速 58.5km 173.4km 40.2km 盱眙 官塘-君王 43 八仙台- 75.2km .6km 勉县 确山服务区 72.4km 44.6km 盱眙 大溪河 龙奔 服务区 服务区 G15 息县 临泉 24.7km 服务区 服务区 43.4km 红星 官塘 16.7km 阜南 釜山服务区 龙奔-郭村 东台服务区 服务区 服务区 5km 白米 93.3km 服务区 服务区 林东半岛 龙奔-双沟 63. m 79.1km
9 服务区 30.6km G3 17.2km 46.7k 服务区 104.1km 蚌埠 白米店-东台 3 9km 郧县服务区 59.8km 颍上 服务区 嘉山 22. 62.4km . 双沟 七盘关 8 焦岗湖 45.7km k 服务区 72.6km 禹会 服务区 双沟-仪征 服务区 m 罗山服务区 55.5km 69.7km 服务区 服务区 八公山 58.9km 郭村 服务区 54.9km 白米店-如皋 服务区 45km 南京 服务区 60.7km 76.4km 光山服务区 曹庄服务区 G36 龙池 槐店 63.4km 服务区 G35 G2 如皋 服务区 龙门寺 19.1km 第四大桥 57.7km 51.6km 服务区 53.3km 商城服务区 服务区 吴圩 63km 30km 仪征 汤泉 老山 服务区 39.8km
泼河 服务区 服务区 杰海 服务区 48.8km 剑门关 19.2km 西 大 服 吴庄 服务区 81km 35.7km 25.4km 服务区 钟岗服务区 服务区 河口服务区 服务区 窦 G40 先锋 服务区 信阳 73.8km 桥 新 服 墅 务 服 小黄山 文 服 广陵 45km 服 桥 务 区 33.3km庄 务 服务区
32.1km 35.9km 服务区 43.2km 集 务 18.5km m 区 服务区江阴大 务 区 3k 15.4km 麒麟-先锋 19. 荣炳 4.9km 54.1km 43.8km 区 38km 黄 服 仙 服 3 麒麟服务区 区 7.2km 桥服务区 3 三桥 18km 苏通大桥 襄阳 枣阳服务区 灵山服务区 众兴服务区 香泉 49.5km 栗 务 人 务 服务区 芳 服 沪陕高速 茂 服务区 50.2km 崇启大桥服务区 85.5km 服务区 墅 区 山 区 37. 41. 务 麒 G42 2km 2km 34.1km 麟-苏 服务区 山 通大桥 110.9km 区 新桥服务区 39.2km 52.7km 方山 淹城 清溪 清修 26km 40.6km 随州服务区 古 徐集 45.2km 36.5km 泗店 28km 罗 服务区 服务区 服务区 石牌 碑 服务区 肥东 服务区 47.4km 堰桥 新安服务区 G70 服务区 长 服 梅 集 六安 m 服务区 港沿服务区 福银高速 山 服务区 42.4km 4 茅山 40.6k 服务区 沙溪 1.2km
47.8km 服 服 合肥 江宁 芙蓉 19.5km 64.4km 岭 务 42km 区 宛山荡 G42 务 务 94.6km 服务区 滆湖 服务 服务区 关 区 区 霍山 服务区 服务区 沪陕高速 安县-八角元 服务区 木 服 区 服务区 太白 - 长荡湖 阳澄西湖 56.6km 46.6km 服务区 45.8km 阳澄北湖 朱桥 子 务 岛 东庐山 服务区 27.6km 30km 福山 太白 44.6km 梅村 服务区 店 区 新芜 服务区 服务区 长兴岛 安县服务区 中 服务区 60km 服务区 高塍
馆 罗铺 服 服务区 42.4km 服务区 港沿服务区 安陆服务区 70.2km 新芜 47.4km 服务区 42.9km 务 33.8km 90.2km 驿 服务区 服务区 区 沙溪 54.2km 天目湖 宜兴太湖 阳澄湖 58.2km 59.4km 服 沈海线 服务区 上海 103.6km 46.1km 务 10.8km 服务区 千军 新竹 服务区 服务区 嘉定安 59.8km 淀山湖 区 41.5km 58.4km 服务区 服务区 9km 白洋湖 亭出口 105km 夷陵雾渡河 长兴太湖 白洋湖-平望服务区 服务区 25.7km 练塘 兴山 服务区 G35 陈埠 顺安 服务区 八角服务区 64km 巴东 孝感 平望 服务区 30km 35km 沪蓉高速 岳西 服务区 36.6km 44.7km 32.9km 服务区 服务区 67.3km 服务区 48.3km 服务区 奉节 57km 孝感 新洲 香铺 周潭服务区 服务区 沪蓉高速 天门北 服务区 104.8km 嘉善 朱桥服务区 43.9km G42 云阳 服务区 服务区 51.9km 服务区 G50 G50 42.4km 服务区 43.9km 临港 钟祥 服务区 62km 5 40km 服务区 长兴 湖州服务区5 枫泾服务区 长兴岛
服务区 当阳白河 . 3
万州 69.5km 服务区 112.6km 服务区 34.1km 130km 服务区 k 61.2km 平湖 服务区 城北服务区 55.3km 84.9km m 67km 梁平服务区 服务区 服务区 54km 天门 31km 广德服务区 新塍 施岗 ⑤ 寒亭服务区 安吉 湖州 服务区 永兴-淮口 淮口服务区 76km 服务区 服务区 80km 60km 服务区 大龙山 服务区 （经绕城高速） G42 汉川 50.9km 华容 嘉兴 18.7km 潜山 服务区 69.1km 嘉兴 南湖 京沪线 南充服务区 服务区 东西湖 32.1km 葛店 服务区 青山服务区 23.7km 80km 81.4km 服务区 九华山服务区 宁国 服务区 常台高速
服务区 5 新津服务区 岳池服务区 枝江服务区 服务区 浠水 31.6km 67km G50 服务区 5 53.5km 马衙 128.2km m 北岸服务区 遂宁服务区 服务区 .
长安 7 57.7km 27.8km 广安 G50 野三关 服务区 服务区 k 武汉 6 30km 26.2k海宁 合庆 3km 15. 2km 牛头山
73km 高家堰 178.5km 蔡甸 服务区 m 成都 119km 服务区 18.7km 永兴服务区 径山 服务区 34.1km 嘉定安亭出口 43. 上海 服务区 33.6km 服务区 41km 服务区 27km 新立 忠州 服务区 97.2km 雷埠 41km 遂宁 45km 服务区 25.8km 8km 浦江服务区 荆坪服务区 服务区 服务区 G50 江夏-蔡甸 黄龙 杭州湾环线 安庆 65.8km 49.9km 鄂州 沪渝高速 嘉绍大桥 南岸服务区 服务区 服务区 120km 74.3km 38.7km 110.2km 江夏 大冶服务区 G50 升金湖 30km 淀山湖服务区 白羊塘 服务区 42.2km 服务区 沪渝高速 金沙 杭瑞高速 绍兴 G15 成自泸高速 潼南 服务区 6 服务区 华阳-金沙 51.1km 28.6km 服务区 仙桃 9.7km 17.8km 62.7km 航头-颛桥 文宫服务区 57.7km G50 G4 33.6km 服务区 23.8km
服务区 垫江 蔡甸-咸宁 40.6km 60.4km 65km 服务区 服务区 黄梅 太平湖服务区 43.2km 余姚 慈城 航头服务区 古路服务区 沪渝高速 71.4km 蕲春二里湖 黄梅界子墩 金塘 上海绕城高速 服务区 恩施 黄石 44.5km 临安 萧山 65km 服务区 服务区 服务区 服务区 小昆山 服务区 服务区 花园 龙岗 杭州 G92 服务区 58.4km 41.9km 华阳服务区 服务区 服务区 服务区 小昆山-朱桥 47.3km 120km 咸宁 68.9km 43.2km 46km 55.2km 30km 服务区 服务区 绍兴- 60.7km 铜梁 25km 26km 香隅服务区 48 余 52.1km 服务区 30.6km .3km 姚 ① ③ 服务区 复兴 复盛 晏家 三店 三溪服务区 华阳-呈坎 50 G3 66.5km 桐庐服务区 申嘉湖高速 ④ 雅安 km 黄梅小池 柴桥 服务区 服务区 服务区 服务区 呈坎服务区 光明-庄行 小昆山-叶榭 服务区 62km 37.2km 宁波服务区 服务区 15.3km 大路 56.6km 嵊州 36.2km 汪洋服务区 鉴湖服务区 60.8km 练塘服务区 ② 叶榭服务区 服务区 49.5km 黄山 G25 诸暨 服务区(常台) 60km -鉴湖 ⑥
龙兴 燕厦服务区 鄱阳服务区 服务区 诸暨 ⑤ 荥经服务区 48km 景德镇服务区 涪陵西服务区 九江 建德服务区 47km 奉化服务区 42.5km 19.3km 临港服务区 47km 服务区 赤壁 34.3km 宁波 羊楼司服务区 54.8km 光明-合庆 临港-光明 渝昆高速 36km 65km 66.5km 诸暨 光明服务区 石棉-文宫 m 63k 30.7km 服务区 涌泉服务区 85.2km 庄行服务区 53.4km 29.2km
43.4km 东阳(甬金) 服务区 象山 62.2km 休宁服务区 -诸暨45km 枫泾服务区 261.8km 临湘服务区 服务区 沪浙(金山) 威远服务区 西海服务区 石钟山服务区 东阳服务区 嵊州服务区 -光明 59km 迎龙 武隆服务区 90km 金华 57.9km 46.4km 沪芦高速 55km 30km 济广高速 (甬金) 乐山 服务区 25km 嵊州(常台) (甬金) 33.9km 20.3km 庐山服务区 月亮湖 服务区 -天台98.7km G65 61.7km 诸暨- 宁海服务区 沪浙(金山 85.5km (诸永) )-庄行 曾家 重庆 服务区 金华-武艺 东阳 35km 婺源服务区 m km 沪浙(金山)服务区 桃林服务区 湾里-庐山 61.8km 47k 东阳(甬金)-20 沪昆高速 服务区 42.7km 70km G70 龙游服务区 金华 天台1 62km 开化 天台-宁海 富顺服务区 94km 龙游-兰溪 -兰溪 天台 标注： ① 练塘服务区至小昆山服务区距离30.1km 47km 33.4km 76.4km 衢州-龙游 金华 金华-东阳 东阳服务区 68.6km 47km 服务区 21 43.7km 43.2km 52.6km 金) 修水服务区 80km .5km (甬 服务区 水江服务区 ) (诸永) 嵊州 东阳(甬金 94km 大观服务区 开化-常山 -天台77.7km ② 练塘服务区至庄行服务区服务区距离45.8km 46.2km 55.9km -兰溪93.1km 珞璜 巴陵服务区 76km 89.5km 方岩服务区 天台-台州 包茂高速 磐安 36 兰溪 .9km 服务区 万年 方岩-永康 莘奉金高速 常德 服务区 34km 服务区 ③ 叶榭服务区至航头服务区距离29.5km 湾里- 65km 溪 七里 服务区 常山 衢州 灵溪-兰 奉新 岗 武艺 泸州 54.3km 兰溪- m 31k 武义 k 台州服务区 唐河服务区 m 服务区 服务区 衢州 67.6km 磐安-临海.1 ④ 叶榭服务区至沪浙(金山)服务区距离42.2km 何市服务区 服务区 江山-常山 -灵溪 磐安-神仙居 75 47.6 km 临海-台州 km 七里岗服务区 42.3km 22.3k 灵溪 服务区 35.5
m 临海 3 46.6 2.5km 航头服务区至沪浙(金山)服务区距离62.3km 泉岭-七里岗 77km 40km 江山 服务区
南昌 军山湖服务区 服务区 k 服务区 7 航头服务区至庄行服务区距离39.3km m 永康 46km 84.4km 神仙居 1 平江服务区 . 湾里 沪昆高速 42.5km 94.4km服务区 仙居 3 服务区 k 台州 ⑤ 叶榭服务区至庄行服务区距离33km
服务区 m 宜丰服务区 余江 丽水 服务区 47km 服务区 三清山服务区 仙霞 ⑥ 叶榭服务区至光明服务区距离37.2km 湾里-东乡 服务区 102.1km 上饶服务区 服务区 石棉服务区 55.5km 50km 丽水 丰城-湾里 神仙居-温州 航头服务区至光明服务区距离41.2km m 神仙居-清江 临海-清江km 60km 101km 85.5 60k 45.7km 松阳 青田-丽水7km 110km 34. 丰城服务区 98km G60 62km 服务区 长沙服务区 50km 54km 35.4km 81.6km 长沙 G3 龙虎山服务区 0.8km 清江服务区 青田-云和 温州 临川 10 34.3km 上高服务区 东乡服务区 青田 44.8km 服务区 铅山高速 忠信 云和 47km 桥头-温州 65.9km 服务区 桥头 m 44.9km G25 服务区 服务区 36k 63.9km 昭山服务区 -临川 金溪 服务区 新余 樟树服务区 南城 50.3km 宜春 60km 服务区 32.9km 龙泉 跳马 56km 服务区 南城 42.7km 温州服务区 22.2km 服务区 G60 头-苍南 服务区 桥 温州服务区 服务区 服务区 104km 峡江-樟树 洋庄 62.2km 58km 峡江-新余 62.2km 服务区 大湖岭 沪昆高速 63km 60km 湘潭 60km 36.5km 服务区 庆元 醴陵服务区 宜春-吉安 68km 长深高速 85.8km 服务区 56.5km 137 云灵山 服务区 km 仙店 苍南服务区 64.8km 服务区 大庄 萍乡服务区 仙女湖 大白-仙店 服务区 42.7km 服务区 G4 35.6 km 8km 水府庙 服务区 峡江服务区 南台72. 怀化 云灵山-大白 47.7km 云灵山-大埠岗 黎川服务区 66.3km 服务区 服务区 61km 32.2km 68.2km 湛卢 新晃服务区 朱亭服务区 54.5km 130km 服务区 G15 36.6km 66km 大埠岗 60.5km 56km 45k 仁山 芷江服务区 大埠-朱阳 服务区 大白 m 佛子山 洞宫山 108.6km 73km 27.2km 53km 服务区 福鼎 安江服务区 服务区 服务区 服务区 朱洋服务区 服务区 小桥 G70 大埠-大白 丰乐 北苑- 32.7km 88.4km 银湾桥服务区 70.9km 服务区 26.4km 宝庆服务区 61.5km 泰宁 大埠-泰宁 沈海高速 雁城服务区 27.2km 丰乐-小桥 东狮山服务区 38km 吉安服务区 服务区 39.5km 北苑 97.9km 32km 虎屿岛
5 小桥服务区 服务区 46.5km 5 南丰 43km 服务区 . 安窠服务区 23.6km
1 24.6km
衡阳 k 服务区 68.9km 洞口服务区 m 秦和东服务区 闽江源服务区 建州 93.9km 60.6km 将乐 新村 福安 服务区 36.9km 61km 服务区 高桥-沙县 52km服务区 49.8km 云淡 服务区 38km 74km 39km 53km 服务区 25.4km 50km （五华山）菌都服务区 耒阳服务区 高桥 94.4km 47.7km 广昌 泉南高速 服务区 塔前服务区 洋里 透堡 服务区 27.2km 服务区 永州 41km 服务区 沙县 25km 遂川服务区 52km 停车区 32km 关东 垄东 垄东-沙县 27.6km 连江 G72 40km 44km 30.8km 服务区 服务区 停车区 22.5km 31km 70km 洋中 横市服务区 翠城 贡川 官洋 服务区 白樟 53.8km 宁都东 服务区 温郊 服务区 服务区 31.3km 105. 服务区 服务区 服务区 54km 竹岐 3km 南康服务区 西洋 服务区 瑞金 上街 青口 110km 服务区 服务区福州 36km 服务区 郴州 长汀 37km 青云山 47.1km 55.2km 八一 服务区 54.5km 服务区 大往 49km 服务区 吉州 大 白沙服务区 服务区 福银高速 上京 济-菜溪 菜溪 G76 服务区 28.9km 24.3km 苏仙服务区 冠豸山 服务区 服务区 厦蓉高速 和睦 40.7km 服务区 42.6km 80km 29.3km 大济 赤港 三山 服务区 G72 31.4km G25 岵山 服务区 服务区 赤岗-大往 服务区 宜章服务区 信丰服务区 会昌南 槐植 63.5km 26km 20km 服务区 45km 善乡 新泉 52km 59km 服务区
130km 服务区 南阳 服务区 28.3km 36.1km 东进 服务区 服务区 67km 和平 52.8km 服务区
华丰-槐植 罗东 古田 96. 达埔 43km 55km 服务区 27km 5km 服务区 服务区
28km 服务区 东进-善乡 湖洋 49.7km 10.7km 七峰山 华丰-和平 龙桥服务区 省新 30km 24.3km 驿坂 寻乌服务区 29km 服务区 服务区 服务区 服务区 华丰服务区 68.
适中 华丰-兴泰 1km 2km 龙南 十方 66.4km 42. 洛阳江 服务区 龙南服务区 服务区 坎市 服务区 17km 龙岩 服务区 183.8km 榕桥 30.1km 长深高速 33km 服务区 G15 华丰-天宝 62.2km 27
m 36.4km .4km 泉州 k 上田服务区 3 金山 33.3km 兴泰 4 天宝服务区 朴里 服务区 服务区 服务区 下洋 龙掘东 天宝-花都 服务区 服务区 39.1km 30.8km 海门岛-朝阳 东孚 漳州 朝阳 60.2km 服务区 小溪服务区 花都 服务区 服务区 33.6km 海门岛-花都 海门岛 49.7km 服务区 海门岛-白水 厦门 60.2km 白水 服务区 57.9km 29.3km 天福 官陂服务区 35.6km 服务区 31.2km 沙西 66km 服务区 常山 服务区 溪南服务区
Source: State Grid Corporation of China 2018; colors indicate east-west, north-south, and urban cluster routes
FIgure 5: Number of China public and dedicated fleet EV charging posts, in thousands
Source: China EV Charging Alliance, January 2019
18 | CENTER ON GLOBAL ENERGY POLICY | COLUMBIA SIPA ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES
FIgure 6: Number of China public and dedicated fleet EV charging posts by province
Source: China EV Charging Alliance, January 2019
B. EV Charging in the United States
We estimate there are at least a half million electric vehicle chargers in the United States today.
●● The overwhelming majority of these are home chargers. Exact figures with respect to the numbers of home chargers are not available, however if just under two-thirds of electric vehicle owners in the United States have installed home chargers, as suggested by one survey,61 there would be more than a half million residential charging posts in the United States. (Survey data suggest that more than 80% of EV charging in the United States takes place at home.62)
●● In addition, as of January 2019, the United States had over 67,000 nonresidential EV charging posts located at approximately 24,000 charging stations, according to US Department of Energy data. (In 2018 the number of non-residential stations increased by 33%, according to DOE data.63 Workplace charging is growing in the United States.64)
ENERGYPOLICY.COLUMBIA.EDU | FEBRUARY 2019 | 19 ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES
As of January 2019, California had 5,600 nonresidential EV charging stations (24% of the national total), hosting over 21,000 charging posts (32% of the national total). Only three other states—Texas, Florida and New York—had over 1,000 charging stations, according to the DOE. The average among all 50 US states was around 450 stations and around 1,300 charging posts.65
Of the approximately 22,000 charging stations in DOE’s database in January 2019, 11% offered some form of DC fast-charging. 91% of stations offered Level 2 charging, and 6% offered Level 1 charging. Most stations have more than one charge point. Approximately half of stations with DC fast charging also have a Level 2 charger available.
FIgure 7: U.S. electric vehicle charging stations (light blue) and EV signage corridors (green, orange pending)
Source: Federal Highway Administration, 2019
FIgure 8: Number of charging posts at non-residential charging stations, United States 2011-2018
Source: Alternative Fuels Data Center, US Department of Energy, January 2019
20 | CENTER ON GLOBAL ENERGY POLICY | COLUMBIA SIPA ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES
C. Role of Charging Infrastructure in EV Purchase Decisions
In both China and the United States, most EV charging takes place at home or work.66 Nevertheless, EV drivers and potential EV drivers express strong interest in the availability of public charging infrastructure. Some studies suggest a “chicken and egg” problem, in which more public EV charging infrastructure is required for growth in EV sales and more EV sales are required for growth in public EV charging infrastructure.67
Availability of public EV charging infrastructure is an especially important consideration for many potential Chinese EV purchasers for several reasons. First, many Chinese households lack access to a dedicated parking spot near home. Some Beijing-area EV dealers responsible for installing home EV chargers report that as few as 40% of households have such access.68 Second, for drivers with such a dedicated parking spot, installing home chargers may take as long as eight months and require visits and paperwork submissions to the grid company, district management department and the civil preparedness bureau.69
Studies suggest the availability of public EV charging is an important factor in decisions on EV purchases in the United States as well.70 A 2017 online survey of U.S. EV owners found that public charging and access to fast charging were viewed as top criteria when buying an EV. 71 A 2016 survey of potential EV buyers found that “lack of charging facilities in my area” was the third-ranked reason for not purchasing an EV and “lack of quick charging stations” the fourth. Eight of the top 30 reasons cited for not purchasing an EV related to public charging.72 A 2015 study by the US National Academies of Science found that charging infrastructure was critical to EV adoption, with home charging as most important, followed by workplace charging and then by public charging within urban areas, and lastly by fast- charging along major highways. Citing data from Japan, the study noted that availability of public charging doesn’t necessarily result in more charging at public locations but can result in greater EV adoption.73
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D. Comparison—China and the United States
In both China and the United States, EV charging infrastructure is growing at double-digit rates. The percentage of EV charging stations with DC fast-charging is higher in China than the United States. In both China and the United States, charging infrastructure is concentrated in cities and states with favorable policies and high rates of EV adoption.
Table 2: Comparison of China and U.S. EV charging infrastructure
Period China U.S. Number of public or fleet charging points 2018 year-end 330,000 67,500 2017 year-end 210,000 50,600 Annual growth rate of public + fleet charging points 2017 to 2018 43% 33% Number of charging stations 2018 year-end 70,000 (est.) 24,000 2017 year-end 50,000 (est.) 20,000 % DC fast charging 2018 year-end 36% 14% 2017 year-end 24% 11%
Source: China EV Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance, U.S. Department of Energy
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2. EV CHARGING PROJECTIONS
Future demand for EV charging infrastructure will depend on a number of factors. Many of these are highly uncertain:
●● One important factor is the number of electric vehicles sold, yet projections for EV sales vary widely (as discussed in the Background section above).
●● Driving patterns are another important factor, yet mobility-as-a-service and autonomous vehicle technology could change driving patterns in the decades ahead in significant and potentially unpredictable ways. Drivers may be less prone to own vehicles, for example, and vehicles’ average time on the road each day may increase.
●● A third factor is the progress of technologies such as wireless charging and EV battery swapping (discussed in Sections 4E and 4F below). At present wireless charging has little or no commercial presence in China or the United States. Battery swapping is used in some Chinese taxi fleets but has little or no presence in the United States.74 If either technology becomes more common, that would affect the development of EV charging infrastructure.
●● A final factor is government policies supporting EV charging.
In China, the growth of EV charging infrastructure will be largely determined by government targets. NDRC’s Guidelines for Developing Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure (2015– 2020), issued in October 2015, calls for at least 120,000 EV charging stations and 4.8 million
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EV charging posts by 2020.75 The government has also announced dedicated funding for this infrastructure.76 This suggests a very rapid scale-up of EV charging infrastructure in China in the next several years.
In the United States, the growth of EV charging infrastructure will be determined by a more complicated combination of factors. Studies have produced a range of estimates:
●● A 2017 study by the US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) forecasts demand for 8,500 DC fast-charging stations and approximately 600,000 nonresidential Level 2 chargers in the United States in 2030, based on an assumption of 15 million plug-in EVs on US roads. (NREL also found that that approximately 400 DC fast- charging stations spaced 70 miles apart on average across the US interstate highway system could provide convenient access for all-electric vehicles along major corridors.) Parameters including average electric range of EVs and the share of charging taking place at home had large effects on the demand for public EV infrastructure.77
●● Another 2017 National Renewable Energy Laboratory study estimated that 37,000– 45,000 workplace chargers and 5,000–44,000 public chargers would be needed to support 400,000 EVs in Massachusetts. The study noted that while most EV drivers in Massachusetts would charge at home or work, “a large segment of the vehicle fleet operates with atypical travel patterns on any given day of the week,” meaning public charging infrastructure would be essential to support mass adoption of EVs.78
●● A 2018 report by NREL and the California Energy Commission found a need for 99,000– 133,000 workplace and public Level 2 chargers in California and 9,000–25,000 DC fast chargers, plus tens of thousands of chargers at multiunit dwellings.79
●● Navigant Research has published several studies about EV infrastructure markets in the United States. Its “DC Charging Map” shows the need for just 95 DC fast-charging stations along major intercity highway corridors—far fewer than exist today—and that 408 DC fast-charging stations would suffice to charge EVs in the 100 largest metropolitan areas of the United States.80
In projecting future demand for public EV charging, one potential method is to analyze ratios such as the number of public EV chargers per electric vehicle in different areas. However, this ratio varies greatly across regions: California has 25–30 EVs per public charger; China has roughly eight EVs per public charger; the Netherlands has two to seven EVs per public charger. Because of differences in vehicles, driving patterns and availability of home and workplace charging, there is no global rule of thumb with respect to this ratio.81
Analysts have employed a wide variety of methodologies to estimate future EV charging infrastructure needs, from simple ratios to complex algorithms. The highly dynamic nature of the industry and increasing availability of data on EV charging behavior make it likely that many of the methodologies and estimates will need revisions in the years ahead.82
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FIgure 9: 2016 EV sales and public charge posts per million population in various EV markets
1,500 30% Level 2 charge points DC fast charge points Electric vehicle share 1,000 20%
500 10% Public charge points Public charge per million population Electric vehicle sales share Electric vehicle
0 0%
China Japan Ireland Norway Sweden Austria FInland Canada Belgium Denmark Germany Netherlands Switzerland United States United Kingdom Source: International Council on Clean Transportation 2017
Table 3: Estimated U.S. Station and Plug Count to Support 15 million PEVs in 2030
Rural Interstate Cities Towns Areas Corridors All-electric vehicles 12,411,000 1,848,000 642,000 - DCFC Stations (to provide coverage) 4,900 3,200 - 400 Plugs (to meet demand) 19,000 4,000 2,000 2,500 Plugs per station 3.9 1.3 - 6.3 Plugs per 1,000 all-electric vehicles 1.5 2.2 3.1 - Non-Res L2 Plugs (to meet demand) 451,000 99,000 51,000 - Plugs per 1,000 all-electric vehicles 36 54 79 -
Source: National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 2017
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3. EV CHARGING POLICIES
A. Charging Infrastructure Policy in China i. General
The Chinese central government promotes the development of EV charging networks as a matter of national policy. It sets targets, provides funding and mandates standards. In addition, many provincial and local governments promote EV charging networks with financial incentives, requirements that residential building owners provide EV charging spaces and mandates for a percentage of commercial parking spots to have EV charging.
Central government policies are set forth in at least five documents:
●● In September 2015, the State Council issued the Guidance on Accelerating the Construction of Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure. The guidance calls for charging infrastructure sufficient for 5 million EVs by 2020, all new residential construction to be equipped EV charging, 10% of parking spaces in large public buildings to be available for EV charging and at least one public charging station for every 2,000 EVs. The guidance also calls for public-private partnerships to develop charging infrastructure, specifically mentioning shopping malls, grocery stores and major parking facilities as places that should be incentivized to install public chargers.83
●● In October 2015, NDRC issued the Guidelines for Developing Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure (2015–2020). The guidelines call for at least 120,000 EV charging stations
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and 4.8 million EV charging posts by 2020. The guidelines divide China into three regions with varying degrees of EV infrastructure promotion and call for establishing a grid of EV-charging-enabled highways covering the most populous coastal provinces of East China.84
●● In January 2016, the National Energy Administration released a notice summarizing five new national standards for electric vehicle charging interfaces and communications protocols. The standards were issued in late 2015 by the National Standards Committee, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology and others.85
●● In January 2016, the Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Science and Technology, Ministry of Industry & Information Technology (MIIT), National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC), and National Energy Administration (NEA) published the 13th Five- Year Plan for New Energy Vehicle Infrastructure Incentive Policies. The plan included RMB 90 million in funding for installation of charging infrastructure, specifying that charging stations should have a minimum number of charging posts, chargers would be installed at government buildings and the procurement of chargers would be open to any charging manufacturer.86
●● In July 2016, NDRC published a Notice on Accelerating Residential EV Charging Infrastructure Construction, setting out standards and procedures for residential charging as well as designating the Jing-Jin-Ji, Yangtze River Delta and Pearl River Delta regions as demonstration zones for residential charging infrastructure development.87
Many provincial and local governments also support EV charging with financial incentives, requirements with respect to new building construction and other policies:
●● The city of Shenzhen offers purchasers of EVs subsidies of up to RMB 20,000 for vehicle insurance and installation of charging equipment.88
●● Over 30 other cities offer some form of subsidy for home or public EV charging.89
●● As early as 2014, Guangzhou adopted a requirement that new buildings must have 18% of parking spots either equipped with EV charging or enabled for future installation.90
●● In 2017 the Beijing municipal government began mandating that all parking spots in new residential developments set aside space for EV chargers, with new government or state-owned enterprise buildings required to install chargers at 25% of parking spots.91
China’s central government has recently recognized the importance of making public charging a viable business as part of an overall strategy for promoting EV usage. The central government is considering a shift from incentives for equipment installation to incentives that encourage EV charging at public stations, possibly through a reduction in the per-kWh EV charging fee.92 Residential charging would remain the cheapest option since it has no service fee and residential rates are lower than public charging rates.
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ii. Utility Rate Design
China’s electric power sector is dominated by two large grid companies: State Grid Corporation of China (State Grid) and China Southern Grid. Central government regulatory officials set overall policies with respect to retail electricity rates, often including rules with respect to minimum and maximum prices for electric vehicle charging. Local officials set retail electricity prices consistent with these policies. This market and regulatory structure enables policy makers to adopt sweeping changes that cover regions or even the whole country. Pilot projects are often used to experiment with different approaches.
In 2014, the National Development and Reform Commission issued a Notice on EV Charging Policy clarifying EV charging rates for three classes of customers. First, residential customers pay the residential rate, which is typically one of the lowest tariffs. Second, dedicated central EV charging and battery swap stations pay the large industrial customer rate, except they are exempt from the basic charge (demand charge). Third, government offices, public parking lots and other businesses pay the commercial and small/medium industrial (C&I) rate, which is typically the highest tariff. As of 2016, at least three provinces (Jiangxi, Hebei, Hunan) and 24 cities (including Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Tianjin, Shenzhen and Chongqing) had set regulations regarding commercial and public transit EV charging fees, with most of these setting a maximum charging fee per kWh. Maximums ranged widely, from RMB 2.36/kWh in Jiangxi to RMB 0.45/kWh in Taiyuan.93
In general, EV charging rates in China have been set at relatively low levels in order to encourage uptake of EVs. In early 2018, however, the Beijing municipal government removed caps on EV charging tariffs.94 This reflects a shift in approach by Chinese policy makers, who are now increasingly concerned about ensuring that public EV charging is a viable business. The shift responds to complaints from some EV charging stations owners, who report that EV charging rates are too low for them to make money in light of high land prices and low utilization.95 However, one constraint on raising rates is that EV drivers have proven highly price sensitive. Some EV rental agencies have complained that high charging rates keep rental volumes low and prevent agencies from making money.
Many Chinese provinces and cities have time-of-use rates for EV charging. State Grid uses time-of-use pricing at its own charging stations. In Beijing, State Grid charges RMB 1.0044/ kWh at peak periods, RMB 0.6950/kWh at shoulder periods and RMB 0.3946/kWh at valley periods while adding a uniform RMB 0.8/kWh service fee.96
China has very few if any demand response programs for EVs. Such programs would be challenging in China since China lacks a wholesale power market. (In the United States, wholesale power prices fluctuate continually, creating a real-time market for demand- response aggregators to cut power consumption when demand is high.)97
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Electric Utility Rate Definitions Explanation Time-of-use rate A rate that varies based on the block of time it is consumed. The price schedule is fixed and predefined based on the season, day of week and time of day. Variable peak A rate that varies based on both the block of time it is consumed and bulk power pricing system conditions during that period of the day.98 Dynamic pricing An electricity price that reflects wholesale price and grid conditions, revised on (also known as a constant basis, providing the best available signal about the marginal value of real-time pricing) power at each location. Critical peak A pricing plan under which consumers receive an alert message before a major pricing demand peak such as a cold or heat wave, with price increases to encourage load reduction during those periods Demand Programs that encourage or require customers to reduce electric use at times of high response wholesale market prices or when system reliability is jeopardized.99 Demand charge A charge based on the greatest amount of electric power during any interval—typically an hour or a fraction of an hour—in a billing cycle. (The demand charge is in addition to energy charges, which cover the total kWh consumed, as well as service fees.)
B. Charging Infrastructure Policy in the United States i. General
The US federal government plays a minor role with respect to the development of EV charging infrastructure. State and local governments play much more important roles in this area.
Federal policies have included the following:
●● A 30% tax credit for the cost of installing an EV charging station up to a maximum of $1,000. The tax credit, which applied to the station owner as opposed to the site host, expired at the end of 2017.100
●● Voluntary programs to support workplace and municipal EV charging run by the US Department of Energy. These programs provide a forum for employers and municipalities to learn from one another about their experiences with EV charging.
●● Designation of EV charging corridors on US highways. In November 2016, the US Federal Highway Administration designated 48 EV charging corridors along 25,000 miles of US highways, based on suggestions submitted by states. The corridors include Interstate 5, from San Diego to the Canadian border; Interstate 80, from Nebraska to New York City; and many corridors within states.101 While the corridors mostly provide signage for existing chargers, the federal government is authorized to provide up to $4.5 billion in loan guarantees for EV charging infrastructure along the corridors. No loan guarantees have been issued to date under this program.102
Many states offer incentives for the installation of EV charging equipment. These include rebates, tax credits, tax exemptions, grants and loans.
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●● The Charge Ahead Colorado program, for example, offers businesses tax credits up to $16,000 for installing public chargers.
●● California offers a low-interest loan program for businesses installing chargers.103
Many city governments and electric utilities also offer rebates, grants, city land or rights-of- way for EV charging:
●● The Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (LADWP) offers an incentive of up to $4,000 per charger installed at businesses.
●● Idaho Power offered an incentive of $2,500 for stores installing EV charging infrastructure for a limited time.104
Table 4: U.S. state government EV charging incentive programs
Tax Tax Rebate credit Grant Load Rebate credit Grant Load AR NE CA NJ CO NV CT NY DC OH DE OK FL OR GA PA IL RI LA TX MA UT MD VA NC WA
Source: Alternative Fuels Data Center, U.S. Department of Energy, 2018
In addition to financial incentives, some states are promoting EV charging through standards, mandates and codes. Oregon requires homeowners’ associations to approve applications for new residential EV chargers within 60 days. California’s CalGreen Code goes further, requiring residential buildings with over 17 units to have a minimum of 3% of all parking spaces ready for future installation of EV chargers. The Code specifies wiring practices, labeling, EV charging space dimensions and markings, and accessibility. The CalGreen Code also provides guidance on the minimum number of required electrified parking spaces for commercial, retail and nonresidential locations.105
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States have also taken the lead in preparing highway corridors for EV charging. Interstate 5, which runs from San Diego to Canada, was the first major EV corridor, designated as the West Coast Electric Highway. The first stations on the system broke ground in 2011, and the West Coast Electric Highway was declared open in 2012.106 The system now also includes hundreds of DC fast-charging posts operated by a variety of charging networks.107 The program is structured as a public-private partnership. Much of the funding for building the network came from state and federal government grants.108
Figure 10: U.S. non-residential charging stations by state, January 2019
Source: Alternative Fuels Data Center, US Department of Energy, January 2019 ii. Utility Rate Design
The United States has a highly decentralized electric utility system, with hundreds of utilities operating retail electric grids. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission regulates wholesale power markets but has no direct power over retail electric rates.
US regulators and electric utility companies are at an early stage in evaluating rate design for EV charging. A 2018 report by the Smart Electric Power Alliance (SEPA) found that only 47 of 447 utilities surveyed had adopted EV-specific tariffs. Fourteen utilities had conducted EV charging pilot projects. Only about 25% of US utilities had taken EV-related actions beyond what SEPA termed “early stage.”109
However, many US utilities are now considering EV tariffs. SEPA’s 2017 report found that 69%
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of US utilities were evaluating EV tariffs or other changes to rate structures to help manage EV load.110
Time-of-use pricing for EVs is receiving growing attention in the United States. Until recently, time-of-use pricing for residential customers in the United States was minimal, in part because of the cost of smart meters. Residential time-of-use rates were mostly limited to a small number of customers who opted into the programs.111 Recently, however, several states have been moving toward TOU rates for residential customers, including for EVs. Over a dozen utilities offer some forms of time-of-use tariffs for residential EV charging.
●● Several TOU programs, including in Colorado, Michigan, Minnesota and Wisconsin, subsidize the cost of purchasing EV chargers for users who opt into a residential time- of-use rate for all household electricity usage.112
●● Alaska Electric Light and Power offers a special TOU EV charging rate for those with compatible EVSE equipment, and the utility subsidizes EVSE purchases.113
●● Hawaii offers a residential whole-house TOU rate for EV owners and also applies TOU rates to public fast-charging stations.114
●● Nevada has offered time-of-use rates for residential EV owners since 2009, and lists the program as an “electric vehicle rate” on its website. Like many states, the rate applies to the energy consumption of the entire house. The program charges a lower rate for off- peak energy consumption. The utility is studying expanding the program to include EV charging into demand response programs and distributed resource planning.115
●● Utilities in Michigan are evaluating separately metered time-of-use EV charging rates.116
Several studies provide useful data on time-of-use rates:
●● A project directed by the Idaho National Laboratory from 2009 to 2013 found that in Washington State, with no time-of-use pricing, charging use peaked in the early evening. In San Diego and San Francisco, which introduced an evening off-peak rate reduction of around $0.10/kWh, a daily charging spike coincided with the time when off-peak rates began. In Los Angeles, which had a time-of-use rate but a pricing differential of just $0.025/kWh, the charging curve showed more modest shifting of charging to the off- peak rate.117
●● A 2017 NREL study using PG&E data showed a spike in charging coinciding with the beginning of off-peak rates each day. The study recommends that “at high EV penetration levels, dynamic rates and automated control will better smooth charging loads.”118
Several pilot programs in which EVs provide demand response are underway in the United States. The state of California has approved an EV demand response program under which eMotorWerks will aggregate 1,000 EVs to ensure that their charging times can respond to grid requests.119 Vermont’s Green Mountain Power offers an EV charger in exchange for participation in a demand response program that will interrupt charging at super-peak times.120
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US charging network executive: US utility regulator:
“Fleets have good characteristics in “We see controlled charging as the end terms of flexibility…That gives you game. You have flexibility to not get better control than in the residential locked into just relying purely on the off- charging case, because you can build peak pricing signal. By using controlled a schedule for charging, as in midday charging, you recognize that sometimes when you have negative electricity people need to charge during the day, pricing due to solar.” and you can even encourage that.”
In addition, California regulators have approved a dynamic pricing pilot for San Diego Gas & Electric (SDG&E) that will incorporate hour-ahead wholesale prices into EV charging rates, enabling EVs to absorb electricity when wind and solar output are at their peak.121
The potential for EV chargers to incur significant demand charges is receiving growing attention. California and Hawaii have temporarily suspended demand charges for EV charging and other states including New York and Maryland have taken up the issue.122 A 2017 report study by the Rocky Mountain Institute recommended reducing or waiving demand charges for EV charging.123
Figure 11: Actions taken by U.S. utilities to prepare for EV adoption
EV Info On Website 127
EV In Utility Fleet 122
Workplace Charging (At Utility) 100 Public Use Charging 89
Customer Engagement 69
Special EV Rates 47
Residential EVSE Incentives 27
Commercial EVSE Incentives 22 Workplace Charging 20
Residential EV Incentives 10 Early Stage Commercial EV Incentives 3 Intermediate Stage Late Stage Managed Charging Pilot 14 V2G Pilot 2 Full-Scale V2G/Managed 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Source: Smart Electric Power Alliance, March 2018
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C. Comparison—China and the United States
The Chinese central government is far more active than the US federal government in promoting EV charging. In both countries, subnational governments (state, provincial and local) play important roles in EV charging. Policy tools used in both countries include subsidies for installing charging infrastructure—via tax credits, grants and low-cost loans—as well as mandates and standards.
Time-of-use tariffs to promote off-peak charging are becoming more common in both China and the United States. In China, time-of-use EV charging rates apply to public charging in some areas but not to residential charging. In the United States, a growing number of utilities offer time-of-use pricing for EV owners (often applied to energy consumption for the EV owner’s house as a whole).
Demand response programs for aggregated EV charging are less common. In China, demand response for aggregated EV charging is still some ways off and would likely depend on pow- er market reform in areas such as spot markets and ancillary services. In the United States, California has the largest EV demand response programs. Other states are experimenting with pilot programs as well.
Table 5: Comparison of China and U.S. EV charging policies
China U.S. Subsidies for EV purchase Yes, central government and Yes, federal government and some provinces some states Subsidies for EV charging installation Yes, mainly provincial and Yes, mainly state and local municipal National charging infrastructure plan Yes, set in 2015 No National EV highway plan Yes, being implented Yes, but only in certain states National EV charging plug standard Yes, both slow and fast- No charging Policies requiring home or multi-unit Yes, for new buildings, but Yes, in some states and cities building charging limited to space requirements Policies requiring charging at Yes, set in 2018 No national requirement government or govt-related facilities Policies on EV charging tariffs Yes, with most localities At state or local level, but many setting maximum EV charging states do not allow charging tariffs operator electricity sales Time-of-use charging tariffs Common, depends on locality Common, depends on locality Dynamic time-of-use charging tariffs No No Charging demand response programs No Growing number of pilots
Source: Authors
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4. EV CHARGING TECHNOLOGIES
EV charging technologies in China and the United States are broadly similar. In both countries, cords and plugs are the overwhelmingly dominant technology for charging electric vehicles. (Wireless charging and battery swapping have at most a minor presence.) There are differences between the two countries with respect to charging levels, charging standards and communications protocols. These similarities and differences are discussed below. A. Charging Levels
In the United States, a great deal of EV charging takes place at 120 volts using unmodified home wall outlets. This is generally known as Level 1 or “trickle” charging. With Level 1 charging, a typical 30 kWh battery takes approximately 12 hours to go from 20% to a nearly full charge. (There are no 120 volt outlets in China.)
In both China and the United States, a great deal of EV charging takes place at 220 volts (China) or 240 volts (United States). In the United States, this is known as Level 2 charging. Such charging may take place with unmodified outlets or specialized EV charging equipment and typically uses about 6–7 kW of power. When charging at 220–240 volts, a typical 30 kWh battery takes approximately 6 hours to go from 20% to a nearly full charge.
Finally, both China and the United States have growing networks of DC fast chargers, commonly using 24 kW, 50 kW, 100 kW or 120 kW of power. Some stations may offer 350 kW or even 400 kW of power. These DC fast chargers can take a vehicle battery from 20% to a nearly full charge in times ranging from roughly one hour to as little as 10 minutes.
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Table 6: Most common charging levels in U.S.
Vehicle Range Added per Charging Level Supply Power Charging Time and Power AC Level 1 4 mi/hour @ 1.4kW 120 V AC/20A (12-16A continuous) 6 mi/hour @ 1.9kW AC Level 2 10 mi/hour @ 3.4kW 208/240 V AC/20-100A (16-80A continuous) 20 mi/hour @ 6.6kW 60 mi/hour @19.2kW Dynamic time-of-use 24 mi/20 minutes @ 24kW 208/480 V AC 3-phase charging tariffs 50 mi/20 minutes @ 50kW (input current proportional to output power; 90 mi/20 minutes @90kW ~20-400A AC)
Source: U.S. Department of Energy
B. Charging Standards i. China
China has one nationwide EV fast charging standard. The US has three EV fast charging standards.
The Chinese standard is known as China GB/T. (The initials GB stand for national standard.) China GB/T was released in 2015 after several years of development.124 It is now mandatory for all new electric vehicles sold in China. International automakers, including Tesla, Nissan and BMW, have adopted the GB/T standard for their EVs sold in China. GB/T currently allows fast charging at a maximum of 237.5 kW of output (at 950 V and 250 amps), though many Chinese DC fast chargers offer 50 kW charging. A new GB/T will be released in 2019 or 2020, which will reportedly upgrade the standard to include charging up to 900 kW for larger commercial vehicles. GB/T is a China-only standard: the few China-made EVs exported abroad use other standards.125
In August 2018, the China Electricity Council (CEC) announced a memorandum of understanding with the CHAdeMO network, based in Japan, to jointly develop ultra-fast charging. The goal is compatibility between GB/T and CHAdeMO for fast charging. The two organizations will partner to expand the standard to countries beyond China and Japan.126 ii. United States
In the United States, there are three EV charging standards for DC fast charging: CHAdeMO, CCS SAE Combo and Tesla.
CHAdeMO was the first EV fast-charging standard, dating to 2011. It was developed by Tokyo Electric Power Company and stands for “Charge to Move” (a pun in Japanese).127 CHAdeMO is currently used in the United States in the Nissan Leaf and Mitsubishi Outlander PHEV, which are among the highest-selling electric vehicles. The Leaf’s success in the United States may be
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due in part to Nissan’s early commitment to roll out CHAdeMO fast-charging infrastructure at dealerships and other urban locations.128 As of January 2019, there were over 2,900 CHAdeMO fast chargers in the United States (as well as more than 7,400 in Japan and 7,900 in Europe).129 In 2016, CHAdeMO announced it would upgrade its standard from its initial charging rate of 70 kW to offer 150 kW.130 In June 2018 CHAdeMO announced the introduction of 400 kW charging capability, using 1,000 V, 400 amp liquid-cooled cables. The higher charging will be available to meet the needs of large commercial vehicles such as trucks and buses.131
A second charging standard in the United States is known as CCS or SAE Combo. It was released in 2011 by a group of European and US auto manufacturers. The word combo indicates that the plug contains both AC charging (at up to 43 kW) and DC charging.132 In Germany, the Charging Interface Initiative (CharIN) coalition was formed to advocate for the widespread adoption of CCS. Unlike CHAdeMO, a CCS plug enables DC and AC charging with a single port, reducing the space and openings required on the vehicle body. Jaguar, Volkswagen, General Motors, BMW, Daimler, Ford, FCA and Hyundai support CCS. Tesla has also joined the coalition and in November 2018 announced its vehicles in Europe would come equipped with CCS charging ports.133 The Chevrolet Bolt and BMW i3 are among the popular EVs in the United States that use CCS charging. While present CCS fast chargers offer charging at around 50 kW, the Electrify America program includes fast charging of 350 kW, which could enable a nearly complete charge in as little as 10 minutes.
The third charging standard in the United States is operated by Tesla, which launched its own proprietary Supercharger network in the United States in September 2012.134 Tesla Superchargers typically operate at 480 volts and offer charging at a maximum of 120 kW. As of January 2019, the Tesla website listed 595 Supercharger locations in the United States, with an additional 420 locations “coming soon.”135 In May 2018, Tesla suggested that in the future its Superchargers might reach power levels as high as 350 kW.136
In our research for this report, we asked U.S. interviewees whether they considered the lack of a single national standard for DC fast charging to be a barrier to EV adoption. Few answered in the affirmative. The reasons that multiple DC fast charging standards are not considered to be a problem include:
●● Most EV charging takes place at home and work, with Level 1 and 2 chargers.
●● Much of the public and workplace charging infrastructure to date has used Level 2 chargers.
●● Adaptors are available that allow EV owners to use most DC fast chargers, even if the EV and charger use different charging standards. (The main exception, the Tesla supercharging network, is only open to Tesla vehicles.) Notably, there are some concerns about the safety of fast-charging adaptors.
●● Since the plug and connector represent a small percentage of the cost of a fast-charging station, this presents little technical or financial challenge to station owners and could be compared to the hoses for different octane gasolines at a fueling station. Many public charging stations have multiple plugs attached to a single charging post, allowing any type of EV to charge there. Indeed, many jurisdictions require or incentivize this.
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Some carmakers have said that an exclusive charging network represents a competitive strategy. Claas Bracklo, head of electromobility at BMW and chairman of CharIN, stated in 2018, “We have founded CharIN to build a position of power.”137 Many Tesla owners and investors consider its proprietary supercharger network a selling point, although Tesla continues to express willingness to allow other car models to use its network provided they contribute funding proportional to usage.138 Tesla is also part of CharIN promoting CCS. In November 2018, it announced that Model 3 cars sold in Europe would come equipped with CCS ports. Tesla owners can also purchase adaptors to access CHAdeMO fast chargers.139 C. Charging Communication Protocols
Charging communication protocols are necessary to optimize charging for the needs of the user (to detect state of charge, battery voltage and safety) and for the grid (including distribution network capacity, time-of-use pricing and demand response measures).140 China GB/T and CHAdeMO use a communication protocol know as CAN, while CCS works with the PLC protocol. Open communications protocols, such as the Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) developed by the Open Charging Alliance, are becoming increasingly popular in the United States and Europe.
In our research for this report, several U.S. interviewees cited the move toward open communications protocols and software as a policy priority. In particular, some public charging projects that received funding under the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act (ARRA) were cited as having chosen vendors with proprietary platforms that subsequently experienced financial difficulties, leaving broken equipment that required replacement.141 Most cities, utilities, and charging networks contacted for this study expressed support for open communications protocols and incentives to enable charging network hosts to seamlessly switch providers.142 D. Costs
Home chargers are cheaper in China than in the United States. In China, a typical 7 kW wall- mounted home charger retails online for between RMB 1,200 and RMB 1,800.143 Installation requires additional cost. (Most private EV purchases come with charger and installation included.) In the United States, Level 2 home chargers cost in the range of $450-$600, plus an average of roughly $500 for installation.144
DC fast charging equipment is significantly more expensive in both countries. Costs vary widely. One Chinese expert interviewed for this report estimated that installing a 50 kW DC fast-charging post in China typically costs between RMB 45,000 and RMB 60,000, with the charging post itself accounting for roughly RMB 25,000 - RMB 35,000 and cabling, underground infrastructure and labor accounting for the remainder.145 In the United States, DC fast charging can cost tens of thousands of dollars per post. Major variables affecting the cost of installing DC fast charging equipment include the need for trenching, transformer upgrades, new or upgraded circuits and electrical panels and aesthetic upgrades. Signage, permitting and access for the disabled are additional considerations.146
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E. Wireless Charging
Wireless charging offers several advantages, including aesthetics, time saving and ease of use. It was available in the 1990s for the EV1 (an early electric car) but is rare today.147 Wireless EV charging systems offered online range in cost from $1,260 to around $3,000.148 Wireless EV charging carries an efficiency penalty, with current systems offering charging efficiency of around 85%.149 Current wireless charging products offer power transfer of 3–22 kW; wireless chargers available for several EV models from Plugless charge at either 3.6 kW or 7.2 kW, equivalent to Level 2 charging.150 While many EV users consider wireless charging not worth the additional cost,151 some analysts have forecast the technology will soon be widespread, and several carmakers have announced they would offer wireless charging as an option on future EVs. Wireless charging could be attractive for certain vehicles with defined routes, such as public buses, and it has also been proposed for future electric highway lanes, though high cost, low charging efficiency and slow charging speeds would be drawbacks.152 F. Battery Swapping
With battery swapping technology, electric vehicles could exchange their depleted batteries for others that are fully charged. This would dramatically shorten the time required to recharge an EV, with significant potential benefits for drivers.
Several Chinese cities and companies are currently experimenting with battery swapping, with a focus on high-utilization fleet EVs, such as taxis. The city of Hangzhou has deployed battery swapping for its taxi fleet, which uses locally made Zotye EVs.155 Beijing has built several battery-swap stations in an effort supported by local automaker BAIC. In late 2017, BAIC announced a plan to build 3,000 swapping stations nationwide by 2021.156 The Chinese EV startup NIO plans to adopt battery-swap technology for some of its vehicles and announced it would build 1,100 swapping stations in China.157 Several cities in China—including Hangzhou and Qingdao—have also used battery swap for buses.158
In the United States, discussion of battery swapping faded following the 2013 bankruptcy of Israeli battery-swap startup Project Better Place, which had planned a network of swapping stations for passenger cars.153 In 2015, Tesla abandoned its swapping station plans after building only one demonstration facility, blaming lack of consumer interest. There are few if any experiments underway with respect to battery swapping in the United States today.154 The decline in battery costs, and perhaps to a lesser extent the deployment of DC fast-charging infrastructure, have likely reduced the attraction of battery swapping in the United States.
While battery swapping offers several advantages, it has notable drawbacks as well. An EV battery is heavy and typically located at the bottom of the vehicle, forming an integral structural component with minimal engineering tolerances for alignment and electrical connections. Today’s batteries usually require cooling, and connecting and disconnecting cooling systems is difficult.159 Given their size and weight, battery systems must fit perfectly to avoid rattling, reduce wear and keep the vehicle centered. Skateboard battery architecture common in today’s EVs improves safety by lowering the vehicle’s center of weight and improving crash protection in the front and rear. Removable batteries located in the trunk or elsewhere would lack this advantage. Since most vehicle owners charge mainly at home or
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at work, battery swapping would not necessarily resolve the charging infrastructure issues— it would only help address public charging and range. And because most automakers are unwilling to standardize battery packs or designs—cars are designed around their batteries and motors, making this a key proprietary value160—battery swap might require a separate swapping station network for each car company or separate swapping equipment for different models and sizes of vehicles. Though mobile battery swapping trucks have been proposed,161 this business model has yet to be implemented.
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5. EV CHARGING BUSINESS MODELS
As the electric vehicle stock grows, the potential revenue to be earned from EV charging will grow. A wide range of businesses are currently competing for a share of that revenue. Other businesses are investing in EV charging to promote electric vehicle sales, increase electric demand, attract customers to retail outlets, meet regulatory requirements or achieve other goals. The result is a wide range of players experimenting with different overlapping approaches and positions in the market. We describe key market participants and their approaches below.162 A. Independent Charging Networks
In both China and the United States, a number of companies now operate and support EV charging networks as their principal business. These companies deliver a wide range of services to property owners and EV drivers, including charging equipment selection, software development, telecommunications, marketing, customer support and payment processing. We refer to charging networks not owned and operated by utilities or auto manufacturers as “independent charging networks.” i. China
There are a number of independent charging networks in China, many of which have a regional focus. The largest is Tgood (Telaidian), with 121,212 charging posts as of year-end 2018, followed by StarCharge, with 54,814.163
China’s charging networks are generally located in large urban areas, such as the leading EV
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cities of Beijing, Shanghai and Shenzhen. These networks host charging stations in a variety of locations, including in public parking lots, on street curbsides, at shopping centers and entertainment venues, and on private property. Private charging networks offer both fast charging as well as Level 2 charging, often with proprietary payment systems. Some charging networks allow payment by either or both of China’s most popular mobile payment systems, WeChat and Alipay, enabling virtually any user to pay by scanning a QR code. Charging fees are strictly regulated to the published electricity price plus a capped service fee. Given low utilization of public charging posts, many private charging networks report they are presently unable to earn profits under this regulatory structure. Motivations for installing charging posts can include earning equipment subsidies, meeting government targets and capturing market share to take advantage of future policy and market developments.
FIgure 12: Private charging networks in Beijing
Source: Anders Hove, 2018
China EV industry expert:
“Companies are just installing charging as a kind of land grab, even though they will lose money.”
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FIgure 13: Number of China public or fleet EV charging posts by company
Source: China EV Charging Alliance, January 2019. Tgood (Telaidian) figures include contractor-operated chargers; Star Charge figures include privately-operated shared charging points. ii. United States
The largest independent EV charging networks in the United States include ChargePoint, EVgo, Blink and Greenlots.164
ChargePoint operates the largest EV charging network in the United States, with over 58,000 charging posts in the United States as of January 2019. Most of these are Level 2 chargers at businesses and workplaces. ChargePoint also designs and builds EV charging equipment and has raised funds from BMW, Daimler and Siemens.165
EVgo owns and operates the largest public EV fast-charging network in the United States, with over 1,100 DC fast chargers in 66 US metropolitan areas as of January 2019. EVgo reports providing over 110,000 charges to more than 50,000 drivers each month. EVgo partners include Simon Properties, Rite Aid, Whole Foods and CalTrans.166
Blink Charging provides public EV charging at thousands of locations across the United States, as well as chargers for home use. The company was founded as Ecotality and received a $100 million grant to build a nationwide charging network under the 2009 American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. The company employs a subscription-based model for EV charging.167
Greenlots is an EV charging network and software provider that offers end-to-end EV charging services to businesses, governments, fleet owners, utilities and others. The company has deployments in 13 countries and was selected by Electrify America to deploy Greenlots software for the initiative’s 2,000-EV charging station coast-to-coast network as part of the Volkswagen diesel-gate settlement.168
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B. Utility Companies i. China
China State Grid and China Southern Grid have built significant numbers of EV charging stations. As of year-end 2018, China State Grid owned 56,549 charging posts.169 China State Grid has developed an extensive network of public charging stations along the major highway corridors of East China, largely intended for use on long-distance trips. Grid-owned charging points are also located at customer service centers around China. (Visits conducted for this study show that at least some of these charging points are located in areas unsuited for EV charging, such as along a pedestrian-only street in Beijing.)
China’s grid companies are also responsible for upgrading distribution-level infrastructure for privately owned chargers for public or fleet use in cities. These investments can be expensive and time consuming and are paid for as part of the grid company’s social responsibility budget. Interviews with grid company experts and charging network providers in China suggest that slow grid upgrades to support the charging network have been an issue. State Grid has an annual plan for upgrading distribution infrastructure. Applications for grid upgrades must be made early or they will not be included in the plan for the following year. According to one grid expert, utility incentives are one issue: “Distribution upgrades for EV charging do not earn profit. Instead, they are considered as societal responsibility.” ii. United States
In the United States, some electric utility companies are exploring ways to provide EV charging. There are various motivations. Regulated transmission and distribution companies that earn a return on allowed investments in infrastructure may see EV charging as a way to boost long-term revenue and profits. Power companies with generation assets may see an opportunity to boost electricity sales, especially in an environment of flat or declining electricity consumption. (This model is hardly new: New York Edison established a charging network in Manhattan in the early 1900s, for example.170) Some utilities may see a way to improve grid operation and utilization of grid assets with demand response or other programs. Some utilities may see EV charging as a new technology with branding and corporate image-building potential.
California’s state’s three investor-owned utilities (IOUs) each have EV charging infrastructure pilot programs that have won approval from state regulators. Southern California Edison, whose service territory includes much of Southern California, won approval in 2016 for adding 1,500 chargers at homes, businesses, and public charging locations.171 San Diego Gas & Electric (SDG&E) also won regulatory approval that year for a 3,500-charger program.172 Pacific Gas & Electric (PG&E) won approval in January 2018 to install 7,500 Level 2 chargers, mostly at homes, offices and other places where cars sit for long periods.173 (As of this writing, the impact of PG&E’s bankruptcy filing on these installations is uncertain.)
California utilities have also sought approval for installing infrastructure for DC fast-charging stations along highways and at park-and-ride locations, and for chargers for medium- and heavy-duty trucks, school buses, forklifts and other commercial and industrial EV
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applications.174 In May 2018, the California Public Utilities Commission approved over $750 million in IOU EV charging investments and related customer rebates. These infrastructure investments will place a special emphasis on building out infrastructure for medium- and heavy-duty trucks as well as charging for multi-unit dwellings and EV infrastructure in disadvantaged communities that suffer disproportionately from poor air quality.175
California regulators have not approved all proposals for utility investment in EV charging infrastructure. Ratepayer groups have objected to some spending in this area. However the approved investments represent a significant shift from earlier in this decade, when regulators were more skeptical of utility investment in EV charging infrastructure.
Utilities outside California are also pursuing their own EV charging networks. In Seattle, the city’s Drive Clean Seattle Initiative includes plans for 20 utility-owned public DC fast-charging stations and 200 other utility-owned charging stations, to be completed in 2017–2018.176 Seattle City Light has implemented a DC fast-charging rate of $0.43/kWh at its first DC charging stations.177
In Kansas City, in 2015 the investor-owned utility Kansas City Power & Light launched a program to install 1,000 chargers across its service territory. The utility installed chargers in public parking garages, at malls, and along highway corridors, among other locations, initially offering charging for free to encourage EV uptake.178 Partly as a result, Kansas City saw EV ownership surge 78% in the first quarter of 2017 versus the year prior.179 The utility had hoped to pay for its charging network through a charge on utility rates, but that has been controversial. Regulators rejected that proposal, although an appeals court then overturned the regulators’ decision.180 Another Missouri utility, Ameren, is also pursuing regulatory approval for including EV charging infrastructure in the rate base.181
U.S. charging network executive: U.S. utility regulator:
“Utilities have captive customers, and “We decided there were opportunities utilities see a clear benefit of boosting for utilities to own and build specific electricity sales by substituting types of infrastructure and partner with electricity for gasoline.” others for capabilities we don’t have. It’s a team sport: charging networks and others can do their part.”
A number of other states have made regulatory decisions on EV charging deployment. In April 2018, the Ohio Public Utilities Commission approved AEP to invest in charging infrastructure across the state, including by offering rebates for private chargers as well as directly installing charging. AEP will install 375 charging stations, of which 150 will be at workplaces and 60 at multifamily housing. The program has the potential to more than double the number of chargers in the state.182 In May 2018, New York adopted a $250 million, seven-year program to roll out DC fast chargers, add public fast-charging at airports and establish EV model communities.183
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C. Auto Manufacturer Charging Networks
Two auto manufacturers—Tesla and BYD—operate their own EV charging networks. Several other auto manufacturers partner with independent charging network companies to provide EV charging services.
As of January 2019, Tesla’s network included over 12,000 Superchargers at 1,400 locations around the world.184 This included 188 location in China and 595 locations in the United States. Most Tesla Superchargers are located near highways, however Tesla has begun to build more Supercharger locations in cities. In early 2018, Tesla opened several 50-stall charging locations, including one each in Beijing and Shanghai.185 Tesla has announced plans to open Supercharger locations with lounges, shops and other amenities.186 In China, Tesla uses the GB/T standard. Outside of China, Tesla uses its own proprietary charging standard. Customers who bought Tesla cars before 2017 receive free charging at Tesla Supercharger locations.
The full cost of building out Tesla’s Supercharger network is not available publicly, but some public documents suggest a cost range of between $150,000 and $250,000 per Supercharger station.187 If those figures are accurate, the direct costs of Tesla’s Supercharger network to date would be in the range of $200-$350 million.
Tesla’s late 2017 reveal of the Tesla Semi included plans for “mega-chargers,” with power output over 1 MW, that would charge the trucks in just 30 minutes, the time needed for mandatory rest breaks.188
BYD operates a charging network in China. BYD’s network includes both dedicated fleet charging as well as public charging in Shenzhen and other cities. As of year-end 2018, the BYD network was China’s 14th largest, with just over 1,200 charging posts.189
Nissan partners with several independent charging networks to provide EV charging services in the United States. Nissan’s No-Charge-to-Charge program offers buyers of new Nissan Leafs in certain US markets free charging for two years at qualifying stations including EVgo and Greenlots. Nissan has also partnered with EZ-Charge, whose card works at charging posts at a number of major US charging networks. Customers can charge for free for 30 minutes at DC fast-charging posts and 60 minutes at Level 2 chargers.190
BMW has provided owners of its i3 EV and plug-in hybrid lineup with cards to charging networks. In the United States, BMW’s ChargeNow program includes both EVgo and ChargePoint stations.191
Volkswagen’s settlement with California led to the creation of Electrify America. The Electrify America network plans 2,800 Level 2 chargers at apartment buildings, condos and businesses and over 2000 DC fast-chargers located along major highways. 350 kW charging power will be available at some stations.192 A typical urban location features 3-6 charge points and a highway station from 4-10 chargers, typically with several CCS charge points and one CHAdeMO plug.193 Terminals allow payment via credit or debit card. In May 2018, Electrify America installed its first 350 kW charging station.194 As of January 2019, the network map showed 217 chargers online or coming soon across the United States.195
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D. Shopping Malls, Hotels and Restaurants i. China
Shopping mall garages are among the most common locations for EV charging infrastructure in China. These garages often serve shoppers as well as workers in nearby office buildings. Some big-box, name-brand suburban stores with their own parking lots—such as Ikea—have also made EV charging available to customers.
In our research for this report, several interviewees said that the main motivations for installing EV charging infrastructure at shopping centers in China are to advertise green credentials and meet government mandates. We were also told that few property management firms enforce parking restrictions to keep dedicated EV charging spots open for EVs, and those spots are therefore frequently blocked during high traffic hours. This situation reflects the severe parking shortage in many Chinese cities.196 At present, stores located in the malls have little opportunity to advertise or offer promotions connected to EV charging, although this may develop. There are reports that many shopping mall charging networks are poorly maintained.197
China’s large real estate companies have shown interest in partnering with charging networks (although one media report characterized talks to date as “lots of thunder, not much rain”). In mid-2017 Vanke announced it would invest RMB 200 million to build 30,000 charging posts through 2019, partnering with StarCharge.198 Other big-name real estate companies have partnered with charging companies on a location-by-location basis. In addition, because many real estate companies have partnered with parking sharing or parking reservation apps and networks,199 these could eventually become a way to reserve EV charging spots and share revenues with property owners.
Tesla has located chargers at hotels, restaurants and other locations associated with the upcoming 2022 Winter Olympic Games in Zhangjiakou.200 Several sports venues in the region are deploying chargers to comply with government efforts to boost EV adoption leading up to the Games.
China charging network executive: China EV industry expert:
“Right now, this is mainly about “EV charging is either owned by the corporate image. They [mall owners] property or the charging network, and have to compare themselves to how do they make money if they share shopping centers nearby.” profits with business owners?” ii. United States
In the United States, many major store chains offer public EV charging in their parking lots. These include Best Buy, Safeway, Whole Foods, Kohl’s, Home Depot, Ikea and Target. Walgreens advertises that it has EV charging at over 400 locations on high-traffic road corridors around the country. Most locations include both Level 2 and DC fast charging. US
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regional convenience store or small grocery brands are also active, including San Antonio– based Love’s Travel Stops, Pennsylvania-based Wawa, Maryland-based Royal Farms, and QuickChek in New York and New Jersey. In April 2018, Target announced plans to deploy 600 electric vehicle charging points at more than 100 US stores within two years.201
To draw in customers, some retailers provide free charging. Sometimes charging is provided for free for an initial period, such as one hour. Retailers and other businesses typically study consumer dwell times and spending patterns to determine the optimal mix of free and paid charging to maximize sales revenue. Some smaller convenience stores are adding services such as coffee baristas and higher-end specialty prepared foods that appeal to EV-charging customers who stay longer.
According to ChargePoint, which has partnered with Harris Teeter and Fred Meyer grocery store chains to install charging posts, grocery stores and other retailers use its network to extend product discounts and coupons to those who frequent their store chargers.202 Store owners also use charging posts to encourage customers to stay longer. A market study by one US retailer showed that EV users spent triple the time in store and increased spending as a result.203
Outlet malls are often located in rural areas along freeways—an ideal place for EV chargers that appeal to potential shoppers. An analysis of outlet malls in Cleantechnica in December 2017 showed that of 217 outlet malls in North America, at least 67 already offered public EV charging capability. The two largest outlet mall companies, Simon Property and Tanger Outlets, accounted for 63 of these and had added EV chargers to 44% and 60% of their facilities, respectively. While many malls have just a handful of chargers, many have also installed “make ready” electrical and conduit work to allow the addition of many more chargers if the demand materializes.204
Several states offer tax credits and other incentives to retail outlets that install EV chargers. (See discussion in section 3(B)(i) above.)
U.S. charging network executive: U.S. EV industry expert:
“In the case of retailers, they have “For fast charging at 50 kW, based on their own tools to evaluate how long a typical driver behavior and average customer stays in a store. For one store state-of-charge, they will need 11 we studied, customers who stay 20–60 minutes of charging, which costs $1 minutes result in more sales.” for electricity for an 11-minute charge, and while customers are in the store they spend far more than $1—they are bringing out bags of groceries.”
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E. Fueling Stations
In Europe, a number of oil majors, including Royal Dutch Shell, have begun to provide DC fast charging at their fueling stations. In China and the United States, this model has yet to emerge except on a very modest scale:
●● In China, highway fueling stations at rest areas are tightly controlled by state-owned entities. Grid companies presently have a near monopoly on charging along highways. Independent charging networks have considered mobile charging units at highway fueling stations and rest areas as an option for getting around this obstacle.205
●● In the United States, fueling station operators such as Sheetz, the mid-Atlantic chain Royal Farms and South Carolina–based Sphinx have partnered with charging network providers.206 However, in many areas of the United States, fueling stations are unable to offer EV charging due to regulations that prevent resale of electricity.
While drivers mainly stop at conventional fueling stations to fill the tank, most retail fueling station profits come from selling snacks, beverages and other products. In the United States in 2017, for example, nonfuel sales accounted for 62% of profits at U.S. fueling stations.207 Survey data suggest that roughly 40% of customers walk into the store while refueling their vehicle, and roughly two-thirds of summer gas station customers plan to buy snacks or beverages at gas station/convenience stores.208 Though most EV charging takes place at home, on long trips EV customers would likely spend more time inside fueling stations even under a fast- charge scenario, giving station owners more opportunities for sales of higher-value food, beverages and services, although many drivers may be reluctant to spend the time required to recharge an EV at a retail fueling station. F. Sharing Economy
The sharing economy has given rise to a number of apps and services to facilitate EV charging.209
In China, a number of apps permit users to make private charging points available for sharing. In January 2018, public officials in Hebei Province noted the difficulty of providing EV charging in rural areas and recommended that rural residents be encouraged to publicly rent or share household chargers. To support sharing models, several companies have developed Bluetooth-enabled parking spot locking devices that unlock when an EV driver arrives; the systems can even link to app-based reservation systems.210 (These systems and apps are also available for ordinary vehicles.) Chinese equipment providers and charging networks are also getting involved in the sharing model. StarCharge, one of the largest private charging networks, has stated that 11% of the privately owned chargers it has installed are capable of sharing with the public.211
The progress of the sharing economy model in China is unclear, however. Interviews for this study showed that residents who would like to offer their charging point for rent perceived the following problems with the model: (1) difficulty ensuring non-EV users didn’t occupy the spot, (2) concern that EV charging revenues wouldn’t compensate for higher electricity bills, and (3) difficulty maintaining the charging equipment. In addition, alleys in many urban
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residential compounds are narrow and complex. Given that difficulty locating charging posts is one of the main complaints listed by charging app users, many residential compounds may be unsuited for offering access to charging posts to the general public.
Today PlugShare is one of the largest mobile apps for locating charging stations in the United States. The app began as a way for owners of EV chargers or wall plugs to share their chargers or plugs with other EV owners. PlugShare allows anyone to share information on charger locations and has evolved into an all-purpose, open-source map for EV users and EV charger owners to post charger information.212
EVMatch enables EV charger owners to offer their plugs for a fee through an app and website, evmatch.com. The app shows dozens of charge posts located across California, particularly in the Los Angeles area, as well as in Colorado and a handful in other states. The site states that owners typically charge $1–$2.50/hour for the service.213
With the exception of PlugShare and Tesla, there appear to be no sharing-economy EV charging apps or partnerships in the United States with a history before 2017, making it too early to assess whether this model might eventually become an important part of the EV charging ecosystem.
China has a large number of urban car-sharing services, many of which employ short-range city cars located for rent at major shopping malls or underground garages. Many of these car-sharing services employ EVs and reserve dedicated charging spaces for the vehicles in commercial garages. Shenzhen mandates that car-sharing networks use EVs, and other cities will likely follow suit. Car sharing is particularly attractive in China given the lack of dedicated parking, limited availability of home charging, and the cost and difficulty of obtaining new vehicle registration.
Car sharing is also a major trend in the United States, albeit typically with traditional vehicles rather than EVs. There have been some announcements concerning EV car-sharing networks. In 2018, GM’s Maven car-sharing platform—which employs many Chevrolet Bolts—announced an alliance with EVgo to establish a dedicated charging network for the service, starting in seven major US cities.214 Maven drivers currently have free access to public EVgo chargers. G. Mobile Charging Units
In both China and the United States, some companies are experimenting with mobile EV charging units, using smaller units within parking lots and larger units for roadside assistance.
Mobile charging units avoid some challenges associated with EV charging infrastructure. They avoid the need for designated EV parking spaces (and enforcement tools to prevent non-EV users from parking there), can disconnect as soon as charging is complete (allowing EV drivers to depart at will instead of on a set schedule), require less investment upfront investment (no trenching or permitting) and can be repositioned or sold if utilization is low.
In China, a small number of such services are available. Mobile EV charging units—about the size of a small cabinet—are available for purchase online for between RMB 5000 and RMB 40,000, depending on AC versus DC charging and charging capacity. Brands offering these products include ChargeTT, Jingshuo and Shenzhen Huarui Zhihang. In the United States and
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Europe, FreeWire’s Mobi has been offering mobile charging units to customers for a variety of applications since approximately 2015. The units can be enabled with payment and analytic functions to track usage and revenue patterns.215
The downside of today’s small, mobile charging units is that they require an on-site atten- dant for repositioning within a lot in real time—they can only function within a single lot. They appear best suited to sites with large parking lots or larger fleets that require charging when drivers are not around. While the technology benefits from using second-life lithium-ion bat- teries for its mobile units, and can help manage spikes in demand,216 this charging technology necessarily entails energy losses, potentially boosting the cost of supplying power.
FIgure 14: Photo of Didi mobile charging unit in Beijing
Source: Phoenix Long, 2017
Interviews conducted for this study in China and the U.S. suggested widespread skepticism about the mobile charging model. Some respondents expressed the view that the economics of refurbishing second-life batteries was unfavorable (especially as prices for new batteries fall). Other interviewees noted that EV drivers may be wary of networks that rely on mobile batteries, fearing that the mobile unit will not be present or will be occupied when they arrive to charge. Customers may prefer a fixed, convenient location with a reliable charging experience.
Several companies have experimented with mobile EV charging for roadside assistance. In China, taxi fleet and ride-hailing giant Didi Chuxing offers an EV battery charger unit. The units are the size of a typical three-wheeled delivery vehicle and are advertised as providing emergency charging to EVs, including e-bikes, delivery vehicles and passenger cars. Customers can order a charge through a mobile app or by calling a service number. In the United States, AAA announced in 2011 the launch of a roadside assistance unit for
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stranded EVs, launching in six states for vehicles with CHAdeMO plugs.217 Similar services have been launched in Japan and Europe.218 These types of mobile charging services have several challenges. These include energy losses from charging and discharging the mobile battery and energy loses driving to and from the customer. Interviews for this study suggested that mobile EV charging models are a stopgap measure and are unlikely to become widespread other than in rescue situations.
China EV industry expert: U.S. government official:
“Second-life batteries—their quality “I think of [mobile EV chargers] as is too low and refurbishing cost is temporary solutions, in that they aren’t too high. And batteries of course use charging pedestals, but it’s a cost- energy and have energy losses. When effective solution. Utilities only want the company’s mobile battery drives to increase the rate base. I’ve been to a location to charge up a vehicle, trying to pitch these mobile chargers to that represents significant energy lost utilities, but they’re not interested.” in that round trip. So this is mostly for ‘rescue’ type situations. “
H. Commercial Parking Lots
Commercial parking lots are a logical place for EV charging. Such lots—which typically rent parking spaces by the day or hour—serve customers who plan to park for a considerable amount of time while engaged in nearby activities. In commercial lots, EV charging spots are often provided for the same rate as other parking spots. Users may or may not be charged for electricity. Some parking lots offer reservations and designated spots for each user entering the facility.
In the United States, many charging networks already work together with commercial parking lots to provide specialized services. ChargePoint’s web page lists 10 different parking lot operators, including ParkFast in New York City, USA Parking and Central Parking Houston.219 ChargePoint and others point out that parking lot owners realize several advantages by providing EV charging, including attracting additional, high-paying customers, environmentally friendly branding and access to data about usage patterns.
Parking lot owners weigh different considerations when evaluating whether to install charging and what type to install. Some lot owners with high occupancy may feel any EV charging detracts from occupancy. Conversely, if charging demand is sufficiently high, lot owners may install fast charging and charge extra for the service. Lots with lower demand may opt for slow charging and provide charging as a free amenity. Parking lots at high-end hotels or entertainment venues may even provide EV valet service, moving vehicles to charge posts and shifting them when charging is complete.220
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I. Municipal EV Charging
Cities are among the largest owners of public parking spaces worldwide, including on-street parking as well as city-owned and operated parking garages and other facilities. Often cities are actively involved in managing parking policies, including enforcement as well as operation of meters and collecting fees for street parking and parking garages. Parking is a major source of revenue for many cities, and parking is a key instrument for urban development policy.221 Many on-street parking spots are located immediately adjacent to city-operated streetlights and parking meters, providing both a potential source of power for EV charging as well as payment options. Similarly, city-owned garages and underground lots also have access to power and payment options.
Many Chinese cities now have policies promoting EVs and EV charging infrastructure. Beijing and Guangzhou require charging installation at government buildings and municipal parking lots. There are curbside charging facilities along public streets in cities such as Beijing and Shenzhen, though charging in private garages remains most common. The city of Wuhu, Anhui, has established requirements for public charging everywhere in the city within a radius of 0.9 kilometers and made city land and curbside space available.222
In the United States, many cities offer EV charging in city-owned garages. In February 2018, the city of Seattle opened 156 new chargers at a single downtown parking garage, one of the largest such installations in the world.223 The City of Baltimore offers EV charging stations in nine municipal parking garages, plus at a handful of EV charging posts at on-street parking locations; the spots are metered (paid spots), but the electricity is free.224 Similarly, Berkeley, California, offers charging at four municipal garages and lots at hourly rates via ChargePoint.225
On-street parking is a major area of interest for cities, especially in areas where residents lack access to home charging. The City of Philadelphia experimented for several years with allowing residents without access to off-street charging to apply to add a charger to a street spot. The policy required a one-time inspection and installation fee plus an annual renewal fee and additional charges if the spot was removed from city metering. The policy required that the spot remain available for all EV users. Applicants were responsible for charger installation and maintenance.226 Unfortunately, the Philadelphia policy was unpopular: only 68 spots had been designated by 2017 when the policy was suspended,227 and there were complaints the policy amounted to a cheap way for people to obtain a private parking spot in front of their own house.
Kansas City, Missouri, has partnered with the local utility to offer on-street charging for free. Other cities are partnering with EV charging networks to offer curbside charging. For example, Sacramento has partnered with EVgo to provide six 150-kW DC fast-chargers accessible to 10 parking spots downtown.228
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China city official: U.S. city official:
“There is too little land available for “What we believe in is the power of the charging infrastructure, and land is right of way. We own the curb, and that’s very expensive. Lots of public charging a good place to provide charging. That stations need to get access to public means both fast charging in commercial land. Paying for the actual equipment areas, and slow charging when you have in that case costs only 10% of the long-term storage in residential streets. land cost.” We’re looking at everything from light posts to community charging hubs.”
J. Comparison—China and the United States
In both China and the United States, many types of businesses have begun to offer EV charging services, with a range of overlapping approaches. A growing number of partnerships are emerging (such as carmaker networks providing EV charging at hotels and independent charging networks supporting EV charging at shopping centers and municipal parking lots).
At this early stage of the industry’s development, there are differences between EV charging networks in China and the United States. These reflect differences in urban layout, economic planning and industrial structure in the two countries.
●● The role of utility-owned public chargers is much larger in China, especially along major long-distance driving corridors.
●● The role of carmaker EV charging networks is larger in the United States, which currently has one large carmaker-owned network (Tesla), others in development in partnership with private charging networks (Nissan and BMW) and a third in early stages (Electrify America).
Both China and the United States have several independent charging network providers, which own, manage or support charging posts at retail outlets as well as public locations such as city streets and municipal garages.
In both countries, there is initial experimentation with a range of other business models. The United States has some EV chargers located at fueling stations, but this is far from widespread. In contrast, China’s state-owned grid companies have deployed fast chargers at rest area fueling stations along major highways. The sharing of privately owned chargers (via the sharing economy, such as through PlugShare) appears to be limited in both countries. The sharing of fleet charging facilities—such as chargers owned by taxi companies or schools— also appears limited. EVs for shared mobility, with associated charging infrastructure, appears to be developing more rapidly in each country, as exemplified by Maven and Didi.
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Table 7: Comparison of China and the U.S. business models active in 2018
China U.S.
Independent charging networks Yes, numerous Yes, numerous Car manufacturer charging networks Yes, but smaller, mainly Yes, Tesla largest Tesla, BYD Electric utilities Yes, State Grid and China Yes, in certain states Southern Grid (CA, MO) Shopping and retail Yes Yes Mobile charging units Yes, rescue type Yes, rescue type and within lot Filling stations Yes, mainly State Grid on Yes, but only certain highways regional chains Large parking lots Yes, required under Yes, in a few U.S. cities regulations Municipal street-side charging Yes, but faces barriers Early state in a few U.S. Cities Fleet charging for public use Early stage Early stage Sharing economy Early stage Early stage
Source: Authors
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6. CONCLUSION
China and the United States are the world’s two largest electric vehicle markets. Although trade tensions between the two countries are significant, their economies are deeply interconnected, with one of the world’s largest bilateral trading relationships. However the EV charging industries in each country are growing mostly independently of the other. As each country invests in EV charging infrastructure in the years ahead, stakeholders in China and the United States may be able to learn from each other.
1. US policy makers could learn from the Chinese government’s multiyear planning with respect EV charging infrastructure.
In 2015, the Chinese central government established five-year goals for the deployment of EV charging infrastructure. Such multiyear planning—consistent with broader economic planning under the Chinese government’s five-year plans—sends important signals to multiple stakeholders. Policy making in the United States often tends to be more episodic and short- term. For complex infrastructure development involving both the public and private sectors, medium- and long-term planning can provide important benefits. The multiyear nature of China’s EV charging policies may provide helpful lessons to US policy makers.
2. Chinese policymakers could learn from the United States with respect to siting of public EV chargers.
Many public EV charging posts in China have been built as a result of mandates that require companies to build EV chargers whether or not those chargers are well-located or likely to be
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used. This has led to economic waste, with EV chargers built in inconvenient or inaccessible locations. In the United States, in contrast, siting is more likely to be based on market dynamics. Chinese policy makers could learn from the United States approach, letting the market play more of a role in public EV charging siting decisions.
3. US utilities could learn from China’s investment in real-time data collection on EV charging.
China State Grid collects real-time data on EV charging throughout most of China, tracking the number of EV chargers and electricity they use. No comparable data platforms exist in the United States. Data analytics are likely to enhance the value of EV charging infrastructure. US utilities could benefit from additional investment in data collection and sharing to better understand nationwide EV charging trends in the United States while respecting driver privacy concerns.
4. Chinese policy makers could learn from US demand response programs.
The potential for demand response programs in China is currently limited by the structure of wholesale power markets. However, as power market reform proceeds, opportunities for demand response may grow. In the medium- and long-term, demand response programs and dynamic charging of EVs could have immense value in balancing electricity markets and providing needed flexibility to the Chinese grid. Chinese policy makers and grid officials could benefit from closely following US demand response programs in California, Vermont and other states considering such programs.
5. Both countries could learn from the other with respect to EV business models.
In China today, few shopping malls or business owners are offering free EV charging as an amenity to attract customers—a model that has grown rapidly in the United States. Although parking may simply be too valuable to offer as an amenity in many Chinese cities, in some the EV-charging-as-amenity model may work well. As EV charging business models evolve rapidly in both countries in the years ahead, stakeholders in each country may be able to learn by keeping a close eye on developments in the other.
A comparison of EV charging trends in China and the United States reveals similarities and differences:
Policies
●● Governments in both countries promote electric vehicles and electric vehicle charging to achieve a range of social objectives, including lower emissions, energy security and economic development.
●● In keeping with its state-guided approach to economic development, China’s central government plays a far more significant role in EV charging policy than the US federal government.
●● In both countries, subnational governments (provinces, states and municipalities) play important roles in promoting electric vehicles and EV charging. In China, many urban EV policies are implemented under guidance from the central government. In the United
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States, many cities and states have taken the lead from the outset. The Zero Emissions Vehicle mandate, led by California, has played a central role in EV commercialization in the United States.
●● Both countries are experimenting with different models for pricing electricity used to power EVs. Time-of-use electricity rates are common for commercial EV charging in China and California. Time-of-use residential electricity tariff options are growing for EV owners in the United States. California and Vermont are experimenting with demand response programs that could aggregate hundreds of vehicles for balancing the needs of the grid, and other states are considering similar programs.
Infrastructure
●● EV charging infrastructure is growing rapidly in both China and the United States – although more rapidly in China. In 2018, the number of EV charging posts reported by the Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance grew by almost 80%. In the United States, the number of non-residential EV charging posts reported by the U.S. Department of Energy grew by roughly 33%.
●● In both countries, most EV charging is done at home. In China, many EV drivers lack access to dedicated residential parking or home charging.
●● In China there is a single standard for fast charging of electric vehicles. In the United States, three fast-charge standards compete. (Most U.S. experts interviewed for this report thought the lack of a single fast-charging standard will not be a significant barrier to market development in the United States.)
Business models
●● China and the United States both have extensive independent EV charging networks. In China, experts we interviewed believe these networks will remain unprofitable until EVs become more widespread. In the United States, these networks have more ways to obtain revenue, including partnering with retailers and filling stations, advertising and participating in demand response programs (although EV demand response programs are at an early stage).
●● China’s utility market structure—with just two grid utilities—has facilitated rapid deployment of EV charging infrastructure. The motivations leading Chinese and US utilities to invest EV charging infrastructure differ. Such spending by China’s state- owned grid companies is considered a social responsibility under government mandates. US utilities may be investing to receive regulated returns, build up future demand for their product or promote a green image.
●● In China, many shopping malls offer public EV charging, but lack of parking space and insufficient means of collaboration between charging providers and retailers is an obstacle. In the United States, the retail and shopping center industry has begun to offer EV charging—often for free—as an amenity to attract customers and encourage increased spending.
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The EV charging industry is young. Its future will be shaped by many factors, including potential disruptions to driving patterns by ride hailing, autonomous vehicles and other technologies.
●● If future driving patterns resemble those today—dominated by privately owned vehicles with limited autonomy parked much of the day—most EV charging may continue to take place at home and workplaces.
●● On the other hand, if driving patterns or vehicle ownership change—with ride hailing, mobility-as-a-service and autonomous vehicles dominating vehicle usage—fast chargers at remote locations may become the norm. Home and workplace charging, as well as charging on streets or in municipal garages, may recede in importance.
●● In addition, breakthroughs in wireless charging or battery-swapping technologies could disrupt current EV charging models.
The uncertainties and path dependence associated with certain decisions create challenges for policy makers and those committing capital to the industry. Several of those interviewed for this study recommended that policy makers and businesses focus on near-term market needs, especially for facilitating residential and workplace charging, while not neglecting fast charging along highways and in city centers. “Right now, we need more of everything” is a theme expressed by many experts.
As the EV charging industry grows in the years ahead, better understanding of the approaches in China and the United States can help policy makers, businesses and other stakeholders in both countries and around the world.
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NOTES
Notes for pp. 8-10
1. USD/CNY Historical Data, https://www.investing.com/currencies/usd-cny-historical-data.
2. “2018年汽车销量下降2.8% 新能源汽车销量保持高速增长,” (“Car sales fell by 2.8% in 2018. New energy vehicle sales maintained rapid growth.”), Xinhua News (January 15, 2019), http:// www.xinhuanet.com/fortune/2019-01/15/c_1123989803.htm. In China the term “new energy vehicle” (新能源汽车) is used for plug-in electric vehicles (all-electric and plug-in hybrids) as well as fuel cell vehicles. Almost all new energy vehicles to date are plug-in electric vehicles, although the number of fuel cell vehicles is increasing, reaching 1,500 in sales in 2018.
3. Huang Jian, “2018年小型载客汽车保有量首次突破2亿辆” (“In 2018, the number of small passenger cars exceeded 200 million for the first time”), PCauto.com.cn (January 11, 2019), https://www.pcauto.com.cn/news/1439/14395984.html.
4. “Monthly Plug-in EV Scorecard,” Inside EVs, https://insideevs.com/monthly-plug-in-sales- scorecard/ (accessed January 12, 2019); “USA - Flash report, Sales volume, 2018,” https:// www.marklines.com/en/statistics/flash_sales/salesfig_usa_2018 (accessed January 12, 2019).
5. “Electric Drive Sales,” Electric Drive Transportation Association, https://electricdrive.org/ index.php?ht=d/sp/i/20952/pid/20952 (accessed January 12, 2019).
6. Michael J. Coren, “China is selling more electric vehicles than the US—and it’s not even close,” Quartz (May 3, 2017), https://qz.com/972897/china-is-selling-more-electric- vehicles-than-the-us-and-its-not-even-close/; Jeff Cobb, “China Takes Lead As Number One In Plug-in Vehicle Sales,” HybridCars.com (December 27, 2016), http://www. hybridcars.com/china-takes-lead-as-number-one-in-plug-in-vehicle-sales/; “EV Sales 2017,” EV-sales (January 2018), http://ev-sales.blogspot.ca/2018/01/china-december-2017.html.
7. See Justin Hughes, “Neighborhood Electric Vehicles: A Different Kind of Electric Car,” The Drive (March 27, 2018), http://www.thedrive.com/tech/19658/neighborhood-electric- vehicles-a-different-kind-of-electric-car; Dave Hurst and Clint Wheelock, “Neighborhood Electric Vehicles,” Pike Research (2011), https://web.archive.org/web/20140109034216/ http://www.navigantresearch.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/NEV-11- Executive-Summary.pdf.
8. Qian Zhecheng, “ China to Roll Out Stricter Standards for Electric Bikes,” Sixth Tone (January 17, 2018), http://www.sixthtone.com/news/1001569/china-to-roll-out-stricter- standards-for-electric-bikes.
9. Edward Benjamin, “US Market: When Will E-bike Sales Really Start?” Bike Europe (May 15, 2017), http://www.bike-eu.com/sales-trends/nieuws/2017/05/us-market-when-will-e-bike- sales-really-start-10130042.
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Notes for pp. 11-12
10. https://insideevs.com/monthly-plug-in-sales-scorecard/, “6.3% Plug-In Vehicle Market Share In China! — CleanTechnica Electric Car Sales Report,” Cleantechnica (December 24, 2018), https://cleantechnica.com/2018/12/24/6-3-plug-in-vehicle-market-share-in-china- cleantechnica-electric-car-sales-report/. Sales-weighted average range based on author calculation, normalized to United States Environmental Protection Agency range standards.
11. “2017 World Oil Outlook 2040,” Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (October 2017), http://www.opec.org/opec_web/flipbook/WOO2017/WOO2017/assets/ common/downloads/WOO%202017.pdf, see page 113.
12. “World Energy Outlook 2017,” International Energy Agency (2017), https://www.iea. org/weo2017/#section-1-4; Matthew Nitch Smith, “The number of cars worldwide is set to double by 2040,” World Economic Forum, April 2016, https://www.weforum.org/ agenda/2016/04/the-number-of-cars-worldwide-is-set-to-double-by-2040.
13. “Global EV Outlook 2018,” International Energy Agency (2018), https://www.iea.org/ gevo2018/.
14. “BP Energy Outlook,” BP, 2018, https://www.bp.com/content/dam/bp/en/corporate/pdf/ energy-economics/energy-outlook/bp-energy-outlook-2018.pdf.
15. “On the Charge,” Morgan Stanley (August 31, 2017), https://www.docdroid.net/A5uNOPX/ on-the-charge.pdf#page=11.
16. “2018 Electric Vehicle Outlook,” Bloomberg New Energy Finance (2018), https://about. bnef.com/electric-vehicle-outlook/.
17. Reda Cherif et al., “Riding the Energy Transition: Oil Beyond 2040,” International Monetary Fund, IMF Working Paper WP/17/120 (2017), https://www.imf.org/~/media/Files/ Publications/WP/2017/wp17120.ashx. The methodology relies in part on extrapolating EV adoption rates based on the rates at which gasoline cars replaced horses and buggies in the early 20th century, which may not be an apt comparison.
18. James Arbib and Tony Seba, “Rethinking Transportation 2020–2030,” RethinkX (May 2017); “New report: Due to major transportation disruption, 95% of U.S. car miles will be traveled in self-driving, electric, shared vehicles by 2030,” RethinkX (2017), https://www. rethinkx.com/press-release/2017/5/3/new-report-due-to-major-transportation-disruption- 95-of-us-car-miles-will-be-traveled-in-self-driving-electric-shared-vehicles-by-2030.
19. Detlev Mohr et al., “Automotive revolution—perspective towards 2030,” McKinsey & Company (January 2016), https://www.mckinsey.com/.
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Notes for pp. 12-13
20. “China targets 35 million vehicle sales by 2025, NEVs to make up one-fifth,” Reuters (April 25, 2017), https://www.reuters.com/article/us-china-autos-electric/china-targets-35-million- vehicle-sales-by-2025-nevs-to-make-up-one-fifth-idUSKBN17R086. Dale Hall and Nic Lutsey, “Emerging best practices for electric vehicle charging infrastructure,” The International Council on Clean Transportation (January 2017), https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/ publications/EV-charging-best-practices_ICCT-white-paper_04102017_vF.pdf. “三部委关于印 发《汽车产业中长期发展规划》的通知,” Ministry of Industry and Information Technology (April 25, 2017), http://www.miit.gov.cn/n1146290/n4388791/c5600433/content.html.
21. Chris Bruce, “China wants 40% of new car sales to be electric by 2030,” Motor1.com (November 1, 2016), https://www.motor1.com/news/127872/china-ev-autonomous- forecast-2030/.
22. Qian Zhang et al., “Electric Vehicle Market Penetration and Impacts on Energy Consumption and CO2 Emission in the Future: Beijing Case,” Energies (February 15, 2017), https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313787597_Electric_Vehicle_Market_ Penetration_and_Impacts_on_Energy_Consumption_and_CO2_Emission_in_the_Future_ Beijing_Case.
23. “Electric Vehicle Outlook 2017,” Bloomberg New Energy Finance (July 2017), https://data. bloomberglp.com/bnef/sites/14/2017/07/BNEF_EVO_2017_ExecutiveSummary.pdf.
24. “Electric Vehicle Growth in China set to shrink oil demand, devalue oil companies,” World Wildlife Fund (December 12, 2016), https://www.wwf.org.hk/en/?17280/.
25. Dan Cohen, “Electric car sales predictions are all over the map,” The Hill (January 24, 2017), http://thehill.com/blogs/pundits-blog/transportation/315958-forecasts-for-electric- car-sales-are-all-over-map.
26. “Annual Energy Outlook 2018,” US Energy Information Administration (2018), at p.113–114, https://www.eia.gov/outlooks/aeo/pdf/AEO2018.pdf.
27. Jeffrey Rissman, “The Future of Electric Vehicles in the U.S.,” Energy Innovation (September 13, 2017), http://energyinnovation.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/2017-09- 13-Future-of-EVs-Research-Note_FINAL.pdf.
28. “Electric Vehicle Outlook 2017,” Bloomberg New Energy Finance (July 2017), https://data. bloomberglp.com/bnef/sites/14/2017/07/BNEF_EVO_2017_ExecutiveSummary.pdf.
29. Shiqi Ou et al., “A Study of China’s Explosive Growth in the Plug-in Electric Vehicle Market,” Oak Ridge National Laboratory (January 2017) at p.37, https://info.ornl.gov/sites/ publications/files/Pub72210.pdf.
30. Hongyang Cui, “Subsidy fraud leads to reforms for China’s EV market,” International Council on Clean Transportation (May 30, 2017), https://www.theicct.org/blogs/staff/ subsidy-fraud-reforms-china-ev-market.
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Notes for p. 13
31. Maya Ben Dror and Feng An, “Government policy and regulatory framework for passenger NEVs in China,” Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, 112 (March 2018), https://www. oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/OEF-112.pdf.
32. The test cycle is under revision. “CATARC “China Cycle” verification plan seminar was held in Tianjin,” China Automotive Technology and Research Center (CATARC) (January 25, 2017), http://www.catarc.ac.cn/ac_en/content/20170125/22612.html.
33. For the specific requirements, see 新能源汽车推广补贴方案及产品技术要求“ ” at “关于调整完善 新能源汽车推广应用财政补贴政策的通知,” Ministry of Finance (February 12, 2018), http://jjs. mof.gov.cn/zhengwuxinxi/zhengcefagui/201802/t20180213_2815574.html. For an English summary, see Fred Lambert, “China updates its electric vehicle incentives to favor longer range cars,” Electrek (February 14, 2018), https://electrek.co/2018/02/14/china-updates- electric-vehicle-incentives-longer-range-cars/.
34. “关于调整完善新能源汽车推广应用财政补贴政策的通知,” Ministry of Finance (February 12, 2018), http://jjs.mof.gov.cn/zhengwuxinxi/zhengcefagui/201802/t20180213_2815574.html. Tim Dixon, “Chinese Electric Vehicle Subsidy Changes In 2018—The Details,” Cleantechnica (January 6, 2018), https://cleantechnica.com/2018/01/06/chinese-electric-vehicle-subsidy- changes-2018-details/.
35. Nora Manthly, “Change of mind: China to retain local EV subsidies,” Electrive (February 12, 2018), https://www.electrive.com/2018/02/12/change-mind-china-retain-local-ev-subsidies/. See also “关于调整新能源汽车推广应用财政补贴政策的通知,” Ministry of Finance (December 29, 2016), http://jjs.mof.gov.cn/zhengwuxinxi/tongzhigonggao/201612/t20161229_2508628.html.
36. “2020年后电动汽车财政补贴将退出,” China Energy Network (January 29, 2018), http://www. china-nengyuan.com/news/120246.html.
37. Wang Keju, “ Beijing limits new car plates, boosts new energy vehicles“ China Daily (December 15, 2017), http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/a/201712/15/ WS5a33819aa3108bc8c6734ecb.html.
38. Tycho De Feijter, “The Boom Goes On: China’s Electric Car Sales Up 162% So Far This Year,” Forbes (July 22, 2016), https://www.forbes.com/sites/tychodefeijter/2016/07/22/ and-the-boom-goes-on-chinas-electric-car-sales-up-162-in-h1/.
39. Zhang Chun, “Beijing limits on car registration boost electric vehicles,” Climate Change News (November 28, 2016), http://www.climatechangenews.com/2016/11/28/beijing-limits- on-car-registration-boost-electric-vehicles/.
40. Paul Gao et al., “Supercharging the Development of Electric Vehicles in China,” McKinsey China (April 2015), http://www.mckinseychina.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/ McKinsey-China_Electric-Vehicle-Report_April-2015-EN.pdf.
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Notes for p. 14
41. “China’s new energy vehicle mandate policy (final rule),” International Council on Clean Transportation (January 2018), https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ ICCT_China-NEV-mandate_policy-update_20180111.pdf.
42. “深圳市人民政府办公厅关于印发2018年“深圳蓝”可持续行动计划的通知” (April 21, 2018), http:// www.szhec.gov.cn/xxgk/qt/tzgg/201805/t20180510_11836478.htm.
43. “习近平：发展新能源汽车是迈向汽车强国的必由之路,” Xinhua (May 25, 2014), http://jjckb. xinhuanet.com/2014-05/25/content_505867.htm. “习近平强调，汽车行业是市场很大、技术含 量和管理精细化程度很高的行业，发展新能源汽车是我国从汽车大国迈向汽车强国的必由之路，要加大 研发力度，认真研究市场，用好用活政策，开发适应各种需求的产品，使之成为一个强劲的增长点。”
44. In early 2018, China indicated it would remove some of these requirements. Andrew Wong, “Tesla could benefit from looser restrictions in China, says auto analyst,” CNBC (April 18, 2018), https://www.cnbc.com/2018/04/18/tesla-could-benefit-from-the-cap-removal-on- ev-ventures-in-china.html.
45. Jeff Barron, “China surpassed the United States as the world’s largest crude oil importer in 2017,” Energy Information Administration (February 5, 2018), https://www.eia.gov/ todayinenergy/detail.php?id=34812
46. “China Oil and Gas,” US Department of Commerce, export.gov, July 25, 2017, https:// www.export.gov/article?id=China-Oil-and-Gas. “China,” The Observatory of Economic Complexity, MIT, accessed February 17, 2018, https://atlas.media.mit.edu/en/profile/ country/chn/. Crude oil represented 8.8% and refined petroleum 1.6% of imports in 2016.
47. See “环境保护部发布《2016年中国机动车环境管理年报》,” China Ministry of Environmental Protection (June 2, 2016), http://www.mep.gov.cn/gkml/hbb/qt/201606/ t20160602_353152.htm. “按车型分类，全国货车排放的NOx和PM明显高于客车，其中重型货车是 主要贡献者；而客车CO和HC排放量则明显高于货车。按燃料分类，全国柴油车排放的NOx接近汽车排 放总量的70%，PM超过90%；而汽油车CO和HC排放量则较高，CO超过汽车排放总量的80％，HC 超过70%。”.
64 | CENTER ON GLOBAL ENERGY POLICY | COLUMBIA SIPA ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES
Notes for p. 14
48. Ye Wu et al., “Impact Assessment of Vehicle Electrification on Regional Air Quality in China and Climate Impact Assessment of Electric Vehicles in 2050,” Tsinghua University (2016); Hewu Wang et al., “Energy and environmental life-cycle assessment of passenger car electrification based on Beijing driving patterns,” China Technology Sciences (April 2015), doi:10.1007/s11431-015-5786-3. Some studies, such as Xinyu Chen et al., “Impacts of fleet types and charging modes for electric vehicles on emissions under different penetrations of wind power,” Nature Energy 3 (May 2018), suggest EV charging might increase absolute emissions depending on charging times and source of electricity. The issue is complex, and sophisticated air modeling is required to estimate the impact on urban air quality. Many coal plants are located in remote, sparsely populated regions, and much of the urban particulate haze and ground-level ozone in cities like Beijing results from secondary reactions between local and regional pollutants. Therefore, switching to electricity not only shifts the location of emissions away from populated areas but also affects local and regional air chemistry in ways that reduce the formation of secondary particulates in populated areas.
49. “Electric Vehicles: Tax Credits and Other Incentives,” US Department of Energy, accessed February 19, 2018, https://energy.gov/eere/electricvehicles/electric-vehicles-tax-credits- and-other-incentives; Jieyi Lu, “Comparing U.S. and Chinese Electric Vehicle Policies,” Energy and Environmental Studies Institute (EESI) (February 28, 2018), http://www.eesi. org/articles/view/comparing-u.s.-and-chinese-electric-vehicle-policies.
50. See Justin Worland, “These Fuel Economy Regulations Mean You May Soon Be Buying an Electric Car,” Time (July 18, 2016), http://time.com/4402090/epa-cafe-standards-climate- change/; “Federal Vehicle Standards,” Center for Climate and Energy Solutions, accessed May 28, 2018, https://www.c2es.org/content/regulating-transportation-sector-carbon- emissions/. The Trump administration is proposing to roll back fuel efficiency standards for 2022–2025 model years. See Camillle von Kaenel, “Pruitt did it. Here’s why he’s loosening the car rules,” Energy & Environment News (April 3, 2018), https://www.eenews.net/ stories/1060077987.“On-Street Electric Vehicle Charging Resources for the City of New Orleans,” Southeast Louisiana Clean Fuels Partnership, accessed February 9, 2018, http:// cityofno.granicus.com/MetaViewer.php?view_id=7&clip_id=2322&meta_id=323753.
51. “State Incentives,” Plug In America, accessed February 19, 2018, https://pluginamerica. org/why-go-plug-in/state-federal-incentives/. See also Zachary Shahan, “EV Incentives by State,” EV Obsession (February 15, 2016), https://evobsession.com/ev-incentives-by- state/. For Colorado, see “Plug-In Electric Vehicle (PEV) Tax Credit,” Alternative Fuels Data Center, US Department of Energy, accessed February 19, 2018, https://www.afdc. energy.gov/laws/11702. For Massachusetts, see Massachusetts Plug-In Electric Vehicle (PEV) Rebates,” Alternative Fuels Data Center, US Department of Energy, accessed February 19, 2018, https://www.afdc.energy.gov/laws/11345. Chris Joyner, “Here’s why electric car sales are plummeting in Georgia,” The Atlanta Journal-Constitution (January 12, 2017), https://politics.myajc.com/news/state--regional-govt--politics/here-why- electric-car-sales-are-plummeting-georgia/lNGjfnDMALGkv2iUzwwXIO/.
ENERGYPOLICY.COLUMBIA.EDU | FEBRUARY 2019 | 65 ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES
Notes for p. 14-19
52. Lia Cattaneo, “Plug-In Electric Vehicle Policy: Evaluating the Effectiveness of State Policies for Increasing Deployment,” Center for American Progress (June 7, 2018), https:// www.americanprogress.org/issues/green/reports/2018/06/07/451722/plug-electric- vehicle-policy/.
53. “What is ZEV?” Union of Concerned Scientists (October 31, 2016), https://www.ucsusa. org/clean-vehicles/california-and-western-states/what-is-zev#.WoqKN4NuaUk; “EV Market Share by State,” EV Adoption, accessed February 19, 2018, http://evadoption.com/ ev-market-share/ev-market-share-state/; https://www.zevstates.us/.
54. Jieyi Lu, “Comparing U.S. and Chinese Electric Vehicle Policies,” Environmental and Energy Study Institute (EESI) (February 28, 2018), http://www.eesi.org/articles/view/ comparing-u.s.-and-chinese-electric-vehicle-policies.
55. China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance, Annual Report (January 21, 2019), https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/k45HLX5iv3PGIC_nJoEGaw; Liu Wenjia, “ 信息发布丨2018年12月全国电动汽车充电基础设施运行情况,” China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (January 15, 2019), https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/JQ9_ rmaSailqtM7SIQ4e8Q. For historical figures, see 信息发布：“ 2017年度全国电动汽车充电基 础设施推广应用情况,” China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (January 12, 2018). Historical data also gathered by the authors during a visit to the State Grid electric vehicle charging dispatch center in Beijing, March 28, 2018.
56. For provincial figures, see 充电联盟充电设施统计汇总“ ,” China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (January 14, 2019), http://www.evcipa.org.cn/. See also Christopher Marquis et al., “China’s Quest to Adopt Electric Vehicles,” Stanford Social Innovation Review (Spring 2013), http://www.hbs.edu/faculty/Publication%20Files/ Electric%20Vehicles_89176bc1-1aee-4c6e-829f-bd426beaf5d3.pdf.
57. For provincial figures, see 充电联盟充电设施统计汇总“ ,” China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (January 14, 2019), http://www.evcipa.org.cn/.
58. Author observations in Beijing and Shenzhen, 2018.
59. Interview data; “2018年，这6款电动车将率先进入400公里时代,” Bit Auto (January 3, 2018), http://news.bitauto.com/hao/wenzhang/467399.
60. Figures obtained from visit to State Grid EV charging dispatch center in Beijing, March 28, 2018. Alex Grant, “Beijing-Shanghai charging corridor opens,” EV Fleet World (2015), http://evfleetworld.co.uk/beijing-shanghai-charging-corridor-opens/.
61. Kyle Field, “Current EVSE Market & Innovation Trends, Part 1,” Cleantechnica (February 4, 2018), https://cleantechnica.com/2018/02/04/current-evse-market-innovation-trends- part-1/. “Adjusting for respondents who did not own a plug-in vehicle shows that 64% (just under two-thirds) of plug-in vehicle owners installed a Level 2 EV charging station.”
66 | CENTER ON GLOBAL ENERGY POLICY | COLUMBIA SIPA ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES
Notes for pp. 19-21
62. Michael Nicholas, Dale Hall and Nic Lutsey, Quantifying the Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Gap Across U.S. Markets, International Council on Clean Transportation (January 2019) at p.9, https://www.theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/US_ charging_Gap_20190124.pdf, “Charging at Home,” US Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, accessed May 28, 2018,https://www.energy. gov/eere/electricvehicles/charging-home.
63. “Alternative Fueling Stations,” Alternative Fuels Data Center, US Department of Energy, accessed January 16, 2019, https://afdc.energy.gov/data_download. For historical data, see “The State of the Charge,” Electric Vehicle Charging Association (October 2017), http://www.evassociation.org/uploads/5/8/0/5/58052251/evca_2017_state_of_the_ charge.pdf.
64. Peter Slowik and Nic Lutsey, “Expanding the Electric Vehicle Market by U.S. City,” International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) (July 2017), https://www.theicct.org/ sites/default/files/publications/US-Cities-EVs_ICCT-White-Paper_25072017_vF.pdf.
65. “Alternative Fueling Stations,” Alternative Fuels Data Center, US Department of Energy, accessed January 16, 2018, https://afdc.energy.gov/data_download.
66. Interview data; “Charging at Home,” US Department of Energy, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, accessed March 28, 2017,https://www.energy.gov/eere/ electricvehicles/charging-home.
67. Bobbie Mixon, “Improving electric vehicle sales may require solving unique chicken and egg problem,” National Science Foundation (January 29, 2015), https://www.nsf.gov/ discoveries/disc_summ.jsp?cntn_id=133947. But see Jeff Allen, “Let Us Bury the Chicken and Egg,” Forth Mobility (August 25, 2017), https://forthmobility.org/news/HotDog&Bun.
68. Interview data. For comparison, see survey results from “充电联盟充电设施统计汇总201805,” China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (June 11, 2018), www. evcipa.org.cn; while the survey results suggest only 31% of EV buyers lacked access to charging, this survey included fleet and commercial EV buyers.
69. Interview data. However, in 2015 the government and industry coalition did make progress establishing a home charging installation protocol and standard. “国务院办公 厅印发《关于加快电动汽车充电基础设施建设的指导意见》,” Xinhua (October 9, 2015), http:// www.gov.cn/xinwen/2015-10/09/content_2944047.htm. “充电桩进小区政策已明确“物 业不可拒绝”,” Sina Real Estate News (October 26, 2015), http://news.dichan.sina.com. cn/2015/10/26/1130371.html.
ENERGYPOLICY.COLUMBIA.EDU | FEBRUARY 2019 | 67 ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES
Notes for pp. 21-24
70. While we find the evidence compelling in favor of the importance of charging infrastructure to consumer EV purchase decisions, scholars continue to debate the topic. See S. Hardman et al., “A review of consumer preferences of and interactions with electric vehicle charging infrastructure,” Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment 62 (2018), https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1361920918301330.
71. Zachary Shahan, “Superfast Charging For Big Auto Arrives! New 150–350 kW Charging Station From ABB,” Cleantechnica (October 3, 2017), https://cleantechnica. com/2017/10/03/superfast-charging-big-auto-arrives-new-150-350-kw-charging-station- abb-hot/.
72. Patty Paul, “Presentation: POU’s and Transportation Electrification,” Nissan (October 4, 2016), at p.12, http://docketpublic.energy.ca.gov/PublicDocuments/16-TRAN-01/ TN213890_20161004T132206_Presentation__POU%27s_and_Transportation_ Electrification.pdf.
73. “Overcoming Barriers to Deployment of Plug-in Electric Vehicles,” National Academies Press (2015), https://www.nap.edu/download/21725.
74. “BAIC BJEV Announces ‘Optimus Prime Plan’ Combining Battery Swapping, Energy Storage, and Solar Models,” China Energy Storage Alliance (December 11, 2017), http:// en.cnesa.org/featured-stories/2017/12/11/baic-bjev-announces-optimus-prime-plan- combing-battery-swapping-energy-storage-and-solar-models; Li Dongmei, “China’s BAIC Group Launches EV Battery-Swap Station Network In Beijing,” China Money Network (November 3, 2016), https://www.chinamoneynetwork.com/2016/11/03/chinas-baic- group-launches-ev-battery-swap-station-network-in-beijing; “Hangzhou to build more EV charging infrastructure,” China Daily (May 16, 2018), http://www.chinadaily.com. cn/a/201805/16/WS5afc1e07a3103f6866ee8c65.html.
75. “电动汽车充电基础设施发展指南: 2015-2020年,” China National Development and Reform Commission (October 19, 2015), http://www.ndrc.gov.cn/zcfb/zcfbtz/201511/ W020151117576336784393.pdf. See Shiqi Ou et al., “A Study of China’s Explosive Growth in the Plug-in Electric Vehicle Market,” Oak Ridge National Laboratory, (January 2017) at p.54, https://info.ornl.gov/sites/publications/files/Pub72210.pdf.
76. “关于“十三五”新能源汽车充电设施奖励政策及加强新能源汽车推广应用公开征求意见的通 知,” Ministry of Finance (December 15, 2015), http://jjs.mof.gov.cn/zhengwuxinxi/ tongzhigonggao/201512/t20151215_1616225.html.
77. Eric Wood, Clément Rames, Matteo Muratori, Sesha Raghavan, and Marc Melaina, “National Plug-In Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Analysis,” US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (September 2017), https://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy17osti/69031.pdf.
68 | CENTER ON GLOBAL ENERGY POLICY | COLUMBIA SIPA ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES
Notes for pp. 24-27
78. Eric Wood, Sesha Raghavan, Clément Rames, Joshua Eichman, and Marc Melaina, “Regional Charging Infrastructure for Plug-In Electric Vehicles: A Case Study of Massachusetts,” US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (January 2017), https://www. nrel.gov/docs/fy17osti/67436.pdf.
79. Abdulkadir Bedir et al., “California Plug-In Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Projections: 2017-2025,” California Energy Commission (March 2018), https://www.nrel.gov/docs/ fy18osti/70893.pdf.
80. “DC Charging Map for the United States,” Navigant Research (2016), https://www. navigantresearch.com/research/dc-charging-map-for-the-united-states.
81. Dale Hall and Nic Lutsey, “Emerging Best Practices for EV Charging Infrastructure,” International Council on Clean Transportation (October 2017), http://www.theicct.org/sites/ default/files/publications/EV-charging-best-practices_ICCT-white-paper_04102017_vF.pdf.
82. Eric Wood, Sesha Raghavan, Clément Rames, Joshua Eichman, and Marc Melaina, “Regional Charging Infrastructure for Plug-In Electric Vehicles: A Case Study of Massachusetts,” US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (January 2017), https://www.nrel.gov/docs/ fy17osti/67436.pdf. “Methodologies range from simplified economic models of charging behavior at the individual level to complex optimization routines seeking to minimize various objective functions. This is likely the most fertile area for further research as validation using real-world data on charging behavior becomes available.”
83. “国务院办公厅关于加快电动汽车, 充电基础设施建设的指导意见 [Guiding Opinions on Accelerating the Construction of Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure],” State Council (September 15, 2015), http://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2015-10/09/content_10214.htm.
84. “电动汽车充电基础设施发展指南: 2015-2020年,” China National Development and Reform Commission (October 19, 2015), http://www.ndrc.gov.cn/zcfb/zcfbtz/201511/ W020151117576336784393.pdf. See Shiqi Ou et al., “A Study of China’s Explosive Growth in the Plug-in Electric Vehicle Market,” Oak Ridge National Laboratory (January 2017) at p.54, https://info.ornl.gov/sites/publications/files/Pub72210.pdf.
85. “多部门联合发布充电桩接口及通信协议等5项国家标准:系列新国标助电动汽车提挡加速,” China National Energy Administration (January 5, 2016), http://www.nea.gov.cn/2016- 01/05/c_134978578.htm.
86. “关于“十三五”新能源汽车充电基础设施奖励政策及加强新能源汽车推广应用的通知,” Ministry of Science and Technology (January 20, 2016), http://www.most.gov.cn/tztg/201601/ t20160120_123772.htm.
87. “关于加快居民区电动汽车充电基础设施建设的通知,” National Development and Reform Commission (September 2016), http://www.ndrc.gov.cn/zcfb/zcfbtz/201609/ t20160912_818178.html.
ENERGYPOLICY.COLUMBIA.EDU | FEBRUARY 2019 | 69 ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES
Notes for pp. 27-28
88. Shiqi Ou et al., “A Study of China’s Explosive Growth in the Plug-in Electric Vehicle Market,” Oak Ridge National Laboratory (January 2017) at p.40, https://info.ornl.gov/ sites/publications/files/Pub72210.pdf.
89. Qu Jian, “30多城市增加充电桩补贴 电动车充电桩建设没“过度”,” Technology Daily (August 18, 2018), http://www.nea.gov.cn/2017-08/18/c_136537108.htm.
90. “广州市人民政府办公厅关于印发广州市新能源汽车推广应用管理暂行办法的通知,” Guangzhou City Government (November 28, 2014), http://zwgk.gd.gov.cn/007482532/201412/ t20141209_559123.html.
91. “北京新政策！新建停车场必须预留充电条件,” Sohu (August 8, 2017), http://www.sohu. com/a/168341760_782622.
92. Interview data.
93. “电动汽车充电价格调查：高电价伤了谁,” Sina Caijing (July 11, 2017), http://finance.sina.com. cn/money/future/indu/2017-07-11/doc-ifyhweua4752688.shtml; “27省市电动汽车充电服务 费对比,” China Number One Electricity Net (March 21, 2016), http://www.cnenergy.org/ jp_482/qc/201603/t20160321_276068.html.
94. Wang Jun, “北京市新能源汽车出新规 财政补助政策将另行研究制定,” BJ News (February 27, 2018), http://www.bjnews.com.cn/news/2018/02/27/477095.html. “北京新能源车取 消备案制 充电价格同步放开,” People’s Daily (March 2, 2018), http://auto.people.com.cn/ n1/2018/0302/c1005-29842924.html.
95. Li Yi, “福建完善电动汽车充电价格 每度电收费一元,” China5e (June 12, 2017), https://www. china5e.com/news/news-990908-1.html.
96. “电动汽车充电价格调查：高电价伤了谁,” Sina Caijing (July 11, 2017º, http://finance.sina.com. cn/money/future/indu/2017-07-11/doc-ifyhweua4752688.shtml.
97. Liu Jian et al., “The Potential of Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles in Shanghai,” Natural Resources Defense Council (September 2016); Rosa Ovshinsky and Frederich Kahrl, “电 动汽车 . 需求响应 . 可再生能源,” Natural Resources Defense Council (December 3, 2016), http://nrdc.cn/Public/uploads/2016-12-03/5842cdcf9ab56.pdf.
98. Peter Cappers et al., “Time-of-Use as a Default Rate for Residential Customers: Issues and Insights,” Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, LBNL-1005704 (June 2016), https:// www.smartgrid.gov/files/lbnl_1005704_0.pdf.
99. V. S. K. Murthy Balijepalli et al., “Review of Demand Response under Smart Grid Paradigm,” IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies—India (2011), http://desismartgrid.com/wp- content/uploads/2012/07/review_of_demand_response_vskmurthy.pdf.
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Notes for pp. 29-31
100. See https://electrek.co/2018/02/09/ev-charging-credit-extended-2018/; “Key Federal Legislation,” Alternative Fuels Data Center, US Department of Energy, accessed February 21, 2018, at https://www.afdc.energy.gov/laws/key_legislation;
101. Bobby Magill, “U.S. Designates Electric Vehicle Charging Corridors,” Climate Central, November 3, 2016, http://www.climatecentral.org/news/us-designates-electric-vehicle- charging-corridors-20842.
102. “Fixing America’s Surface Transportation Act-Designation of Alternative Fuel Corridors,” US Federal Highway Administration, July 22, 2016, https://www.federalregister.gov/ documents/2016/07/22/2016-17132/fixing-americas-surface-transportation-act- designation-of-alternative-fuel-corridors; Christian Roselund, “U.S. government makes up to $4.5 billion in loan guarantees available for EV infrastructure,” PV Magazine (July 23, 2016), https://pv-magazine-usa.com/2016/07/23/u-s-government-makes-up-to-4-5- billion-in-loan-guarantees-available-for-ev-infrastructure/.
103. See Alternative Fuels Data Center, https://afdc.energy.gov/laws; Suzanne Guinn, “EVSE Rebates and Tax Credits, by State,” Clipper Creek (November 2, 2018), https://www. clippercreek.com/evse-rebates-and-tax-credits-by-state/; Mia Yamauchi, “Updated 2017 incentives for electric vehicles and EVSE,” Plugless Power, accessed February 9, 2018, at https://www.pluglesspower.com/learn/updated-2017-incentives-electric-vehicles-evse- state-federal-tax-credits-grants-loans-rebates/.
104. “New Electric Vehicle Chargers Installed at Los Angeles Area State Parks,” EE Online (September 19, 2017), https://electricenergyonline.com/article/energy/category/energy- storage/143/656209/new-electric-vehicle-chargers-installed-at-los-angeles-area-state- parks.html; Audrey Dutton, “Charging ahead: Treasure Valley gets more places to plug in your car,” Idaho Statesman (November 16, 2016), http://www.idahostatesman.com/news/ business/article117616553.html.
105. J. R. DeShazo et al., “State of the States’ Plug-in Electric Vehicle Policies,” UCLA Luskin Center for Public Affairs, Luskin Center for Innovation (March 2015) at p.17, http:// innovation.luskin.ucla.edu/sites/default/files/EV_State_Policy.pdf; “2016 CalGreen Code: Residential Mandatory Measures,” California Housing and Community Development (January 1, 2017), http://www.hcd.ca.gov/building-standards/calgreen/docs/ HCDSHL605_2016.pdf.
106. Charles Morris, “Washington State DOT breaks ground on West Coast Electric Highway,” Charged EVs (December 30, 2011), https://chargedevs.com/newswire/washington-state- dot-breaks-ground-west-coast-electric-highway/; Stephen Edelstein, “West Coast Electric Highway will make EV drivers less anxious,” Digital Trends (March 21, 2012), https://www. digitaltrends.com/cars/west-coast-electric-highway-will-make-ev-drivers-less-anxious/.
ENERGYPOLICY.COLUMBIA.EDU | FEBRUARY 2019 | 71 ELECTRIC VEHICLE CHARGING IN CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES
Notes for pp. 31-32
107. “West Coast Electric Highway,” West Coast Green Highway, accessed February 21, 2018, http://www.westcoastgreenhighway.com/electrichighway.htm.
108. “DC Fast Chargers for California’s North South Corridors,” California Energy Commission (February 16, 2016), http://www.energy.ca.gov/contracts/GFO-15-601_NOPA.pdf; “Electric Highways Project FAQ,” West Coast Green Highway, accessed February 21, 2018, http:// www.westcoastgreenhighway.com/electrichighwayfaq.htm.
109. “Utilities and Electric Vehicles: Evolving to Unlock Grid Value,” Smart Electric Power Alliance (March 2018), https://sepapower.org/resource/utilities-electric-vehicles-evolving- unlock-grid-value/.
110. “Utilities and Electric Vehicles: The Case for Managed Charging,” Smart Electric Power Alliance (April 2017), https://sepapower.org/thank-download-uevmanagedcharging/.
111. Peter Cappers et al., “Time-of-Use as a Default Rate for Residential Customers: Issues and Insights,” Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, LBNL-1005704 (June 2016), https:// www.smartgrid.gov/files/lbnl_1005704_0.pdf.
112. Zach McDonald, “Which Utilities Offer Time-Of-Use Rates For Electric Vehicles?,” Fleet Carma (January 13, 2016), https://www.fleetcarma.com/utility-time-of-use-plug-in- vehicles/; Suzanne Guinn, “EVSE Rebates and Tax Credits, by State,” Clipper Creek (November 2, 2018), https://www.clippercreek.com/evse-rebates-and-tax-credits-by- state/; “Electric Vehicle Trends & Key Issues,” Edison Electric Institute (September 2018), http://www.eei.org/issuesandpolicy/electrictransportation/Documents/EV_Trends_and_ Key_Issues_September2018.pdf.
113. “Electric Vehicle Trends & Key Issues,” Edison Electric Institute (September 2018), http:// www.eei.org/issuesandpolicy/electrictransportation/Documents/EV_Trends_and_Key_ Issues_September2018.pdf.
114. Robert Walton, “Hawaiian Electric transitions public EV chargers to time-of-use rates,” Utility Dive (December 4, 2017), https://www.utilitydive.com/news/hawaiian-electric- transitions-public-ev-chargers-to-time-of-use-rates/512173/; “Electric Vehicles,” Hawaii Department of Energy (November 2016), https://energy.hawaii.gov/wp-content/ uploads/2016/11/FF_Nov2016_EV-only.pdf.
115. Marie Steele, “NV Energy Electric Vehicle Program,” NV Energy (November 15, 2017), https:// www.peakload.org/assets/36thConf/A1.SEPA&NVENERGY-%20Managed%20Electric%20 Vehicle%20Charging.pdf; “Electric vehicle rate,” NV Energy, https://www.nvenergy.com/ account-services/energy-pricing-plans/electric-vehicle/, accessed January 4, 2019.
116. “State Commission Staff Surge Call: Electric Vehicles,” National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (June 25, 2018), https://www.naruc.org/default/assets/File/EV%20 surge%20summary%20070618-final.pdf.
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Notes for pp. 32-36
117. S. Letendre et al., “Intelligent Vehicle Charging Benefits Assessment Using EV Project Data,” Idaho National Laboratory (2013), https://www.pnnl.gov/main/publications/ external/technical_reports/PNNL-23031.pdf; James Francfort, “2014 DOE Vehicle Technologies Office Review—EV Project Data & Analytic Results,” Idaho National Laboratory (June 20, 2014) at p.15, https://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2014/07/f18/ vss137_francfort_2014_o.pdf.
118. Cabell Hodge, “Aligning PEV Charging Times with Electricity Supply and Demand,” US National Renewable Energy Laboratory (June 2017), https://www.nrel.gov/docs/ fy17osti/68623.pdf.
119. Jeff St. John, “California Picks Winners for First-Ever Auction of Distributed Energy as Demand Response,” Greentech Media (January 12, 2016), https://www.greentechmedia.com/ articles/read/california-picks-winners-for-first-ever-auction-of-distributed-energy-as-de.
120. “Electric Vehicle Trends & Key Issues,” Edison Electric Institute (September 2018), http:// www.eei.org/issuesandpolicy/electrictransportation/Documents/EV_Trends_and_Key_ Issues_September2018.pdf.
121. Max Baumhefner, “ San Diego Gas & Electric to Use Electric Cars to Integrate Renewable Energy,” Natural Resources Defense Council (January 28, 2016), https://www.nrdc.org/ experts/max-baumhefner/san-diego-gas-electric-use-electric-cars-integrate-renewable- energy.
122. “Regulation of Electric Vehicle Charging Equipment by Public Utilities Commissions: Recommended Practices,” ZEV Program Implementation Task Force (October 2015), https://www.zevstates.us/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/ZEV-PUC-FINAL-20151027. pdf; “Electricity Rate Tariff Options for Minimizing Direct Current Fast Charger Demand Charges,” New York State Energy Research and Development Authority (December 2015),https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/-/media/Files/Publications/Research/Transportation/ Electricity-Rate-Tariff-Options.pdf; interview data.
123. Garrett Fitzgerald and Chris Nelder, From Gas to Grid, RMI (2017), https://www.rmi.org/ wp-content/uploads/2017/10/RMI-From-Gas-To-Grid.pdf.
124. “EV infrastructure and standardization in China,” State Grid Corporation of China (October 2013), https://www2.unece.org/wiki/download/attachments/12058681/EVE-07-14e.pdf.
125. Mark Kane, “China Is Developing New GB/T Fast Charging Standard At 900 kW,” Inside EVs (June 19, 2018), https://insideevs.com/china-new-gb-t-fast-charging-standard-900-kw/.
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Notes for pp. 36-38
126. Mark Kane, “China, Japan Support Unified CEC-CHAdeMO Ultra-Fast Charge Standard,” Inside EVs (November 5, 2018), https://insideevs.com/chinese-japanese-supports-cec- chademo/; Mark Kane, “China Turns To CHAdeMO For Fast Charging: Single Unified Standard,” Inside EVs (August 24, 2018), https://insideevs.com/china-chademo-fast- charging/.
127. “History and Timeline,” CHAdeMo Association, accessed May 4, 2018, https://www. chademo.com/about-us/history-and-timeline/.
128. David Herren, “Range Confidence: Charge Fast, Drive Far with your Electric Car” (2014), https://greentransportation.info/ev-charging/range-confidence/chap8-tech/ev-dc-fast- charging-standards-chademo-ccs-sae-combo-tesla-supercharger-etc.html.
129. See “Largest global charger coverage,” CHAdeMO Association, accessed January 2, 2019, http://www.chademo.com/.
130. Zachary Shahan, “What’s The Story With EV Superfast Charging?,” Cleantechnica (June 15, 2016), https://cleantechnica.com/2016/06/15/whats-story-ev-fast-charging/.
131. “CHAdeMO releases the latest version of the protocol enabling up to 400 kW,” CHAdeMo (May 29, 2018), https://www.chademo.com/chademo-releases-the-latest-version-of-the- protocol-enabling-up-to-400kw/.
132. “What is the Combined Charging System (CCS)?,” CharIN, accessed May 4, 2018, http:// www.charinev.org/ccs-at-a-glance/what-is-the-ccs/.
133. Fred Lambert, “Tesla confirms Model 3 is getting a CCS plug in Europe, adapter coming for Model S and Model X,” Electrek (November 14, 2018), https://electrek.co/2018/11/14/ tesla-model-3-ccs-2-plug-europe-adapter-model-s-model-x/.
134. Richard Lawler, “Tesla reveals Supercharger network it says will cover the US in two years; Model S fills up for free, always,” Engadget (September 24, 2012),https://www.engadget. com/2012/09/24/tesla-supercharger/.
135. “Tesla Superchargers,” Tesla, accessed January 2, 2019, https://www.tesla.com/supercharger.
136. Simon Alvarez, “Tesla shares Supercharger V3 details, critiques Porsche’s 350 kW chargers,” Teslarati (May 3, 2018), https://www.teslarati.com/tesla-supercharger-v3-first- details/; Fred Lambert, “Tesla plans to double Supercharger network, V3 delayed to ‘early next year,’ says Elon Musk,” Electrek (November 19, 2018), https://electrek.co/2018/11/19/ tesla-supercharger-expansion-v3-delayed-elon-musk/.
137. Christoph Steitz, “Plug wars: the battle for electric car supremacy,” Reuters (January 18, 2018), https://www.reuters.com/article/us-autos-electricity-charging/plug-wars-the- battle-for-electric-car-supremacy-idUSKBN1FD0QM.
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Notes for pp. 38-39
138. Simon Alvarez, “Tesla shares Supercharger V3 details, critiques Porsche’s 350 kW chargers,” Teslarati (May 3, 2018), https://www.teslarati.com/tesla-supercharger-v3-first-details/.
139. “Model S/X CHAdeMO Adapter,” Tesla Shop, accessed June 18, 2018, https://shop.tesla. com/us/en/product/vehicle-accessories/model-s_x-chademo-adapter.html.
140. Rick Pratt, “Vehicle Communications and Charging Control,“ Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, PNNL-SA-102303 (July 2014), https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/ files/2014/07/f18/vss142_pratt_2014_p.pdf.
141. Charles Morris, “Washington and Oregon drivers love I-5 DC fast chargers,” Charged EVs (November 7, 2013), https://chargedevs.com/newswire/washington-and-oregon-drivers- love-i-5-dc-fast-chargers/. See also “Transportation Electrification Plan, 2017,” Portland General Electric (2017) at p.15: “When ECOtality filed for bankruptcy in 2013, hundreds of public chargers were abandoned with no agreements in place to maintain the equipment.”
142. Interview data.
143. Products reviewed on Taobao as of January 16, 2019, include 7 kW wall-mounted home chargers from Wiwei (RMB 1,160), AutoCTO (RMB 1,280), Marvelx (RMB 1,280), Kedesen (RMB 1,688), and Chenli (RMB 1,706).
144. Domenick Yoney, “Best Home Chargers For Your Money,” Inside EVs (June 13, 2018), https://insideevs.com/best-home-chargers-for-your-money/. For historic costs, see for example Josh Agenbroad and Ben Holland, “RMI: What’s the true cost of EV charging stations?” (May 8, 2014), https://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2014/05/07/rmi-whats-true- cost-ev-charging-stations;.
145. Interview data and additional price information provided by Liu Jian, National Development and Reform Commission Energy Research Institute, January 11, 2019.
146. Josh Agenbroad and Ben Holland, “RMI: What’s the true cost of EV charging stations?” (May 8, 2014), https://www.greenbiz.com/blog/2014/05/07/rmi-whats-true-cost-ev- charging-stations.
147. Paul Pickering, “Wireless charging for electric vehicles,” EDN Network (December 20, 2015), https://www.edn.com/Pdf/ViewPdf?contentItemId=4441088.
148. Steve Hanley, “Wireless EV Charger With 20 kW Capacity & 90% Efficiency Developed At ORNL,” Cleantechnica (April 4, 2016), https://cleantechnica.com/2016/04/14/wireless-ev- charger-with-7-kw-capacity-90-efficiency-developed-at-ornl/.
149. Yanbo Ge, “Is wireless electric vehicle charging worth the cost?,” University of Washington Sustainable Transportation Lab (March 11, 2016), https://faculty.washington. edu/dwhm/2016/03/11/is-wireless-electric-vehicle-charging-worth-the-cost/.
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Notes for pp. 39
150. See Plugless, accessed June 18, 2018, http://www.pluglesspower.com/shop/.
151. John Voelcker, “How much does wireless charging matter for electric cars? Poll results,” Green Car Reports (October 17, 2017), https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1113306_ how-much-does-wireless-charging-matter-for-electric-cars-poll-results.
152. “Feasibility study: Powering electric vehicles on England’s major roads,” Highways U.K. (July 28, 2015), http://assets.highways.gov. uk/specialist-information/knowledge-compendium/2014-2015/ Feasibility+study+Powering+electric+vehicles+on+Englands+major+roads.pdf; Nikolay Dimitrov Mazharov et al., “Some Problems of Dynamic Contactless Charging of Electric Vehicles,” Acta Polytechnica Hungarica (2017), https://www.uni-obuda.hu/journal/ Mazharov_Hristov_Dichev_Zhelezarov_75.pdf.
153. Justin Berkowitz, “Following Coda and Fisker, Spring of EV Carnage Claims Israeli Startup Better Place [Analysis],” Car and Driver (May 31, 2013), https://www.caranddriver.com/ news/following-coda-and-fisker-spring-of-ev-carnage-claims-israeli-startup-better-place- analysis.
154. Bengt Halvorson, “Switcheroo: Is Tesla Giving Battery Swapping Another Try?,” Car and Driver (October 10, 2017), https://www.caranddriver.com/news/switcheroo-is-tesla-giving- battery-swapping-another-try.
155. Zheng Wan, “ China’s Electric Car Frustrations“ (September 2014), https://merritt.cdlib. org/d/ark:%252F13030%252Fm53v0xbk/1/producer%252F890408629.pdf.
156. “BAIC BJEV Announces “Optimus Prime Plan” Combining Battery Swapping, Energy Storage, and Solar Models,” China National Energy Storage Alliance (December 11, 2017), http://en.cnesa.org/featured-stories/2017/12/11/baic-bjev-announces-optimus-prime-plan- combing-battery-swapping-energy-storage-and-solar-models.
157. Joel Stocksdale, “NIO ES8 crossover revealed, with a 220-mile range and battery swapping,” Autoblog (December 18, 2017), https://www.autoblog.com/2017/12/18/nio- es8-crossover-revealed-220-mile-range-battery-swapping/#slide-7189704.
158. “Battery swapping for electric buses in Qingdao,” Phoenix Contact (2013), https://www. phoenixcontact.com/assets/downloads_ed/local_gb/web_dwl_promotion/5733e.pdf; Zheng Wan, “ China’s Electric Car Frustrations“ (September 2014), https://merritt.cdlib. org/d/ark:%252F13030%252Fm53v0xbk/1/producer%252F890408629.pdf.
159. Ronan Glon, “VW says battery-swapping stations are a pipe dream, not an imminent reality,” Digital Trends (April 13, 2018), https://www.digitaltrends.com/cars/volkswagen- no-battery-swapping-technology-u-s/.
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Notes for pp. 40-43
160. John Voelcker, “Standardized Electric-Car Battery Swapping Won’t Happen: Here’s Why,” Green Car Congress (March 18, 2014), https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1090933_ standardized-electric-car-battery-swapping-wont-happen-heres-why.
161. Brian Wang, “China Could Launch Network of Battery Swapping Vans, Next Big Future” (December 2017), https://www.nextbigfuture.com/2017/12/china-could-launch-network- of-battery-swapping-vans.html.
162. See discussion in “Review of New York State Electric Vehicle Charging Station Market and Policy, Finance, and Market Development Solutions,” Coalition for Green Capital (October 2015), https://www.nyserda.ny.gov/-/media/Files/Publications/Research/ Transportation/2015-10-EV-Charging-Stations-Financing.pdf.
163. For number of charging posts broken down by company, see “信息发布：2018年7月年 度 全国电动汽车充电基础设施推广应用情况,” China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (August 12, 2018).
164. “Four Networks Maintain Over 60% of 22,343 Level 2 and DC Fast Charging Stations,” Fact of the Week #1052, Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S. Department of Energy (October 22, 2018), https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/ fotw-1052-october-22-2018-four-networks-maintain-over-60-22343-level-2-and-dc
165. See https://www.chargepoint.com, accessed January 12, 2018; Christoph Steitz, “ChargePoint to grow global EV charging network to 2.5 million,” Reuters (September 14, 2018), https://www.reuters.com/article/us-chargepoint-growth/chargepoint-to-grow- global-ev-charging-network-to-2-5-million-idUSKCN1LU0LU; Christoph Steitz, “ChargePoint plans listing, expansion to take on electric car boom,” Reuters (August 28, 2018), https:// www.reuters.com/article/us-chargepoint-ipo-idUSKCN1B81BF; Fred Lambert, “ChargePoint delivers 8 GWh of electricity in over 1 million electric car charges per month,” Electrek (February 8, 2018), https://electrek.co/2018/02/08/chargepoint-electric-car-charges/.
166. See https://www.evgo.com/, accessed January 12, 2019; “EVgo #1 In Fast Charging Stations, According to U.S. Department of Energy,” CISION (October 25, 2018), https:// www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/evgo-1-in-fast-charging-stations-according-to-us- department-of-energy-300737947.html.
167. John Voelcker, “Blink charging-station network hits up users to buy shares,” Green Car Reports (February 4, 2018), https://www.greencarreports.com/news/1114925_blink- charging-station-network-hits-up-users-to-buy-shares.
168. https://greenlots.com/about/ (accessed January 13, 2019); “Electrify America Selects Greenlots to Develop Operating Platform to Manage $2 Billion Investment in Coast-to- Coast Network of High Speed Electric Vehicle Charging Stations,” Greenlots (January 23, 2018), https://greenlots.com/electrify-america-selects-greenlots-to-develop-operating- platform-to-manage-2-billion-investment-in-coast-to-coast-network/
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Notes for pp. 44-45
169. For number of charging posts broken down by company, see “信息发布：2018年7月年 度 全国电动汽车充电基础设施推广应用情况,” China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (August 12, 2018).
170. For an image of the New York Edison & Company 1923 charging map, see https://imgur. com/unhbToM. New York Edison employed several people to manage its charging network and promote electric vehicle use. See Electric Vehicles, vol. 6, Google Books.
171. Herman K. Trabish, “California regulators approve SCE pilot to build 1,500 EV charging stations,” Utility Dive (January 19, 2016), https://www.utilitydive.com/news/california- regulators-approve-sce-pilot-to-build-1500-ev-charging-stations/412240/.
172. Herman K. Trabish, “CA regulators approve $45M SDG&E electric vehicle charger rollout,” Utility Dive (February 1, 2016) https://www.utilitydive.com/news/ca-regulators-approve- 45m-sdge-electric-vehicle-charger-rollout/413015/.
173. Emma Foehringer Merchant, “PG&E Launches Country’s Largest Utility-Sponsored EV Charging Program,” Greentech Media (January 17, 2018), https://www.greentechmedia. com/articles/read/pge-launches-countrys-largest-utility-sponsored-ev-charging- program#gs.joJxKuk.
174. Herman K. Travish, “How California’s utilities are planning the next phase of electric vehicle adoption,” Utility Dive (February 19, 2017), https://www.utilitydive.com/news/ how-californias-utilities-are-planning-the-next-phase-of-electric-vehicle/435493/.
175. Emma Foehringer Merchant, “California Regulators Approve Landmark Utility EV-Charging Proposals,” CPUC Greentech Media (May 31, 2018), https://www. greentechmedia.com/articles/read/california-cpuc-approves-landmark-ev-charging- proposals; “Decision on the proposed transportation electrification standard review projects,” California Public Utilities Commission (May 31, 2018), http://docs.cpuc.ca.gov/ PublishedDocs/Published/G000/M215/K380/215380424.PDF.
176. “2017 Drive Clean Seattle Implementation Plan,” Seattle Office of Sustainability & the Environment (June 2017), http://www.seattle.gov/Documents/Departments/ Environment/ClimateChange/Drive_Clean_Seattle_2017_Report.pdf.
177. Monica Nickelsburg, “Seattle City Light installs first city-owned electric vehicle fast- charging stations,” GeekWire (January 30, 2018), https://www.geekwire.com/2018/ seattle-city-light-installs-first-city-owned-electric-vehicle-fast-charging-stations/.
178. “In America’s Heartland, A Power Company Leads Charge For Electric Cars,” National Public Radio (February 14, 2017), https://www.npr.org/sections/ alltechconsidered/2017/02/14/514517425/in-americas-heartland-a-power-company-leads- charge-for-electric-cars.
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Notes for pp. 45-46
179. Dory Smith, “KC metro leads the nation in EV adoption,” (June 8, 2017), https://www. bizjournals.com/kansascity/news/2017/06/07/kc-metro-electric-vehicle-adoption.html.
180. Karen Uhlenhuth, “Another Midwest utility dealt a setback on electric vehicle charging stations,” Midwest Energy News (April 24, 2017), http://midwestenergynews. com/2017/04/24/another-midwest-utility-dealt-a-setback-on-electric-vehicle-charging- stations/; “Missouri court reverses PSC decision on EV charging stations,” American Public Power Association, August 15, 2018, https://www.publicpower.org/periodical/ article/missouri-court-reverses-psc-decision-ev-charging-stations.
181. Robert Walton, “Ameren EV charger cost recovery should be tied to EV adoption rates: Missouri public advocate,” Utility Dive (December 3, 2018), https://www.utilitydive. com/news/ameren-ev-charger-cost-recovery-should-be-tied-to-ev-adoption-rates- missou/543372/.
182. Carrie Ghose, “EV charging stations in Ohio could nearly double under PUCO-approved AEP plan,” Columbus Business First (April 25, 2018), https://www.bizjournals.com/ columbus/news/2018/04/25/ev-charging-stations-in-ohio-would-nearly-double.html#/ analyze?region=OH&fuel=ELEC&show_private=true&location=,%20oh&show_map=true.
183. “Governor Cuomo Announces $250 Million Initiative to Expand Electric Vehicle Infrastructure Across New York State,” New York Governor’s Office (May 31, 2018),https:// www.governor.ny.gov/news/governor-cuomo-announces-250-million-initiative-expand- electric-vehicle-infrastructure-across.
184. https://www.tesla.com/supercharger (accessed January 2, 2019); Fred Lambert, “Tesla plans to double Supercharger network, V3 delayed to ‘early next year,’ says Elon Musk,” Electrek (November 19, 2018), https://electrek.co/2018/11/19/tesla-supercharger- expansion-v3-delayed-elon-musk/.
185. Fred Lambert, “Tesla opens another giant 50-stall Supercharger station—largest in the world,” Electrek (January 26, 2018), https://electrek.co/2018/01/26/tesla-largest- supercharger-station-world/.
186. Fred Lambert, “First look at Tesla’s new kind of Supercharger with solar arrays and owners lounge,” Electrek, November 8, 2017, https://electrek.co/2017/11/08/tesla-new- kind-supercharger-first-look-solar-owners-lounge/.
187. See Darrell Etherington, “Inside Tesla’s Supercharger Partner Program: The Costs And Commitments Of Electrifying Road Transport” (July 26, 2013), https://techcrunch. com/2013/07/26/inside-teslas-supercharger-partner-program-the-costs-and- commitments-of-electrifying-road-transport/; Nicholas Sakelaris, “Arlington’s pursuit of Tesla pays off with urban Supercharger,” Crains (May 19, 2017),http://www.crains.com/ article/news/arlingtons-pursuit-tesla-pays-urban-supercharger.
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Notes for pp. 46-47
188. “Close-up look at the Tesla Semi “Megacharger” charging port,” Teslarati (November 17, 2017), https://www.teslarati.com/tesla-semi-megacharger-charging-port-close-up-look/.
189. Liu Wenjia, “信息发布丨2018年12月全国电动汽车充电基础设施运行情况,” China Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure Promotion Alliance (January 15, 2019), https://mp.weixin. qq.com/s/JQ9_rmaSailqtM7SIQ4e8Q.
190. “EZ-Charge FAQ,” EZ-Charge, accessed February 5, 2018, https://www.ez-charge.com/faq/.
191. “Welcome to ChargeNow,” ChargeNow USA, http://www.chargenowusa.com/.
192. Bengt Halvorson, “Volkswagen’s Electrify America EV Charging Network to Rival Size of Tesla’s,” Car and Driver (January 26, 2018), https://blog.caranddriver.com/volkswagens- electrify-america-ev-charging-network-to-rival-the-size-of-teslas/.
193. Mark Kane, “Electrify America – 10 ultra-fast charging stations in nine states,” Inside EVs (August 25, 2018), https://insideevs.com/electrify-america-ultra-fast-charging-stations/.
194. John Briggs, “Electrify America switches on the first 350 KW Fast Charging station in Chicopee, Mass.,” Green Car Reports (May 3, 2018), https://www.greencarreports.com/ news/1116550_electrify-america-switches-on-the-first-350-kw-fast-charging-station-in- chicopee-mass.
195. “Locate a charger,” Electrify America, accessed January 2, 2019, https://www.electrifyamerica. com/locate-charger; “Third Quarter 2018 Report to California Air Resources Board,” Electrify America (October 2018), https://elam-cms-assets.s3.amazonaws.com/inline-files/ Electrify%20America%20Q3%202018%20Quarterly%20Report%20-%20Public.pdf.
196. Interview data. See also “China’s other car problem,” The Economist (October 27, 2016), https://www.economist.com/china/2016/10/27/chinas-other-car-problem.
197. Interview data.
198. “2个亿，3万台充电桩：星星充电中标万科等5个地产商超级订单，再创多个行业第一,” Sohu (June 6, 2017), http://www.sohu.com/a/149468242_352084.
199. Zhang Liping, “The Entrepreneurs Tackling Urban China’s Parking Problems,” Sixth Tone (September 11, 2017), http://www.sixthtone.com/news/1000815/the-entrepreneurs- tackling-urban-chinas-parking-problems.
200. “Hebei Destination Chargers,” Tesla, accessed May 8, 2018, https://www.tesla.cn/findus/ list/chargers/%E6%B2%B3%E5%8C%97.
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Notes for pp. 48-49
201. EV Charging,” Walgreens (accessed January 2, 2019), https://www.walgreens.com/topic/sr/ sr_electric_vehicle_charging_stations.jsp; Samantha Oller, “6 Retailers Working With Tesla on EV Charging Stations,“ http://www.cspdailynews.com/fuels-news-prices-analysis/fuels- analysis/articles/6-retailers-working-tesla-ev-charging-stations#page=5; Kyle Field, “Target Announces Plans For 600 Plug-In Vehicle Charging Points At 100 Sites Over 2 Years,” Cleantechnica (April 26, 2018), https://cleantechnica.com/2018/04/26/target-announces- plans-for-600-plug-in-vehicle-charging-points-at-100-sites-over-2-years/.
202. “Grocery Stores Add EV Charging to Their Basket of Amenities,” ChargePoint, March 17, 2017, https://www.chargepoint.com/blog/grocery-stores-add-ev-charging-their-basket- amenities/.
203. “Five Ways Retail Stores Can Boost Sales with EV Charging,” ChargePoint, February 13, 2017, https://www.chargepoint.com/blog/five-ways-retail-stores-can-boost-sales-ev-charging/.
204. Loren McDonald, “Factory Outlet Malls: One Of The Keys To Building Out Interstate EV Charging Infrastructure,” Cleantechnica, December 16, 2017, https://cleantechnica. com/2017/12/16/factory-outlet-malls-one-keys-building-interstate-ev-charging- infrastructure/.
205. Interview data.
206. James Ayre, “Tesla Superchargers Now Beginning To Appear At Sheetz Stations,” Cleantechnica (September 18, 2017), https://cleantechnica.com/2017/09/18/tesla- superchargers-now-beginning-appear-sheetz-stations/; Ken Doyle and Erica Myers, “Why Aren’t More Convenience Stores Installing Electric Vehicle Chargers?,” Smart Electric Power Alliance (November 9, 2017), https://sepapower.org/knowledge/arent- convenience-stores-installing-electric-vehicle-chargers/.
207. “Convenience Stores Sales, Profits Edged Higher in 2017,” National Association of Convenience Stores (April 11, 2018), https://www.convenience.org/Media/Press- Releases/2018/PR041118.
208. “2016 Retail Fuels Report,” National Association of Convenience Stores (2016), https:// www.convenience.org/Topics/Fuels/Documents/2016/2016-Retail-Fuels-Report. “May 2018 Summer Drive Study,” National Association of Convenience Stores (2018), https://www. convenience.org/Topics/Fuels/Documents/FuelsSurvey/Summer-Drive-summary.pdf.
209. Camille von Kaenel, “Electric Car Charging Could Follow Airbnb Model,” Scientific American (August 2, 2016), https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/electric-car- charging-could-follow-airbnb-model/.
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Notes for pp. 49-53
210. “北京政协委员：鼓励私人充电桩分时共享 [Beijing Government Committee Member: Encourage Sharing of Private EV Chargers],” Beijing EV Buyers Guide, January 29, 2018, http://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/xlO_Pj2DvZ31bo_KW5ENnQ; “’丁丁停车’熬过创业第三年,” China Economic Net , September 5, 2017, http://www.ce.cn/cysc/jtys/gonglu/201709/05/ t20170905_25736898.shtml.
211. “2018年3月全国电动汽车充电基础设施推广应用情况,” EV Partner (April 12, 2018), http://www. evpartner.com/news/14/detail-35319.html.
212. “Would an ‘Airbnb for electric car charging stations’ make sense?” Quora (May 22, 2013), https://www.quora.com/Would-an-Airbnb-for-electric-car-charging-stations-make-sense.
213. M. K. Campbell, “Q&A with EVmatch: Airbnb for EV Charging,” Plug In America (March 28, 2017), https://pluginamerica.org/qa-with-evmatch/.
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Notes for p. 53
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Many thanks to each of the more than 50 people who took time from their busy schedules to be interviewed for this report. Special thanks to CHENG Mengrong, Mark Duvall, Peter FoxPenner, John Halliwell, HUANG Han, David Jermain, Jonathan Levy, LIU Jian, Zane Mcdonald, Chuck Ray, Justin Ren, WANG Qiankun, TAN Xin, ZHANG Shining and several anonymous reviewers for their advice and/or close reading of the text.
We are especially grateful to Bloomberg Philanthropies and Hewlett Foundation, whose generous support makes this work possible. More information is available at https://energypolicy.columbia.edu/about/mission.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Anders Hove is an energy research analyst and Non-Resident Fellow at the Center for Global Energy Policy at Columbia University, located in Beijing. He serves as Project Director at GIZ China, where he helps coordinate German energy transition expertise for the Energy Research Institute of China’s National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC ERI) and GIZ research and advisory activities related to green infrastructure finance.
Mr. Hove has almost 20 years of public and private sector experience related to energy policy and markets, including nine years on Wall Street and nine years in China. He began his career as an energy policy analyst with the Rand Corporation in Washington, DC, then performed equity research in the electric utilities and oil services sectors with Deutsche Bank AG and Jefferies and Co. In 2007, at the initial stages of the solar boom, Mr. Hove worked for a hedge fund making private equity investments in clean energy technologies and projects, particularly solar. In 2010, he relocated to Beijing, where he became director of research analytics at the China Greentech Initiative. In 2012, Mr. Hove moved to Azure International where he managed the Cleantech Advisory team, working on advisory projects focused on energy storage, solar, wind and smart grid technologies. From 2014 to 2017 he was Associate Director for China Research at the Paulson Institute, where he guided the Institute’s research related to China air quality and climate change, and developed insights related to policy, market and technology solutions.
Mr. Hove has a Master of Science and Bachelor of Science in Political Science from MIT, and is a Chartered Financial Analyst. He is the author of numerous reports and studies related to the energy sector in China.
David Sandalow is the Inaugural Fellow at the Center on Global Energy Policy and co-Director of the Energy and Environment Concentration at the School of International and Public Affairs at Columbia University. He founded and directs the Center’s U.S.-China Program. During Fall 2018, he was a Distinguished Visiting Professor in the Schwarzman Scholars Program at Tsinghua University.
Mr. Sandalow has served in senior positions at the White House, State Department and U.S. Department of Energy. He came to Columbia from the U.S. Department of Energy, where he served as Under Secretary of Energy (acting) and Assistant Secretary for Policy & International Affairs. Prior to serving at DOE, Mr. Sandalow was a Senior Fellow at the Brookings Institution. He has served as Assistant Secretary of State for Oceans, Environment & Science and a Senior Director on the National Security Council staff.
Mr. Sandalow writes and speaks widely on energy and climate policy. Recent works include Direct Air Capture of Carbon Dioxide Roadmap (December 2018, co-author), Guide to Chinese Climate Policy (July 2018), A Natural Gas Giant Awakens (June 2018, co-author), The Geopolitics of Renewable Energy (2017, co-author), Financing Solar and Wind Power: Lessons from Oil and
Gas (2017, co-author), CO2 Utilization Roadmap 2.0 (2017, project chair) and The History and Future of the Clean Energy Ministerial (2016). Other works include Plug-In Electric Vehicles:
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What Role for Washington? (2009) (editor), U.S.-China Cooperation on Climate Change (2009) (co-author) and Freedom from Oil (2008).
Mr. Sandalow is a member of the Zayed Future Energy Prize Selection Committee, Innovation for Cool Earth Forum (ICEF) Steering Committee, Board of Directors of Fermata Energy and Highview Power Storage, University of Michigan Energy Institute’s Advisory Board, Electric Drive Transport Association’s “Hall of Fame” and Council on Foreign Relations. He chairs the ICEF Innovation Roadmap Project. Mr. Sandalow is a graduate of the University of Michigan Law School and Yale College.
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