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Living faith: In Ceuta, a Spanish exclave in North Africa, the religious communities play a very prominent role in public life: Christians – here in a traditional procession for Holy Week – Muslims, Jews and Hindus alike.

34 MaxPlanckResearch 1 | 18 Photo: age fotostock/Alamy stock photo Greater TogethernessGreater Modelfor A a model for world.a model today’s history of the Convivencia the of history in Science of Halle in Berlin and History for the are studying the Planck for Social Institutes at Max Anthropology the Researchers medieval Spain. surrounding myth The this to this period persists day. Muslims,peaceful coexistence between and Jews Christians in Convivencia La TEXT politician hasledthegovernment of Hindu community. The64-year-old autonomous status,paidavisittothe Mayor-President duetoCeuta’s special Juan JesúsVivas, whoholdsthetitle in previousyears,thecity’s leader, the streetsofoldcityin2016.As alidad countedover50,000lightson The onlinedailynewspaper the Plazade los Reyes square in Ceuta. J

JEANNETTE GODDAR JEANNETTE colorful processions,festivedeco- Hindu faithtaketothestreetsin val oflightswhenmembersthe ust before Diwali, the Hindu festi- rations alsoadorntheareaaround is agolden viewed age as tolerance of –aperiod of Ceuta Actu- and considering possible its function as fences: theheadline“Hiveof Terrorism Ceuta mostlyfeaturepeopleclimbing nean. The familiar media images from a landborderbeyondtheMediterra ta andMelilla,theEuropeanUnionhas tion ofEuropeandAfrica:inbothCeu- city thanasacipherfortheconfronta- Ceuta islessknownasanautonomous INTENDED TO FACILITATE CONTACT RELIGIOUS FESTIVALS ARE ranean totheeast,since2001. Morocco tothewestandMediter- the Spanishexclave,whichborders

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- 35 on the Outer Borders” has already ap- deep that immigrants who had arrived peared in a reputable national newspa- from South America in the 1980s were per based in Zurich. naturalized before Muslims who had Juan Jesús Vivas doesn’t attend Di- been living there for generations. Chris- wali because a particularly large num- tians and Muslims have cohabited in ber of Ceuta’s 82,000 inhabitants be- Ceuta since it was conquered by Por- lieve in Brahma, Shiva, Vishnu and the tugal in the 15th century. It was later rest of the Hindu pantheon; over 95 ceded to Spain. percent of Ceuta’s inhabitants are Christians and Muslims. Vivas attends CEUTA CAN’T BE REDUCED because he understands that the joint TO ITS BORDERS celebration of religious events – be it Diwali, Yom Kippur, Eid-al-Kabir or Brian Campbell himself comes from a Easter – is a means of promoting social country located on the external border peace and stability. “When Vivas be- of Europe: Malta. Since 2011, he has Top Under one roof: This Hindu shrine in came Mayor in 2001, Ceuta was com- spent time among the inhabitants of Ceuta contains not only images of the pletely divided,” says anthropologist Ceuta over the course of many visits, goddess Durga and other Hindu gods, but Brian Campbell from the Max Planck some of which lasted several months. It also Christian and Muslim symbols. Institute in Halle. all started because, at the beginning of Bottom In the open: Muslims in Ceuta Christians and Muslims kept to his doctoral career, he was searching for mark the end of Ramadan – the month of fasting – with the traditional cele­- themselves. It was very clear who was a “textbook example of multicultural- bration prayer. in charge: the Christians considered ism.” In Ceuta he found, along with themselves the city’s true citizens and many other things, a place where, al- divided power among themselves, and though people coexist under extraordi- the Muslims had to make do with what- nary conditions, the actual situation ever remained. The certainty regarding bears no relation to the image present-

who belonged and who didn’t ran so ed in the European media. “Ceuta can’t Photos: JORDI CAMÍ/Alamy stock photo (top), Reuters (bottom)

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Every society carries within it the roots of violence – » but also the potential for reconciliation.

be reduced to its borders,” explains thing: the former implies a space that is Campbell, “People live there and they used jointly by several people or groups, love it because it’s their town. And, like while the latter implies that these peo- people everywhere, they try to make the ple or groups make joint use of all the best of what their lives have to offer.” structures in which their shared lives, And they are supported in this by including the contact between them, the mayor: In an environment in are organized. “People who cohabit which ethnicity and religion are ex- share more than just the space,” adds tremely interconnected, where Mus- Campbell, “they live, not alongside lims are almost always of Moroccan de- each other, but with each other.” scent and Christians almost always have Iberian roots, Juan Jesús Vivas de- LA CONVIVENCIA WAS A GOLDEN liberately involves the different reli- AGE IN SPAIN gious communities as actors in the city’s policies. “Instead of suppressing In the historiography, particularly the ethnicity, culture and religion, he uses Spanish version, convivencia stands for them to bring people into contact with much more than this: it denotes a peri- each other. He gives them positive con- od during which large parts of the Ibe- notations rather than negative ones,” rian Peninsula were under Muslim rule explains Brian Campbell. and became known as “al-Andalus.” Every religious community that cel- The Berber-Muslim military command- ebrates festivals or other rituals receives er Tariq Ibn Ziyad, who invaded the financial support. There is one non-ne- peninsula from the Mediterranean, gotiable condition: the spaces and gained control of the then Visigoth squares – and the buffet – must be open Kingdom in 711. This marked the be- to all the city’s inhabitants, including ginning of a period in which the Iberi- those with a different religious affilia- an Peninsula was governed first as a tion or with no religion at all. As quick- caliphate and later by numerous – ini- ly becomes evident, this creates an op- tially – Muslim kingdoms, which were Temporary Ceuta resident: Social anthropologist Brian Campbell spent weeks and sometimes portunity for people talk to and get to subsequently converted to Christian even months in the Spanish exclave to get to know one another, and thus also to es- rule under the Reconquista. know how the different religious and ethnic tablish trust. But as Campbell reports, Apart from Christians and Muslims, groups there live together. it’s about more than that. It fosters a the region was also inhabited by a mi- sense of belonging that firmly estab- nority of Jews. Christians didn’t regain lishes that, irrespective of who or what power until 1492, with the Reconquista, they believe in, they are all Spaniards. and then they wanted the entire coun- The mayor has given his model a try for themselves: the last Muslims name: convivencia. A quick check of the were reported to have been expelled word in a Spanish-English dictionary from the region in 1614, despite the yields both “coexistence” and “cohabi- fact that many of them had long since tation.” When applied to societies com- converted to Christianity. prising people of all persuasions, and This also marked the end of an era in

Photos: JORDI CAMÍ/Alamy stock photo (top), Reuters (bottom) Photo: Private collection even to families, these aren’t the same which Spain flourished intellectually,

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Left Collegial exchange: Helge Wendt, Elena Serrano and Mònica Colominas (left to right) work on historical aspects of the Convivencia at the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science. Right Dialogue across the ages: A 14th-century image shows Islamic philosopher Averroes (left) in a fictitious disputation with the ancient scholar Porphyry. Averroes, who lived in Spain in the 12th century, is renowned for his works on ancient Greek philosophy, especially the writings of Aristotle.

culturally and economically: Córdoba, so with varying degrees of violence. entitled “Convivencia. Iberian to Glob- the capital of the caliphate, was the Conflicts repeatedly arose, as did reli- al Dynamics 500–1750,” they are carry- third largest city in the world in the giously motivated persecution – includ- ing out research with scientists from 10th century and famous for its art ing the massacre of the Jewish popula- the Max Planck Institute for the Histo- and crafts, poetry and philosophy. tion in Granada in 1066. ry of Science in Berlin, the Max Planck One of the most popular stories from Günther Schlee, Director at the Max Institute for European Legal History in “al-Andalus” concerns the fascination Planck Institute for Social Anthropolo- Frankfurt am Main and the Kunsthis- with Aristotle and ancient Greek phi- gy in Halle, refers to it as a period of torisches Institut in Florenz, which is losophy on the part of Muslim philos- “relative peace with highs and lows,” also part of the Max Planck Society. ophers, especially Ibn-Rushd, who is but also one that lacked anything even better known in Europe under the Lat- approaching equal rights: “The society THE RELIGIONS COMPETED in name Averroes. of that period can’t be considered under IN DISPUTATIONS the aspect of the modern principle of PEACE WAS FRAGILE EVEN equality,” says Schlee. On the contrary, American historian David Nirenberg is IN THE GOLDEN AGE the Caliphs considered the non-Mus- also involved in the project as an exter- lims as dhimmis, or protected persons: nal scientist. As far back as 1996, he pre- Whether people coexisted or cohabitat- “They collected taxes from them, as- sented a groundbreaking exploration of ed, and how or even whether they did signed them a clear role, for instance in cohabitation on the Iberian Peninsula so peacefully in the Christian-Jew- relation to the professions they were al- in his book Communities of Violence. ish-Muslim collective, is still a matter lowed to practice, and guaranteed that Persecution of Minorities in the Middle of dispute. On the one hand, the idea they would be provided with a certain Ages. Roughly speaking, Nirenberg con- of this period as a golden age of toler- level of protection in exchange,” ex- siders violent conflict to be a systemic ance survives, and there is evidence plains the scientist. feature of the Convivencia – part of a that a sense of belonging prevailed Günther Schlee and postdoctoral re- process that makes social stability and among the different religious commu- searcher Brian Campbell are just two of peaceful cohabitation possible again. nities – also, incidentally, at joint fes- the approximately 15-member multi- At the Max Planck Institute for the tivities. On the other hand, it’s impos- disciplinary research partnership work- History of Science in Berlin, historians sible to speak of the Convivencia as an ing under the umbrella of the Max are investigating the paths by which

era of equality: those who governed did Planck Society. As part of their project knowledge is transferred. “We are inter- Photo: Max Planck Institute for the History of Science (MPIWG)

38 MaxPlanckResearch 1 | 18 ested in how ideas from one human is examining the traditions of the Mus- gious conversion: “The rational age had community enter another, be it be- lims in the period starting in 1500, begun. Even colonial efforts relied more tween societies, down through the when the Iberian Peninsula was entire- often on the power of persuasion than ages, or even from academic or reli- ly under Christian rule again. on forced conversion.” gious elites to the general population, The exchange of positions between Within the religious communities and vice versa,” explains Elena Serrano, Christians, Jews and Muslims was en- themselves, the polemics fulfilled a who, in addition to carrying out her tirely normal in the Middle Ages, ex- number of purposes: “They strength- own historical work, is responsible for plains Colominas: “From Bagdad to ened the community’s self-esteem, fos- the coordination of the project. An ex- Barcelona, under both Muslim and tered communication and helped with ample of this approach is the research Christian rule, the followers of differ- the further development of ideas,” says carried out by her colleague Helge ent religions came together for public Colominas. They also helped channel Wendt, which focuses on the writings disputations.” All the participants pre- disputes – and thus, similar to the role of indigenous groups in the 16th and pared for such events – which some- suggested by David Nirenberg’s theory, 17th centuries in Mexico and Peru and times took on the character of a specta- served as a sort of safety valve. Helge examines how the latter held on to cle – by compiling sophisticated texts: Wendt identified another purpose in their convictions, which came under “After all, each participant wanted to his analysis of the indigenous writings: pressure through colonization, and emerge as victor, or at least perform as “They made it possible to express passed them on. well as possible.” things that weren’t actually allowed to Arab studies expert Mònica Colom- be said: when someone states some- inas is carrying out research in Berlin on HISTORICAL PARALLELS ARE thing that is prohibited and another the so-called polemics. As used in this OF LIMITED VALIDITY person – generally a superior – contra- context, the term has little to do with dicts it, the censured idea is still con- the vernacular understanding of the The polemics provide insights into the veyed, and thus preserved.” word “polemical”. What is meant here, strategies adopted by the different reli- A glance at the polemics studied by rather, are documents in which the dif- gious communities to try to convince Mònica Colominas also reveals how ferent – and competing – religious com- their counterparts of the greater validi- Muslim communities of the late Middle munities recorded their arguments and ty of their positions. As Colominas’s Ages asserted themselves in a Christian with which they entered into contact colleague Helge Wendt explains, this environment: How did they comply

Photo: Max Planck Institute for the History of Science (MPIWG) Photo: Public domain image with each other. Specifically, Colominas had nothing to do with traditional reli- with the five pillars of Islam, which

1 | 18 MaxPlanckResearch 39 include the five-times-daily prayer and According to Brian Campbell, “People Christian middle and upper class, on fasting during Ramadan? To what extent constantly seek explanations for things the one hand, and high rates of unem- could Muslim minorities compromise or in the past – parallels help us sort out ployment, school dropouts and pover- suspend these practices in order to bet- the world.” Science can’t ignore this. But ty among the Muslims, on the other. ter fit into society? Who had the author- what can the – in Campbell’s case – re- In education, too – where opportu- ity to allow such compromises and speak verse perspective on today’s Ceuta con- nities and therefore the future distribu- on behalf of the Muslim community? tribute to the research on the conditions tion of resources are decided – the roles Certain parallels to the present day in medieval times? “Ceuta is a living are also clearly divided: “In many are obvious, even if Colominas – entire- model,” says Campbell. “In an area of schools, exclusively Christian teachers ly in keeping with her role as a histori- 20 square kilometers, people there ask teach exclusively Muslim students,” says an – points out that every era is differ- themselves every day: What does convi- Campbell, “and only in Spanish: Arabic, ent and stands for itself. As she attests, vencia mean to us?” To put it very brief- the language spoken by many Muslims the questions that arise are similar: ly and, as always, to ignore the excep- at home, is not spoken in either the “Then, as now, people were asking tions, the answer is: convivencia should schools or the administration.” The fact what kind of strategies they should be more than coexistence – togetherness that many Muslims see themselves as adopt to stand their ground in a setting rather than just a parallel existence. being very much excluded from equal that functions very differently.” This opportunities results in frustration – and sums up quite accurately what the Con- THE EXCLAVE IS NO criticism of the model: “A considerable vivencia project can and wants to MULTICULTURAL IDYLL number of people see the shared rituals achieve: the aim, says Günther Schlee, simply as a move designed to distract is to carry out a “general comparative What Campbell did not find in Ceuta, from who still holds all the power,” says study of forms of societal integration. however, was a multicultural idyll. At the social anthropologist. One emphasizes description over expla- its core, he describes the city as having As a result, tensions are the order of nation and gives rise to a stimulating massive disparities in terms of power the day – at times in connection with the exchange of information and ideas and resources between the almost very festivities that are meant to bring from the perspective of different aca- equally large Muslim and Christian people together. “Of course there are also

demic disciplines.” populations, with an almost entirely religious groups in Ceuta that refuse to Photo: Brian Campbell

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Left State theatrics: Every few years, the people of Ceuta are invited to kiss the Spanish flag and declare their loyalty to the country – a dubious ritual for Muslims, as their affiliation with Spain is constantly questioned. Right Skeptical observer: Günther Schlee, Director at the Max Planck Institute for Social Anthropology, challenges the myth of the Convivencia. According to his research, the members of the different religious groups were anything but equal.

eat with other groups,” says Brian Camp-

bell. “As is the case everywhere else, the Muslims do not exist there any more TO THE POINT than the Christians.” Nor are violent l Ceuta, a Spanish exclave in North Africa, tries to foster peaceful cohabitation confrontations uncommon. between different religions and ethnic groups by using religious festivals as an After six years of observing the sys- opportunity for the groups to get to know each other and to establish contact between them. tem in Ceuta, Campbell also believes that convivencia is not a fixed state, but l The model for this system is provided by la Convivencia, the historical period that stands for the peaceful cohabitation of Christians, Muslims and Jews on a process. “The question is not: peaceful the Iberian Peninsula in the Middle Ages. or not peaceful, but that of conflict and l Even though violent conflicts repeatedly arise in Ceuta, there is evidence of a solutions,” he says. This, too, follows Ni- sense of belonging beyond religious boundaries and of the existence of an intel- renberg’s approach that every society lectual exchange and interaction between the different religious groups. carries within it the roots of violence – l Despite this, the historical Convivencia and its adaptation in Ceuta is insufficient but also the potential for reconciliation. as a social model due to the fundamental difference between living conditions Seen in this way, convivencia be- in medieval Iberia and contemporary Germany. ­ comes a social model that creates struc- tures needed for dialogue – which is helpful in the event of conflict, as these structures can then be activated with- GLOSSARY out having to first engage in the com- al-Andalus: Arabic name for the parts of the Iberian Peninsula under Muslim rule between plicated process of creating them. Bri- 711 and 1492. The term is also sometimes used to refer to the period. an Campbell hopes it will be possible Indigenous groups: Population groups that lived in an area prior to colonization by to transfer this model – not to other so- other peoples. cieties, but as a theoretical framework Comparative studies: A scientific discipline that compares the literature of different that scholars and other experts might cultures; in a broader sense also the scientific comparison of different cultural phenomena. use to study other places: “Does this

Photo: Brian Campbell Photo: Norbert Michalke framework fit? And if not, why not?”

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