Notes

Introduction

1. The choice of literary fiction to the general exclusion of popular fiction is partly because the latter’s response to the has received some study, but also because study of the topic tends to overemphasise its source material. For example, see LynnDiane Beene paraphrased in Brian Diemert, ‘The Anti- American: and the Cold War in the 1950s’, in Andrew Hammond, ed., Cold War Literature: Writing the Global Conflict ( and New York: Routledge, 2006), p. 213; and David Seed, American and the Cold War: Literature and Film (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999), p. 192. 2. Caute, Politics and the during the Cold War (New Brunswick and London: Transaction Publishers, 2010), p. 76. 3. Richard J. Aldrich, ‘Introduction: Intelligence, Strategy and the Cold War’, in Aldrich, ed., British Intelligence, Strategy and the Cold War, 1945–51 (London and New York: Routledge, 1992), p. 1. For useful summaries of the different schools of Cold War historiography, see S.J. Ball, The Cold War: An International History, 1947– 1991 (London and New York: Arnold, 1998), pp. 1–4; and Ann Lane, ‘Introduction: The Cold War as History’, in Klaus Larres and Lane, eds, The Cold War: The Essential Readings (Oxford and Malden: Blackwell, 2001), pp. 3–16. 4. Dwight D. Eisenhower quoted in , The Cold War, new edn (2005; London: Penguin, 2007), p. 123. In the mid-1940s, the US assertion that ‘in this global war there is literally no question, political or military, in which the is not interested’ was soon echoed by Vyacheslav Molotov’s claim that ‘[o]ne cannot decide now any serious problems of international relations without the USSR’ (quoted in Paul Kennedy, The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500 to 2000, new edn (1987; New York: Vintage Books, 1989), p. 365). 5. Painter, The Cold War: An International History (London and New York: Routledge, 1999), pp. 1, 112. 6. Chomsky, Towards a New Cold War: Essays on the Current Crisis and How We Got There (London: Sinclair Browne, 1982), p. 24. 7. Quoted in Michael L. Dockrill and Michael F. Hopkins, The Cold War, 1945–1991, new edn (1988; Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p. 128. 8. Gaddis, The Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of the Cold War (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), p. 216. See also John Mason, The Cold War 1945–1991 (London and New York: Routledge, 1996), pp. 73–4; and Kenneth Morgan, Britain since 1945: The People’s Peace, new edn (1990; Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 565. 9. Greene, ‘Short Memories’, in Greene, Yours Etc.: Letters to the Press, new edn (1989; London: Penguin, 1991), pp. 216–17. For similar comments, see Greene, Our Man in Havana, new edn (1958; London: Penguin, 1971), p. 183; and George Orwell, ‘You and the Atom Bomb’, in Orwell, The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume IV: In Front of Your Nose 1945–1950, ed. by Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, new edn (1968; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), p. 26.

217217 218 Notes

10. Sillitoe, Mountains and Caverns (London: W.H. Allen, 1975), p. 102. 11. Dockrill and Hopkins, Cold War, p. 1. See also Painter, Cold War, p. 1; and Fred Inglis, The Cruel Peace: Everyday Life in the Cold War (London: Aurum Press, 1992), pp. 426–7. 12. Lessing, The Four- Gated City, new edn (1969; London: Panther Books, 1972), p. 144. 13. Odd Arne Westad, ‘Introduction: Reviewing the Cold War’, in Westad, Reviewing the Cold War: Approaches, Interpretations, Theory (London and Portland: Frank Cass, 2000), p. 5 (Westad’s italics). 14. F.S. Northedge and Audrey Wells, Britain and Soviet : The Impact of a Revolution (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1982), p. 128. 15. Kiernan, European Empires from Conquest to Collapse, 1815–1960 (London: Fontana, 1982), p. 208. 16. With Britain continuing to aggravate both the communist bloc and the colo- nised world, it is little wonder that a character in ’s (1967), when asked who the nation’s enemies are, replies, ‘[t]hose who wish us ill – about three- quarters of the world’s population’ (Raven, Fielding Gray, new edn (1967; London: Panther Books, 1969), p. 103). 17. Morgan, Britain, p. 59; Greenwood, Britain and the Cold War, 1945–1991 (Basings- toke and London: Macmillan, 2000), pp. 139, 194–5. 18. Inglis, Cruel Peace, p. 437. 19. The final phrase is taken from Walter Allen, who, while failing to pursue the point, recognises the psychological impact of the East–West conflict: see Allen, Tradition and Dream: The English and American Novel from the Twenties to Our Time, new edn (1964; London: The Hogarth Press, 1986), p. 262. 20. Wilford, The CIA, the British Left and the Cold War: Calling the Tune? (London and Portland: Frank Cass, 2003), p. 126; Koestler quoted in Frances Stonor Saunders, Who Paid the Piper? The CIA and the Cultural Cold War (London: Granta Books, 1999), p. 419; Norman Lewis, The Day of the Fox, new edn (1955; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1960), p. 109. 21. Kaldor, The Imaginary War: Understanding the East–West Conflict (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990), p. 4. 22. Major and Mitter, ‘East is East and West is West? Towards a Comparative Socio- Cultural History of the Cold War’, in Mitter and Major, eds, Across the Blocs: Cold War Cultural and Social History (London and Portland: Frank Cass, 2004), pp. 3, 1, 1. 23. Caute, The Dancer Defects: The Struggle for Cultural Supremacy during the Cold War (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 1, 4. 24. Saunders, Who Paid the Piper, p. 248. ‘Books differ from all other propaganda’, a CIA chief remarked, ‘because one single book can significantly change the reader’s attitude and action to an extent unmatched by the impact of any other single medium’, a fact that ‘make[s] books the most important weapon of strate- gic (long-range) propaganda’ (quoted in ibid., p. 245). 25. Ibid., p. 1. 26. Paul Lashmar and James Oliver, Britain’s Secret Propaganda War (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 1998), p. 126; Saunders, Who Paid the Piper, p. 77. As an illustration of the mood of , Ian Fleming’s series so aggravated the KGB that it encouraged the Bulgarian novelist, Andrei Gulyashki, to write a rejoinder, the result being Avakum Zakhov versus 07 (1966) (see John Atkins, The British Spy Novel: Styles in Treachery (London: John Calder; New York: Riverrun Press, 1984), p. 93). Notes 219

27. Lessing, Four- Gated City, p. 479. 28. Frederick R. Karl, A Reader’s Guide to the Contemporary English Novel, new edn (1961; New York: Octagon Books, 1975), p. 4. It must be said that British commentators also lamented the plight of the nation’s literature: see Robert Hewison, In Anger: Culture in the Cold War 1945–60 (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981), pp. 4–5. 29. Gindin, Postwar British Fiction: New Accents and Attitudes (London: Cambridge University Press, 1962), p. 7; Rabinovitz, The Reaction against Experiment in the English Novel, 1950–1960 (New York and London: Columbia University Press, 1967), p. 2. 30. Karl, Reader’s Guide, pp. 237, 6. 31. Bergonzi, The Situation of the Novel, new edn (1970; London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 56–7. See also Malcolm Bradbury, Possibilities: Essays on the State of the Novel (London and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1973), p. 167. 32. Esty, A Shrinking Island: Modernism and National Culture in England (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press, 2004), p. 5; Stonebridge and MacKay, ‘Introduction: British Fiction after Modernism’, in MacKay and Stonebridge, eds, British Fiction after Modernism: The Novel at Mid- Century (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), p. 1; Kenner, A Sinking Island: The Modern English Writers (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988), p. 3. For other discussions of the sub- ject, see Patricia Waugh, Harvest of the Sixties: English Literature and Its Background, 1960–1990 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 77; Bill Schwarz, ‘Introduction: End of Empire and the English Novel’, in Rachael Gilmour and Bill Schwarz, eds, End of Empire and the English Novel since 1945 (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2011), pp. 4–5; Malcolm Bradbury and David Palmer, ‘Preface’ to Bradbury and Palmer, eds, The Contemporary English Novel (London: Edward Arnold, 1979), pp. 9–12; and Michael Woolf, ‘Negotiating the Self: Jewish Fiction in Britain since 1945’, in A. Robert Lee, Other Britain, Other British: Contemporary Multicultural Fiction (London and Ann Arbor: Pluto Press, 1995), pp. 124, 140. 33. Many British writers would have agreed with Graham Greene, who once said in a BBC talk, ‘I see no reason why the novel to- day shouldn’t be written with a background of world events just as a novel in the nineteenth century could be based entirely on a long of Warwickshire’ (quoted in J.P. Kulshrestha, Graham Greene: The Novelist (Delhi: The Macmillan Company of India, 1977), p. 142). 34. Siebers, Cold War Criticism and the Politics of Skepticism (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), pp. 30, 34. 35. Neil Larsen, Reading North by South: On Latin American Literature, Culture, and Politics (Minneapolis and London: University of Minnesota Press, 1995), p. 66. 36. Quoted in Michael Scriven and Dennis , ‘Introduction’ to Scriven and Tate, eds, European Socialist Realism (Oxford and New York: Berg, 1988), p. 3. 37. Dubravka Juraga and M. Keith Booker, ‘Introduction’ to Juraga and Booker, eds, Socialist Cultures East and West: A Post- Cold War Reassessment (Westport and London: Praeger, 2002), p. 5. 38. See Alan Nadel, Culture: American Narratives, Postmodernism, and the Atomic Age (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1995), pp. 2–4. 39. Clive Sinclair, Blood Libels, new edn (1985; London: Picador, 1986), p. 89; Angus Wilson, The Old Men at the Zoo, new edn (1961; St Albans and London: Panther Books, 1979), p. 70. 220 Notes

40. The development of the secret services was partly a result of nuclear stalemate: as Wm. Roger Louis writes, ‘[t]he greater the frustrating restraint of nuclear weapons, the more tempting the use of covert methods’ (Louis, ‘American Anti- Colonialism and the Dissolution of the British Empire’, in Louis and Henry Bull, eds, The ‘Special Relationship’: Anglo- American Relations since 1945 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986), p. 282). 41. Bowen, After the Rain, new edn (1958; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1961), p. 36. 42. Lessing, The Golden Notebook, new edn (1962; London: Panther Books, 1973), p. 251. See also , Take a Girl Like You (London: Victor Gollancz, 1960), pp. 105–6, 232; Gerald Hanley, The Journey Homeward (London: Collins, 1961), p. 44; Rose Macaulay, The Towers of Trebizond, new edn (1956; London: Fontana Books, 1962), pp. 33–4; Robert Shaw, The Hiding Place, new edn (1959; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), pp. 173–81; , The Death of William Posters, new edn (1965; London: Pan Books, 1967), p. 175; V.S. Naipaul, The Mystic Masseur, new edn (1957; London: Picador, 2001), p. 158; and and , Lord Cucumber (composed 1954), in Orton and Halliwell, Lord Cucumber and The Boy Hairdresser, new edn (1999; London: Methuen, 2001), p. 80. 43. , The Right True End, new edn (1976; London: Black Swan, 1986), p. 221; J.G. Ballard, , new edn (1973; London: Vintage, 1995), p. 37; Barstow, Right True End, p. 221; J.G. Ballard, , new edn (1970; London: Harper Perennial, 2006), p. 125. See also Margaret Drabble, The Needle’s Eye, new edn (1972; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973), p. 294; Pamela Hansford Johnson, The Friend, new edn (1972; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977), p. 223; Kingsley Amis, The Crime of the Century, new edn (1975; London: Orion, 1993), p. 111; Doris Lessing, The Summer before the Dark, new edn (1973; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), p. 205; , Going Back, new edn (1975; London: Penguin, 1991), p. 51; J.G. Ballard, ‘The Comsat Angels’, in Ballard, The Complete Short Stories, new edn (2001; London: Flamingo, 2002), pp. 778–9; and , ‘ Letters on Blue Paper’, in Wesker, Love Letters on Blue Paper and Other Stories, new edn (1969, 1974, 1978; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980), p. 48. 44. Doris Lessing, The Fifth Child (London: Jonathan Cape, 1988), pp. 107, 107; Malcolm Bradbury, Unsent Letters: Irreverent Notes from a Literary Life (New York: Viking, 1988), p. 181; Peter Ackroyd, The Great Fire of London, new edn (1982; London: Penguin, 1993), p. 22. See also David Lodge, Nice Work, new edn (1988; London: Penguin, 1989), p. 309; , Sugar and Rum, new edn (1988; London: Penguin, 1990), pp. 57–8; Andrew Sinclair, Beau Bumbo, new edn (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1985), p. 7; Clive Sinclair, ‘Tzimtzum’, in Sinclair, Bedbugs, new edn (1982; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983), p. 47; Alan Sillitoe, Out of the Whirlpool, new edn (1987; London: Arena, 1988), p. 66; and Penelope Lively, Judgement Day, new edn (1980; London: Penguin, 1982), p. 95. 45. John Fowles, The Magus, new edn (1966; St Albans: Triad/Panther Books, 1977), p. 186; , : A Mystery Story, new edn (1981; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982), p. 129; J.L. Carr, The Harpole Report, new edn (1972; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984), p. 56; Margaret Drabble, The Waterfall (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1969), p. 162; Storm Jameson, There Will Be a Short Interval (London: Harvill Press, 1973), p. 159; David Lodge, Small World: An Academic Romance, new edn (1984; London: Penguin, 1985), p. 107. See also J.B. Priestley, Saturn over the Water, new edn (1961; London: The Companion Book Club, 1961), p. 122; C.P. Snow, Last Things, new edn (1970; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), p. 172; Penelope Lively, The Road to Lichfield, new edn (1977; Notes 221

London: Penguin, 1983), p. 50; and Rose Tremain, The Cupboard, new edn (1981; London: Arena, 1983), p. 72. 46. Amis, , new edn (1954; London: Penguin, 1961), p. 87. 47. Lessing, Walking in the Shade: Volume Two of My Autobiography, 1949–1962, new edn (1997; London: Flamingo, 1998), p. 53; Carter, ‘Notes for a Theory of Sixties Style’, in Carter, Nothing Sacred: Selected Writings (London: Virago, 1982), p. 88. made a similar point in an address of 1976: ‘I write these words at a hot point of the Cold War when nothing is even as certain as usual. These words, then, may never be printed; or if printed, never read’ (Golding, ‘A Moving Target’, in Golding, A Moving Target, new edn (1982; London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1984), p. 165). 48. Lessing, Golden Notebook, p. 251; Bailey, Old Soldiers, new edn (1980; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982), p. 10. 49. Lively, According to Mark, new edn (1984; London: Penguin, 1985), pp. 27, 28, 28. ‘I live free from the taint of violence which is a fundamental part of life on this planet’, one of Lynne Reid Banks’s narrators admits: ‘I live in security and in a kind of moral blindness while soldiers and spies, policemen, jailors, politicians and simple butchers do my dirty work for me’ (Banks, Defy the Wilderness, new edn (1981; London: Penguin, 1983), p. 157). 50. Lessing, Summer, p. 7. Elizabeth Bowen echoes the sentiment when she writes, ‘another war had peopled the world with another generation of the non- dead, overlapping and crowding the living’s senses still more with that sense of unlived lives’ (Bowen, A World of Love, new edn (1955; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983), p. 45. 51. For examples of these responses, see Lessing, Golden Notebook, pp. 253, 575; Graham Greene, The Comedians, new edn (1966; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 130; Angus Wilson, Hemlock and After, new edn (1952; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1956), pp. 146–7; , A Temporary Life, new edn (1973; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978), p. 55; Kingsley Amis, Girl, 20, new edn (1971; London: The Book Club, 1972), pp. 206–9; Malcolm Bradbury, Cuts, new edn (1987; London: Arena, 1988), pp. 89–90; , The Eve of Saint Venus, new edn (1964; London: Hamlyn Paperbacks, 1981), p. 95; Barbara Pym, No Fond Return of Love, new edn (1961; London and Basingstoke: Pan Books, 1993), p. 50; and Joe Orton, Head to Toe, new edn (1971; London: Methuen, 1986), p. 65. 52. Newby, A Guest and His Going (London: Jonathan Cape and The Book Society, 1959), p. 57 (Newby’s italics). 53. Spark, Memento Mori, new edn (1959; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1961), p. 9; Murdoch, Under the Net, new edn (1954; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1960), p. 19; Snow, Corridors of Power, new edn (1964; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966), p. 286. 54. Wesker, ‘The Man Who Became Afraid’, in Wesker, Love Letters, pp. 87, 86–7. 55. J.B. Priestley, , new edn (1946; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1951), p. 65; , The Two of Us, new edn (1984; London: Methuen, 1985), p. 75; Brigid Brophy, In Transit (London: Macdonald, 1969), p. 103; L.P. Hartley, The Hireling, new edn (1957; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), p. 232. See also Stan Barstow, The Watchers on the Shore, new edn (1966; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), p. 9; L.P. Hartley, The Go- Between, new edn (1953; London: Penguin, 1958), p. 87; Fay Weldon, Leader of the Band, new edn (1988; London: Coronet Books, 1989), pp. 135–6; Christopher Isherwood, A Single Man, new edn (1964; London: Methuen, 1986), p. 48; Colin MacInnes, Absolute Beginners, new edn (1959; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), p. 14; and Wilson, Hemlock, p. 19. 222 Notes

56. Caute, Politics, p. 90. 57. MacInnes, Absolute Beginners, p. 35. 58. Unsworth, Sugar and Rum, p. 117. On the inappropriateness of the phrase, see also Graham Greene, Travels with My Aunt, new edn (1969; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971), p. 58; Doris Lessing, Re: Colonised Planet 5 Shikasta: Personal, Psychological, Historical Documents Relating to Visit by Johor (George Sherban), new edn (1979; London: Panther Books, 1981), p. 112; J.G. Farrell, A Girl in the Head, new edn (1967; London: Fontana, 1981), p. 126; and , ‘Gabor’, in Swift, Learning to Swim and Other Stories, new edn (1982; London: Picador, 1985), p. 80. 59. For example, see Richard Bradford, The Novel Now: Contemporary British Fiction (Malden and Oxford: Blackwell, 2007), pp. 3–4; Rod Mengham, ‘Introduction’ to Mengham, ed., An Introduction to Contemporary Fiction: International Writing in English since 1970 (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1999), p. 1; James Acheson and Sarah C.E. Ross, ‘Introduction’ to Acheson and Ross, eds, The Contemporary British Novel (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2005), p. 1; and Rod Mengham, ‘General Introduction: Contemporary British Fiction’, in Richard J. Lane, Mengham and Philip Tew, eds, Contemporary British Fiction (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2003), p. 1. 60. Douglas, ‘Periodizing the American Century: Modernism, Postmodernism, and Postcolonialism in the Cold War Context’, Modernism/Modernity, Vol. 5, No. 3 (1998), p. 75. 61. See P.H. Newby, The Novel 1945–1950 (1951), Anthony Burgess, The Novel To- Day (1963), Ronald Hayman, The Novel Today 1967–1975 (1976) and Allan Massie, The Novel Today: A Critical Guide to the British Novel 1970–1989 (1990). Burgess alludes to the Cold War in his summation of the literary landscape of the early 1960s: ‘the great universal masterpiece that will bridge all gaps may suddenly burst in the sky. As long as nothing equally apocalyptic bursts there first’ (Burgess, The Novel To- Day (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1963), p. 45). 62. See Head, The Cambridge Introduction to Modern British Fiction, 1950–2000 (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2002), pp. 4–5; Cockin and Morrison, ‘Introduction’, to Cockin and Morrison, The Post- War British Literature Handbook (London and New York: Continuum, 2010), p. 5; Patricia Waugh, ‘The Historical Context of Post- War British Literature’, in Cockin and Morrison, Post- War British Literature, pp. 42–6; Waugh, Harvest of the Sixties, pp. 3, 95, 139, 145; Merz and Lee- Browne, Post- War Literature: 1945 to the Present (New York: Facts on File, Inc., 2003), pp. 5, 23–4, 26–7; and Stevenson, The Oxford English Literary History Volume 12. 1960–2000: The Last of England? (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), pp. 50, 54, 434, 483, 510–11. 63. See Gindin, Postwar British Fiction, pp. 109–25; Bergonzi, Situation, pp. 80–101; Scanlan, Traces of Another Time: History and Politics in Postwar British Fiction (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), pp. 87–115, 175–94; Stevenson, A Reader’s Guide to the Twentieth-Century Novel in Britain (New York and London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1993), pp. 126–37; Connor, The English Novel in History 1950–1995 (London and New York: Routledge, 1996), pp. 83–127, 199–245; and Head, Cambridge Introduction, pp. 124–31, 156–82. 64. Steve Padley, Key Concepts in Contemporary Literature (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p. 20. Andrew Teverson’s sense that British criticism has started ‘to consider how the Cold War gave distinctive form to literary endea- vours between the 1950s and the 1980s’ seems over- optimistic (Teverson, ‘1989, Berlin and Bradford: Out of the Cold, Into the Fire’, in Brian McHale and Randall Notes 223

Stevenson, eds, The Edinburgh Companion to Twentieth- Century Literatures in English (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006), p. 238). 65. For example, see work by Arthur Redding, Thomas Hill Schaub, Maureen Ryan, Bruce McConachie, Julia A. Mickenberg, Leerom Medovoi, D. Quentin Miller, Stephen Whitfield and Brenda Murphy. Major and Mitter commend the cultural- ist turn that has occurred in US literary scholarship, but worry that its focus on solely American cultural production expresses the ‘isolationist’ notion ‘that only America experienced a Cold War at home’: ‘It would be a pity … if the cultural of which America was accused at the time were to be replicated in historical scholarship’ (Major and Mitter, ‘East is East’, pp. 4, 4, 5; authors’ ital- ics). 66. Piette, The Literary Cold War, 1945 to Vietnam (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), pp. 5, 212. 67. William V. Spanos, ‘A Rumor of War: 9/11 and the Forgetting of the ’, boundary, Vol. 30, No. 3 (2003), p. 65. See also Alex Danchev, On Art and War and Terror (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009), p. 172; Marc Redfield, The Rhetoric of Terror: Reflections on 9/11 and the (New York: Fordham University Press, 2009), p. 23; David Holloway, 9/11 and the War on Terror (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2008), p. 8; and Mathias Nilges, ‘The Aesthetics of Destruction: Contemporary US Cinema and TV Culture’, in Jeff Birkenstein, Anna Froula and Karen Randell, eds, Reframing 9/11: Film, Popular Culture and the ‘War on Terror’ (New York and London: Continuum, 2010), p. 24. 68. See Richard Bonney, False Prophets: The ‘Clash of Civilisations’ and the Global War on Terror (Oxford: Peter Lang, 2008), pp. 53–68. 69. The twenty- first century interest in the Cold War is seen in English Heritage’s Monuments Protection Programme and private preservation projects at Anstruther, Mistley, Hack Green and elsewhere; it is also seen in J.G. Ballard’s fictional com- pany, ‘Nostalgic Aviation’, whose ‘aviation memorabilia’ includes a ‘1970s jet bomber’ and ‘helmets, parachutes and radio gear from the Cold War period’ (Ballard, Super- Cannes, new edn (2000; London: Flamingo, 2001), p. 149; see also Neil Cossons, ‘Foreword’ to Wayne D. Cocroft and Roger J.C. Thomas, Cold War: Building for Nuclear Confrontation 1946–1989 (Swindon: English Heritage, 2003), pp. vi–vii; and Cocroft and Thomas, Cold War, p. 267).

1 Literary Containment

1. Medhurst, ‘Introduction’, to Medhurst, Robert L. Ivie, Philip Wander and Robert L. Scott, Cold War Rhetoric: Strategy, Metaphor, and Ideology (New York and Westport: Greenwood Press, 1999), p. xiv. 2. Ibid., p. xiv; Peter Kenez, The Birth of the Propaganda State: Soviet Methods of Mass Mobilization, 1917–1929 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985), p. 4. 3. Kennan, ‘George Kennan’s Long Telegram, February 1946’, in Jussi Hanhimäki and Odd Arne Westad, eds, The Cold War: A History in Documents and Eyewitness Accounts (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 111, 108, 108. 4. Quoted in Brian Diemert, ‘Uncontainable Metaphor: George F. Kennan’s “X” Article and Cold War Discourse’, Canadian Review of American Studies, Vol. 35, No. 1 (2005), p. 30. 5. Harry S. Truman, ‘The , March 1947’, in Hanhimäki and Westad, eds, The Cold War, p. 117. The speech was a forerunner of NSC 68, which has been 224 Notes

seen as ‘a blueprint for American policy in the Cold War’ (H.W. Brands, The Devil We Knew: Americans and the Cold War (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993), p. 32). 6. Quoted in Martin Walker, The Cold War and the Making of the Modern World, new edn (1993; London: Vintage, 1994), p. 132; quoted in John Dumbrell, President Lyndon Johnson and Soviet Communism (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2004), p. 9; quoted in Stephen E. Ambrose, Nixon: The Triumph of a Politician, 1962–1972 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989), p. 50. 7. Quoted in Helena Halmari, ‘Dividing the World: The Dichotomous Rhetoric of ’, Multilingua, Vol. 12, No. 2 (1993), p. 153. 8. Quoted in Bradley Lightbody, The Cold War (London and New York: Routledge, 1999), p. 107. 9. See Brett Silverstein, ‘Enemy Images: The Psychology of U.S. Attitudes and Cognitions Regarding the ’, American Psychologist, Vol. 44, No. 6 (1989), pp. 906, 903, 907. 10. Stephanson, ‘Liberty or Death’, pp. 84, 95, 95. 11. Quoted in Northedge and Wells, Britain, p. 138. 12. Quoted in ibid., p. 139. 13. Pietz, ‘The “Post-Colonialism” of Cold War Discourse’, Social Text, Vol. 19/20 (1988), pp. 55, 61. Indicating the circularity of colonial/free- world discourse, the IRD contextualised the Soviet invasion of Hungary in Tsar Nicholas’s suppression of the Hungarians in 1848, while Anthony Burgess and explained Soviet behaviour through references to Russia in the sixteenth and the eighteenth centuries respectively (see Lashmar and Oliver, Britain’s Secret Propaganda War, p. 55; Burgess, Honey for the Bears, new edn (1963; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973), pp. 214–15; and Durrell, Constance; or Solitary Practices, new edn (1982; London: Faber and Faber, 1983), pp. 390–3). 14. Quoted in Pietz, ‘Post-Colonialism’, p. 59. 15. Quoted in Northedge and Wells, Britain and Soviet Communism, p. 80. 16. Ibid., p. 4. 17. Quoted in David Reynolds, Britannia Overruled: British Policy and World Power in the 20th Century (London and New York: Longman, 1991), p. 156. 18. Quoted in Andrew Defty, Britain, America and Anti- Communist Propaganda 1945–53: Research Department (London and New York: Routledge, 2004), p. 36. 19. Christopher Warner quoted in Antonio Varsori, ‘Reflections on the ’, in Westad, ed., Reviewing the Cold War, p. 288. 20. Gaddis, Long Peace, p. 46. 21. Churchill, ‘’, in Young Hum Kim, ed., Twenty Years of Crisis: The Cold War Era (Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice- Hall, 1968), pp. 16, 17. 22. See Dockrill and Hopkins, Cold War, pp. 33, 52–4. 23. Adam Watson quoted in Saunders, Who Paid the Piper?, pp. 58–9. In one of his , Frayn captures the rapid revision of British foreign policy in a character’s publication record: ‘The Case for Disarmament (1939); Let Victory Be Ours (1942); The Russians – Our Comrades! (1945); World Communism: a Study in Tyranny (1949)’ (Frayn, Towards the End of the Morning, new edn (1967; London: Flamingo, 1985), p. 52). 24. Varsori, ‘Reflections’, p. 289. 25. See Lowell H. Schwartz, Political Warfare against the Kremlin: US and British Propaganda Policy at the Beginning of the Cold War (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), pp. 24–9. Notes 225

26. Saunders, Who Paid the Piper?, p. 59. As Hugh Wilford points out, the date that the IRD began – January 1948 – was ‘fully six months before the US government acquired a similar secret anti-communist agency in the shape of the Office of Policy Coordination’ (Wilford, CIA, p. 48). 27. See Schwartz, Political Warfare, pp. 3, 69; and John Jenks, British Propaganda and News Media in the Cold War (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006), pp. 2–3. 28. See Philip M. Taylor, ‘Through a Glass Darkly? The Psychological Climate and Psychological Warfare of the Cold War’, in Gary Rawnsley, ed., Cold- War Propaganda in the 1950s (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1999), p. 236. 29. Quoted in Tony Shaw, ‘British Feature Films and the Early Cold War’, in Rawnsley, ed., Cold- War Propaganda, pp. 139, 128. 30. As Richard Thurlow relates, the civil service did have a version of the Truman Loyalty Security Programme between 1948 and 1955: this investigated some 135 employees, dismissing 25 and transferring 86 to positions that had no security risk (see Thurlow, The Secret State: British Internal Security in the Twentieth Century (Oxford UK and Cambridge USA: Blackwell, 1994), p. 294). 31. Lashmar and Oliver, Britain’s Secret Propaganda War, p. 123. The mood was cap- tured in a number of Cold War novels: for example, see Lessing, Four-Gated City, p. 120; and Fay Weldon, Down among the Women, new edn (1971; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973), p. 102. 32. Norman Birnbaum quoted in Hewison, In Anger, p. 169. 33. Quoted in Greenwood, Britain, p. 130; quoted in Ben Pimlott, Harold Wilson (London: HarperCollins, 1992), p. 236; quoted in Peter Jenkins, Mrs Thatcher’s Revolution: The Ending of the Socialist Era (London: Jonathan Cape, 1987), p. 288. 34. White, Britain, Détente and Changing East–West Relations (London and New York: Routledge, 1992), p. 142. 35. Jenks, British Propaganda, p. 1. 36. Johnson, A Summer to Decide, new edn (1948; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1954), p. 174. 37. Christopher Isherwood, Prater Violet, new edn (1946; London: Methuen, 1984), p. 75; , Ape and Essence (London: Chatto and Windus, 1949), p. 32; Compton Mackenzie, Hunting the Fairies, new edn (1949; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1959), pp. 222; L.P. Hartley, The Sixth Heaven, new edn (1946; London: Faber and Faber, 1964), p. 59; Rose Macaulay, The World My Wilderness, new edn (1950; London: Virago, 1983), pp. 28, 143. 38. Angus Wilson, ‘Raspberry Jam’, in Wilson, The Wrong Set, new edn (1949; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1959), p. 128; Angus Wilson, ‘A Little Companion’, in Wilson, Such Darling Dodos and Other Stories, new edn (1950; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1960), p. 24; Lawrence Durrell, The Dark Labyrinth, new edn (1947; London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1961), p. 42; Wilson, ‘Union Reunion’, in Wilson, Wrong Set, p. 32. See also Pamela Hanford Johnson, An Avenue of Stone, new edn (1947; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1953), pp. 52, 88; Elizabeth Taylor, A Wreath of Roses, new edn (1949; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967), p. 83; Compton Mackenzie, Whisky Galore, new edn (1947; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1957), p. 61; Mackenzie, Hunting, p. 222; Hartley, Sixth Heaven, pp. 44–5; J.B. Priestley, Three Men in New Suits (London and Toronto: William Heinemann, 1945), pp. 21, 38; J.B. Priestley, Delight (London: William Heinemann, 1949), p. 12; C.P. Snow, The Light and the Dark, new edn (1947; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), p. 216; C.P. Snow, Time of Hope, new edn (1949; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1951), p. 84; 226 Notes

and Rebecca West, The Meaning of Treason, new edn (1949; London: Virago, 1982), pp. 178, 319. 39. Greene, The Third Man, in Greene, The Third Man and The Fallen Idol, new edn (1950; London: Penguin, 1976), p. 100; Marshall, The Red Danube, new edn (1947; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1956), p. 96. 40. Waugh, Scott-King’s Modern , in Waugh, Work Suspended and Other Pieces, new edn (1946; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967), pp. 198, 199, 223. 41. Waugh quoted in David Wykes, : A Literary Life (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1999), p. 146. In Waugh’s later fiction, the attack on the Yugoslav Partisans appeared in a more direct form: see Waugh, Unconditional Surrender, new edn (1961; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), pp. 163–7. 42. Lessing, Four- Gated City, p. 148; Lessing, Golden Notebook, p. 548. See also Lessing, Golden Notebook, pp. 169, 547; and Lessing, Walking in the Shade, pp. 91, 102–3, 166. 43. The term ‘Cold War’ appeared in an article published by the Tribune on 19 October 1945: see Orwell, ‘You and the Atom Bomb’, in Orwell, Collected Essays, IV, 26. 44. Quoted in Caute, Politics and the Novel, p. 79. In a second example of govern- mental intervention into literary production, Rebecca West was discouraged by an FO official from publishing ‘Madame Sara’s Magic Crystal’, an attack on Tito’s composed in the early 1940s (see West, ‘Madame Sara’s Magic Crystal’, in West, The Only Poet and Short Stories, ed. by Antonia Till (London: Virago Press, 1992), p. 167). 45. Quoted in Caute, Politics and the Novel, p. 91. Some 400,000 English- language copies were sold within a year of publication, and by 1984 it had been translated into 23 languages and had sold 15 million copies worldwide. 46. Frederic Warburg quoted in Daniel Lea, ‘Early Reviews and Responses’, in Lea, ed., George Orwell: Animal Farm Nineteen Eighty- Four (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), p. 27; Deutscher, ‘1984 – The Mysticism of Cruelty’, in Raymond Williams, ed., George Orwell: A Collection of Critical Essays (Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice- Hall, 1974), p. 119. 47. Orwell, Nineteen Eighty- Four, new edn (1949; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1954), pp. 227, 230. 48. Ibid., pp. 11, 11; Reilly quoted in Anthony Stewart, ‘The Prohibition of Decency in Nineteen Eighty-Four’, in Harold Bloom, ed., George Orwell’s 1984, new edn (1987; New York: Chelsea House, 2007), p. 150. 49. Orwell, ‘Letter to Francis A. Henson (Extract)’, in Orwell, Collected Essays, IV, 564. See also Orwell, ‘Author’s Preface to the Ukrainian Edition of Animal Farm’, in Orwell, The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell Volume III: As I Please 1943–1945, ed. by Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, new edn (1968; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), p. 458. 50. See Douglas Kerr, George Orwell (Tavistock: Northcote House, 2003), pp. 73–4. 51. See Jenks, British Propaganda, p. 73; and Lashmar and Oliver, Britain’s Secret Propaganda War, p. 33. 52. Pietz, ‘Post-Colonialism’, p. 55. 53. Orwell, Nineteen Eighty- Four, pp. 16, 151, 154; Pietz, ‘Post-Colonialism’, p. 58. In the novel, an inner party member acknowledges that ‘the totalitarians, … the German Nazis and the Russian Communists’, are ‘close to us in their methods’ (Orwell, Nineteen Eighty- Four, pp. 218, 227). For other examples of this conflation, see Muriel Spark, The Girls of Slender Means, new edn (1963; Harmondsworth: Penguin, Notes 227

1966), p. 55; V.S. Naipaul, Mr Stone and the Knights Companion, new edn (1963; London: Four Square Books, 1966), p. 86; Bernice Rubens, Birds of Passage, new edn (1981; London: Abacus, 1982), p. 143; and Sinclair, ‘Tzimtzum’, in Sinclair, Bedbugs, p. 46. 54. Orwell, ‘Letter’, p. 564 (Orwell’s emphasis). 55. The list passed onto the IRD was a shortened version of a longer list of 135 names that he compiled in his notebooks, which included Priestley, George Bernard Shaw and Charlie Chaplin (see Wilford, CIA, pp. 60–3). 56. Orwell, Nineteen Eighty- Four, p. 258. 57. Jameson, Archaeologies of the Future: The Desire Called Utopia and Other Science Fictions (London and New York: Verso, 2005), p. xi. By 1957, P.H. Newby was com- menting that ‘[t]here isn’t a publisher in London who’d touch utopianism these days’ and by 1984 Fay Weldon was convinced that ‘[n]o one writes about Utopias any more’ (Newby, Revolution and Roses (London: Jonathan Cape, 1957), p. 227; Weldon, Letters to Alice on First Reading Jane Austen, new edn (1984; London: Coronet Books, 1985), p. 25). 58. Elliott, The Shape of Utopia: Studies in a Literary Genre (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1970), p. 87; Hillegas, The Future as Nightmare: H.G. Wells and the Anti- Utopians (Carbondale and Edwardswille: Southern Illinois University Press, 1974), p. 3. 59. Forster, ‘George Orwell’, in Forster, Two Cheers for Democracy, new edn (1951; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965), p. 70. Similarly, John Fowles expresses doubt about ‘grand scheme[s] for utopianizing the world’ and D.M. Thomas has a char- acter exclaim, ‘ [we]ve had enough of Utopias; of demagogues who make our lives miserable with their perfect systems’ (Fowles, Magus, p. 171; Thomas, Swallow, new edn (1984; London: Abacus, 1985), p. 274). 60. Wyndham, The Midwich Cuckoos, new edn (1957; London: Penguin, 2000), pp. 28, 167. 61. Burgess, A Clockwork Orange, new edn (1962; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), pp. 91, 34. 62. Barlow, The Hour of Maximum Danger, new edn (1962; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963), p. 106; Waugh, Love Among the Ruins, in Waugh, The Ordeal of Gilbert Pinfold; Tactical Exercise; Love Among the Ruins, new edn (1957, 1962, 1953; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), p. 188. Inundated with other problems, the stranded children in William Golding’s Lord of the Flies (1954) still worry that they ‘might get taken prisoner by the reds’ (Golding, Lord of the Flies, new edn (1954; London: Faber and Faber, 1958), p. 179). 63. Hartley, Facial Justice, new edn (1960; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 116, 59. 64. Ibid., p. 207. 65. Ferns, Narrating Utopia: Ideology, Gender, Form in Utopian Literature (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 1999), p. 109. 66. Pfaelzer, ‘Parody and Satire in American Dystopian Fiction of the Nineteenth Century’, Science- Fiction Studies, Vol. 7 (1980), p. 61. 67. See Lashmar and Oliver, Britain’s Secret Propaganda War, pp. 100, 122. 68. Fitz Gibbon, When the Kissing Had to Stop (London: Cassell, 1960), pp. 10, 8. 69. Quoted in Gaddis, Long Peace, p. 31. 70. Ibid., p. 106; Orwell, Nineteen Eighty- Four, p. 230. 71. Quoted in Sinfield, Literature, Politics and Culture in Postwar Britain (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1989), p. 98. 228 Notes

72. Manning, The Spoilt City, in Manning, The Balkan Trilogy: Volume One: The Great Fortune; Volume Two: The Spoilt City; Volume Three: Friends and Heroes, new edn (1960, 1962, 1965; London: Penguin, 1981), pp. 292, 383, 292; Durrell, ‘To Theodore Stephanides’, in Durrell, Spirit of Place: Letters and Essays on Travel, ed. Alan G. Thomas (London: Faber and Faber, 1969), p. 101. 73. Durrell, ‘Theodore Stephanides’, p. 100; Durrell, White Eagles over Serbia, new edn (1957; London: Faber and Faber, 1962), p. 80; Durrell, ‘The Ghost Train’, in Durrell, Esprit de Corps: Sketches from Diplomatic Life (London: Faber and Faber, 1957), pp. 19, 19; Durrell, ‘La Valise’, in Durrell, Stiff Upper Lip, new edn (1958; London: Faber and Faber, 1966), pp. 72, 72. 74. Eric Williams, Dragoman Pass (London: Collins, 1959), p. 127; Christopher Isherwood, Down There on a Visit, new edn (1962; London: Methuen, 1985), p. 263; Durrell, White Eagles, pp. 38, 39. 75. Pamela Hansford Johnson, An Error of Judgement, new edn (1962; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965), p. 6; Leonard Wibberley, The Mouse That Roared, new edn (1955; London: Transworld Publishers, 1959), p. 129; Rebecca West, The Birds Fall Down, new edn (1966; London: Virago, 1986), p. 345; Simon Raven, Doctors Wear Scarlet: A Romantic Tale, new edn (1960; London: Panther Books, 1966), p. 145. 76. John Fowles, The Aristos, new edn (1964; London: Jonathan Cape, 1980), p. 120; Storm Jameson, The Intruder (London: Macmillan, 1956), p. 52; Compton Mackenzie, The Rival Monster, new edn (1952; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1959), p. 55. See also Macaulay, Towers of Trebizond, pp. 15–16, 70–3; J.G. Ballard, ‘End- Game’ (1963), in Ballard, Complete Short Stories, pp. 504–20; Sillitoe, ‘The Bike’, in Sillitoe, The Ragman’s Daughter, new edn (1963; London: Pan Books, 1966), p. 98; Burgess, Eve of Saint Venus, p. 125; Stan Barstow, Ask Me Tomorrow, new edn (1962; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966), p. 172; Lynne Reid Banks, An End to Running, new edn (1962; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966), p. 214; John Braine, Life at the Top, new edn (1962; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965), p. 22; J.B. Priestley, The Magicians (London: William Heinemann, 1954), p. 146; , The Contenders, new edn (1958; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), pp. 8–9; Eric Linklater, A Year of Space: A Chapter in Autobiography, new edn (1953; London: The Reprint Society, 1954), p. 82; and Olivia Manning, School for Love, new edn (1951; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982), pp. 138–9. 77. Nathanson, ‘The Social Construction of the Soviet Threat: A Study in the Politics of Representation’, Alternatives, Vol. 13 (1988), pp. 455–6. 78. Booker, Dystopian Literature: A Theory and Research Guide (Westport and London: Greenwood Press, 1994), p. 3. 79. Gottlieb, Dystopian Fiction East and West: Universe of Terror and Trial (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2001), p. 17. 80. Quoted in Pietz, ‘Post-Colonialism’, p. 57. 81. Quoted in Gaddis, Long Peace, p. 46. 82. Quoted in Robert McMahon, The Cold War: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), p. 132. 83. Macmillan, Riding the Storm 1956–1959 (London: Macmillan, 1971), p. 340. 84. White, Britain, p. 48. 85. Burgess, 1985, new edn (1978; London: Arrow Books, 1980), p. 235. 86. See Anthony Cross, The Russian Theme in English Literature from the Sixteenth Century to 1980: An Introductory Survey and a Bibliography (Oxford: William A. Meeuws, 1985), p. 79. 87. Drabble, The Ice Age, new edn (1977; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978), pp. 46, 17. Notes 229

88. Bainbridge, Winter Garden, new edn (1980; London: Fontana/Collins, 1981), pp. 81, 52, 46, 129. 89. Johnson, The Survival of the Fittest, new edn (1968; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), p. 399; Frayn, The Russian Interpreter, new edn (1966; London: Fontana/ Collins, 1978), pp. 136, 19, 140. See also Margaret Drabble, The Realms of Gold, new edn (1975; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977), p. 48. 90. Burgess, Honey, p. 131; Frayn, Russian Interpreter, p. 21; Mary McMinnies, The Visitors, new edn (London: The Reprint Society, 1960), pp. 44, 118; Burgess, Honey, p. 11. 91. Burgess, Honey, pp. 19–20, 56, 156, 102, 16, 16. 92. Pamela Hansford Johnson, Cork Street, Next to the Hatter’s: A Novel in Bad Taste, new edn (1965; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), p. 38; William Cooper, Memoirs of a New Man (London: Macmillan, 1966), p. 14; , ‘All above Board’, in Waterhouse, Rhubarb, Rhubarb and Other Noises, new edn (1979; London: Sphere Books, 1981), p. 193. 93. May, Homeward Bound: American Families in the Cold War Era (New York: Basic Books, 1988), p. 17. Macmillan believed that if the did not provide a satisfactory standard of life then ‘Communism will triumph, not by war, or even subversion, but by seeming to be a better way of bringing people material comforts’ (quoted in Greenwood, Britain, p. 167). 94. Burgess, Honey, p. 53. 95. Ibid., pp. 71, 40, 133. 96. Frayn, Russian Interpreter, pp. 9, 140. 97. Brophy, Palace without Chairs (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1978), p. 29. 98. Carr, Harpole Report, p. 151; Kingsley Amis, Ending Up, new edn (1974; London: Penguin, 1987), pp. 165–6; David Lodge, The British Museum Is Falling Down, new edn (1965; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983), p. 136. 99. Ivie, ‘The Prospects of Cold War Criticism’, in Medhurst, et al., Cold War Rhetoric, p. 205. 100. This humour was very different to that found in the fiction of Graham Greene, for whom ‘the absurdities of the Cold War’ were based on the impossibility of ‘accept[ing] the survival of Western as a great cause’ (Greene, Ways of Escape, new edn (1980; New York: Washington Square Press, 1982), p. 215). 101. Kingsley Amis, Jake’s Thing, new edn (1978; London: Penguin, 1980), p. 234; Bainbridge, Winter Garden, p. 89; Beryl Bainbridge, A Quiet Life, new edn (1976; London: Fontana Books, 1977), p. 114. See also Paul Bailey, Trespasses, new edn (1970; London: Penguin, 1989), p. 96; Weldon, Down among the Women, p. 223; and Martin Amis, , new edn (1975; London: Penguin, 1984), p. 197. 102. Wain, The Young Visitors, new edn (1965; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), p. 139. 103. Wain, Strike the Father Dead, new edn (1962; London: The Reprint Society, 1963), p. 278. 104. For examples, see Sid Chaplin, The Day of the Sardine, new edn (1961; Hexham: Flambard Press, 2004), pp. 111, 125–6; Keith Waterhouse, Jubb, new edn (1963; London: Grafton Books, 1986), pp. 39–42; , Shadow Dance, new edn (1966; London: Virago, 1994), pp. 114–15; Anthony Burgess, Inside Mr Enderby, in Burgess, Enderby, new edn (1963, 1968, 1974; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982), p. 61; Stan Barstow, Joby, new edn (1964; London: Black Swan, 1985), pp. 92–6; Pamela Hansford Johnson, The Humbler Creation, new edn 230 Notes

(1959; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1961), pp. 76–9; Olivia Manning, The Play Room, new edn (1969; London: Virago, 1984), pp. 114–17, 157–60; and David Lodge, The Picturegoers, new edn (1960; London: Penguin, 1993), pp. 225–30. For evidence that these fears continued into the 1980s, see , The Man Who Wasn’t There, new edn (1989; London: Penguin, 1990), p. 28; Pat Barker, Liza’s England, new edn (1986; London: Virago, 1996), pp. 259–60; Jonathan Coe, The Dwarves of Death, new edn (1990; London: Penguin, 2001), pp. 58–9; and Bradbury, Cuts, p. 38. 105. Wain, Young Visitors, p. 94; Malcolm Bradbury, The History Man, new edn (1975; London: Arrow Books, 1977), p. 4; Fay Weldon, Remember Me, new edn (1976; London: Sceptre, 1979), p. 31; , Books Do Furnish a Room, new edn (1971; London: Fontana Books, 1972), pp. 51, 52, 13. The ridicule of the fashionable left had also occurred before détente: see Wilson, Hemlock, p. 170; and , The Pursuit of Love, in Mitford, Love in a Cold Climate and Other Novels, new edn (1945, 1949, 1951; London: Penguin, 2000), p. 75. 106. Spark, The Driver’s Seat, new edn (1970; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), p. 75. 107. Snow, The Malcontents, new edn (1972; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), p. 42. 108. Lessing, Shikasta, pp. 179–80; Lodge, Changing Places: A Tale of Two Campuses, new edn (1975; London: Penguin, 1978), p. 39; Powell, Hearing Secret Harmonies, new edn (1975; London: Fontana Books, 1977), p. 44. For further examples, see Kingsley Amis, The Green Man, new edn (1969; London: Penguin, 1988), p. 90; John Braine, The Queen of a Distant Country, new edn (1972; London: Methuen, 1984), pp. 210–16; Jameson, There Will Be, p. 183; Nancy Mitford, ‘A French Revolution Diary: Part Two’, in Mitford, A Talent to Annoy: Essays, Journalism, and Reviews, 1929–1968, ed. by Charlotte Mosley, new edn (1986; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 211–17; Angela Carter, ‘Elegy for a Freelance’, in Carter, : Collected Short Stories, new edn (1995; London: Vintage, 1996), pp. 96–107; Elizabeth Taylor, Mrs Palfrey at the Claremont, new edn (1971; London: Virago, 1982), p. 52; Amis, Jake’s Thing, pp. 102–3; Burgess, 1985, p. 74; Drabble, Realms of Gold, pp. 61–3; and Snow, Last Things, pp. 240–1, 276–81, 289–92. There were writers, such as Alan Sillitoe, Barry Hines and Colin MacInnes, who were more positive about British youth, but even these expressed occasional doubts: for example, see MacInnes, ‘Pop Songs and Teenagers’, in MacInnes, England, Half English: A Polyphoto of the Fifties, new edn (1961; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966), p. 61; and MacInnes, Absolute Beginners, pp. 150–7. 109. See Robert Hewison, Too Much: Art and Society in the Sixties 1960–75 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), pp. 157–68; and Jeremi Suri, Power and Protest: Global Revolution and the Rise of Detente (Cambridge and London: Harvard University Press, 2003), pp. 1–6. 110. Quoted in Saunders, Who Paid the Piper?, p. 98 (Braden’s emphasis). 111. Wain, Young Visitors, pp. 64, 64, 121. 112. Isherwood, Prater Violet, p. 103; Burgess, Honey, p. 10; Drabble, Ice Age, p. 184. 113. John Wain, ‘A Stranger at the Party’, in Wain, Nuncle and Other Stories, new edn (1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965), p. 135; Priestley, Saturn over the Water, p. 140; Bainbridge, Winter Garden, p. 78; Anthony Powell, Casanova’s Chinese Restaurant, new edn (1960; London: Fontana Books, 1970), p. 118. Several nov- els addressed in detail the persecution of dissident authors in the , as illustrated by C.J. Newman’s A Russian Novel (1973) and D.M. Thomas’s The Notes 231

Flute Player (1979), both inspired by English translations of such authors (see Cross, Russian Theme, p. 80). 114. Cooper, Scenes from Provincial Life, new edn (1950; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1961), p. 17. 115. Wesker, ‘The Visit’, in Wesker, Love Letters, p. 199. In the Cold War context, any defence of abstract art, apolitical art or freedom of speech appeared to support the free- world attack on Zhdanovism: see Anthony Powell, Books Do Furnish, pp. 142–3; Elizabeth Taylor, A View of the Harbour, new edn (1947; London: Virago, 1987), pp. 33–4; Wilson, Hemlock, pp. 171–2; Johnson, Cork Street, p. 72; Lessing, Walking, pp. 76, 234–5; Simon Raven, Come Like Shadows, new edn (1972; London: Panther Books, 1975), pp. 108–9; and John Harvey, Within and Without, new edn (1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), pp. 29–30. 116. Drabble, Ice Age, p. 259. 117. Frayn, Russian Interpreter, pp. 122, 90, 142, 118. 118. See Conquest, A World of Difference (London and Melbourne: Ward, Lock & Co., 1955), p. 152. 119. Anthony Powell, Temporary Kings, new edn (1973; London: Fontana Books, 1974), p. 97. For examples, see Johnson, Survival of the Fittest, pp. 195, 246, 362–3, 405–6, 432–3; Koestler, The Call-Girls: A Tragi- Comedy with Prologue and Epilogue, new edn (1972; London: Pan Books, 1976), p. 49; Powell, Temporary Kings, pp. 12–21, 129–34, 143, 219–25; Raven, The Survivors, new edn (1976; London: Panther Books, 1977), pp. 9–11, 14; William Cooper, You Want the Right Frame of Reference (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1971), pp. 115–22; Barlow, Hour of Maximum Danger, p. 364; Drabble, Needle’s Eye, p. 166; Drabble, Realms of Gold, p. 234; Jameson, Road, pp. 48–9, 159–60; and Alan Sillitoe, Life Goes On, new edn (1985; London: Grafton Books, 1987), pp. 160–3. Only rarely were reservations expressed in mainstream fiction about right- wing culture, an example being Snow’s attack on the ‘hard anti- communists from the Partisan Review’ (Snow, Corridors of Power, p. 74). 120. Powell, Books Do Furnish, p. 41. 121. For examples, see Raven, Blood of My Bone, new edn (1989; London: Grafton Books, 1990), pp. 18, 20; Spark, Territorial Rights (London: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 77–9; Phillips, The European Tribe, new edn (1987; London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1988), pp. 94, 99; Amis, The Folks That Live on the Hill, new edn (1990; London: Penguin, 1991), p. 247; Braine, Two of Us, pp. 23, 156; Barnes, Flaubert’s Parrot, new edn (1984; London: Picador, 1985), p. 133; Lodge, Nice Work, p. 324; Burgess, , pp. 305–6; McEwan, ‘Preface’ to McEwan, A Move Abroad: Or Shall We Die? and The Ploughman’s Lunch, new edn (1983, 1985; London: Picador, 1989), p. xi; Sinclair, Beau Bumbo, pp. 151–2; Sinclair, ‘Tzimtzum’, p. 52; and Malcolm Bradbury, My Strange Quest for Mensonge: Structuralism’s Hidden Hero, new edn (1987; London: Arena, 1989), p. 54. 122. Thomas, Ararat, new edn (1983; London: Abacus, 1984), p. 158. For further examples of Thomas’s anti- communism, see ibid., p. 125; Thomas, Swallow, pp. 271–5; Thomas, Lying Together, new edn (1990; London: Abacus, 1991), pp. 74–6; Thomas, The White Hotel, new edn (1981; London: Indigo, 1996), pp. 137–43, 167; and Thomas, The Flute- Player, new edn (1979; London: Pan Books, 1980), pp. 54–8, 72–3. 123. V.S. Naipaul, Guerillas (London: André Deutsch, 1975), p. 141. 124. Amis (‘’), Sun, new edn (1968; London: Pan Books, 1970), p. 182. 232 Notes

125. Mo, The Monkey King, new edn (1978; London: Abacus, 1984), pp. 186, 12. See also Lessing, Shikasta, p. 327; and Lessing, Four- Gated City, pp. 611, 667; Lodge, British Museum, pp. 53–4; Anthony Burgess, The Wanting Seed, new edn (1962; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973), pp. 52, 55, 169; Fitz Gibbon, When the Kissing, pp. 140–53, Muriel Spark, Not to Disturb, new edn (1971; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), p. 54; Cooper, Memoirs, p. 63; Doris Lessing, Landlocked, new edn (1965; London: Panther Books, 1967), pp. 286–7; and V.S. Naipaul, (London: André Deutsch, 1971), pp. 254–5. 126. Naipaul, Mystic Masseur, p. 206; Simon Raven, The Rich Pay Late, new edn (1964; London: Panther Books, 1966), p. 106; Wilson Harris, The Far Journey of Oudin (London: Faber and Faber, 1961), p. 98; Simon Raven, The Judas Boy, new edn (1968; London: Panther Books, 1969), p. 23; Simon Raven, New Seed for Old, new edn (1988; London: Grafton Books, 1989), p. 47. See also John Fowles, Mantissa (London: Jonathan Cape, 1982), p. 110; Lawrence Durrell, Livia: or Buried Alive, new edn (1978; London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1981), p. 243; , , new edn (1981; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982), pp. 113, 219–20; Gerald Hanley, Drinkers of Darkness, new edn (1955; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1958), pp. 246–9; Hanley, Journey Homeward, pp. 17, 191, 306–7; Grace Nichols, Whole of a Morning Sky (London: Virago, 1986), pp. 23, 96–9; Doris Lessing, A Proper Marriage, new edn (1954; London: Panther Books, 1966), p. 99; David Lytton, The Goddam White Man, new edn (1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), p. 177; Bruce Chatwin, The Viceroy of Ouidah, new edn (1980; London: Pan Books, 1982), pp. 22, 126; John Masters, Bhowani Junction, new edn (1954; London: Sphere Books, 1983), p. 127; , The Satanic Verses, new edn (1988; London: Vintage, 2006), p. 537; and J.G. Ballard, , new edn (1987; London: Grafton Books, 1988), pp. 15–16. 127. Farrell, The Singapore Grip, new edn (1978; London: Fontana, 1979), p. 467. 128. Burgess, 1985, pp. 199, 205, 105. As two examples from the ‘first Cold War’, see Anthony Burgess, Time for a Tiger, in Burgess, , new edn (1956, 1958, 1959; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), pp. 21, 104; and Muriel Spark, The Mandelbaum Gate, new edn (1965; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967), p. 265. 129. It was not entirely the case that, as Alfred Kazin suggests, ‘the age of anxiety ha[d] turned into the age of absurdity’ (quoted in Kulshrestha, Graham Greene, p. 214). 130. For examples from these and other novels, see Spark, The Takeover, new edn (1976; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978), pp. 82–3, 144; Banks, One More River, new edn (1973; Harmondsworth: Puffin Books, 1980), p. 22; Amis, Girl, 20, p. 11; Lodge, Out of the Shelter, new edn (1970; London: Penguin, 1986), pp. 39, 217; Burgess, Honey, p. 15; Snow, Last Things, pp. 13–14; Anthony Powell, The Military Philosophers, new edn (1968; London: Fontana Books, 1971), pp. 107–8; , An Accidental Man, new edn (1971; London: Penguin, 1973), p. 127; and Frayn, End of the Morning, pp. 210–17. 131. Burgess, 1985, p. 228. Equally pessimistic about the future were Michael Frayn’s A Very Private Life (1968), Angela Carter’s Heroes and Villains (1969), Doris Lessing’s The Four- Gated City (1969), Salman Rushdie’s Grimus (1975), Emma Tennant’s The Crack (1973) and Ian McEwan’s ‘Two Fragments: March 199–’ (1978), as well as populist invasion novels such as John Gardner’s Golgotha (1980) and Clive Egleton’s A Piece of Resistance (1970), Last Post for a Partisan (1971) and The Judas Mandate (1972). 132. West, Meaning of Treason, p. 319; Waugh, Unconditional Surrender, p. 182; Burgess, Honey, p. 133; Banks, One More River, p. 71; Drabble, Ice Age, p. 274. Notes 233

133. Wain, Young Visitors, p. 28. 134. Quoted in Brands, Devil We Knew, p. 143. 135. Dalby, ‘Geopolitical Discourse: The Soviet Union as Other’, Alternatives, Vol. 13 (1988), pp. 435, 424. 136. For fears of the Soviet Union, see Barnes, Before She Met Me, new edn (1982; London: Picador, 1983), p. 24; Boyd, The New Confessions, new edn (1987; London: Penguin, 1988), p. 451; Tremain, Cupboard, p. 218; Sinclair, ‘Svoboda’, in Sinclair, Bedbugs, pp. 85–97; and Sillitoe, Life Goes On, pp. 382–4. For the denigration of communist China, see Barnes, Staring at the Sun, new edn (1986; London: Picador, 1987), pp. 89–93; Martin Amis, ‘Watford in China’ (1983), in Amis, Visiting Mrs Nabokov and Other Excursions, new edn (1993; London: Penguin, 1994), p. 44; Durrell, Quinx: or The Ripper’s Tale (London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1985), pp. 59–64; and Raven, The Face of the Waters, new edn (1985; London: Panther Books, 1986), p. 61. 137. Lively, Perfect Happiness, new edn (1983; London: Penguin, 1985), p. 40; Ballard, Running Wild, new edn (1988; London: Flamingo, 1997), p. 22. See also Rose Tremain, ‘The Colonel’s Daughter’, in Tremain, The Colonel’s Daughter and Other Stories, new edn (1984; London: Arena, 1985), pp. 39, 43–5; Emma Tennant, ‘Introduction’ (1987) to Tennant, The Colour of Rain, new edn (1963; London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1988), unpaginated; Sinclair, Blood Libels, p. 125; and Sinclair, ‘Kayn Aynhoreh’, in Sinclair, Bedbugs, pp. 101, 109, 111. 138. See Burgess, Any Old Iron, new edn (1989; London: Arrow Books, 1989), pp. 89–91; Boyd, New Confessions, pp. 279–80; Faulks, The Girl at the Lion D’Or, new edn (1989; London: Vintage, 1990), pp. 173–4, 194; Fitzgerald, Innocence, new edn (1986; London: Flamingo, 1987), pp. 33–43; and Ishiguru, A Pale View of Hills, new edn (1982; London: Penguin, 1983), pp. 59–60. 139. Lessing, Under My Skin: Volume One of My Autobiography, to 1949, new edn (1994; London: Flamingo, 1995), p. 11. Apart from the brief involvement of Kingsley Amis and Iris Murdoch with the British Communist Party, and apart from Greene’s journeys into the communist bloc, these cultural and political experi- ences were rare: see Amis, Memoirs, new edn (1991; London: Penguin, 1992), p. 37; Hilda D. Spear, Iris Murdoch (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1995), p. 4; Ballard, : Shanghai to Shepperton: An Autobiography, new edn (2008; London: Harper Perennial, 2008), pp. 10, 47–8; Carl Rollyson, Rebecca West: A Saga of the Century, new edn (1995; London: Sceptre, 1996), pp. 205, 247–56; Sillitoe, ‘National Service’, in Sillitoe, Mountains, pp. 50–8; Richard Bradford, The Life of a Long- Distance Writer: The Biography of Alan Sillitoe (London and Chester Springs: Peter Owen, 2008), pp. 245–9; and Spark, Curriculum Vitae: Autobiography, new edn (1992; London: Penguin, 1993), pp. 192–3. 140. For examples from these and other works, see Lessing, Golden Notebook, pp. 163–7, 297–8, 360–1, 546–8, 570; Lessing, Four- Gated City, pp. 214–19; Lessing, Landlocked, new edn (1965; London: Panther Books, 1967), p. 33; Lessing, A Ripple from the Storm, new edn (1958; London: Grafton Books, 1966), pp. 34, 37–8, 42; Lessing, ‘The Day Stalin Died’, in Lessing, The Habit of Loving, new edn (1957; London: Grafton Books, 1985), pp. 153–65; and Lessing, ‘Eleven Years Later’, in Lessing, Going Home, new edn (1957; London: Panther Books, 1968), p. 310. 141. Lessing, The Good Terrorist, new edn (1985; London: Grafton Books, 1986), p. 364; Lessing, The Making of the Representative for Planet 8, new edn (1982; London: Granada, 1983), p. 34; Lessing, Fifth Child, p. 124. 234 Notes

142. See Lessing, The Wind Blows away Our Words and Other Documents Relating to the Afghan Resistance, new edn (1987; New York: Vintage Books, 1987), p. 167. 143. Sillitoe, The Lost Flying Boat, new edn (1983; London: Panther Books, 1984), p. 123; , Latecomers, new edn (1988; London: Grafton Books, 1989), p. 200; Bradbury, Why Come to Slaka? (1986; London: Arena, 1987), p. 50; Bruce Chatwin, Utz, new edn (1988; London: Picador, 1989), p. 78; Muriel Spark, The Only Problem, new edn (1984; London: Triad/Grafton, 1985), p. 153. See also Sinclair, Blood Libels, pp. 52–3; Thomas, Swallow, pp. 252–7; Thomas, Summit (London: Victor Gollancz, 1987), pp. 134, 145; Anthony Burgess, The End of the World News, new edn (1982; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983), pp. 85–90; Anthony Burgess, Any Old Iron, new edn (1989; London: Arrow Books, 1989), p. 312; Jeanette Winterson, Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit, new edn (1985; London: Vintage, 1991), p. 121; Rose Tremain, The Swimming Pool Season, new edn (1985; London: Sceptre, 1986), pp. 25, 57, 120–1; and Phillips, European Tribe, pp. 86, 90, 95, 115. 144. Fitzgerald, , new edn (1988; London: Flamingo, 1989), p. 70. 145. J.L. Carr, The Battle of Pollocks Crossing, new edn (1985; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), p. 10; D.M. Thomas, Birthstone, new edn (1980; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982), p. 59; Fay Weldon, The Heart of the Country, new edn (1987; London: Vintage, 1987), p. 165; Amis, Folks That Live, p. 15. See also Muriel Spark, Loitering with Intent, new edn (1981; London: Triad Granada, 1982), p. 47; Fay Weldon, ‘Christmas Tree’, in Weldon, Watching Me, Watching You: A Collection of Short Stories, new edn (1981; London: Coronet Books, 1982), p. 11; Barry Unsworth, Stone Virgin, new edn (1985; London: Penguin, 1986), p. 45; and Lodge, Changing Places, p. 114. 146. Snow, In Their Wisdom, new edn (1974; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977), p. 280; Angela Carter, ‘Bath, Heritage City’ (1975), in Carter, Nothing Sacred, p. 75; Alan Sillitoe, ‘Arnold Bennett: The Man from the North’, in Sillitoe, Mountains, p. 116. For further examples, see Cooper, Provincial Life, p. 180; Kingsley Amis, , new edn (1958; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), p. 123; Amis, Take a Girl, p. 102; Amis, Crime of the Century, p. 24; L.P. Hartley, My Sister’s Keeper (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1970), p. 160; L.P. Hartley, Eustace and Hilda, new edn (1952; London: Faber and Faber, 1965), p. 151; Lessing, Summer, p. 98; and Beryl Bainbridge, Harriet Said, new edn (1972; London: Penguin, 1992), p. 9. 147. Fay Weldon, ‘Geoffrey and the Eskimo Child’, in Weldon, Watching Me, p. 173; Keith Waterhouse, Thinks, new edn (1984; London: Grafton Books, 1986), p. 88; Kingsley Amis, Old Devils (London: Hutchinson, 1986), p. 33; Jonathan Coe, The Accidental Woman, new edn (1987; London: Sceptre, 1989), p. 43. 148. Bradbury, Rates of Exchange (London: Secker & Warburg, 1983), p. 50. 149. Stoker, Dracula, new edn (1897; Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), pp. 28, 21. 150. The satire on eastern European language continues in Bradbury’s Why Come to Slaka? (1986), a mock travel guide to the country, which includes a Slakan phrasebook: see Bradbury, Why Come to Slaka, pp. 92–110. 151. See Cross, Russian Theme, pp. 7–24. 152. Ibid., p. 83. For a parody of the nostalgic mode, see Elizabeth Taylor, Angel, new edn (1957; London: Virago, 1984), pp. 184–5. 153. For references to both émigrés and pre- communist eastern European culture, see West, Birds Fall Down, pp. 12–13; Murdoch, The Time of the Angels, new Notes 235

edn (1966; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), pp. 51–7; Murdoch, The Italian Girl, new edn (1964; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967), pp. 62–3, 150–3; Powell, Military Philosophers, pp. 24, 52; Farrell, Girl in the Head, p. 122; Farrell, Singapore, pp. 268–9; Angela Carter, , new edn (1968; London: Pan Books, 1970), p. 122; and Barbara Pym, The Sweet Dove Died, new edn (1978; St Albans and London: Panther Books, 1980), p. 44. On occasion, the references to pre- Soviet Russia were negative: see Spark, Memento Mori, p. 57; Salman Rushdie, Grimus, new edn (1975; London: Vintage, 1996), pp. 163–7; and Angela Carter, The Infernal Desire Machines of Doctor Hoffman, new edn (1972; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982), pp. 122–6. 154. For complimentary representation in these and other novels, see Brookner, Look at Me, new edn (1983; London: Triad/Panther Books, 1985), p. 96; Carter, , new edn (1984; London: Vintage, 1994), pp. 96–7, 145; Penelope Lively, , new edn (1987; London: Penguin, 1988), pp. 61–2; Boyd, New Confessions, p. 240; and Ackroyd, Great Fire, p. 8. In Amis’s Russian Hide-and- Seek (1980), set some 50 years after the Soviet conquest of Britain, the occupiers are a decadent, rather Chekhovian elite who are not without charm. 155. Fitzgerald, Beginning of Spring, p. 68. 156. Ibid., p. 88. Fitzgerald’s sketches of the Russian businessman, Arkady Kuriatin, with his ‘absurdly old- fashioned counting-house’ and ‘half- savage household’, suggests that the native business community has little to offer the country (ibid., pp. 60, 62). 157. For a few amongst numerous examples of these allusions, see Margaret Drabble, A Summer Bird- Cage, new edn (1963; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967), p. 159; Christopher Isherwood, The World in the Evening (London: Methuen and Co., 1954), p. 126; J.G. Ballard, The Atrocity Exhibition, new edn (1970; London: Harper Perennial, 2006), p. 33; , In Search of Love and Beauty, new edn (1983; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984), p. 99; Thomas, ‘Author’s Note’, in Thomas, Lying, p. 5; Thomas, Summit, p. 90; and William McIlvanney, ‘The Shallowing of Scotland’, in McIlvanney, Surviving the Shipwreck (Edinburgh and London: Mainstream Publishing, 1991), p. 117. See also Colin MacInnes, June in Her Spring, new edn (1952; London: The Hogarth Press, 1985), p. 149; Shiva Naipaul, A Hot Country, new edn (1983; London: Abacus, 1984), p. 37; Anita Brookner, A Friend from England, new edn (1987; London: Grafton Books, 1988), p. 24; Dennis Potter, Blackeyes, new edn (1987; London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1988), p. 142; Margaret Drabble, The Middle Ground, new edn (1980; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981), pp. 158–60; and Snow, Last Things, p. 155. 158. Booker, ‘Writing for the Wretched of the Earth: Frantz Fanon and the Radical African Novel’, in Dubravka Juraga and Booker, eds, Rereading Global Socialist Cultures after the Cold War: The Reassessment of a Tradition (Westport and London: Praeger, 2002), p. 148. 159. Chatwin, Utz, pp. 12, 134. 160. Ibid., p. 15. Chatwin’s line on the cultural Cold War was stated directly in a number of articles: for example, see Chatwin, ‘Konstantin Melnikov’, in Chatwin, What Am I Doing Here, new edn (1989; London: Picador, 1990), pp. 105–13. 161. Ibid., pp. 87, 82. 162. Ballard, Millennium People, new edn (2003; London: Harper Perennial, 2004), p. 29; Burgess, Honey, p. 45; Jean Rhys, ‘Tigers are Better-Looking’, in Rhys, 236 Notes

Tigers are Better- Looking: With a Selection from The Left Bank (London: André Deutsch, 1968), p. 68; Shelagh Delaney, ‘Vodka and Small Pieces of Gold’, in Delaney, Sweetly Sings the Donkey, p. 120. For other criticisms of free- world dis- course or of propaganda in general, see Alan Sillitoe, Travels in Nihilon (London: W.H. Allen, 1971), p. 45; Priestley, Saturn, pp. 51–2, 172; Rayner Heppenstall, The Woodshed, new edn (1962; London: Jupiter Books, 1968), p. 64; William Golding, ‘Tolstoy’s Mountain’, in Golding, The Hot Gates and Other Occasional Pieces, new edn (1965; London: Faber and Faber, 1970), p. 124; Wesker, ‘Visit’, pp. 150, 152; David Storey, A Temporary Life, new edn (1973; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1978), p. 59; Drabble, Ice Age, p. 248; Thomas, Summit, p. 28; Amis, I Like It, pp. 47–50; Fay Weldon, The Shrapnel Academy, new edn (1986; London: Coronet Books, 1987), pp. 67–8; Lessing, Shikasta, pp. 111–14, 120–1, 294; Lessing, The Sirian Experiments: The Report by Ambien II, of the Five, new edn (1981; St Albans and London: Granada, 1982), pp. 309, 312; and Lessing, Documents Relating to the Sentimental Agents in the Volyen Empire, new edn (1983; London: Panther Books, 1985), pp. 15–19, 63, 102, 156–8. 163. Chatwin, Utz, pp. 119, 118. 164. Few authors envisaged the ending of the Cold War: see Jonathan Coe, A Touch of Love, new edn (1989; London: Sceptre, 1990), pp. 31–2; Thomas, Swallow, pp. 271–5; Thomas, Summit, pp. 94–5; Ballard, ‘The Life and Death of God’ (1976), in Ballard, Complete Short Stories, p. 843; and Kingsley Amis, ‘The 2003 Claret’ (1958), in Amis, Collected Short Stories, new edn (1980; London: Penguin, 1983), p. 182. 165. Chatwin, Utz, p. 88. 166. Huntington, ‘The Clash of Civilizations?’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 72, No. 3 (1993), pp. 22–49. 167. Kovacˇevic´, Narrating Post/Communism: Colonial Discourse and Europe’s Borderline Civilization (London and New York: Routledge, 2008), p. 2. Acting as a kind of literary border police, Bradbury’s Doctor Criminale (1992), Bel Mooney’s Lost Footsteps (1993), D.B.C. Pierre’s Ludmila’s Broken English (2006) and Rose Tremain’s The Road Home (2007) imagine east Europeans travelling to the West and, for the most part, make sure they return at the end of the narratives. The other novels referred to here are Barnes’s The Porcupine (1992), Barker’s Double Vision (2003) and de Bernières’s A Partisan’s Daughter (2008). 168. Banerjee, ‘Postethnicity and Postcommunism in Hanif Kureishi’s Gabriel’s Gift and Salman Rushdie’s Fury’, in Joel Kuortti and Jopi Nyman, eds, Reconstructing Hybridity: Post- Colonial Studies in Transition ( and New York: Rodopi, 2007), p. 314. 169. Diemert, ‘Uncontainable Metaphor’, pp. 42, 43. 170. Juraga and Booker, ‘Introduction’ to Juraga and Booker, eds, Socialist Cultures, p. 3. 171. Quoted in Nathanson, ‘Social Construction’, p. 457. 172. Rawnsley, ‘Introduction’ to Rawnsley, ed., Cold-War Propaganda, p. 8.

2 The Nuclear Debate

1. Mikhail A. Milshtein, ‘On the Question of Non- Resort to the First Use of Nuclear Weapons’, in Frank Blackaby, Jozef Goldblat and Sverre Lodgaard, eds, No- First- Use (London and Philadelphia: Taylor and Francis, 1984), p. 112. 2. Amis, ‘Introduction: Thinkability’, in Amis, Einstein’s Monsters, new edn (1987; London: Penguin, 1988), p. 5. Notes 237

3. Ibid., pp. 11, 22. During the SALT talks, the issue of nuclear proliferation left even Kissinger dumbfounded: see John Newhouse, The Nuclear Age: From Hiroshima to Star Wars (London: Michael Joseph, 1989), p. 245. 4. See ibid., p. 18. Like much of Amis’s preface, the point seems to be influenced by Jonathan Schell’s The Fate of the Earth (1982), which claimed that, despite ‘the immeasurable importance of nuclear weapons, the world has declined … to think about them very much’ (Schell, The Fate of the Earth, in Schell, The Fate of the Earth and The Abolition, new edn (1982, 1984; Stanford CA: Stanford University Press, 2000), pp. 3–4). 5. Brians, ‘Nuclear Family/Nuclear War’, PLL: Papers on Language & Literature, Vol. 26, No. 1 (1990), p. 134. 6. Newhouse, Nuclear Age, p. 416. 7. Quoted in ibid., p. 108. On the military reasoning behind M.A.D., see Schell, Fate of the Earth, pp. 196–7. 8. On the question of the bomb, was adamant ‘we’ve got to have the bloody Union Jack flying on top of it’ and Churchill felt that ‘[i]t’s the price we pay to sit at the top table’ (quoted in Charles More, Britain in the Twentieth Century (Harlow: Pearson Longman, 2007), p. 214; quoted in Peter Hennessy, The Secret State: Preparing for the Worst 1945–2010, new edn (2002; London: Penguin, 2010), p. 46). 9. Quoted in Greenwood, Britain, p. 110. 10. Cocroft and Thomas, Cold War, p. 70. 11. Quoted in Reynolds, Britannia Overruled, p. 181. 12. As Ian Connell writes, each ‘“new” development in nuclear policy [was] pre- mised upon some reference to Soviet “expansionism” or “the Soviet threat”’ (Ian Connell, ‘Peace in Our Times?’, in Crispin Aubrey, ed., Nukespeak: The Media and the Bomb (London: Comedia, 1982), p. 24). 13. As Hennessy comments, the government was essentially contemplating ‘the degradation of the into … irradiated little fiefdoms filled with wretched and desperate survivors theoretically governed by men in bunkers and probably ruled, in reality, by armed soldiers and policemen with ultimate powers’ (Hennessy, Secret State, p. 208). 14. Grant, After the Bomb: Civil Defence and Nuclear War in Britain, 1945–68 (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2010), pp. 12, 159. An interesting treatment of post- attack planning occurs in Simon Raven’s Brother Cain (1959), in which a secret organisation plans to recruit a special force of ‘un- uniformed shock troops who will emerge to bring order to an atom- ravaged Britain’ (Raven, Brother Cain, p. 60). 15. Grant, After the Bomb, p. 5. 16. Even those uninvolved in national security would have been aware of the chang- ing landscape of Cold War Britain, with its communications centres, dispersal bays, observer posts, early- warning radar, monitoring posts, bunkers, reinforced shelters and missile launch pads: see Neil Cossons, ‘Foreword’ to Cocroft and Thomas, Cold War, p. vi. 17. There were also plenty of false alerts: for example, the North American Air Defense Command experienced 152 errors in its early warning system between January 1979 and June 1980 alone (see Helen Caldicott, Missile Envy: The and Nuclear War (New York: William Morrow and Co., 1984), pp. 38–9). 18. Aldrich, The Hidden Hand: Britain, America and Cold War Secret Intelligence (London: John Murray, 2001), p. 232. 238 Notes

19. Mannix, The Rhetoric of Antinuclear Fiction: Persuasive Strategies in Novels and Films (Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press; London and Toronto: Associated University Presses, 1992), p. 54. 20. Weldon, Shrapnel Academy, p. 120; Adams, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, in Adams, The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy: A Trilogy in Four Parts, new edn (1979, 1980, 1982, 1984; London: Pan Books, 1992), p. 33. Official advice was satirised elsewhere: see Nell Dunn, Up the Junction, new edn (1963; London: Virago, 1988), pp. 40, 76; Mitford, The Blessing (1951), in Mitford, Love in a Cold Climate, pp. 387–8; and Graham Greene, ‘Civil Defence’, in Greene, Yours Etc., p. 193. 21. R.W. Langer quoted in Derek Maus, ‘Series and Systems: Russian and American Dystopian Satires of the Cold War’, Critical Survey, Vol. 17, No. 1 (2005), p. 79. General Groves of the Manhattan Project even affirmed to a Congressional hear- ing in 1945 that death by radiation was ‘very pleasant’ (quoted in David Dowling, Fictions of Nuclear Disaster (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1987), p. 211). The phrase ‘sunny side of the atom’ was the title of a US radio documentary, broadcast on CBS in 1946, that aimed to counteract scare stories about atomic technologies (see Paul Boyer, By the Bomb’s Early Light: American Thought and Culture at the Dawn of the Atomic Age (New York: Pantheon Books, 1985), p. 299). 22. Quoted in Ken Ruthven, Nuclear Criticism (Victoria: Melbourne University Press, 1993), p. 50. 23. Anon, ‘Proposal for a Diacritics Colloquium on Nuclear Criticism’, Diacritics, Vol. 14, No. 2 (1984), pp. 2, 3, 2. 24. See Newhouse, Nuclear Age, p. 39, and H. Bruce Franklin, War Stars: The Super- weapon and the American Imagination (New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988), pp. 82–4. 25. Quoted in Ruthven, Nuclear Criticism, pp. 32, 33. An eyewitness of later US test- ing in the Marshall Islands spoke of ‘[t]he beautiful, awe- inspiring, overpowering spectral of the H- bomb as its symbolic shape climbs thundering towards the sky’ (W.C. Anderson quoted in Dowling, Fictions of Nuclear Disaster, pp. 211–12). 26. Derrida, ‘No Apocalypse, Not Now (Full Speed Ahead, Seven Missiles, Seven Missives)’, Diacritics, Vol. 14, No. 2 (1984), pp. 23, 23, 22, 22. 27. Ruthven, Nuclear Criticism, p. 77. 28. Nancy Anisfield, ‘Introduction’ to Anisfield, ed., The Nightmare Considered: Critical Essays on Nuclear War Literature (Bowling Green: Bowling Green State University Popular Press, 1991), p. 2. 29. The widespread media coverage of nuclear developments is occasionally men- tioned by novelists. For three examples from different stages of the Cold War, see Evelyn Waugh, The Diaries of Evelyn Waugh, ed. by Michael Davie (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1976), p. 631; Sillitoe, Death of William Posters, p. 45; and Maggie Gee, The Burning Book (London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1983), p. 251. 30. As Jeff Smith reminds us, ‘global destruction … has its imaginative history: apoca- lypse is almost as old an idea as God’ (Smith, Unthinking the Unthinkable: Nuclear Weapons and Western Culture (Bloomington and Indianapolis: Indiana University Press, 1989), p. 19). 31. Franklin, ‘Fatal Fiction: A Weapon to End All Wars’, in Anisfield, ed., Nightmare Considered, p. 5. Such pioneer work included Becquerel’s discovery of radioactiv- ity in uranium (1896), the Curies’ discovery of radium and polonium (1898), Einstein’s speculations on converting matter into energy (1905) and Rutherford’s discovery of the nucleus (1911). Notes 239

32. Boyer, Bomb’s Early Light, p. xix. See also Martha A. Bartter, The Way to Ground Zero: The Atomic Bomb in American Science Fiction (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1988), p. 5; Susan Sontag, ‘The Imagination of Disaster’, in Sontag, Against Interpretation, new edn (1966; London: Vintage, 1994), p. 215; Charles A. Carpenter, Dramatists and the Bomb: American and British Playwrights Confront the Nuclear Age, 1945–1964 (Westport and London: Greenwood Press, 1999), pp. 11–12; Jacqueline Foertsch, Enemies Within: The Cold War and the AIDS Crisis in Literature, Film, and Culture (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001), p. 3; and Richard Klein, ‘The Future of Nuclear Criticism’, Yale French Studies, Vol. 77 (1990), p. 99. 33. Gerry, ‘The Literary Crisis: The Nuclear Crisis’, Dalhousie Review, Vol. 67 (1987), p. 304. 34. I shall be using the term ‘Nuclear Criticism’ to include both the Cornell group and the more numerous literary critics whose examination of nuclear- era culture is relatively uninformed by the Cornell Colloquium. The latter, including Paul Brians, David Dowling and H. Bruce Franklin, have tended to focus on popular literary genres. 35. See Paul Brians, Nuclear Holocausts: Atomic War in Fiction, 1895–1984 (Kent OH: Kent State University Press, 1987), p. vii; Dowling, Fictions of Nuclear Disaster, p. 14; Peter Schwenger, Letter Bomb: Nuclear Holocaust and the Exploding Word (Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992), p. 5; and Peter Schwenger, ‘Circling Ground Zero’, PMLA, Vol. 106 (1991), p. 260. 36. Brians, Nuclear Holocausts, p. 11. A few days after Nagasaki, Orwell wrote: ‘The prompt surrender of Japan seems to have altered people’s outlook on the atomic bomb. At the beginning everyone I spoke to about it … was simply horrified. Now they begin to feel that there’s something to be said for a weapon that could end the war in two days’ (Orwell, ‘London Letter to Partisan Review’, in Orwell, Collected Essays, III, 452). The sense of relief is bluntly stated in Lessing’s autobi- ography (‘What we felt was, Thank God the war is over’) and by the protagonist of Raven’s Fielding Gray (1967): ‘Good, I thought: quite a chance now that I won’t have to do any Army service at all’ (Lessing, Under My Skin, p. 346; Raven, Fielding Gray, p. 83). Amongst other authors, the dominant response to the atomic bomb was dread: see Carpenter, Dramatists, pp. 53–5, 97–100. 37. Enright, Memoirs of a Mendicant Professor (London: Chatto and Windus, 1969), p. 19. For more critical approaches to the bombing, see Johnson, Survival of the Fittest, pp. 324–5; Linklater, Year of Space, p. 154; and Weldon, Leader of the Band, p. 105. 38. See Amis, ‘Introduction’, p. 11. 39. Wyndham and Parkes, The Outward Urge, new edn (1959; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), p. 96. After 1953, Wyndham associated nuclear weapons with ‘race suicide’, with ‘disaster of cosmic proportions’ and with a mirroring of ‘the ability of God to annihilate Himself’ (ibid., p. 49; Wyndham, ‘’, in Wyndham, Consider Her Ways and Others, new edn (1961; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965), p. 150; Wyndham, , new edn (1979; London: Penguin, 1980), p. 17). Even before thermonuclear testing, his work reflected on the possibility of human self- extinction: see Wyndham, ‘’ (1951), in Wyndham, Exiles on Asperus, new edn (1933, 1951, 1932; London: Coronet Books, 1979), p. 69. 40. Snow, The New Men (London: Macmillan, 1954), pp. 84, 34. On the competitive- ness of nuclear physicists, see Brian Easlea, Fathering the Unthinkable: Masculinity, Scientists and the (London: Pluto Press, 1983), p. 69. 240 Notes

41. Snow, New Men, pp. 215, 213, 300, 300. 42. Snow, Two Cultures and A Second Look, revised edn (1959; London: Cambridge University Press, 1964), p. 5. 43. The figure of the nuclear scientist was never a staple of the British Cold War novel. Although military science (and its ethical dilemmas) recurred as a theme in Snow’s Corridors of Power (1964) and Last Things (1970), and also appeared in Cooper’s The Struggles of Albert Woods (1952) and Memoirs of a New Man (1966), it typically entered fiction only as the brunt of passing ridicule or condemna- tion. For example, see Koestler, Call- Girls, pp. 58, 158; Weldon, Shrapnel Academy, p. 111; Weldon, Leader of the Band, p. 110; Margaret Drabble, The Millstone, new edn (1965; London: Penguin, 1968), pp. 76–7, 87; Priestley, Bright Day, p. 177; Priestley, Saturn, pp. 15, 151; and Lessing, Four-Gated City, pp. 119–20, 128–9. 44. Illustrating the ambition of CND, Hall’s ‘NATO and the Alliances’ (1960) argues that a British unilateralist policy would allow the country ‘to act as a rally- ing point outside both nuclear alliances – the and NATO’ – and would expand the ‘offensive for disengagement and disarmament’ (quoted in Richard Taylor, Against the Bomb: The British Peace Movement 1958–1965 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988), p. 55). 45. See ibid., p. 20. For examples of his anti- nuclearism, see Priestley, Bright Day, pp. 177, 249–50, 294; Priestley, Magicians, pp. 206–7; Priestley, Saturn, pp. 48, 98–9, 212–3, 242–4, 249; Priestley, It’s an Old Country, new edn (1967; London: The Book Club, 1968), p. 193; Priestley, The Shapes of Sleep: A Topical Tale (London: Heinemann, 1962), p. 215; Priestley, Three Men, p. 107; and Priestley, Margin Released: A Writer’s Reminiscences and Reflections, new edn (1962; London: The Reprint Society, 1963), p. 224. For pacifist sentiment in other writers of the period, see MacInnes, ‘Pop Songs and Teenagers’, in MacInnes, England, p. 59; Sillitoe, ‘The Good Woman’, in Sillitoe, Ragman’s Daughter, pp. 136–41; Raymond Williams, Second Generation (London: Chatto and Windus, 1964), pp. 71, 134–5; and Isherwood, Down There, p. 167. Interestingly, Jack Lindsay’s The Moment of Choice (1955) had described anti- bomb activists several years before CND was established: see Lindsay, The Moment of Choice (London: Bodley Head, 1955), pp. 133–5. 46. See Russell, ‘’s Nightmare’, in Russell, Nightmares of Eminent Persons and Other Stories, new edn (1954; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), pp. 66–70. Russell’s stories were often at odds with his belief that nuclear war with the Soviet Union ‘would be worthwhile [since] communism must be wiped out and world government must be established’ (quoted in Easlea, Fathering the Unthinkable, p. 121). 47. Snow, New Men, pp. 16, 18. 48. Dowling, Fictions of Nuclear Disaster, p. 213. Even more conventional disaster fic- tion was beset by aesthetic complexities: see Brians, Nuclear Holocausts, p. 2. 49. For example, the barbarity of the children in Golding’s Lord of the Flies, who have left Britain in order to evade a nuclear disaster, is the result of what the author terms ‘the terrible disease of being human’, not of nuclear disaster itself (Golding, ‘Fable’, in Golding, Hot Gates, p. 89). 50. Huxley, Ape and Essence, p. 94. 51. Ibid., p. 74; quoted in Dowling, Fictions of Nuclear Disaster, p. 112. The novella also opposes the kind of sentiment expressed by a US Office of Civil Defense official, who suggested that ‘a nuclear war could alleviate some of the factors leading to today’s ecological disturbances that are due to current high- population concentra- tions and heavy industrial production’ (quoted in Schell, Fate of the Earth, p. 7). Notes 241

52. Sabin, Third World War, pp. 37, 38. 53. Jeff Hughes, ‘The Strath Report: Britain Confronts the H- Bomb, 1954–5’, History and Technology, Vol. 19, No. 3 (2003), p. 258. 54. Quoted in Schell, Fate of the Earth, p. 6. The cave dwelling depicted in Hartley’s Facial Justice was also foreseen by Attlee, who in September 1945 fretted to President Truman about having ‘to direct all our people to live like troglodytes underground as being the only hope of survival’ (quoted in Grant, After the Bomb, p. 18). Regarding British post- disaster planning, one government official admit- ted in 1954 that ‘[t]he standard work on the subject is by Mr H.G. Wells … – “The War of the Worlds” – which is much better than any piece of Home Office paper that I have yet seen’ (quoted in Grant, After the Bomb, p. 85). 55. Brians, Nuclear Holocausts, p. 61. 56. Jameson, Archaeologies, p. 199. 57. Ballard, The Drought, new edn (1965; London: Flamingo, 1993), p. 132; Ballard, , new edn (1981; London: Vintage, 1994), p. 91; Ballard, Day of Creation, p. 17. 58. Ballard, ‘’ (1964), in Ballard, Complete Short Stories, p. 590. It was rare for British fiction to describe directly the devastation caused at Hiroshima, Nakasaki and the atomic test sites, or to attempt to turn these events into narrative form. For examples, see Andrew Sinclair, Gog, new edn (1967; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), pp. 71–2, 96; John Fowles, Daniel Martin, new edn (1977; St Albans: Triad/Panther Books, 1978), pp. 348–50; , An Artist of the Floating World, new edn (1986; London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1987), pp. 26–8, 99; and Ishiguro, Pale View, pp. 11, 137–8. 59. Ballard, , new edn (1984; London: Panther Books, 1985), p. 267. 60. Ibid., p. 332. For the author’s comments on the US involvement in Japan, see Ballard, Miracles, p. 90, and Ballard, Atrocity Exhibition, p. 52. 61. Ballard, , new edn (1962; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965), p. 23. 62. Ibid., pp. 8, 8, 7, 72. 63. Ruthven, Nuclear Criticism, pp. 79, 80. 64. Ballard, Atrocity Exhibition, p. 1; Ballard, ‘The Venus Hunters’, in Ballard, Complete Short Stories, p. 487. For these and other examples, see Ballard, , new edn (1966; London: Flamingo, 2000), pp. 168–9; Ballard, ‘The Last World of Mr Goddard’, in Ballard, Complete Short Stories, pp. 196–207; Ballard, ‘Report on an Unidentified Space Station’, in Ballard, Complete Short Stories, pp. 1085–9; Ballard, ‘The Waiting Grounds’, in Ballard, Complete Short Stories, pp. 72–95; Ballard, , new edn (1974; London: Harper Perennial, 2008), p. 149; Ballard, Drought, p. 156; Ballard, ‘The Cage of Sand’, in Ballard, The Voices of Time, new edn (1963; London: Victor Gollancz, 1985), p. 138; and Ballard, ‘Cry Hope, Cry Fury!’, in Ballard, , new edn (1973; London: Dent and Sons, 1985), pp. 91–2. 65. Bainbridge, Quiet Life, p. 95; Powell, Casanova’s Chinese Restaurant, p. 7; Larkin, Jill, new edn (1946; London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1975), p. 215. 66. Macaulay, World My Wilderness, p. 152. See also the descriptions of war in William Golding, Darkness Visible, new edn (1979; London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1980), p. 15; Jameson, Short Interval, p. 196; H.E. Bates, The Purple Plain, new edn (1948; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1956), p. 5; Barnes, Staring at the Sun, p. 95; and Farrell, Singapore Grip, p. 218. 242 Notes

67. Sillitoe, William Posters, pp. 62, 62; Frayn, End of the Morning, p. 5; John Braine, The Vodi, new edn (1959; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), p. 160; Storey, Temporary Life, p. 10; Meredith, Shifts, p. 191. 68. Farrell, Girl in the Head, p. 71; Amis, ‘St Lucia’, in Amis, Visiting Mrs Nabokov, p. 75; William Golding, Pincher Martin (London: Faber and Faber, 1956), pp. 30, 30; Elizabeth Taylor, In a Summer Season, new edn (1961; London: Virago, 2000), p. 116. For further examples, see Snow, Malcontents, p. 16; Sinclair, ‘Ashkenazia’, in Sinclair, Bedbugs, p. 123; Koestler, Call- Girls , p. 9; P.H. Newby, The Young May Moon (London: Jonathan Cape, 1950), pp. 180–2; Amis, Other People, pp. 17–18; William Golding, The Spire, new edn (1965; London: Faber and Faber, 1965), p. 80; Fowles, Magus, p. 532; Golding, Lord of the Flies, p. 223; Philip Larkin, A Girl in Winter, new edn (1947; London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1975), p. 224; Rushdie, Grimus, p. 34; Malcolm Lowry, Under the Volcano, new edn (1947; London: Picador, 1990), p. 375; Malcolm Lowry, Dark as the Grave wherein My Friend Is Laid, new edn (1969; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), p. 87; and Iris Murdoch, The Unicorn, new edn (1963; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966), pp. 246–7. 69. Boyer, Bomb’s Early Light, p. 256. 70. Mannix, Rhetoric of Antinuclear Fiction, p. 15; Clifton, ‘A Flash of Light: The Evolution of Anti- Nuclear Consciousness in an Alternative Literary Journal (Samisdat, 1973–1990)’, in Anisfield, ed., Nightmare Considered, p. 32; Sontag, ‘Imagination of Disaster’, p. 224. 71. See Dunn, Talking to Women, new edn (1965; London: Pan Books, 1966), pp. 176, 12; Amis, ‘Short Stories, From Scratch’, in Amis, Visiting Mrs Nabokov, pp. 199–200. 72. Amis, ‘Introduction’, p. 17. 73. Ibid., p. 19. 74. Malcolm Bradbury, Eating People is Wrong, new edn (1959; London: Arrow Books, 1978), p. 144; Iris Murdoch, An Unofficial Rose, new edn (1962; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), p. 221; Johnson, Humbler Creation, p. 197; Mervyn Peake, Mr Pye, new edn (1953; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), p. 228. For other such references, see Michael Frayn, Sweet Dreams, new edn (1973; London: Penguin, 1976), p. 103; Bill Naughton, Alfie, new edn (1966; London: Panther Books, 1966), p. 75; J.G. Ballard, The Unlimited Dream Company, new edn (1979; London: Flamingo, 1992), p. 32; Drabble, Realms of Gold, p. 187; Iris Murdoch, The Black Prince, new edn (1973; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), pp. 348–9; Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, The New Dominion, new edn (1972; London: Panther Books, 1983), p. 228; Wesker, ‘Visit’, pp. 144–6; Storm Jameson, The Road from the Monument, new edn (London: Macmillan; New York: St Martin’s Press, 1962), p. 12; Christopher Isherwood, A Single Man, new edn (1964; London: Methuen, 1986), pp. 72–3; Barbara Pym, Jane and Prudence, new edn (1953; London: Panther Books, 1981), p. 229; Hartley, Sister’s Keeper, pp. 105, 108; Pamela Hansford Johnson, The Unspeakable Skipton, new edn (1959; Harmondsworth; Penguin, 1961), p. 114; Johnson, Error of Judgement, pp. 15, 218–19; Chaplin, Day of the Sardine, pp. 47, 222; Beryl Bainbridge, Injury Time (London: Duckworth, 1977), pp. 110–11; and Spark, The Hothouse by the East River, new edn (1973; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), p. 133. 75. Murdoch, Time of the Angels, p. 103; , A Male Child, new edn (1956; London: Mayflower Paperbacks, 1969), p. 186; William Cooper, Scenes for Married Life, new edn (1961; London: Methuen, 1983), p. 197; Wilson, Old Men, p. 104; Laurie Lee, ‘Ibiza High Fifties’, in Lee, I Can’t Stay Long, new edn (1975; Notes 243

Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977), p. 149; Anthony Burgess, Tremor of Intent, new edn (1966; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), p. 9. 76. Powell, Hearing Secret Harmonies, p. 88; Sinclair, Beau Bumbo, p. 50; Sam Selvon, Moses Migrating (Harlow: Longman, 1983), p. 107; William Boyd, , new edn (1990; London: Penguin, 1991), p. 288; Olivia Manning, My Husband Cartwright (London: Heinemann, 1956), p. 32. See also Golding, Lord of the Flies, p. 30; Iain Banks, The Wasp Factory, new edn (1985; London and Sydney: Futura, 1985), pp. 24–5; Anthony Burgess, The Doctor Is Sick, new edn (1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), pp. 207–8; Greene, Our Man, pp. 9–10; MacInnes, ‘The Express Families’, in MacInnes, England, pp. 42–3; Barry Hines, Looks and Smiles, new edn (1981; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983), p. 69; Lessing, Golden Notebook, p. 241; , Metroland, new edn (1980; London: Picador, 1990), pp. 45–6; Amis, Girl, 20, p. 134; and Manning, Play Room, p. 45. 77. See John Braine, Stay with Me till Morning (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1970), p. 60; Malcolm Bradbury, ‘Love on a Gunboat’, in Bradbury, The After Dinner Game: Three Plays for Television, new edn (1982; London: Arrow Books, 1982), p. 106; Fowles, Magus, p. 34; Burgess, Honey, p. 92; Drabble, Ice Age, p. 163; MacInnes, ‘See You at Mabel’s’, in MacInnes, English, p. 75. Even weather conditions are blamed on nuclear development: see William McIlvanney, Remedy Is None, new edn (1966; Glasgow: Richard Drew Publishing, 1989), p. 109; and Murdoch, Time of the Angels, p. 180. 78. Keith Waterhouse, There Is a Happy Land, new edn (1962; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), pp. 52, 115; John Wain, The Smaller Sky, new edn (1967; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), pp. 57–8, 141; Winterson, Oranges, pp. 111–12; Sillitoe, A Start in Life, new edn (1970; London: Star, 1978), p. 12. 79. Murdoch, Time of the Angels, p. 68; Marshall, Red Danube, p. 34. 80. Sillitoe’s work typified what Ingrid von Rosenberg sees as a widespread engage- ment with the bomb in working- class writing of the early Cold War: see von Rosenberg, ‘Militancy, Anger and Resignation: Alternative Moods in the Working- Class Novel of the 1950s and early 1960s’, in H. Gustav Klaus, ed., The Socialist Novel in Britain: Towards the Recovery of a Tradition (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1982), p. 159. 81. Sillitoe, ‘The Good Woman’, in Sillitoe, Ragman’s Daughter, p. 136; Sillitoe, ‘Isaac Starbuck’, in Sillitoe, Guzman, Go Home and Other Stories, new edn (1968; London: Pan Books, 1970), pp. 128, 130. As these comments may sug- gests, Sillitoe pursued a specifically left- wing critique of the nuclear state: see also Sillitoe, Raw Material (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1972), p. 129; Sillitoe, A Tree on Fire, new edn (1967; London: Star, 1979), pp. 247–8, 369; Sillitoe, Saturday Night and Sunday Morning, new edn (1958; London: Pan Books, 1960), p. 21. 82. Sillitoe, ‘The Rope Trick’, in Sillitoe, Guzman, p. 93; Sillitoe, ‘Isaac Starbuck’, p. 127; Sillitoe, Tree on Fire, p. 306. 83. Sillitoe, ‘The Loneliness of the Long- Distance Runner’, in Sillitoe, The Loneliness of the Long- Distance Runner, new edn (1959; London: Pan Books, 1961), pp. 15, 14. 84. The depiction of apocalyptic landscapes is common in Sillitoe’s work: see Sillitoe, The General, new edn (1960; London: Grafton Books, 1986), p. 8; Sillitoe, William Posters, pp. 45, 47; Sillitoe, Saturday Night, p. 121; and Sillitoe, Tree on Fire, pp. 123–4, 128–9. 85. Jacqueline R. Smetak, ‘Sex and Death in Nuclear Holocaust Literature of the 1950s’, in Anisfield, Nightmare Considered, p. 17. As examples, a character in 244 Notes

Elizabeth Taylor’s A Game of Hide and Seek (1951) ‘prayed for catastrophe, for a break of great violence after which she might be permitted to begin again’, a character in Joe Orton and Kenneth Halliwell’s The Boy Hairdresser (composed 1960) feels that ‘the sooner the Bomb fell the better’ and a character in Angus Wilson’s The Old Men at the Zoo (1961) believes that ‘[w]e deserve to be annihi- lated’ (Taylor, A Game of Hide and Seek, new edn (1951; London: The Book Club, 1951), p. 194; Orton and Halliwell, The Boy Hairdresser, in Orton and Halliwell, Lord Cucumber, p. 182; Wilson, Old Men, p. 105). Burgess goes further and argues that all cultural production portraying nuclear war is ‘sheer wish fulfilment’ (Burgess, 1985, p. 230). See also Sillitoe, ‘Rope Trick’, p. 85; Michael Frayn, A Very Private Life, new edn (1968; London: Flamingo, 1984), p. 34; Weldon, ‘Polaris’, in Weldon, Polaris and Other Stories, new edn (1985; London: Sceptre, 1986), p. 49; Banks, Wasp Factory, p. 113; Fowles, Aristos, p. 99; Drabble, Realms of Gold, pp. 134–5; Pat Barker, Liza’s England, new edn (1986; London: Virago, 1996), pp. 195–6; Scott, Male Child, p. 153; and Barker, Blow Your House, p. 59. 86. Easlea, Fathering the Unthinkable, p. 80. For the estimate of female- authored disaster novels, see Brians, ‘Nuclear Family/Nuclear War’, p. 151. 87. Caldicott is typical in noting the ‘psychosexual overtones’ of the Cold War mili- tary terminology, which included ‘missile erector, thrust-to- weight ratio, soft lay down, deep penetration, hard line and soft line’ (Caldicott, Missile Envy, p. 297). 88. Sillitoe, Tree on Fire, p. 287; Sillitoe, Start in Life, p. 180. 89. The novel had a complex gestation. George was the author of Two Hours to Doom (1958), written under the penname of Peter Bryant and published simul- taneously in the US as Red Alert; after being adapted as a film script by Stanley Kubrick and Terry Southern, George produced a novelisation of the script – the Dr Strangelove discussed here – that remains closer to the film than to the original novel. 90. George, Dr Strangelove or: How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love the Bomb (London: Transworld Publishers, 1963), pp. 78, 6, 143, 144. 91. Ibid., p. 116. 92. See Robert Jay Lifton, Death in Life: Survivors of Hiroshima, new edn (1968; Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991), p. 500. The satirical approach was also taken by two earlier novels: in The Mouse That Roared (1955) by English educated and temporary British resident Leonard Wibberley, the comedy alternates with earnest polemics in favour of a nuclear governing body of small nations; in Brigid Brophy’s Hackenfeller’s Ape (1953), the parody of right- wing nuclearism foreshadows the absudism of Dr Strangelove (see Wibberley, Mouse That Roared, pp. 169–70; Brophy, Hackenfeller’s Ape, new edn (1953; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), p. 64). 93. Although always secondary to the Soviet threat, the Chinese of nuclear weaponry was addressed in Bernard Newman’s The Blue Ants (1962), Peter George’s Commander-1 (1965), John Griffiths’s The Survivors (1965), Philip McCutchan’s A Time for Survival (1966) and Doris Lessing’s The Four- Gated City (1969). For brief references, see Timothy Mo, Sour Sweet, new edn (1982; London: Abacus, 1983), p. 168; Burgess, Doctor, p. 208; Ackroyd, Great Fire, p. 22; and Ballard, ‘The Life and Death of God’, in Ballard, Complete Short Stories, p. 847. 94. Philip A.G. Sabin, The Third World War Scare in Britain: A Critical Analysis (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1986), p. 1. 95. Brians, Nuclear Holocausts, p. 24. Of course, a number of male authors con- tinued to work in the genre of disaster fiction, including John Fowles in his Notes 245

unpublished The Screw (composed 1974) (see Eileen Warburton, John Fowles: A Life in Two Worlds (London: Jonathan Cape, 2004), p. 361). 96. Lessing, The Memoirs of a Survivor, new edn (1974; London: Picador, 1976), p. 122. 97. Ibid., pp. 72, 98. 98. Carter, Heroes and Villains, new edn (1969; London: Penguin, 2011), p. 87. 99. Ibid., p. 20. 100. Kavan, Ice, new edn (1967; London: Peter Owen, 2006), p. 123. 101. Johnson, Summer to Decide, pp. 173, 174; Johnson, Avenue of Stone, pp. 185, 185, 201. While Avenue of Stone later suggests that the cause of suicide was actually marital problems, the impression of nuclear anxiety remains, particularly as the novel speculates that a ‘worse kind of warfare’ than atomic war may emerge ( Johnson, Avenue of Stone, p. 203). 102. Taylor, Wreath of Roses, pp. 123, 123–4. Fears of renewed war were expressed in both female and male fiction during the late 1940s and early 1950s: see Taylor, View of the Harbour, p. 10; Elizabeth Taylor, The Sleeping Beauty, new edn (1953; London: Virago, 1982), p. 204; Macaulay, World My Wilderness, p. 119; Durrell, Dark Labyrinth, pp, 95, 152–3; Priestley, Bright Day, p. 152; Wilson, Hemlock, pp. 171–2; and Larkin, Girl in Winter, p. 79. 103. West, Meaning of Treason, p. 419. For brief information on ‘Edith’, West’s unpub- lished disaster story, see Antonia Till, ‘Introduction’ to West, Only Poet, p. 4. 104. Lessing, Four- Gated City, p. 569; Iris Murdoch, The Nice and the Good, new edn (1968; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), p. 117; Lively, Road to Lichfield, p. 50; Banks, End to Running, p. 14. 105. Cordle, ‘Beyond the Apocalypse of Closure: Nuclear Anxiety in Postmodern Literature of the United States’, in Hammond, ed., Cold War Literature, p. 68. 106. Burgess, Clockwork Orange, p. 35; Sillitoe, William Posters, p. 30; Wilson, Old Men, p. 86; Scott, The Bender, new edn (1963; London: Panther Books, 1975), p. 91. For other examples of nuclearism’s invasion of familial or domestic space, see Scott, Male Child, p. 15; Stan Barstow, The Watchers on the Shore, new edn (1966; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), pp. 7, 11–12; Drabble, Realms of Gold, p. 239; and Muriel Spark, ‘Miss Pinkerton’s Apocalypse’, in Spark, The Go- Away Bird and Other Stories, new edn (1958; Harmondsworth; Penguin, 1963), p. 57. 107. Brians, ‘Nuclear Family’, p. 153; Ruthven, Nuclear Criticism, p. 62. The focus on the domestic was repeated by US nuclear planners, who in a period of scaled- down civil defence looked to families to take responsibility for survival: see Guy Oakes, ‘The Family under Nuclear Attack: American Civil Defence Propaganda in the 1950s’, in Rawnsley, Cold-War Propaganda, p. 68. 108. See Sabin, Third World War, p. 42; and Ronnie Dugger, ‘The President’s Favorite Book’, The Nation, October 27 (1984), pp. 33–4. 109. Sabin, Third World War, pp. 1, 3. A NOP poll of 1980 found 65 per cent of respondents convinced that a Third World War would take place; in a 1980 Gallup poll, almost 70 per cent of respondents expressed anxiety about the pres- ence of nuclear weapons; and in a 1983 Mori poll 60 per cent of respondents were convinced that a nuclear war would not be survivable (see ibid, pp. 168, 169, 150). 110. See Paul Byrne, ‘Pressure Groups and Popular Campaigns’, in Paul Johnson, ed., Twentieth- Century Britain: Economic, Social and Cultural Change (London and New York: Longman, 1994), p. 455. 111. Ruthven, Nuclear Criticism, p. 61. 246 Notes

112. Bradbury, Cuts, p. 90; Coe, Touch of Love, pp. 9–10; Winterson, Sexing the Cherry, new edn (1989; London: Vintage, 1990), p. 122. 113. Ballard, Hello America, p. 187; Amis, ‘Insight at Flame Lake’, in Amis, Einstein’s Monsters, p. 54; McEwan, The Child in Time, new edn (1987; London: Vintage, 1997), pp. 163, 163. 114. Weldon, Letters to Alice, p. 38. 115. Weldon, Darcy’s Utopia, new edn (1990; London: Flamingo, 1991), p. 198; Weldon, The President’s Child, new edn (1982; London: Coronet Books, 1983), p. 31; Weldon, Shrapnel Academy, p. 202. See also Weldon, The Rules of Life, new edn (1987; London: Arrow Books, 1988), p. 22; Weldon, Heart of the Country, pp. 160–1; Weldon, Shrapnel Academy, p. 136; Weldon, ‘Geoffrey and the Eskimo Child’, in Weldon, Watching Me, pp. 182, 186; Weldon, ‘Threnody’, in Weldon, Watching Me, p. 113. 116. Lively, Perfect Happiness, p. 69. 117. Lively, Next to Nature, Art (London: Heinemann, 1982), p. 185; Lively, Judgement Day, p. 27. Martin Amis’s work offered the most sustained focus on nucle- arism: see Amis, Other People, pp. 56, 58; Amis, The Rachel Papers, new edn (1973; London: Penguin, 1984), p. 73; Amis, , new edn (1989; London: Penguin, 1990), pp. 64, 118, 127, 445; Amis, ‘Introduction and Acknowledgments’, in Amis, and Other Visits to America, new edn (1986; New York: Viking, 1987), p. xi; and Amis, ‘Nuclear City: The Megadeath Intellectuals’, in Amis, Visiting Mrs Nabokov, pp. 13–33. Another interesting example is Ian McEwan, who often reflected on the masculinism of nuclear policy and on the consequences of nuclear policy for the general population: see McEwan, ‘Introduction’ to McEwan, Move Abroad, p. 5; McEwan, Or Shall We Die?, in McEwan, Move Abroad, p. 23; and McEwan, Child in Time, pp. 34–6. McEwan’s involvement in the anti- nuclear movement led to a visit to with the European Nuclear Disarmament in 1987 (see Peter Childs, ‘No Different to You: The Innocent (1990)’, in Childs, ed., The Fiction of Ian McEwan (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), pp. 83–4). 118. See D.J. Enright, Academic Year, new edn (1955; Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 151; Buchi Emecheta, The Rape of Shavi (London and Nigeria: Ogwugwu Afor, 1983), pp. 29–31; Angus Wilson, ‘South Africa – A Visit to My Mother’s Land’, in Wilson, Reflections in a Writer’s Eye, new edn (1986; London: Paladin Grafton Books, 1988), pp. 55–6; Banks, Defy the Wilderness, pp. 79, 267; Wyndham and Parkes, Outward Urge, p. 99; and Hanley, Journey Homeward, p. 270. 119. See Nicholas J. White, Decolonisation: The British Experience since 1945 (London and New York: Longman, 1999), p. 12; and Ruthven, Nuclear Criticism, p. 51. 120. Harris, Black Marsden (London: Faber and Faber, 1972), p. 31. 121. Dangarembga, Nervous Conditions (London: The Women’s Press, 1988), p. 93; Randhawa, A Wicked Old Woman (London: The Women’s Press, 1987), p. 77; Selvon, Those Who Eat the Cascadura (London: Davis- Poynter, 1972), p. 93; Salkey, The Late Emancipation of Jerry Stover (London: Hutchinson, 1968), p. 216. The worldwide fear of nuclear calamity makes a mockery of Chatwin’s child- hood dream of finding ‘somewhere to live when the rest of the world blew up’ (Chatwin, In Patagonia, new edn (1977; London: Vintage, 2008), p. 7). 122. The overlap between the writings of the two periods is also suggested by the nuclear references found in 1980s novels set during ‘first Cold War’: see Boyd, New Confessions, p. 487, Lawrence Durrell, Sebastian: or Ruling Passions Notes 247

(New York: Viking, 1984), p. 127; and Muriel Spark, A Far Cry from Kensington, new edn (1988; London: Penguin, 1989), p. 173. 123. For example, see Emma Tennant, The Crack , new edn (1973; London: Faber and Faber, 1985), pp. 23, 103–4, 134–42; and Emma Tennant, A Wedding of Cousins, new edn (1988; London: Penguin, 1989), pp. 104–11. 124. Tennant, Queen of Stones, new edn (1982; London: Picador, 1983), pp. 15, 16, 16, 16, 17. 125. In the year Queen of Stones was published, nuclear anxiety had become so predominant that even George Kennan complained. ‘Can we not at long last cast off our preoccupation with sheer destruction?’ he asked testily: ‘this entire preoccupation with nuclear war is a form of illness. It is morbid in the extreme’ (quoted in Smith, Unthinking the Unthinkable, p. 28). 126. Derrida, ‘No Apocalpyse’, p. 23. 127. Schwenger, Letter Bomb, pp. xiii, 3. 128. Lessing, Memoirs of a Survivor, pp. 136, 136, 139. 129. Carter, Heroes and Villains, p. 9. 130. Ibid., pp. 148–9. 131. Tennant, Queen of Stones, pp. 9, 10. 132. Golding, ‘Crabbed Youth and Age’, in Golding, Moving Target, pp. 101, 102. 133. Klein, ‘Future of Nuclear Criticism’, p. 81. 134. For Gee’s treatment of nuclear anxiety, nuclear waste, nukespeak and radia- tion, see Gee, Dying, In Other Words, new edn (1981; London: Flamingo, 1994), pp. 156, 186; and Gee, Grace, new edn (1988; London: Abacus, 1989), pp. 13, 54–5, 135, 168–9. 135. Connor, English Novel, p. 243. 136. Gee, Burning Book, p. 15. 137. Ibid., pp. 39, 52, 52 (Gee’s italics). As Franklin argues, ‘the destiny of the human species is continually being written and rewritten in the scenarios, or dramatic narratives, of those who plan our defense’ (Franklin, War Stars, p. 168). 138. Gee, Burning Book, p. 116. Austen once wrote to a budding author, ‘You are now collecting your People delightfully, getting them exactly into such a spot as is the delight of my life; – 3 or 4 Families in a Country Village is the very thing to work on’ (quoted in Mary Lascelles, Jane Austen and Her Art (London: Oxford University Press, 1963), p. 53). 139. Scheick, ‘Post- Nuclear Holocaust Re-Minding’, in Anisfield, ed., Nightmare Considered, p. 71. 140. Ibid., p. 71; Gee, Burning Book, p. 52. 141. Chilton, ‘Nukespeak: Nuclear Language, Culture and Propaganda’, in Aubrey, ed., Nukespeak, p. 95. This is a particular concern for feminist authors, as nukespeak is an ‘essentially male authoritarian discourse that asserts its domi- nance over another, possibly transformative language’ (Scheick, ‘Post- Nuclear Holocaust’, p. 73). 142. Chilton, ‘Nukespeak’, pp. 100, 98. Elsewhere, the discourse has been defined as ‘the language of the nuclear mindset – the world view, or system of beliefs – of nuclear planners’ (Stephen Hilgartner, Richard C. Bell and Rory O’Connor, Nukespeak: Nuclear Language, Visions, and Mindset (San Francisco: Sierra Club Books, 1982), p. xiii). Amongst novelists, Snow calls nukespeak ‘a curiously abstract language, of which the main feature [is] the taking of meaning out of words’, and Martin Amis calls it ‘a desert of business language, euphemism, and cliché, with an occasional chant or whoop from the school yard or the rumpus 248 Notes

room’ (Snow, Corridors of Power, p. 324; Amis, ‘Nuclear City: The Megadeath Intellectuals’ (1987), in Amis, Visiting Mrs Nabokov, p. 25). 143. Zuckerman, Nuclear Illusion and Reality (London: Collins, 1982), pp. 41–2. 144. Greene, Third Man, p. 82; Fowles, Magus, p. 628; Farrell, Girl in the Head, p. 167; William Boyd, , new edn (1984; London: Penguin, 1985), p. 67; William McIlvanney, ‘Performances’, in McIllvanney, Walking Wounded, new edn (1989; London: Sceptre, 1990), p. 25; Derrick de Kerckhove, ‘On Nuclear Communication’, Diacritics, Vol. 14, No. 2 (1984), p. 78. See also Farrell, Girl in the Head, p. 56; Graham Greene, ‘Special Duties’, in Greene, Twenty- One Stories, new edn (1954; London: Penguin, 1977), p. 29; V.S. Naipaul, The Mimic Men, new edn (1967; London: Picador, 2002), p. 237; Michael Frayn, The Trick of It, new edn (1989; London: Penguin, 1990), p. 43; Spark, Loitering, p. 126; Boyd, Good Man, pp. 55, 126, 226; Angus Wilson, Setting the World on Fire, new edn (1980; St Albans and London: Panther Books, 1981), p. 243; Fowles, Mantessa, p. 119; Nell Dunn, Poor Cow, new edn (1967; London: Pan Books, 1968), p. 92; Dunn, Up the Junction, p. 23; Durrell, Dark Labyrinth, p. 32; Bradbury, Cuts, p. 108; Ackroyd, Great Fire, p. 155; Amis, Take a Girl, p. 270; Martin Amis, , new edn (1978; New York: Harmony Books, 1987), p. 172; Barnes, Staring at the Sun, p. 171; and Alan Sillitoe, ‘Before Snow Comes’, in Sillitoe, Men, Women and Children, new edn (1973; London: Star Books, 1975), p. 69. Edward Brunner finds the same phenomenon in poetry, where a plethora of ‘[m]ilitary phrases, martial turns of speech, and metaphors drawn from war’ show how ‘warfare has become deeply embedded in the texture of daily life’ (Brunner, Cold War Poetry (Urbana and Chicago: University of Illinois Press, 2001), pp. 39, 64). 145. Scheick, ‘Post- Nuclear Holocaust’, p. 72. 146. Gee, Burning Book, p. 241. 147. Ibid., p. 231 (Gee’s italics). A similar result could be achieved by the direct reference to the rhetorical manoeuvres of the discourse. In Adrian Mitchell’s The Bodyguard (1970), a nuclear apologist’s remark that ‘[i]t’s important to use a sympathetic salesman on a product like this’ clearly exposes the discourse’s mendacity (Mitchell, The Bodyguard (London: Jonathan Cape, 1970), p. 145). 148. Amis, ‘Bujak and the Strong Force or God’s Dice’, in Amis, Einstein’s Monsters, pp. 27, 31, 44; Amis, ‘The Immortals’, in Amis, Einstein’s Monsters, p. 130. Similarly, a dog pursing prey is ‘a blind missile, heat-seeking’, and a hot day is the sun ‘play[ing] subatomic ball’ or ‘going nuclear’ (Amis, ‘The Little Puppy That Could’, in Amis, Einstein’s Monsters, pp. 116, 100; Amis, ‘Insight at Flame Lake’, in Amis, Einstein’s Monsters, p. 60). 149. Amis, ‘Little Puppy’, p. 98. 150. Ibid., p. 98; Amis, ‘The Time Disease’, in Amis, Einstein’s Monsters, pp. 78, 74, 78; Brians, Nuclear Holocausts, p. 25; Ruthven, Nuclear Criticism, p. 78. 151. Tennant, Queen of Stones, p. 119. 152. Hoban, Riddley Walker, new edn (1980; London: Picador, 1982), p. 31. 153. See Sabin, Third World War, pp. 66–7. 154. Hoban, Riddley Walker, p. 156. 155. Amis, ‘Thinkability’, p. 8. 156. Quoted in Ruth Sabey, ‘Disarming the Disarmers’, in Aubrey, ed., Nukespeak, p. 61. MI5 had officially classed CND as a ‘subversive organisation’ in the 1960s and, though it dropped the classification in the early 1980s, surveillance of CND members actually became more intense (see Richard Norton- Taylor, Notes 249

In Defence of the Realm? The Case for Accountable Security Services (London: The Civil Liberties Trust, 1990), p. 83). 157. As one commentator put it, ‘no such irony would ever have been more bitter than if “CND” turned out to be an acronym for a Commitment to Nuclear Death’ (Neville Brown quoted in Sabin, Third World War, p. 76). 158. Accordingly, a complicit right- wing media regularly ‘placed the word peace in inverted commas, described the Partisans as a “so-called” peace movement, or just emphasised that it was the “Moscow brand”’ ( Jenks, British Propaganda, p. 118). 159. Quoted in Greenwood, Britain and the Cold War, p. 164. 160. Lashmar and Oliver, Britain’s Secret Propaganda War, p. 156. 161. Philip Wrack quoted in ibid., p. 60. The special section of the Ministry of Defence set up to counter the CND, the Defence Secretariat (DS)19, was headed by John Ledlie, an official formerly engaged in government work in Northern (see Norton- Taylor, Defence of the Realm, p. 83). 162. See Coe, Touch of Love, p. 91; and McEwan, ‘The Ploughman’s Lunch’, in McEwan, Move Abroad, pp. 81–4; Randhawa, Wicked Old Women, pp. 77–8; Tremain, Cupboard, pp. 226–31; Weldon, Down Among the Women, p. 176; Fay Weldon, Puffball, new edn (1980; London: Sceptre, 1994), p. 75; and Gee, Grace, p. 70. In December 1983, Golding used his Nobel speech to lament the ability of humans to ‘blow ourselves off the face of the earth’ (Golding, ‘Nobel Lecture’, in Golding, Moving Target, p. 210). 163. Fitz Gibbon, When the Kissing Had to Stop, pp. 7, 197. Barlow’s The Hour of Maximum Danger (1962) claims that ‘[t]he eggheads who shouted all over London and marched to air and submarine bases and despised all thing American had the freedom to do so precisely because of the existence of these and other bases’ (Barlow, Hour of Maximum Danger, p. 266). 164. Raven, Morning Star, p. 41; Raven, Before the Cock Crow, new edn (1986; London: Grafton Books, 1988), p. 40; Raven, Fielding Gray, p. 103 (a more considered discussion of nuclear war takes place in Raven, , new edn (1971; London: Panther Books, 1974), p. 146). As another example from the literary right, Kingsley Amis refers to pacifism as ‘a creed I find personally abhorrent’ and makes disparaging remarks in his fiction about a ‘bearded pacifist’, about ‘pacifists and other freaks’ and about ‘an anti- nuclear drama at a small suburban theatre’ (Amis, Memoirs, p. 109; Amis, Lucky Jim, p. 13; Amis, Memoirs, p. 29; Amis, Folks That Live, p. 25). 165. Jameson, Short Interval, p. 58; Scott, Bender, p. 171; Nancy Mitford, Don’t Tell Alfred, new edn (1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963), p. 128. 166. Orton, Head to Toe, p. 123; Ackroyd, First Light, new edn (1989; London: Penguin, 1993), p. 217. For further examples, see Weldon, President’s Child, p. 51; Lynne Reid Banks, Two Is Lonely, new edn (1974; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 126; Banks, Defy the Wilderness, p. 79. 167. Barnes, ‘The Survivor’, in Barnes, A History of the World in 10½ Chapters, new edn (1989; London and Basingstoke: Picador, 1990), pp. 89, 97, 109. For other satiri- cal attacks on peaceniks, see Drabble, Summer, pp. 84–6; Murdoch, Under the Net, pp. 53–4; Sinclair, Blood Libels, p. 140; Lodge, Nice Work, p. 50; and John Fowles, The Collector, new edn (1963; London: The Reprint Society, 1964), pp. 132–6. Crystallising the literary rift on absolute weapons, Weldon in turn mocks those who believe that ‘talk of nuclear death- wish smacks of CND … and ill manners’ and who dismiss anti- nuclear sentiments as ‘plaintive civilian whines’ (Weldon, Leader of the Band, p. 85; Weldon, Shrapnel Academy, p. 111). 250 Notes

168. Johnson, Survival of the Fittest, p. 426. For other examples of this failure to extend support, see Johnson, Error of Judgement, p. 66; Barstow, Ask Me Tomorrow, pp. 117–18; Malcolm Bradbury, ‘The Adult Education Class’, in Bradbury, Who Do You Think You Are? Stories and Parodies, new edn (1976; London: Arrow Books, 1979), p. 57; and Cooper, Right Frame of Reference, p. 285. 169. For examples of her anti- nuclear commentary, see Lessing, Four-Gated City, pp. 569–70, 597, 611–68; Lessing, Shikasta, pp. 115–22; Lessing, Summer, pp. 67–8; Lessing, Landlocked, p. 200; Lessing, Sirian Experiments, pp. 309–11; and Lessing, Marriages, pp. 97, 123. Even her commentary on the peace protests she had involved herself in during the ‘first Cold War’ contain a note of ambiva- lence: see Lessing, Walking, pp. 266–9, 334–7; and Lessing, Four-Gated City, pp. 378–81, 421–30. 170. Lessing, Good Terrorist, p. 219. 171. Schwenger, Letter Bomb, p. xv. 172. Quoted in Sabin, Third World War, p. 114. 173. Mannix, Rhetoric of Antinuclear Fiction, p. 172. 174. Anisfield, ‘Introduction’ to Anisfield, ed., Nightmare Considered, p. 1; Gee, The Ice People, new edn (1998; London: Richard Cohen Books, 1999), p. 208; Ballard, Rushing to Paradise (London: Flamingo, 1994), p. 186; McEwan, On Chesil Beach, new edn (2007; London: Vintage, 2008), p. 117.

3 An Age of

1. See Roy Godson, ‘Intelligence: An American View’, in K.G. Robertson, ed., British and American Approaches to Intelligence (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1987), p. 22. 2. ‘Secret service is fundamental to any understanding of the Cold War’, Richard Aldrich asserts, because ‘[t]he Cold War was fought, above all, by the intelligence services’ (Aldrich, Hidden Hand, p. 5). 3. This is not to deny the existence of less structured forms of espionage. Reference to what has been called ‘the second oldest profession’ exists in Biblical writ- ings, classical European and Chinese literature, Renaissance texts and folktales: see Bernard Porter, Plots and Paranoia: A History of Political Espionage in Britain, 1790–1988 (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989), pp. 1–23. 4. Colonel G.A. Furse quoted in David Stafford, The Silent Game: The Real World of Imaginary Spies, new edn (1988; London: Viking, 1989), pp. 11–12. 5. Porter, Plots and Paranoia, p. 120. 6. Other specialist bodies are the Special Air Service, the Joint Intelligence Committee, the Overseas Economic Intelligence Committee, the Industrial Intelligence Centre and the military intelligence branches of the armed services (see Norton- Taylor, Defence of the Realm, pp. 38–76). 7. quoted in Philby, My Silent War, new edn (1968; London: Panther Books, 1969), p. 142. 8. Quoted in Norton- Taylor, Defence of the Realm, p. 13. 9. Ibid., p. 2. Evoking its importance to the modern nation- state, one of Len Deighton’s characters refers to clandestine activity as ‘the ink with which History is written’ (Deighton, Horse under Water, new edn (1963; London: Harper, 2009), p. 197). 10. The exposure of Fuchs, Nunn May and other nuclear spies led to Truman’s intro- duction of a loyalty oath for government employees and to US pressure on Britain Notes 251

to follow suit. The fact that McCarthy delivered his first notable anti- communist tirade only days after Fuchs’s arrest suggests that the HUAC hearings had one of their sources in nuclear espionage. 11. Wright, Spycatcher: The Candid Autobiography of a Senior Intelligence Officer (New York: Viking, 1987), p. 54. Weldon captures the atmosphere of conspiracy and scandal that dominated the 1980s: ‘The Prime Minister is a KGB ? The BBC is run by the Chinese Triad? The country is punch drunk with revelations’ (Weldon, President’s Child, p. 141). 12. In ‘the wilderness of mirrors’, Wright remarks, quoting James Angleton’s phrase, ‘defectors are false, lies are truth, truth lies, and the reflections leave you dazzled and confused’ (Wright, Spycatcher, p. 305). 13. Quoted in Norton- Taylor, Defence of the Realm, p. 35. Interestingly, the Report states that ‘[f]or the sake of brevity we have followed the common practice of using the phrase “communist” throughout to include fascists’ (quoted in ibid., p. 35). 14. Porter, Plots and Paranoia, p. 206. 15. Ibid., p. 208. 16. See Michael Denning, Cover Stories: Narrative and Ideology in the British Spy Thriller (London and New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1987), p. 2; Stafford, Silent Game, p. 3; and Lars Ole Sauerberg, The Novel of Espionage: An Attempt at Generic Criticism (Odense: English Institute of Odense University, 1977), p. 3. 17. Prefiguring Warburg’s comment on Nineteen Eighty- Four, A.J. Balfour claimed that Le Queux’s vehemently anti- socialist novels were ‘worth several thousand votes for the Conservative party’ (quoted in Atkins, British Spy Novel, p. 49). 18. ‘Distinguished by his Britishness from unreliable foreigners, and by his gentle- manliness from working- class agitators and delinquents, the secret agent became a “symbol of stability” in a changing world’ (David Trotter, ‘The Politics of Adventure in the Early British Spy Novel’, in Wesley K. Wark, ed., Spy Fiction, Spy Films and Real Intelligence (London and Portland OR: Frank Cass, 1991), pp. 31–2). 19. Atkins, British Spy Novel, p. 9; LeRoy L. Panek, The Special Branch: The British Spy Novel, 1890–1980 (Bowling Green OH: Bowling Green University Popular Press, 1981), p. 1. 20. Wesley K. Wark, ‘Introduction: Fictions of History’, in Wark, ed., Spy Fiction, pp. 4, 8. 21. See Myron J. Smith, Jr., Cloak- and-Dagger Bibliography: An Annotated Guide to Spy Fiction, 1937–1975 (Metuchen NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1976), pp. x, vi. 22. Cawelti and Rosenberg, The Spy Story (Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1987), p. 32. 23. Quoted in Trotter, ‘Politics of Adventure’, p. 50. 24. Denning, Cover Stories, p. 35. As D. Cameron Watt remarks, ‘[w]here once we had the lone spy in the guise of the Espion of the turn of the century board game, L’Attaque, … clutching a pair of binoculars, we now have photographic, ther- mal, and electronically obtained intelligence only decodable by … computers’ (Watt, ‘Introduction’ to Lars Christian Jenssen and Olav Riste, eds, Intelligence in the Cold War: Organisation, Role and International Cooperation (Oslo: Norwegian Institute for Defence Studies, 2001), p. 12). It is for this reason that most protago- nists of espionage fiction are not spies but agents, engaged less in obtaining and processing information than in the more active areas of counter- espionage and covert operations. 252 Notes

25. Quoted in Greenwood, Britain, p. 53; Ambler, The Intercom Conspiracy, new edn (1970; London: Fontana/Collins, 1971), p. 31. 26. Jacques Barzun, ‘Meditations on the Literature of Spying’, American Scholar, Vol. 34 (Spring 1965), p. 167; Cawelti and Rosenberg, Spy Story, p. 9. 27. Quoted in Lars Ole Sauerberg, Secret Agents in Fiction: Ian Fleming, John le Carré and Len Deighton (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1984), p. 137. 28. Atkins, British Spy Novel, p. 20. 29. Stafford, Silent Game, p. 4. The spy novelists who have worked in intelligence include Le Queux, Buchan, Fleming, le Carré, Geoffrey Household, Dennis Wheatley and Ted Allbeury. As Donald McCormick comments, ‘[o]ne could probably draw up an effective and highly imaginative mini- Secret Service out of spy story writers alone’ (McCormick, Who’s Who in Spy Fiction (London: Elm Tree Books, 1977), p. 5). 30. In addition, the usage was often too oblique to be explained by commercial reasons, although Bradbury suggests that this may have been a factor for some novelists: see Bradbury, Unsent Letters, p. 70. 31. Greene, ‘Three Revolutionaries: 3. The Spy’, in Greene, Collected Essays, new edn (1969; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), p. 311. 32. Wark, ‘Introduction’, p. 11. 33. Waugh, Officers and Gentlemen, new edn (1955; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), p. 240. At one point, the protagonist, an innocuous patriot, is suspected of fascist links and is filed in the ‘Most Secret index, which later was … dispersed into a dozen indexes in all the Counter- Espionage Headquarters of the Free World’ (Waugh, Men at Arms, new edn (1952; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), p. 160). 34. Durrell, Dark Labyrinth, p. 64. Fitzgerald’s , set at the turn of the 1960s, mentions customers who ‘bought books by former SAS men, who had been parachuted into Europe and greatly influenced the course of the war; they also placed orders for books by Allied commanders who poured scorn on the SAS men, and questioned their credentials’ (Fitzgerald, The Bookshop, new edn (1978; London: Flamingo, 1989), p. 46). 35. Durrell, Constance, p. 152; Spark, Girls of Slender Means, p. 60. For examples, see William Cooper, The Struggles of Albert Woods, new edn (1952; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966), p. 213; Simon Raven, The Feathers of Death, new edn (1959; London: Panther Books, 1964), p. 31; , A Painter of Our Time, new edn (1958; London: Writers and Readers Publishing Cooperative, 1976), p. 24; Lessing, Four- Gated City, p. 206; Pym, No Fond Return, p. 104; Murdoch, Unofficial Rose, pp. 140–1; Anthony Powell, The Kindly Ones, new edn (1962; London: Fontana Books, 1971), p. 231; Anthony Powell, The Soldier’s Art, new edn (1966; London: Fontana Books, 1968), p. 112; Powell, Military Philosophers, pp. 8, 194; Angus Wilson, ‘A Sad Fall’, in Wilson, A Bit off the Map and Other Stories, new edn (1957; St Albans and London: Panther Books, 1982), pp. 144–5; Manning, Spoilt City, pp. 380, 484; Durrell, Constance, p. 114; Lodge, Out of the Shelter, pp. 204, 265–6; Anita Brookner, Family and Friends, new edn (1985; London: Triad Grafton Books, 1986), pp. 101–2; and Ian McEwan, ‘The Imitation Game’, in McEwan, The Imitation Game, new edn (1981; London: Picador, 1982), pp. 111–11, 141–2. 36. Sillitoe, ‘Maps’, in Sillitoe, Mountains, p. 68. 37. Taylor, View of the Harbour, p. 8. 38. See Taylor, Wreath of Roses, p. 158; Snow, Time of Hope, p. 325; Forster, ‘The Torque’, in Forster, The Life to Come and Other Stories, new edn (1972; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), p. 190. Hartley’s The Go- Between (1953), with Notes 253

its ‘clandestine traffic’ and ‘injunctions to secrecy’, offers a predictable level of subterfuge for an author who once said, ‘[d]on’t leave me alone in your study, for I’m certain to read your letters’ (Hartley, Go- Between, pp. 105, 89; quoted in Masters, Literary Agents, p. 237). 39. Cawelti and Rosenberg, Spy Story, pp. 12–13. 40. Fowler, The Alienated Reader: Women and Popular Romantic Literature in the Twentieth Century (Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991), pp. 8, 32. 41. Bowen, The Heat of the Day, new edn (1949; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), p. 126. 42. Ibid., p. 228. The comment reproduces Lord Acton’s dictum that ‘every thing secret degenerates’ (quoted in Porter, Plots and Paranoia, p. 233). 43. McEwan, ‘Reflections of a Kept Ape’, in McEwan, In Between the Sheets, new edn (1978; London: Picador, 1979), p. 35; Johnson, Survival of the Fittest, p. 76; Bowen, Heat of the Day, p. 173. 44. Greene, The End of the Affair, new edn (1951; London: Penguin, 1975), p. 55. See also Raven, Blood of My Bone, p. 71; Barstow, Watchers, pp. 128, 130; Barnes, Before She Met Me, p. 27; Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, ‘Passion’, in Jhabvala, A Stronger Climate, new edn (1968; London: Grafton Books, 1983), p. 83; MacInnes, All Day Saturday (London: MacGibbon and Kee, 1966), p. 73; William Cooper, Scenes from Metropolitan Life, new edn (1982; London: Methuen 1983), p. 189; Murdoch, Time of the Angels, pp. 101, 165; Barry Unsworth, Mooncranker’s Gift, new edn (1973; London: Penguin, 1977), pp. 75, 236–7; Margaret Drabble, The Garrick Year, new edn (1964; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966), p. 133; David Storey, Radcliffe, new edn (1963; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965), pp. 201–2; Fay Weldon, The Fat Woman’s Joke, new edn (1967; London: Coronet Books, 1982), pp. 28, 34; Weldon, Puffball, p. 33; and Sinclair, Blood Libels, p. 29. 45. Weldon, Leader of the Band, p. 27. 46. For examples, see Weldon, Fat Woman’s Joke, p. 43; Bernice Rubens, A Five Year Sentence, new edn (1978; London: Abacus, 1981), p. 66; Banks, Two Is Lonely, p. 68; Barnes, Metroland, p. 22; Greene, Doctor Fischer, p. 24; Greene, Heart of the Matter, p. 13; Rebecca West, The Fountain Overflows, new edn (1957; London: Virago, 1984), p. 97; Barker, Liza’s England, p. 73; Hartley, Sister’s Keeper, p. 58; Rushdie, Satanic Verses, p. 36; Beryl Bainbridge, Sweet William, new edn (1975; London: Fontana/Collins, 1976), p. 8; John Berger, G., new edn (1972; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973), p. 203; Christopher Isherwood, A Meeting by the River, new edn (1967; London: Methuen, 1984), p. 29; Priestley, Three Men, p. 133; Barry Unsworth, The Rage of the Vulture, new edn (1982; London: Penguin, 1991), p. 40; Angela Carter, , new edn (1967; London: Virago, 1981), p. 123; Ian McEwan, The Cement Garden, new edn (1978; London: Picador, 1980), pp. 31, 70; and Lynne Reid Banks, The Warning Bell, new edn (1984; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1986), p. 12. 47. Rubens, Spring Sonata, new edn (1979; London: Abacus, 1986), p. 48; Rubens, Our Father, new edn (1987; London: Abacus, 1988), p. 86. The entrance of con- spiracy into children’s lives is also seen in Greene’s The Human Factor (1978). An intelligence officer, discovering that his son is obsessed by spies, attempts to distract him with a story about a dragon, only to find the dragon’s behaviour adopting ‘private signals, codes, ciphers’ which, to the boy’s delight, make it just ‘[l]ike a spy’ (Greene, The Human Factor (London: Bodley Head, 1978), p. 71). 48. Sillitoe, Life Goes On, p. 15. For examples, see Gee, Dying, p. 10; Peake, Mr Pye, pp. 70, 94; West, Birds, p. 1; Carter, Several Perceptions, p. 24; Banks, Two Is Lonely, 254 Notes

p. 139; Bernice Rubens, Sunday Best, new edn (1971; London: Abacus, 1988), p. 37; Barbara Pym, A Few Green Leaves, new edn (1980; St Albans and London: Panther Books, 1981), p. 7; Pat Barker, Union Street (London: Virago, 1982), p. 61; Anita Brookner, A Misalliance, new edn (1986; London: Grafton Books, 1987), p. 108; L.P. Hartley, The Will and the Way (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1973), p. 107; Murdoch, Black Prince, p. 43; Snow, In Their Wisdom, p. 237; Graham Swift, Shuttlecock, new edn (1981; London: Picador, 1997), p. 25; Lessing, Summer, p. 133; and Caryl Phillips, The Final Passage (London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1985), p. 195. 49. Williams, The Volunteers (London: Eyre Methuen, 1978), p. 187; Paul Scott, The Corrida at San Feliu, new edn (1964; London: Granada, 1974), p. 161; Unsworth, Rage of the Vulture, pp. 52–3. 50. For examples, see John Berger, ‘The Second Life of Lucie Cabrol’, in Berger, Pig Earth (London: Writers and Readers Publishing Cooperative, 1979), p. 137; Ballard, Running Wild, pp. 21, 81; Brophy, In Transit, p. 177; Alan Sillitoe, Travels in Nihilon (London: W.H. Allen, 1971), p. 38; Powell, Books Do Furnish, pp. 105, 119; Isherwood, Prater Violet, pp. 35, 90–3; , The Busconductor Hines, new edn (1984; London and Melbourne: J.M. Dent and Sons, 1985), p. 23; Mitford, Blessing, p. 379; Iris Murdoch, The Flight from the Enchanter, new edn (1956; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), p. 142; Murdoch, Nice and the Good, pp. 35, 64, 75–6; Lowry, Dark as the Grave, p. 23; and Newby, Revolution, p. 152. 51. Coe, Accidental Woman, p. 71. 52. J.G. Ballard, High-Rise , new edn (1975; London: Harper Perennial, 2006), p. 40; Bowen, Heat of the Day, p. 256; Muriel Spark, The Abbess of Crewe, new edn (1974; London: New Fiction Society, 1974), p. 9; Weldon, Rules of Life, p. 21. The bug- ging of trees actually took place at Woburn: see Spark, Curriculum Vitae, p. 149. 53. Bloom, ‘Introduction: The Spy Thriller: A Genre under Cover?’, in Bloom, ed., Spy Thrillers: From Buchan to le Carré (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1990), p. 4. This is what writers themselves termed ‘a brilliant fugue of paranoia’, ‘a fine full efflorescent paranoia’ or ‘layer upon layer of … secrets, coloured and intricate like jewellery’ (Snow, Corridors, p. 213; Durrell, Quinx, p. 112; West, Birds, p. 360). 54. Le Carré, A Murder of Quality, new edn (1962; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), p. 153. Smiley’s belief that ‘[w]e know nothing of one another’ is repeated by a character in Adam Hall’s The 9th Directive (1966), who is convinced that ‘[e]very man has his own underworld and a part of him never leaves it’ (le Carré, Call for the Dead, new edn (1961; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), p. 39; Hall, The 9th Directive, new edn (1966; New York: Pyramid Books, 1968), p. 119). 55. Bowen, Heat of the Day, pp. 141, 141, 141, 12, 12. 56. Murdoch, The Sacred and Profane Love Machine, new edn (1974; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 68; Lewis, Day of the Fox, p. 60; West, Birds, p. 260; Golding, Pincher Martin, p. 132. The practices of espionage are also associated with crimi- nal or deviant behaviour: see Rubens, Birds of Passage, p. 79; Fowles, Collector, pp. 17–18, 25–6; Waterhouse, Jubb, pp. 72–3; Ian McEwan, The Comfort of Strangers, new edn (1981; London: Picador, 1982), p. 113; Johnson, Holiday Friend, p. 36; Spark, Driver’s Seat, pp. 25–6; and Durrell, Quinx, pp. 112–32. 57. Waugh, Ordeal of Gilbert Pinfold, p. 11. 58. Quoted in Norton- Taylor, Defence of the Realm, p. 122. 59. Quoted in ibid., p. 30. 60. Le Carré, The Spy Who Came in from the Cold, new edn (1963; London: Pan Books, 1962), p. 20. Le Carré’s sense that ‘our methods – ours and those of the Notes 255

opposition – have become much the same’ is repeated at the end of his ‘The Quest for Karla’ (1974–80), when Smiley realises that he has destroyed an enemy agent ‘with the weapons I abhorred, and they are his’ (ibid., p. 20; le Carré, Smiley’s People, new edn (1980; London and Sydney: Pan Books, 1980), p. 332). 61. Deighton, Mexico Set, new edn (1984; London: Panther Books, 1985), p. 239; Price quoted in Atkins, British Spy Novel, p. 71. 62. Carter, Infernal Desire Machines, pp. 16, 40, 16. 63. Barstow, Right True End, p. 79; Mitford, Don’t Tell Alfred, p. 192; Lodge, Out of the Shelter, p. 223. In Lodge’s novel, set in occupied Germany, US anger at British security lapses is tempered by the idea that these are the result of greater democ- racy. ‘The countries with the most efficient secret services are the most repres- sive’, we are told: ‘America is more security- conscious than Britain and the price we pay is McCarthy and J. Edgar Hoover’ (Lodge, Out of the Shelter, pp. 67, 204). The Profumo Affair was a less common reference point: see Jean Rhys, ‘To Selma Vaz Dias’, in Rhys, Letters 1931–1966, ed. by Francis Wyndham and Diana Melly, new edn (1984; London: Penguin, 1985), p. 227; Barbara Pym, ‘To Philip Larkin’, in Pym, A Very Private Eye: The Diaries, Letters and Notebooks of Barbara Pym, ed. by Hazel Holt and Hilary Pym, new edn (1984; London: Grafton Books, 1985), pp. 146, 303; and Barstow, Right True End, pp. 42, 45, 64–5. 64. Johnson, Error of Judgement, p. 160; Fowles, Magus, p. 63; Keith Waterhouse, on the Moon, new edn (1975; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1977), p. 52. 65. Orton and Halliwell, Lord Cucumber, p. 38. 66. Delaney, ‘My Uncle, The Spy’, in Delaney, Sweetly Sings the Donkey (London: Methuen, 1964), p. 77; Hartley, Sister’s Keeper, p. 183. 67. Sillitoe, Tree on Fire, p. 56. For examples, see Hanley, Journey Homeward, pp. 180–1, 187; H.E. Bates, The Jacaranda Tree, new edn (1949; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1955), p. 85; Masters, Bhowani Junction, p. 104; Spark, Mandelbaum Gate, pp. 218–19; Boyd, Good Man, p. 112; and Simon Raven, Friends in Low Places, new edn (1965; London: Panther Books, 1967), pp. 25–6. There were also literary commentaries on enemy and partner agencies: for example, see Bainbridge, Winter Garden, p. 22; Frayn, Russian Interpreter, p. 191; Lessing, Landlocked, pp. 190–1; and Lessing, Ripple, pp. 163–4. The involvement of characters in clandestinity also occurred in the 1950s and 1980s: see Berger, Painter, pp. 61, 103–4; Macauley, Towers of Trebizond, pp. 23, 70–1, 92 1, 169, 176; Bernice Rubens, Mr Wakefield’s Crusade, new edn (1985; London: Abacus, 1986), pp. 17, 73–5; Graham Greene, The Captain and the Enemy, new edn (1988; London: Penguin, 1989), p. 160; Graham Greene, ‘A Branch of the Service’, in Greene, The Last Word and Other Stories (London: Reinhardt Books, 1990), pp. 60–76; Weldon, Shrapnel Academy, p. 37; Chatwin, Utz, pp. 96, 134; Ian McEwan, The Innocent: or The Special Relationship, new edn (1990; London: Picador, 1990), pp. 74–6; Bradbury, Rates of Exchange, pp. 295–6; Emecheta, Rape of Shavi, p. 54; Cooper, Metropolitan Life, p. 38; Simon Raven, In the Image of God, new edn (1990; London: Grafton Books, 1991), pp. 99–100; Mitford, Blessing, pp. 488–9; Sinclair, Blood Libels, p. 179; Thomas, Summit, pp. 76–9; Lessing, Good Terrorist, p. 367; Burgess, Any Old Iron, pp. 322–3; and Graham Swift, Out of This World, new edn (1988; London: Penguin, 1988), p. 194. 68. Snow, Last Things, pp. 75, 302. 69. Ibid., pp. 302, 323 (Snow’s italics). 70. McCormick, Who’s Who in Spy Fiction, p. 10. 71. Détente also witnessed a diversification in the thriller writer’s choice of villain. Reflecting the broad remit of MI5, MI6 and GCHQ, novels moved from a focus 256 Notes

on the Soviet Union to China, South- East Asia and the Middle East, and from enemy intelligence networks to industrial espionage, criminal cartels and ter- rorism. For example, Fleming’s Thunderball (1961) shifted from SMERSH to the global criminal conspiracy SPECTRE, Fleming commenting in interview that he ‘could not see any point in going on digging at them [the Soviets]’ (quoted in Sauerberg, Secret Agents, p. 160). 72. Mackenzie, Whisky Galore, p. 243. 73. Taylor, Wreath of Roses, p. 11. 74. Waugh, Officers and Gentlemen, p. 157; Durrell, Constance, p. 138. Pre-détente satires on espionage included Peter Fleming’s The Sixth Column (1951), Rose Macaulay’s Towers of Trebizond (1956) and Graham Greene’s Our Man in Havana (1958). 75. Brophy, Palace without Chairs, p. 57; Brophy, In Transit, pp. 43, 43. 76. Spark’s The Takeover (1976), set in the early 1970s, mentions ‘the current American government scandals of which everyone’s latent anarchism drank deep that summer’ (Spark, Takeover, p. 54). 77. Significantly, this was also the decade in which the academic consideration of intelligence fully began: see Kenneth G. Robertson, ‘The Study of Intelligence in the United States’, in Roy Godson, ed., Comparing Foreign Intelligence: The U.S., the USSR, the U.K and the Third World (Washington: Pergamon-Brassey’s International Defense Publishers, 1988), pp. 11–23. 78. McCormick, Who’s Who in Spy Fiction, p. 12. 79. Robertson, ‘Study of Intelligence’, p. 9. British concerns about the CIA pre- date the investigations of 1974–76: for example, see Spark, Girls, p. 94; Snow, Malcontents, p. 227; Simon Raven, The Sabre Squadron, new edn (1966; London: Panther Books, 1967), p. 94. 80. Quoted in Lashmar and Oliver, Britain’s Secret Propaganda War, p. 51. Her expe- riences were given fictional treatment in a novel from the 1970s: see Weldon, Down among the Women, pp. 91–4. 81. Quoted in Lashmar and Oliver, Britain’s Secret Propaganda War, p. 50. 82. Weldon, President’s Child, p. 84. 83. Ibid., pp. 157–8. Importantly, the latter section of the sentence is placed outside the parentheses, suggesting it is now surveillance, and not ‘the all- seeing eye of God’, that will locate and damn the malefactor. Despite not knowing about the surveillance, Isabel’s paranoia begins to mount: her conviction that ‘[j]ust because you think people are persecuting you, it doesn’t mean they aren’t’ becomes, a few pages later, the belief ‘that just because there’s a plot against you doesn’t mean you can’t imagine one as well’ (ibid., pp. 185, 188). 84. Quoted in Denning, Cover Stories, p. 13. 85. As examples, Le Queux and Ernest Swinton’s spy stories helped to inspire the professionalisation of the British security services, and Deighton’s An Expensive Place to Die (1967), Greene’s Our Man in Havana, Maugham’s Ashenden and Mackenzie’s Greek Memories (1932) were all suspected of breaching security. 86. Deighton quoted in McCormick, Who’s Who in Spy Fiction, p. 60; Greene, Ways of Escape, p. 141. Bradbury mentions that he is ‘obsessed, as a novelist should be, by plots and plotters, the story- makers of the world’ (Bradbury, ‘Introduction’ to Bradbury, After Dinner Game, p. 15). 87. Spark, Memento Mori, p. 187; Bowen, Heat of the Day, pp. 270, 97, 97, 190. 88. Spark, Abbess of Crewe, p. 106; le Carré, Call for Dead, p. 26; Durrell, Constance, p. 317; Marshall, Red Danube, p. 118. Powell has a character who, ‘always very Notes 257

keen on spying, says there’s a resemblance between what a spy does and what a novelist does, the point being you don’t suddenly steal an indispensable secret that gives complete mastery of the situation, but accumulate a lot of relatively humdrum facts, which when collated provide the picture’ (Powell, Books Do Furnish, p. 243). The image of the writer- as- spy extended to literary journal- ists, biographers, book collectors, letter writers and readers: see Amis, I Like It, pp. 20, 75; William Golding, The Paper Men (London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1984), pp. 110, 189; Simon Raven, Morning Star, new edn (1984; London: Panther Books, 1985), p. 34; Fowles, Collector, p. 194; Barnes, Flaubert’s Parrot, p. 90; and Waterhouse, Thinks, pp. 6–7. 89. Greene, Our Man in Havana, p. 108. 90. Peer de Silva quoted in Aldrich, Hidden Hand, p. 313. 91. For other examples of espionage in historical novels, see William Boyd, An Ice Cream War, new edn (1982; London: Penguin, 1983), pp. 132, 149, 286; Berger, G., p. 266; Hartley, Go- Between, pp. 104–5; Isherwood, Down There, p. 69; Isherwood, Prater Violet, pp. 35, 46; Kingsley Amis, , new edn (1976; St Albans: Triad/Panther Books, 1978), p. 194; William Golding, Fire Down Below, new edn (1989; London: Faber and Faber, 1990), pp. 82, 195; and Unsworth, Rage of the Vulture, pp. 11–13, 37–9, 169, 177. 92. Robertson, ‘Study of Intelligence’, p. 22. 93. Revealing the cross- over between spy novels and literary novels, this had already been done in the former, most obviously by Deighton, the so- called ‘poet of the spy novel’, whose The Ipcress File, Horse under Water (1963) and Funeral in Berlin (1964) took the form of intelligence files, replete with quasi- historiographic footnotes and appendices (Julian Symons quoted in McCormick, Who’s Who in Spy Fiction, p. 63). 94. Priestley, Magicians, p. 40; Jhabvala, Stronger Climate, p. 174; McIlvanney, ‘Journeys of the Magi’, in McIlvanney, Surviving the Shipwreck, p. 73. 95. Newby, Guest, p. 37; Frayn, Trick of It, p. 28; John Wain, Hurry on Down, new edn (1953; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1960), p. 71. For other examples, see Murdoch, Black Prince, p. 243; Amis, Girl, pp. 62, 147; Colin MacInnes, Mr Love and Justice, new edn (1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), pp. 198–9; Golding, Pincher Martin, p. 26; Hanley, Drinkers, p. 218; Greene, Heart of the Matter, p. 13; William McIlvanney, , new edn (1985; London: Sceptre, 1986), p. 124; Isherwood, World in the Evening, p. 220; Lodge, Nice Work, p. 216; Barry Hines, The Blinder, new edn (1966; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), p. 63; Frayn, End of the Morning, p. 40; Frayn, Sweet Dreams, p. 66; Sillitoe, ‘Good Woman’, pp. 145–6; Priestley, Old Country, pp. 18–19; and Pym, No Fond Return, p. 168. 96. Hartley, Go- Between, p. 209; Berger, G., p. 268. See also Barry Hines The Gamekeeper, new edn (1975; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1979), p. 155; Murdoch, Black Prince, p. 11; Taylor, Sleeping Beauty, p. 36; Sinclair, ‘Genesis, in Sinclair, Bedbugs, p. 24; and Amis, Old Devils, p. 267. 97. Panek, Special Branch, p. 147; Cawelti and Rosenberg, Spy Story, p. 217. 98. Quoted in Panek, Special Branch, p. 248. 99. Deighton, The Ipcress File, new edn (1962; St Albans: Panther Books, 1964), pp. 120, 80. 100. Once the agents in Weldon’s The President’s Child have ‘changed language itself to suit their purposes’, they are able to ‘murder and kill with impunity: not so much in the belief of the rightness of their cause, … but simply not realising that murder was what they had done’ (Weldon, President’s Child, p. 66). 258 Notes

101. Spark, Curriculum Vitae, p. 147. 102. See Spark, Hothouse, pp. 6–7, 30–1; Spark, Far Cry, pp. 39, 147–8; Spark, The Comforters (London: Macmillan, 1957), pp. 23, 133–4; Spark, The Only Problem, new edn (1984; London: Triad/Grafton, 1985), pp. 68–9, 115; and Spark, Territorial Rights, pp. 24–5, 147–50. 103. Spark, Abbess of Crewe, pp. 10, 38. 104. As further examples, Alexandra has a high- tech operations headquarters and a roving agent involved in ‘dirty tricks’ campaigns in the mission fields of Asia, Africa and South America (see ibid., pp. 28–9, 30–1, 51–2, 82). 105. Snow, Last Things, p. 295. 106. See Raven, , new edn (1974; London: Panther Books, 1977), pp. 38–43; and Cooper, Memoirs, pp. 12–15, 29–31, 79–80. 107. Snow, Homecomings, new edn (1956; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), p. 97; Snow, Corridors, p. 291. See also Naipaul, Mr Stone, p. 73; Powell, Hearing Secret Harmonies, p. 75; Braine, Life at the Top, p. 121; Snow, Corridors, pp. 212, 250–1, 264–6, 316–18; Raven, Survivors, p. 18; Priestley, Magicians, p. 41; Greene, Doctor Fischer, p. 77; Greene, Heart of the Matter, pp. 106–7; and Greene, Our Man, pp. 176–7. 108. Isherwood, Meeting, p. 110; Spark, Loitering, p. 62; Carter, Shadow Dance, p. 112; Snow, Homecomings, p. 88. See also Sillitoe, Life Goes On, p. 101; Wilson, Hemlock, pp. 89–90; Swift, Shuttlecock, pp. 91, 94; James Kelman, A Disaffection, new edn (1989; London: Picador, 1990), pp. 6, 22, 30; and Kelman, Busconductor, pp. 23, 93, 113–14. 109. For examples, see Spark, The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, new edn (1961; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1965), pp. 115, 124–6; Waterhouse, Happy Land, p. 155; Hartley, Sixth Heaven, p. 64; Bradbury, History Man, pp. 91–2, 123–4; Bradbury, Eating People, p. 199; Bradbury, ‘After Dinner Game’, in Bradbury, After Dinner Game, p. 63; and Fowles, Magus, p. 342. 110. Powell, A Question of Upbringing, new edn (1951; London: Fontana Books, 1967), p. 166; Snow, The Affair, new edn (1960; Harmondsworth; Penguin, 1962), p. 116; Snow, The Masters, new edn (1951; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1956), p. 79; Snow, Affair, p. 10; Snow, Masters, 149; Snow, Affair, pp. 96, 94. Eliot com- ments on how the procedures of ‘a closed society like this’ were ‘astonishingly like some of the moves in high politics’ (Snow, Affair, p. 161; Snow, Masters, p. 274). Interestingly, The Affair was inspired by the Dreyfus case of the 1890s. This entailed the conviction of a French- Jewish officer on the charge of spying for Germany, many suspecting that the charge was fabricated by anti- semites in the military. It was the international furore caused by the case (the editor of the Daily Mail called it ‘the biggest newspaper story since the crucifixion of Jesus Christ’) that had suggested to Le Queux the likely popularity of espionage fic- tion (Kennedy Jones quoted in Stafford, Silent Game, p. 10). 111. See Aldrich, Hidden Hand, pp. 81, 358–60, 437. 112. The genre, arguably begun by Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty- Four, includes Peter Fleming’s The Sixth Column (1951), Fitz Gibbon’s When the Kissing Had to Stop (1960), Adrian Mitchell’s The Bodyguard (1970), Emma Tennant’s The Last of the Country- House Murders (1974) and Ian McEwan’s The Child in Time (1987). 113. Williams, Volunteers, p. 6. 114. Ibid., p. 83. 115. Ibid., p. 177. 116. See Bloom, ‘Introduction’, pp. 1–2. Notes 259

117. Orwell, Nineteen Eighty- Four, pp. 8, 115; Carter, Infernal Desire Machines, pp. 218, 213; Frayn, Very Private Life, p. 6; Ballard, ‘Thirteen to Centaurus’, in Ballard, Voices of Time, p. 97; Hartley, Facial Justice, pp. 29, 48; Ballard, ‘Studio 5, The Stars’, in Ballard, Vermillion Sands, new edn (1973; London and Melbourne: J.M. Dent and Sons, 1985), p. 154; Julian Barnes, Staring at the Sun, p. 142; Waugh, ‘Love Among the Ruins’, in Waugh, Ordeal, p. 188. A character com- ments in Amis’s and Conquest’s The Egyptologists (1965) that ‘[t]he history of warfare and of espionage [has] been advanced by apparently quite remote and unconnected innovations in technology’ (Amis and Conquest, The Egyptologists, new edn (1965; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), p. 108). Unusually, Tennant’s The Last of the Country House Murders substitutes the dangers of electronic surveil- lance for those of a burgeoning population: see Tennant, The Last of the Country House Murders, new edn (1974; London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1986), p. 37. For other critiques of state security and surveillance, see MacInnes, Mr Love, p. 157; Wilson, Black Marsden, p. 96; Sillitoe, ‘Government Forms’, in Sillitoe, Mountains, pp. 91–4; Tremain, ‘The Colonel’s Daughter’, in Tremain, Colonel’s Daughter, pp. 16–17; Burgess, Eve of Saint Venus, p. 123; Lessing, Four- Gated City, p. 617; Gee, Grace, pp. 5–6; , Mr Nicholas, new edn (1952; London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1980), p. 195; and Ballard, ‘The Watch-Towers’, in Ballard, Voices of Time, pp. 146–73. 118. Barnes, Staring at the Sun, pp. 144, 146. The telephone is suspected as a medium for ‘Les voyeurs electroniques’, with characters’ conviction that ‘[t]here’s some- one on the line listening’, that ‘there’s too many clicks’, producing ‘the intense, mescalin- vivid sense of being watched’ (Scott, Bender, p. 8; Newby, Guest, p. 77; Kelman, Disaffection, p. 210; Snow, Corridors, p. 231). 119. Scott, Male Child, p. 165. 120. Cawelti and Rosenberg, Spy Story, p. 116. The conspirators in Amis and Conquest’s The Egyptologists, fearing that MI5 is onto them, accept that ‘sus- pense is our condition’, a condition commonly associated with the ‘red menace’ and the nuclear threat, but rarely acknowledged as an outcome of intelligence (ibid., p. 54). 121. Mitchell, Bodyguard, pp. 172, 22. 122. Philby, Silent War, p. 14. 123. Hennessy, Secret State, pp. 136, 141; Bradbury, Unsent Letters, p. 95. 124. See Michel Foucher, ‘The Geopolitics of European Frontiers’, in Malcolm Anderson and Eberhard Bort, eds, The Frontiers of Europe (London and Washington: Pinter, 1998), p. 235. 125. Hastings Donnan and Thomas M. Wilson, Borders: Frontiers of Identity, Nation and State (Oxford and New York: Berg, 1999), p. 13; David Avalos with John C. Welchman, ‘Response to the Philosophical Brothel’, in Welchman, ed., Rethinking Borders (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1996), p. 189. 126. Stafford, Silent Game, p. 133. 127. Le Carré quoted in Masters, Literary Agents, p. 243. 128. Panek, Special Branch, p. 129. Considering Greene’s lifelong interest in espio- nage, it is unsurprising that clandestinity often entered his dreams: see Greene, A World of My Own: A Dream Diary, new edn (1992; London: Penguin, 1993), pp. 13–14, 15–16, 17–24, 35, 38–9, 44, 91. 129. Greene, Our Man in Havana, p. 186. 130. Greene, The Ministry of Fear, new edn (1943; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), p. 65. He later wrote that, by the 1930s, the horrors of the First World War and 260 Notes

the hardships of the depression had meant that ‘it was no longer a Buchan world’ (Greene, Ways of Escape, p. 55). 131. Robert Pendleton, Graham Greene’s Conradian Masterplot: The Arabesques of Influence (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan; New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1996), p. 8; John Spurling, Graham Greene (London and New York: Methuen, 1983), p. 74. For Greene, who suffered from depression, there may have been another motive for choosing these Cold War destinations. In the 1950s, many had felt that ‘his obsessive visiting of international trouble spots [was] his oblique way of sidestepping the Catholic sin of suicide by placing himself in dangerous situations that increase[d] his likelihood of getting killed’ (Neil Sinyard, Graham Greene: A Literary Life (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 5). 132. See Greene, Travels, p. 114; Greene, The Honorary Consul (London: Bodley Head, 1973), p. 29; Greene, Travels, p. 201; Greene, Comedians, p. 275; and Greene, No Man’s Land [composed 1950], new edn (1993; London: Hesperus Press, 2005), p. 6. 133. Panek, Special Branch, pp. 112, 133. 134. Greene, Third Man, pp. 14, 13–14, 14. 135. As Lime admits, his conduct is partly the result of a brutalising world war and an equally brutalising Cold War: ‘these days, old man, nobody thinks in terms of human beings. Governments don’t, so why should we? They talk of the people and the proletariat, and I talk of the mugs. … They have their five- year plans and so have I’ (ibid., p. 29). 136. Ibid., p. 45. Calloway not only uses ‘[a] police spy’ to keep a record of Martins’s activities (the novella being the resultant dossier), but also penetrates Lime’s gang with double- agents: just as ‘a racket works very like a totalitarian party’, he tells Martins, so ‘police work is very similar to secret service work: you look for a double agent whom you can really control’ (ibid., pp. 88, 87, 81). 137. Ibid., pp. 105, 92. As Piette points out, Vienna was ‘the most easterly outpost of the Western powers, jutting deep into Soviet satellite territory’, and their intel- ligence activities in the city were designed to buttress ‘the emergent national security state the Cold War was generating at or from its contact zones’ (Piette, Literary Cold War, pp. 28, 30). 138. McEwan, Graham Greene (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1988), p. 2; Greene, Comedians, p. 286. 139. Quoted in McCormick, Who’s Who in Spy Fiction, p. 82. 140. Grahame Smith, The Achievement of Graham Greene (Brighton: The Harvester Press; Totowa: Barnes & Noble, 1986), p. 131. As one employee explains, ‘lecture[s] should be quite unpolitical and no reference should be made to Russia or Communism’ (Greene, Third Man, p. 55). 141. Murdoch, Italian Girl, p. 63. 142. McEwan, Innocent, p. 235; Phillips, European Tribe, p. 85; Brookner, Latecomers, pp. 199, 200. 143. Macaulay, Towers, pp. 46, 96; Lee, ‘A Wake in Warsaw’, in Lee, I Can’t Stay, p. 132; Raven, Sabre Squadron, p. 24. See also Drabble, Ice Age, pp. 271, 274; Durrell, White Eagles, pp. 35–6; Burgess, MF, p. 18; Priestley, Shapes of Sleep, pp. 134–6; Chatwin, Utz, pp. 65, 88–90; Doris Lessing, The Marriages between Zones Three, Four, and Five (As Narrated by the Chroniclers of Zone Three), new edn (1980; London: Grafton Books, 1981), p. 34; Bradbury, Rates of Exchange, p. 35; Spark, Mandelbaum Gate, pp. 298–300; Sillitoe, Travels, pp. 10–30; and Sillitoe, General, pp. 11, 14. Notes 261

144. Snow, Light and the Dark, p. 282; Durrell, Constance, p. 162; Lodge, Out of the Shelter, p. 82; Isherwood, Down There, p. 48. 145. See Naipaul, Hot Country, p. 84; and Selvon, Moses Migrating, p. 179. 146. Frayn, Russian Interpreter, p. 191. The physical description of borders was only one way in which they were referenced in Cold War fiction. They also appeared as children’s games, as simple metaphors and as complex explanatory frame- works: for example, see Bainbridge, Harriet Said, p. 129; Braine, Two of Us, p. 75; Berger, ‘The Three Lives of Lucie Cabrol’, in Berger, Pig Earth, p. 153; and Lodge, Nice Work, p. 216. 147. Le Carré, Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy, new edn (1974; London: Pan Books, 1975), p. 102. The trilogy expresses his belief that ‘the British secret services [are] microcosms of the British condition’ (le Carré, ‘Introduction’, to Bruce Page, David Leitch and Phillip Knightley, Philby: The Spy Who Betrayed a Generation, new edn (1968; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), p. 33). 148. Quoted in Atkins, British Spy Novel, pp. 222, 223. 149. See Spark, Curriculum Vitae, pp. 145–6. 150. Snow, Light and the Dark, p. 267. See also Johnson, Cork Street, p. 118; Barstow, Right True End, p. 64; and John Braine, The Pious Agent, new edn (1975; London: House of Stratus, 2001), pp. 3, 10. 151. D. Cameron Watt, ‘Critical Afterthoughts and Alternative Historico- Literary Theories’, in Wark, ed., Spy Fiction, p. 217. Deighton once commented that ‘the reason working- class people don’t write books is because they are encour- aged to believe that only certain people are permitted to write books’ (quoted in McCormick, Who’s Who in Spy Fiction, p. 61). As Dudley Jones continues, ‘[t]he egalitarian and meritocratic outlook of Deighton’s hero … is articulated earlier in Hoggart’s Uses of Literacy, his anti- establishment feelings echo Jimmy Porter’s frustration in and his technical skills anticipate the empha- sis by the Wilson government on technological revolution’ (Jones, ‘The Great Game? The Spy Fiction of Len Deighton’, in Bloom, ed., Spy Thrillers, p. 101). 152. McEwan, Innocent, p. 123. 153. As Richard Brown writes, behind ‘the evocation of the world of secret intelli- gence operations there is in The Innocent something approaching an allegory of the postwar condition of Britain’ (Brown, ‘Postmodern Americas: The Fiction of Angela Carter, Martin Amis and Ian McEwan’, in Ann Massa and Alistair Stead, eds, Forked Tongues? Comparing Twentieth- Century British and American Literature (London: Longman, 1994), p. 107). 154. McEwan, Innocent, p. 38. Secrecy is also given heightened significance in one of Greene’s short stories: ‘Original sin gave man a tilt towards secrecy’, a character remarks: ‘When you have secrets, there, sooner or later, you’ll have sin’ (Greene, ‘The Root of All Evil’, in Greene, May We Borrow Your Husband? And Other Comedies of the Sexual Life, new edn (1967; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), p. 120). 155. After Korea, brainwashing became a popular theme in US fiction, although it only rarely interested British authors: for example, see Nicholas Monsarrat, Smith and Jones (1963; London: Pan Books, 1965), pp. 15, 59; Michael Frayn, The Tin Men, new edn (1965; London: Fontana/Collins, 1966), p. 116; Deighton, Ipcress File, pp. 197–9; and West, Meaning of Treason, pp. 286–7. 156. Childs, ‘No Different from You: The Innocent (1990)’, in Childs, ed., Fiction of Ian McEwan, p. 76. 157. McEwan, Child in Time, p. 123. 262 Notes

158. The telephone surveillance conducted by British Telecom was authorised by MI5, who only required a single warrant from the Home Office for an entire membership of a suspected organisation: see Norton- Taylor, Defence of the Realm, pp. 77–8. 159. Atkins, British Spy Novel, p. 245. 160. Frayn, Russian Interpreter, p. 152. 161. MacInnes, To the Victor the Spoils, new edn (1950; London and New York: Allison and Busby, 1986), pp. 118, 117; Greene, A Sort of Life (London: Bodley Head, 1971), p. 143. ‘But what’s it all for?’, a character asks in Burgess’s Tremor of Intent: ‘Agents and spies and counter- spies and secret weapons and dark cellars and being brainwashed. What are you all trying to do?’ (Burgess, Tremor of Intent, p. 103). 162. Sillitoe, Travels, p. 63. 163. Deighton, Horse under Water, p. 197; le Carré, Tinker, Tailor, p. 306. 164. Le Carré, The Honourable Schoolboy, new edn (1977; London: Pan Books, 1978), p. 543; Ballard, Unlimited Dream Company, p. 26; Priestley, Magicians, p. 234. One could also cite here the shadowy manipulators who appear in Fowles’s The Magus, Greene’s Doctor Fischer and Unsworth’s Mooncranker’s Gift, who fill the protagonists with ‘a sense of enmeshment and imprisonment’ (Unsworth, Mooncranker’s Gift, p. 38). 165. Priestley, Margin Released, p. 217; Priestley, Shapes of Sleep, p. 97. For other examples of Priestley’s commentary on intelligence, see Priestley, Margin Released, p. 217; Priestley, Shapes of Sleep, pp. 204, 223; Priestley, Delight, pp. 165, 191; and Priestley, Saturn, pp. 187–8. 166. Olivia Manning, The Sum of Things, in Manning, The Levant Trilogy [etc], new edn (1977, 1978, 1980; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982), p. 464; Wilson, ‘A Bit off the Map’, in Wilson, Bit off the Map, p. 9; Wyndham, Midwich Cuckoos, p. 26. 167. The last of these had a plotline that recalls MI5 efforts during the 1970s to desta- bilise Wilson’s Labour Party, including the attempts by Colin Wallace, an army press officer stationed in Northern Ireland, to link Labour politicians to the communist movement, a smear campaign code- named ‘Clockwork Orange’. 168. Amis, The James Bond Dossier (London: Jonathan Cape, 1965), p. 13. 169. Bloom, ‘Introduction’, p. 10. 170. For examples from these and other novels, see Macaulay, Towers, pp. 200–5; Lawrence Durrell, Mountolive, new edn (1958; London: Faber and Faber, 1963), p. 223; Simon Raven, Brother Cain, new edn (1959; London: Panther Books, 1965), pp. 73–5; Amis, , pp. 47–9; Unsworth, Rage of the Vulture, p. 40; Durrell, White Eagles, pp. 79; Barlow, Hour of Maximum Danger, pp. 269–70; Snow, Malcontents, pp. 76, 103–4; and Kingsley Amis, The Anti- Death League, new edn (1966; London: Penguin, 1968), pp. 154–5. Fleming’s racialised enemies, such as the Chinese- German Dr. No, had already been seen in the work of Sax Rohmer, penname of Arthur Sarsfield Wade, whose notorious ‘yel- low peril’ series continued into the Cold War with such titles as Shadow of Fu Manchu (1948) and Re-Enter Fu Manchu (1959) (see McCormick, Who’s Who in Spy Fiction, p. 157). 171. West, Meaning of Treason, p. 337. 172. Ibid., pp. 323, 415–16. West still admits at one point that she ‘cannot think that espionage can be recommended as a technique for building an impressive civilisation’ (ibid., p. xi). 173. Ibid., p. 419. Notes 263

174. Ibid., pp. 192, 415. 175. Quoted in Rollyson, Rebecca West, p. 205. 176. Ibid., p. 224. 177. Macaulay, Towers, p. 205; Bradbury, Rates of Exchange, p. 51. 178. Quoted in Childs, ‘No Different from You’, p. 84. During the Cold War, the nota- ble failure of western intelligence hardly inspired confidence, with MI6 and CIA having no prior knowledge of such significant events as the first Soviet atomic testing (1949), the Soviet invasion of Hungary (1956), the construction of the (1961) and Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia (1968). 179. D. Cameron Watt, ‘Critical Afterthoughts and Alternative Historico- Literary Theories’, in Wark, ed., Spy Fiction, p. 212.

4 From to Postmodernism

1. Howe, ‘Mass Society and Postmodern Fiction’, in Patricia Waugh, ed., Postmodernism: A Reader (London: Edward Arnold, 1994), p. 24. 2. Bradbury, The Modern American Novel, new edn (1983; Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. viii. 3. One left- wing commentator of the time enthused that the clashes of the 1930s were, ‘with a change here and there in local colour, like a twenty- or thirty- year old account of the smashing up of a demonstration of Russian workers by Cossacks’ (quoted in David Smith, Socialist Propaganda in the Twentieth- Century British Novel (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1978), p. 49). 4. Quoted in Steven Fielding, ‘The Good War: 1939–1945’, in Nick Tiratsoo, ed., From Blitz to Blair: A New History of Britain since 1939, new edn (1997; London: Phoenix, 1998), p. 45. 5. Quoted in ibid., p. 48. 6. The mood created by Labour’s success in the 1945 election, and by the unity between the Party, unions and grassroots, was described by Hugh Dalton as ‘exalted, dedicated, walking on air, walking with destiny’ (quoted in Eric Shaw, The Labour Party since 1945: Old Labour: New Labour (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), p. 19). 7. Alan Sked and Chris Cook, Post- War Britain: A Political History, new edn (1979; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984), pp. 50, 84. In response to industrial militancy, the government made use of restrictions on the right to strike as enshrined in the wartime Order 1305, deploying troops during the dock strikes of 1948–49 and taking a tough line on strikes in the rail and gas industries in 1950 and 1951 (see Morgan, Britain, p. 98). 8. Quoted in Dilwyn Porter, ‘“Never- Never Land”: Britain under the Conservatives 1951–1964’, in Tiratsoo, ed., Blitz to Blair, pp. 118–19. 9. Jim Tomlinson, The Unequal Struggle? British Socialism and the Capitalist Enterprise (London and New York: Methuen, 1982), p. 63. 10. See Shaw, Labour Party, p. 69. Amongst the reforms were the abolition of the death penalty (1965), the legalisation of abortion (1967), the legalisation of con- senting homosexuality (1967), the end of the Lord Chamberlain’s role in censor- ship (1968) and significant changes to the divorce laws (1969). 11. Quoted in Morgan, Britain, p. 302. 12. As Morgan comments, ‘the doctrines later known as “Thatcherism” were first launched … by Callaghan, the Treasury, the Bank, and above all the IMF and sections of the US Treasury’ (Morgan, Britain, p. 385). By the 1970s, polls showed 264 Notes

a deep public resentment towards unionism, even amongst memberships, with 66 per cent feeling that the unions had excessive control over the economy and some 52 per cent failing to vote for Labour in the 1974 election (see Tiratsoo, ‘“You’ve Never Had It So Bad”?: Britain in the 1970s’, in Tiratsoo, Blitz to Blair, p. 178). 13. See Christopher M. Law, ‘Employment and Industrial Structure’, in James Obelkevich and Peter Catterall, eds, Understanding Post- War British Society (London and New York: Routledge, 1994), p. 89. 14. Quoted in Morgan, Britain, pp. 466, 473; quoted in Sked and Cook, Post- War Britain, p. 33. See also Ray Hudson and Allan M. Williams, Divided Britain (London and New York: Belhaven Press, 1989), pp. 1–3. 15. In the 1979 election, when its membership had sunk to an estimated 300,000, Labour had the worst share of the vote since 1931, including a decline in the industrial strongholds of northern England, Scotland and Wales. For Kureishi, the Conservative Party in the 1980s was starting to look like ‘a mass party of the working class’ (Kureishi, ‘Finishing the Job’, in Kureishi, Dreaming and Scheming: Reflections on Writing and Politics (London: Faber and Faber, 2002), p. 90). 16. Quoted in Shaw, Labour Party, p. 5. 17. Morgan, Britain, p. 571. 18. Andy Croft, Red Letter Days: British Fiction in the 1930s (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1990), pp. 28–9, 11. 19. Woolf, ‘The Leaning Tower’, in Woolf, Collected Essays: Volume II, new edn (1966; New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1967), p. 168; Forster quoted in Andy Croft, ‘Authors Take Sides: Writers and the Communist Party 1920–56’, in Geoff Andrews, Nina Fishman and Kevin Morgan, eds, Opening the Books: Essays on the Social and Cultural History of British Communism (London and Boulder: Pluto Press, 1995), p. 93. For the middle- class communist Edward Upward, this was an age in which the only way to ensure progress ‘was the way of constant political effort, of Communist struggle for a struggleless world’ (quoted in Smith, Socialist Propaganda, p. 50). Naomi Mitchison also wrote of how ‘the look of infinite sweet- ness and kindliness on the face of dead Lenin … had the same effect on me as a glance at a crucifix might have on others’ (quoted in Smith, Socialist Propaganda, p. 50). 20. Croft, ‘Authors Take Sides’, p. 93. 21. Taylor, ‘Introduction’ to Taylor, ed., : Look Back in Anger (London: Macmillan, 1968), p. 12. As a character in Murdoch’s Under the Net (1954) com- ments, ‘English socialism is perfectly worthy, but it’s not socialism. It’s welfare capitalism’ (Murdoch, Under the Net, p. 99). 22. Bradbury, Unsent Letters, p. 92; Fowles, Magus, p. 45; Pym, Few Green Leaves, p. 102. It was somewhat ironic that writers, even when benefitting from the new upwardly- mobility after 1945, criticised the Welfare State that had brought that mobility into being. For examples of such criticism, see Lodge, Picturegoers, p. 41; MacInnes, Mr Love, p. 106; Johnson, Survival, p. 369; Carter, Several Perceptions, pp. 38, 64; J.L. Carr, A Month in the Country, new edn (1980; Bury St. Edmunds: The Quince Tree Press, 1991), p. 54; Stan Barstow, ‘Closing Time’, in Barstow, A Season with Eros (London: Michael Joseph, 1971), pp. 42–3; Graham Greene, ‘Under the Garden’, in Greene, A Sense of Reality, new edn (1963; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1975), p. 21; Kingsley Amis, That Uncertain Feeling, new edn (1955; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), p. 97; Wyndham, Web, p. 7; Rhys, ‘To Selma Vaz Dias’, in Rhys, Letters, p. 228; Murdoch, Black Prince, p. 98; Raven, Feathers, Notes 265

p. 69; Wilson, Setting the World, p. 225; Peter Fleming, The Sixth Column: A Singular Tale of Our Times (London: Rupert Hart- Davis, 1951), pp. 44–5, 164; and Fowles, Collector, pp. 207–8. 23. Quoted in Maroula Joannou, ‘Sylvia Townsend Warner in the 1930s’, in Andy Croft, ed., A Weapon in the Struggle: The Cultural History of the Communist Party in Britain (London and Sterling VA: Pluto Press, 1998), p. 103. 24. Stuart Laing, Representations of Working- Class Life 1957–1964 (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1986), p. 59. 25. Eagleton and Pierce, Attitudes to Class in the English Novel from Walter Scott to David Storey (London: Thames and Hudson, 1979), p. 130; Booker, The Modern British Novel of the Left: A Research Guide (Westport and London: Greenwood Press, 1998), p. 3. 26. Sillitoe, Mountains, p. 101. 27. Croft, ‘The Boys round the Corner: The Story of Fore Publications’, in Croft, ed., Weapon in the Struggle, p. 154. 28. Von Rosenberg, ‘Militancy, Anger and Resignation: Alternative Moods in the Working- Class Novel of the 1950s and Early 1960s’, in H. Gustav Klaus, ed., The Socialist Novel in Britain: Towards the Recovery of a Tradition (Brighton: Harvester Press, 1982), p. 148. 29. Johnson, Avenue of Stone, p. 22; Mackenzie, Hunting, p. 132. 30. Mitford, ‘The English Aristocracy’, in Mitford, Talent to Annoy, pp. 94–5. 31. Mitford, Pursuit of Love, pp. 88, 89. 32. Quoted in Hewison, In Anger, p. 130. One of its first usages came in a 1956 New Statesman article by J.B. Priestley about Osborne’s Look Back in Anger (1956) and ’s The Outsider (1956) (see ibid., p. 130). Cooper’s satire on 1950s pub- lishing, You Want the Right Frame of Reference (1976), seems to refer to the ‘’ in its portrait of ‘the Rebel Writers’, a term coined by their publisher as ‘a convenient advertising device’ (Cooper, You Want the Right, pp. 40, 76). 33. Quoted in John Heilpern, John Osborne: A Patriot for Us, new edn (2006; London: Vintage, 2007), p. 185. 34. Osborne, Look Back in Anger, new edn (1957; London : Faber and Faber, 1960), pp. 84–5. This sense of political vacuity was repeated in D.J. Enright’s comment that there is ‘little political excitement in Britain today’, in Thom Gunn’s notion that ‘[t]he agony of the time is that there is no agony’, in Amis’s claim that ‘when we shop around for an outlet we find there is nothing in stock: no Spain, no , no mass unemployment’ (quoted in Blake Morrison, The Movement: English Poetry and Fiction of the 1950s (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1980), p. 96). 35. Lessing, ‘The Small Personal Voice’, in Tom Maschler, ed., (London: MacGibbon and Kee, 1957), pp. 21–2. 36. ‘Upward social mobility is not only a theme of Movement work’, Blake Morrison concludes, ‘but a determinant of narrative structure’ (Morrison, Movement, p. 66). The structure was evident in two of the earliest ‘Movement’ novels: Larkin’s Jill (1946) sees a northern working- class boy win a scholarship to Oxford and Cooper’s Scenes from Provincial Life (1950) finds Joe Lunn reject provincial school teaching and, later in the novel series, rise to metropolitan civil servant, principal civil servant and, finally, ‘a grand affairé Civil Servant’ (Cooper, Scenes from Later Life, new edn (1983; London: Methuen, 1984), p. 4). For further exam- ples of social climbing and class envy, see Amis, I Like It, pp. 23–4; Amis, Uncertain Feeling, p. 143; Wain, Hurry on Down, pp. 248–51; Cooper, Metropolitan Life, 266 Notes

p. 28; Cooper, Married Life, p. 73; Cooper, Memoirs, pp. 33–4; and Cooper, Struggles, p. 91. 37. Ian Haywood, Working- Class Fiction: From Chartism to Trainspotting (Plymouth: Northcote House, 1997), p. 96. 38. Braine, , new edn (1957; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1959), pp. 24, 11, 14. 39. Ibid., p. 36. In a discussion of the novel, Hewison’s comment that ‘[o]nly Ian Fleming’s James Bond series are as brand conscious’ could have referred to Braine’s oeuvre as a whole (Hewison, In Anger, p. 135). See Braine, The Jealous God (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1964), pp. 9–10; Braine, Stay with Me, p. 90; Braine, Vodi, p. 23; Braine, Two of Us, pp. 47, 60, 65; and Braine, Life at the Top, p. 95. 40. Fox, Class Fictions: Shame and Resistance in the British Working- Class Novel, 1890– 1945 (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1994), p. 17. 41. Quoted in John Kirk, Twentieth-Century Writing and the British Working Class (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 2003), p. 53. 42. Quoted in Kirk, Twentieth- Century Writing, p. 54. ‘No real effort was made to elimi- nate, or even partially modify, the maldistribution of wealth and property which remained very pronounced in Britain after six years of supposedly socialist gov- ernment’ (Kenneth O. Morgan, Labour in Power, 1945–1951 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1984), p. 493). 43. Quoted in Kenneth Allsop, The Angry Decade: A Survey of the Cultural Revolt of the Nineteen- Fifties, new edn (1958; Wendover: John Goodchild Publishers, 1985), p. 55; Amis, Memoirs, pp. 315, 315–16. 44. Quoted in Amis, ‘John Braine’, in Amis, Visiting Mrs Nabokov, p. 233. Considering the conservatism of the lower middle- class currents in 1950s writing, the antipa- thy of right- wing commentators is surprising. For example, Waugh called the ‘Movement’ writers ‘a new wave of philistinism’ and Somerset Maugham referred to them as ‘scum’, as ‘mean, malicious and envious’ (quoted in Morrison, Movement, pp. 58, 59). 45. Braine, Room at the Top, p. 112; Cooper, Memoirs, p. 52; Cooper, Married Life, p. 142. 46. Bainbridge, Injury Time, p. 23. 47. Weldon, Darcy’s Utopia, p. 125. 48. Caute, Politics, p. 354; Powell, Books Do Furnish, p. 75; Murdoch, Time of the Angels, p. 14; Isherwood, Down There, p. 119. For further examples, see Powell Kindly Ones, p. 146; Snow, Homecomings, p. 294; William Golding, Free Fall, new edn (1959; London: Faber and Faber, 1961), pp. 6, 95, 139; Weldon, Female Friends, new edn (1975; London: Picador, 1989), p. 61; Weldon, ‘Christmas Tree’, in Weldon, Watching Me, pp. 9–27; Wilson, Old Men, p. 116; Sillitoe, ‘Guzman’, p. 143; Cooper, You Want the Right Frame, pp. 105–6; Williams, Second Generation, p. 258; Bradbury, Eating People, p. 56; Heppenstall, Woodshed, p. 103; and Murdoch, Italian Girl, pp. 28–9. 49. Martha Vicinus, The Industrial Muse: A Study of Nineteenth Century British Working- Class Literature (London: Croom Helm, 1974), p. 2. 50. Quoted in ibid., p. 1. Spark finds this attitude amongst publishers in the 1950s, satirising their ‘special illusion … that men or women of upper- class background and education were bound to have advantages of talent over writers of modest origins’ (Spark, Far Cry, pp. 44–5). 51. Von Rosenberg, ‘Militancy’, p. 145. Notes 267

52. Eagleton and Pierce, Attitudes to Class, p. 15. For examples, see Stan Barstow, ‘The End of an Old Song’, in Barstow, The Desperadoes, new edn (1961; Bath: Cedric Chivers, 1973), pp. 32–9; Barstow, ‘The Desperadoes’, in Barstow, Desperadoes, pp. 204–8; Barry Hines A Kestrel for a Knave, new edn (1968; London: Penguin, 1969), pp. 122–4; Waterhouse, Happy Land, pp. 85–93, Bill Naughton, ‘Spiv in Love’, in Naughton, Late Night on Watling Street and Other Stories, new edn (1959; London: Panther Books, 1965), pp. 162–73; James Kelman, A Chancer, new edn (1985; London: Picador, 1987), p. 12; Sillitoe, ‘The Match’, in Sillitoe, Loneliness, pp. 111–15; Chaplin, Day of the Sardine, p. 59; and William McIlvanney, , new edn (1975; London: Sceptre, 1987), pp. 53–4. 53. Kirk, Twentieth- Century Writing, p. 54. Orwell’s belief that ‘ is mainly a literature of revolt’ and H. Gustav Klaus’s notion that the literature is a socialist one, ‘written in the historical interests of the working class’, both looked overly optimistic by the 1950s (see Klaus, The Literature of Labour: Two Hundred Years of Working- Class Writing (Brighton: The Harvester Press, 1985), pp. 107–8; and Orwell, ‘The Proletarian Writer’, in Orwell, The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell, Volume II: My Country Right or Left 1940–1943, ed. by Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, new edn (1968; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), p. 57). 54. Haywood, Working- Class Fiction, p. 102. 55. Storey, This Sporting Life, new edn (1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), p. 68. For Storey, an erstwhile rugby league player and the son of a mineworker, the sport was ‘almost a natural extension of the experience that a man undergoes in digging coal underground’ (quoted in Laing, Representations, p. 71). In this way, Storey’s accounts of the physical hardships of the game merge with his wider portraits of working- class poverty to create a harsh attack on the discourse of ‘affluence’ (see ibid., pp. 9, 47–8, 61–2, 163, 190). 56. Ortega, ‘Language’, p. 142. For accounts of upward mobility in working- class writing, see Barstow, , new edn (1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), pp. 125–6, 154; Barstow, Watchers, pp. 123, 135; Barstow, Right True End, pp. 81, 98; Barstow, Ask Me Tomorrow, pp. 17, 161; Hines, Blinder, pp. 7, 63; Naughton, Alfie, pp. 20–1; and Waterhouse, Billy Liar on the Moon, p. 7. 57. The closing of the Left Book Club in 1948 and of Penguin New Writing in 1950, both of which had been central to working- class culture in the 1930s and 1940s, may have helped to produce the impression that socialist fiction was a phenom- enon specific to the depression years and irrelevant to ‘post-austerity’ Britain. 58. Quoted in Laing, Representations, p. 59. 59. Quoted in ibid., p. 63. Barstow often dramatised the difficulties experienced by working-class writers: see Barstow, Watchers, pp. 119–20, 164–7; Barstow, ‘This Day, Then Tomorrow’, in Barstow, Season with Eros, pp. 188–92; and Barstow, Ask Me Tomorrow, pp. 68, 113, 201. Discussing his working- class focus, Sillitoe insists that ‘[t]he people in my stories have the same sufferings as kings and queens, but their daily problems are more fundamental and tormenting’ (Sillitoe, ‘Author’s Note’ to Sillitoe, Men, Women and Children, p. 11). 60. Amongst others, Chaplin’s The Leaping Lad (1946) and The Thin Seam (1950), Hanley’s What Farrar Saw (1946) and Emily (1948), Naughton’s A Roof over Your Head (1948) and Common’s Kiddar’s Luck (1951) form a clear bridge between the 1930s and the late 1950s. 61. Laing, Representations, p. 61. 62. See Sillitoe, Death, pp. 37, 143, 249–50, 262; Sillitoe, Tree on Fire, pp. 92, 140, 307; Sillitoe, ‘Pit Strike’, in Sillitoe, Men, Women and Children, pp. 41–63; Sillitoe, 268 Notes

‘The Good Woman’, in Sillitoe, Ragman’s Daughter, pp. 162–72; Sillitoe, Raw Material, pp. 185–7; Sillitoe, ‘Poor People’, in Sillitoe, Mountains, pp. 74–80; Hines, Gamekeeper, pp. 58, 188–9; and Hines, The Price of Coal, new edn (1979; Hebden Bridge: Pomona, 2005), pp. 42–50, 82, 141–3, 162. See also Bradford’s discussion of Sillitoe’s views on the Soviet Union: Bradford, Life of a Long- Distance Runner, pp. 195–209. 63. Speaking of the fundamental aim of socialism (the ending of social injustice through collective ownership), David Smith insists that ‘if a novelist forgets or chooses to ignore this objective then his [sic] novel can hardly be said to be advocating … Socialism’ (Smith, Socialist Propaganda, p. 2). For examples of how the failure to advocate socialist change can problematise the political alignment of a left- wing text, see Hines, Gamekeeper, pp. 82–3, 153, 177; Hines, Kestrel, pp. 153–60; and Hines, Looks and Smiles, pp. 27–32, 39, 113, 144. 64. Knight, ‘How Red Was My Story’, Planet: The Welsh Internationalist, Vol. 98 (1993), p. 84. 65. For examples of this pessimism, see Meredith, Shifts, pp. 107, 211–12; McIlvanney, Big Man, pp. 124–5; McIlvanney, ‘Performance’, in McIlvanney, Walking Wounded, p. 26; McIlvanney, ‘Dreaming’, in McIlvanney, Walking Wounded, pp. 174–5; James Kelman, ‘Governor of the Situation’, in Kelman, Greyhound for Breakfast, new edn (1987; London: Vintage, 1999), p. 90; Kelman, Busconductor, pp. 33, 180; and Kelman, Disaffection, p. 138. 66. Laing, Representations, p. 81. 67. Emecheta, Head above Water, new edn (1986; London: Flamingo, 1986), pp. 64, 76. 68. Emecheta, Adah’s Story, new edn (1972, 1974; London: Allison & Busby, 1983), pp. 9, 35. 69. Emecheta, Adah’s Story, p. 59; Williams quoted in Laing, Representations, p. 64; Kirk, Twentieth- Century Writing, p. 140. Emecheta was still pleased that In the Ditch was first serialised in New Statesman, as this was ‘the Socialist paper’ and so ‘well respected in English sociological disciplines’ that ‘[o]ne simply had to read it’ (Emecheta, Head above Water, p. 71). 70. On occasion, authors noted the class bias of fiction. Martin Amis remarks that ‘the typical English novel is 225 sanitized pages about the middle classes’ and Carter criticises the fact that for ‘modern masters like Kingsley Amis and Margaret Drabble … the whole point of the thing is the bourgeois individualism with which it is done’ (Amis quoted in Amy J. Elias, ‘Meta-Mimesis? The Problem of British Postmodern Realism’, in Theo D’haen and Hans Bertens, eds, British Postmodern Fiction (Amsterdam and Atlanta: Editions Rodopi, 1993), p. 19; Carter, Poets in a Landscape’, in Carter, Nothing Sacred, p. 78). The complaint of Drabble’s narra- tor in The Waterfall (1969), that ‘my parents … are so obsessed by the notions of class and rank that my heart bleeds for them in shame’, may also be directed at Drabble’s novels, which were limited to ‘the language and opinions of the artistic and articulate middle class’ (Drabble, Waterfall, p. 62; Drabble, Middle Ground, p. 39). 71. Weldon, Female Friends, p. 126; Sillitoe, Mountains, pp. 37–8. 72. For examples of amusement or scorn, see Amis, London Fields, pp. 26, 208–9, 322, 351–2; Amis, Other People, p. 100; Amis, Success, pp. 25–8; Lodge, Picturegoers, pp. 183–5; Keith Waterhouse, The Bucket Shop, new edn (1968; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971), pp. 40–1, 133; Bradbury, ‘The Adult Education Class’, in Bradbury, Who Do You Think, pp. 64–7; , Offshore, new edn (1979; London: Flamingo, 1988), p. 114; Raven, Brother Cain, p. 42; Anthony Notes 269

Powell, A Buyer’s Market, new edn (1952; London: Fontana Books, 1967), pp. 162–3; Coe, Dwarves, pp. 54–6; Lodge, Nice Work, p, 98; and Braine, Vodi, p. 33. 73. Direct discussions of socialism are rare and tend to revolve around middle- class socialists who are frequently treated satirically. For examples of these discussions, see Peter Ackroyd, The Last Testament of Oscar Wilde, new edn (1983; London: Penguin, 1993), pp. 98-9; Beryl Bainbridge, Watson’s Apology, new edn (1984; London: Flamingo, 1985), pp. 140–1; Drabble, Millstone, pp. 72, 84; Drabble, Realms of Gold, pp. 161–3; Drabble, Middle Ground, pp. 52–3; Drabble, Summer Bird- Cage, pp. 85–6; Murdoch, Nice and the Good, p. 16; Tremain, Cupboard, pp. 143–4; Snow, Homecomings, pp. 227–8, 294; Banks, Defy the Wilderness, pp. 38, 108; Priestley, Margin Released, pp. 222–3; Priestley, Three Men, pp. 87–9, 164–70; Priestley, Bright Day, pp. 56–7, 280–95; Priestley, Delight, pp. 261–5; Cooper, Married Life, pp. 73, 137–8; Isherwood, World, pp. 194–5, 221–2; Weldon, Puffball, pp. 71–2, 91; Weldon, Rules of Life, pp. 82–3; and Weldon, Darcy’s Utopia, pp. 40–2. 74. Raven, September Castle, new edn (1983; London: Panther Books, 1985), pp. 260–1; West, Cousin Rosamund, new edn (1985; London: Virago, 1988), p. 5; Brookner, Family and Friends, p. 33. See also Wilson, Setting the World, p. 290; Brookner, Friend, p. 12; Tennant, Colour, p. 90; Lehmann, Echoing Grove, p. 204; Fitzgerald, Innocence, p. 27; Iris Murdoch, A Severed Head, new edn (1961; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963), p. 8; Fay Weldon, Little Sisters, new edn (1978; London: Sceptre, 1979), p. 200; and McEwan, Child in Time, p. 31. 75. West, Cousin Rosamund, p. 116. The novel series are Waugh’s ‘Sword of Honour’ (1952–61), Powell’s ‘A Dance to the Music of Time’ (1951–75), Snow’s ‘Strangers and Brothers’ (1940–70), West’s ‘Cousin Rosamund: A Saga of the Century’ (1956–85), Tennant’s ‘Cycle of the Sun’ (1987–88), Hartley’s ‘Eustace and Hilda’ (1944–47) and Raven’s ‘Alms for Oblivion’ (1964–76) and ‘The First- Born of Egypt’ (1984–92). Raven is particularly fond of ‘occupation[s] which only .001 per cent of the population … could begin to understand, let alone to emulate’, and suggests that, since the rise of socialism, ‘the least duty of a knight at arms is to defend his own hearth against the lawless’ (Raven, Face of the Waters, p. 139; Raven, Sound the Retreat, p. 124). 76. Wain, Contenders, p. 12. Whether aristocratic characters and locations are revered or satirised, they are typically viewed as worthy topics: for example, see Fitzgerald, Innocence, p. 9; Lively, Next to Nature, p. 9; Kazuo Ishiguro, (London: Faber and Faber, 1989), pp. 17–18; Rubens, Our Father, pp. 42, 134; Spark, Loitering, p. 16; Emma Tennant, Wild Nights, new edn (1979; London: Picador, 1981), pp. 17–18; Wilson, Setting the World, pp. 7–8; A.S. Byatt, The Shadow of the Sun, new edn (1964; London: Vintage, 1991), p. 284; Tremain, ‘The Stately Roller Coaster’, in Tremain, Colonel’s Daughter, pp. 139–46; Brookner, Look at Me, pp. 12, 37–41; Ivy Compton- Burnett, A God and His Gifts, new edn (1963; Harmondsworth; Penguin, 1983), p. 11; Hartley, Hireling, pp. 146, 184–5; and Hartley, Go- Between, pp. 80, 135–8. 77. See Barnes, Metroland, pp. 75–7; Ballard, High- Rise, pp. 53, 69; Ballard, Running Wild, pp. 105–6; Ballard, ‘Chronopolis’, in Ballard, Voices of Time, p. 189. 78. Amis, Uncertain Feeling, p. 109; Johnson, Cork Street, p. 63; Malcolm Bradbury, Stepping Westward, new edn (1965; London: Arrow Books, 1979), p. 206. See also Spark, Memento Mori, p. 12; Wilson, Old Men, p. 56; Barnes, Before She Met Me, pp. 35, 127–8; Lessing, Four-Gated City, pp. 196–7; Lessing, Under My Skin, 270 Notes

pp. 289–92; Lessing, Golden Notebook, pp. 176, 304, 341–5, 432–4; and Lessing, Walking in the Shade, p. 83. 79. Fowles, Collector, p. 121. 80. Ibid., p. 148. 81. Ibid., pp. 162, 161, 207. In the 1968 preface to the The Aristos (1964), Fowles argued that the novel was a study of social conditioning and not a Disraelian ‘ two- nations thesis’ about ‘a precious élite … threatened by the barbarian hordes’ (Fowles, Aristos, p. 10). Yet the interpretation was undermined by his later claim that, because ‘middle- class people are far more complex than working- class people’, the working- class novel is ‘culturally … limited’ and ‘a kind of dead end’ (quoted in Laing, Representations, p. 78). 82. Waterhouse, Billy Liar, new edn (1959; London: Penguin, 1962), pp. 91, 41, 23. 83. Bradbury, ‘Room at the Bottom’, in Bradbury, Who Do You Think, p. 187. 84. Orwell, ‘Inside the Whale’, in Orwell, The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell: Volume I: An Age Like This 1920–1940, ed. by Sonia Orwell and Ian Angus, new edn (1968; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), p. 562. 85. Quoted in Régine Robin, Socialist Realism: An Impossible Aesthetic, trans. Catherine Porter (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992), p. 11. 86. Quoted in Croft, ‘Authors Take Sides’, p. 92. 87. Ibid., p. 87. 88. As another example in kind, the paper once celebrated ’s birthday by reprinting Gaunt’s speech from Richard II and proclaiming it ‘Shakespeare’s com- ment on the ’ (quoted in Croft, ‘Introduction’ to Croft, ed., Weapon in the Struggle, p. 4). 89. Smith, A Field of Folk (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1957), p. 228. 90. Doherty, The Man Beneath (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1957), p. 187. 91. Smith, Field of Folk, p. 230; Doherty, A Miner’s Sons (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1955), pp. 94, 136. 92. For criticism of the Labour Party and right- wing unions, see Smith, Field of Folk, pp. 142–3; Doherty, Man Beneath, p. 66; Doherty, Miner’s Sons, pp. 31, 108–9, 119; Jack Lindsay, Betrayed Spring (London: Bodley Head, 1953), pp. 82–3, 309; Jack Lindsay, Rising Tide (London: Bodley Head, 1953), pp. 84, 224; and Jack Lindsay, The Moment of Choice (London: Bodley Head, 1955), p. 32. 93. Lindsay, Betrayed Spring, p. 82; Lindsay, Rising Tide, p. 266; Lindsay, Moment of Truth, p. 336. 94. For criticisms of unionism, see Peter Ackroyd, Hawksmoor, new edn (1985; London: Penguin, 1993), p. 55; Amis, Success, pp. 34–5; Barstow, ‘Principle’, in Barstow, Season with Eros, pp. 32–40; Cooper, Memoirs, p. 86; Drabble, Middle Ground, p. 140; Lodge, Nice Work, pp. 20–1; Penelope Lively, Treasures of Time, new edn (1979; London: Penguin, 1986), p. 122; Bowen, After the Rain, p. 18; Rubens, Five Year Sentence, p. 6; Jeanette Winterson, Boating for Beginners, new edn (1985; London: Minerva, 1990), pp. 27–8; and John Wain, Young Shoulders, new edn (1982; London: Black Swan, 1983), p. 82. 95. For examples from Lindsay and other socialist authors, see Lindsay, Moment of Choice, pp. 44, 320; Lindsay, Rising Tide, pp. 20, 170; Lindsay, Betrayed Spring, p. 406; Doherty, Miner’s Sons, p. 41; Smith, Field of Folk, p. 239; and Margot Heinemann, The Adventurers (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1959), pp. 213–14, 264–5. 96. See Lindsay, Moment of Choice, pp. 145, 233, 282; Lindsay, Rising Tide, pp. 97, 131–2, 218–20; and Lindsay, Betrayed Spring, pp. 333–4. Notes 271

97. See von Rosenberg, ‘Militancy’, pp. 164–5. 98. For a period, its creation of separate branch structures for migrants from the colonies obstructed their full integration into the Party. In the 1950s, accusa- tions of and imperialism were made by Guyanese, Trinidadian and Jamaican immigrants, who had been politicised through the anti- imperialist movement, a number with previous experience in the US Communist Party, ‘the only Western communist party that was steeped in the black experience’ (Trevor Carter quoted in Kevin Morgan et al., Communists and British Society 1920–1991 (London: Rivers Oram Press, 2007), p. 204). 99. Selvon, The Lonely Londoners, new edn (1956; London: Longman, 1979), p. 24. 100. Ibid., p. 45. The further novels in Selvon’s loose ‘Moses Trilogy’, Moses Ascending (1975) and Moses Migrating (1983), see Moses become more conservative, achiev- ing ownership of private property, condemning the Black Power movement and even becoming a propagandist for Britain. Other writers from the Caribbean were not unsympathetic in their portrayals of socialism and socialists: see Beryl Gilroy, Black Teacher (London: Cassell, 1976), pp. 61, 103; Beryl Gilroy, Boy- Sandwich, new edn (Oxford: Heinemann Educational Publishers, 1989), p. 22; Sam Selvon, The Plains of Caroni (London: MacGibbon and Kee, 1970), pp. 110, 129, 162–3; Selvon, Turn Again Tiger, new edn (1958; London: Heinemann, 1979), p. 7; Andrew Salkey, The Adventures of Catullus Kelly (London: Hutchinson, 1969), p. 76; Salkey, Late Emancipation, p. 24; George Lamming, In the Castle of My Skin, new edn (1953; Harlow: Longman, 1986), pp. 92–3, 188–201; George Lamming, The Emigrants, new edn (1954; London and New York: Allison and Busby, 1980), p. 40; and Jean Rhys, ‘Fishy Waters’, in Rhys, Sleep It Off Lady (London: André Deutsch, 1976), pp. 45–7. 101. Morgan, et al., Communists and British Society, p. 19. 102. Ibid., p. 14. 103. The FWWCP was a broadly socialist collective that aimed, through working- class writing and publishing groups, ‘to “disestablish” literature’ and make it ‘a popular form of expression for all people rather than the preserve of a metropol- itan or privileged elite’ (Anon, ‘Introduction’ to Dave Morley and Ken Worpole, eds, The Republic of Letters: Working Class Writing and Local Publishing (London: Comedia, 1982), p. 1). Despite selling over 500,000 publications between 1976 and 1981, the organisation achieved little in the way of converting the literary establishment: see Anon, ‘The Guardians of Culture’, in Morley and Worpole, Republic of Letters, p. 135. 104. For other expressions of frustration with working- class passivity or inaction, see Doherty, Man Beneath, p. 49; Smith, Field of Folk, p. 91; Lindsay, Rising Tide, pp. 269–70; and Lindsay, Moment of Choice, p. 219. See also von Rosenberg’s account of the political trajectory of Dave Wallis’s oeuvre: von Rosenberg, ‘Militancy’, pp. 150–1. 105. Heinemann was a volunteer with the Labour Research Department, a think- originally established by Sidney and Beatrice Webb but which had drifted towards the CPGB in the 1920s. In the novel, Heinemann builds upon her industrial studies, Britain’s Coal (1944) and Coal Must Come First (1948), in her portrait of the fictional mining village of Abergoch, which has the ‘[l]owest purchasing power index in the United Kingdom, except Merthyr Tydfil’ (Heinemann, Adventurers, p. 105). 106. See ibid., pp. 302–3. Interestingly, Richard’s wife illustrates the distance that can exist between middle- class intellectuals and the working class, as seen in her 272 Notes

idealisation of Abergoch, with its ‘bread and marge history, carried for ever in the hearts of the miners’ lives’ (ibid., p. 109). 107. McIlvanney, Docherty, pp. 31, 21, 32. 108. McIlvanney, ‘Stands Scotland Where It Did? Speech to the Scottish National Party Annual National Conference, Dundee, September 1987’, in McIlvanney, Surviving the Shipwreck, p. 241. 109. Alongside a reference to Tressell, the novel alludes to Brecht, in the comment ‘[g]iven the crushing terms of their lives, decency was an act of heroism’, and to Arthur Miller’s Death of a Salesman (1949), in the remark, ‘[t]hat’s a man ye’re talkin’ tae. No’ a bloody bit o’ furniture’ (McIlvanney, Docherty, pp. 15, 107). 110. McIlvanney, ‘A Shield against the Gorgon’, in McIlvanney, Surviving the Shipwreck, p. 231. 111. It was Brown who made the controversial claim that ‘WRITTEN ENGLISH BEGINS WITH US’ (quoted in Ortega, ‘Language’, p. 123). 112. Haywood, Working- Class Fiction, p. 56. 113. The occasional usage of vernacular in the third- person narrative – ‘semmet’, ‘kirkwards’, ‘Ne’erday dram’, ‘wee raker’ – also produces a sense of shared knowl- edge and experience (McIlvanney, Docherty, pp. 85, 70, 228, 229). 114. Ortega, ‘Language’, p. 141. 115. Berger, Painter, pp. 147, 102. Berger’s complex discussion of socialist realism asks questions about its didactic intentions but refuses to condemn those intentions. ‘The validity of Socialist Realism’, we are told, ‘must be judged according to the degree in which it arouses the consciousness of the working class to an awareness of their heroic role in the historical transformation of their society’ (ibid., p. 53). 116. Berger, ‘An Explanation’, in Berger, Pig Earth, p. 9. 117. Berger, G., p. 31. 118. McMahon, ‘Marxist Fictions: The Novels of John Berger’, Contemporary Literature, Vol. 23, No. 2 (1982), p. 216. 119. Berger, G., p. 87. Berger could compete with Jack Lindsay when it came to leftist literary allusion: for examples, see Berger, Painter, pp. 3, 48, 166, 23, 40, 164; and Berger, ‘The Accordion Player’, in Berger, Once in Europa, new edn (1989; London: Granta Books, 1991), p. 16. 120. Caute, The Occupation (London: André Deutsch, 1971), p. 10; Arden, Silence among the Weapons: Some Events at the Time of the Failure of a Republic (London: Methuen, 1982), p. 47. 121. Graham Holderness, ‘Miners and the Novel: From Bourgeois to Proletarian Fiction’, in Jeremy Hawthorn, ed., The British Working- Class Novel in the Twentieth Century (London: Edward Arnold, 1984), p. 32. 122. Amongst numerous examples, see Ackroyd, Great Fire, pp. 78–84; Amis, Uncertain Feeling, pp. 186–7; Braine, Two of Us, pp. 69–71; Bradbury, History Man, pp. 51–2; Waugh, Love among the Ruins, pp. 186–97; Durrell, Dark Labyrinth,p. 78; Drabble, Needle’s Eye, p. 214; Manning, ‘Cartwright and the Brotherhood of Man’, in Manning, Husband Cartwright, pp. 15–22; Isherwood, Down There, p. 119; Mitford, Don’t Tell Alfred, p. 11; Murdoch, Under the Net, pp. 24, 98–101; Naughton, Alfie, pp. 14–16; Powell, Casanova’s Chinese Restaurant, p. 75; Raven, Blood of My Bone, p. 126; Snow, Affair, p. 137; Spark, ‘The Black Madonna’, in Spark, Go-Away Bird, pp. 11–32; Tennant, Crack, pp. 68–71; Tremain, ‘Colonel’s Daughter’, p. 39; West, Fountain, p. 315; Winterson, Boating, pp. 12–13, 22; and John Wain, A Winter in the Hills, new edn (1970; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), p. 397. Notes 273

123. Klaus, ‘Introduction’ to Klaus, ed., Socialist Novel, p. 4; Croft, ‘Introduction’, p. 2; Croft, ‘Authors Take Sides’, p. 95. As Booker contends, ‘Left cultural pro- duction in Britain in the twentieth century has been rich, varied, and extensive, constituting a tradition the suppression and denial of which has been one of the major cultural/political phenomena of the century’ (Booker, Modern British Novel, p. 3). 124. Wald, ‘Marxist Literary Resistance to the Cold War’, Prospects: An Annual of American Cultural Studies, Vol. 20 (1995), p. 487. 125. Lyotard, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge, trans. G. Bennington and B. Massumi (1979; Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1984), p. xxiv; Connor, Postmodernist Culture: An Introduction to Theories of the Contemporary (Oxford and Cambridge MA: Blackwell, 1992), p. 9. 126. Waugh, Practising Postmodernism/Reading Modernism (London and New York: Edward Arnold, 1993), p. 8. 127. Postmodernist features may have appeared in the work of the three writers, especially that of Durrell, but they retained a faith in spiritual and artistic prac- tices: see Durrell, Monsieur: or The Prince of Darkness, new edn (1974; London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1976), p. 9; Durrell, Livia, p. 11; Isherwood, Down There, pp. 189–94, 213–15; Isherwood, Meeting, pp. 156–8; and Golding, ‘The Ladder and the Tree’, in Golding, Hot Gates, pp. 173–4. 128. Ballard, ‘Introduction’ to Ballard, Crash, p. 5. For similar approaches to consum- erism, see Frayn, Sweet Dreams, pp. 28–9; Bradbury, Rates of Exchange, pp. 9, 20; Bradbury, Stepping Westward, p. 298; Fowles, Aristos, p. 128; Ballard, Crash, p. 48; Ballard, Day of Creation, p. 51; McEwan, Child in Time, pp. 15, 127–30; and McEwan, ‘In Between the Sheets’, in McEwan, Between the Sheets, p. 82. 129. See Hutcheon, A Poetics of Postmodernism: History, Theory, Fiction (London and New York: Routledge, 1989), p. 93. 130. Federman, ‘Surfiction – Four Propositions in the Form of an Introduction’, in Federman, ed., Surfiction: Fiction Now . . . and Tomorrow (Chicago: Swallow Press, 1975), p. 8. 131. Quoted in Ga˛siorek, Post- War British Fiction, p. 4. 132. Johnson, Christie Malry’s Own Double- Entry, new edn (1973; London: Picador, 2001), pp. 11, 16. 133. Ibid., pp. 178, 82. 134. Durrell, Dark Labyrinth, p. 80; Carter, Several Perceptions, p. 34; Ian McEwan, ‘Preface’ to McEwan, Black Dogs, new edn (1992; London and Basingstoke: Picador, 1993), p. 18. As Weldon writes, ‘I daresay it is absurd to seek so patiently and earnestly after truth …. Truth in any case is no constant thing; it changes from day to day’ (Weldon, Leader of the Band, pp. 93–4). 135. Weldon, Female Friends, p. 162; Weldon, Leader, p. 104. 136. Sinclair, Blood Libels, p. 70; Murdoch, Time of the Angels, p. 79; McEwan, ‘Preface’ to McEwan, Move Abroad, p. xvi; Margaret Drabble, Jerusalem the Golden, new edn (1967; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), p. 29. A relatively small number of novels dealt with religious faith: see Barbara Pym’s Some Tame Gazelle (1950) and Less Than Angels (1955), Graham Greene’s The End of the Affair (1951), Iris Murdoch’s The Bell (1958), Pamela Hansford Johnson’s The Humbler Creation (1959), Storm Jameson’s The Road from the Monument (1961), Christopher Isherwood’s A Meeting by the River (1967), Muriel Spark’s The Abbess of Crewe (1974) and David Lodge’s How Far Can You Go? (1980). 137. Jameson, Intruder, p. 232. 274 Notes

138. Unsworth, Mooncranker’s Gift, p. 30; Rushdie, Grimus, p. 301; Ackroyd, First Light, p. 159. 139. Bradbury, Rates of Exchange, p. 26; Weldon, Rules of Life, p. 18; Weldon, Letters to Alice, p. 90. Elsewhere, authors discuss the idea that there are ‘a million possible Earths with a million possible histories’, that ‘in reality all is fiction, yet no single fiction is necessary’ and that, in life, ‘[e]very journey conceals another journey within its lines: the path not taken and the forgotten angle’ (Rushdie, Grimus, pp. 55–6; Fowles, Magus, p. 627; Winterson, Sexing the Cherry, pp. 9–10). 140. Barnes, ‘Parenthesis’, in Barnes, History, p. 245. The postmodernists cast doubt on other forms of recording the past, commenting ‘that men [sic] commonly invent their autobiographies like everything else’, that ‘diary writing … closely resembles fiction writing’ and that biographers are highly selective in their choice of fact: ‘The trawling net fills’, Barnes writes, ‘then the biographer hauls it in, sorts, throws back, stores, fillets and sells. Yet consider what he [sic] doesn’t catch’ (Golding, Fire Down Below, p. 259; McEwan, ‘Introduction’ to McEwan, Imitation Game, p. 11; Barnes, Flaubert’s Parrot, p. 38). 141. For other expressions of doubt about historiography, see Winterson, Boating, p. 124; Winterson, Oranges, pp. 91–2; Lively, Moon Tiger, p. 1; Graham Swift, Waterland, new edn (1983; London: Picador, 1984), pp. 53, 92–4; V.S. Naipaul, , new edn (1979; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980), p. 137; and Rushdie, Grimus, p. 4. 142. Sinclair, Blood Libels, pp. 7–8. 143. Weldon, Darcy’s Utopia, p. 79; Bradbury, Stepping Westward, p. 59. More gener- ally, one finds characters who are ‘sick of opinions, slogans, ideologies, factions, causes’, who are convinced that all ‘political philosophies begin in Heaven and end in Hell’ and who are certain that the dominant urge in this ‘contrasug- gestible century [is] to disbelieve, to disprove’ (Drabble, Middle Ground, p. 107; Sinclair, ‘Genesis’, in Sinclair, Bedbugs, p. 24; Fowles, Magus, p. 105). 144. Bradbury, Eating People, pp. 143–4. The narrator of Isherwood’s Down There on a Visit (1962) also creates this link: ‘Dorothy had asked me if I saw any other meaning in life than the one you get through belief in communism. When I told her, No, she hadn’t understood what I meant – that I saw no meaning in life at all’ (Isherwood, Down There, p. 195). 145. Holmes, The Historical Imagination: Postmodernism and the Treatment of the Past in Contemporary British Fiction (Victoria: English Literary Studies, University of Victoria, 1997), p. 49. 146. Kirk, Twentieth- Century Writing, p. 3. 147. Jameson, ‘Postmodernism and Consumer Society’, in Hal Foster, ed., Postmodern Culture (London and Sydney: Pluto Press, 1989), p. 125; Jameson, Postmodernism, or, The Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism (London and New York: Verso, 1991), p. 4; Jameson, ‘Postmodernism’, p. 125. 148. Quoted in Tony Davies, ‘Unfinished Business: Realism and Working- Class Writing’, Hawthorn, ed., British Working- Class Novel, p. 126. As Croft relates, such critical judgements were also extended to leftist literature of ‘red decade’: see Croft, Red Letter Days, pp. 21–3. 149. Bradbury, Mensonge, pp. 32, 2. Bradbury also satirised postmodernism itself. For example, an author- figure in his novella Cuts, when asked whether a writer’s responsibilities have increased ‘with all the unemployment, and the depriva- tion, and the cuts’, answers glibly that ‘as a maker of fictions I believe the world Notes 275

is a fiction … . I am competing with the world, not trying vulgarly to imitate it’ (Bradbury, Cuts, p. 32). 150. Siebers, Cold War Criticism, pp. 5, 29, 29. 151. Tanner, City of Words: American Fiction 1950–1970 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1971), p. 16. 152. Ibid., p. 15. 153. Johnson, Survival of the Fittest, pp. 223–4. 154. Bradbury, Mensonge, p. 1. In other novels, the threat of nuclear disaster leads characters to feel that individual action is pointless, that ‘[t]he world turned, uncontrollable’, and that there is no purpose to ‘making decisions … when the world’s run by maniacs’ (Lively, Perfect Happiness, pp. 69–70; Coe, Touch of Love, p. 20). It was in this strand of commentary that Marcel Cornis- Pope finds a disruptive, oppositional potential in the genre, arguing that the deconstructive impulses of ‘postmodern innovation contributed to the breakup of the con- frontational ideologies of the Cold War’ (Cornis- Pope, Narrative Innovation and Cultural Rewriting in the Cold War and After (New York and Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2001), p. 5). 155. Brian McHale, Postmodernist Fiction (London and New York: Routledge, 1987), p. 172. 156. Winterson, Sexing the Cherry, p. 72 (Winterson’s italics). 157. Quoted in Sonya Andermahr, Jeanette Winterson (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009), p. 38. 158. Fowles, Magus, p. 539; Fowles, The French Lieutenant’s Woman, new edn (1969; London: Panther Books, 1971), p. 348. 159. See Fowles, French Lieutenant’s Woman, pp. 54, 85, 295, 394; Spark, Comforters, pp. 42–3, 74, 115; Johnson, Christie Malry, pp. 23, 51–2, 100, 165–6, 180; Brophy, In Transit, pp. 64–5, 69–70; Jeanette Winterson, The Passion, new edn (1987; London: Penguin, 1988), pp. 5, 13, 160; Winterson, Sexing the Cherry, p. 92; Rushdie, Satanic Verses, p. 133; Ballard, ‘Studio 5, The Stars’, in Ballard, Vermilion Sands, p. 169; Barnes, Flaubert’s Parrot, pp. 88–9; Barnes, ‘Parenthesis’, in Barnes, History, p. 227; Coe, Accidental Woman, pp. 81, 135–6; Coe, Touch of Love, p. 43; Weldon, ‘Christmas Tree’, in Weldon, Watching Me, p. 14; Martin Amis, : A Suicide Note, new edn (1984; London: Penguin, 1985), pp. 71, 174–7, 234–9; Amis, London Fields, p. 1; Bradbury, ‘Author’s Note, in Bradbury, Rates of Exchange, unpaginated; and Bradbury, ‘Author’s Note’, in Bradbury, History Man, unpaginated. 160. Murdoch, Black Prince, p. 410; Amis, Green Man, p. 150; Drabble, Waterfall, p. 89; Cooper, Memoirs, p. 39; Brookner, Hotel, p. 50. See also William Boyd, ‘Bizarre Situations’, in Boyd, On the Yankee Station, new edn (1981; London: Penguin, 1988), pp. 25–6; Taylor, Game, p. 12; Wilson, Old Men, p. 250; Penelope Lively, Passing On, new edn (1989; London: Penguin, 1990), p. 65; William Golding, Rites of Passage (London: Faber and Faber, 1980), p. 265; Rubens, Spring Sonata, p. 3; Raven Morning Star, p. 86; Newby, Kith, p. 33; Amis, ‘Who or What Was It?’, in Amis, Collected Short Stories, pp. 216–25; Lodge, Changing Places, pp. 250–1; Isherwood, World, pp. 191, 261; Sillitoe, Raw Material, pp. 11, 166, 188; Fitzgerald, Innocence, p. 105; Drabble, Realms of Gold, pp. 127, 183; and Bainbridge, Watson’s Apology, p. 47. 161. See Lively, Next to Nature, pp. 21, 28, 56; Taylor, Angel, pp. 69–70, 134, 233–4; Bailey, Old Soldiers, pp. 61–4; Johnson, Cork Street, pp. 12–13, 21, 33–4; and Johnson, Unspeakable Skipton, pp. 9, 28. 276 Notes

162. For a continued belief in art, see Berger, Painter, pp. 101, 144; Amis, ‘Introduction’, p. 19; Ackroyd, Last Testament, pp. 12, 131; Fowles, Aristos, pp. 185, 199, 204; Golding, ‘Gradus ad Parnassum’, in, Golding, Hot Gates, p. 156; Golding, ‘Belief and Creativity’, in Golding, Moving Target, pp. 125, 146, 201–2, 209, 212; Kureishi, ‘Something Given: Reflections on Writing’, in Kureishi, Dreaming, pp. 7–8; Anthony Powell, The Valley of Bones, new edn (1964; London: Fontana Books, 1973), p. 244; Powell, Books Do Furnish, pp. 228–30; Priestley, Margin, pp. 184, 221–2; Sillitoe, Mountains, pp. 100–1, 104, 156; Sillitoe, Raw Material, pp. 34, 39, 168; West, This Real Night, pp. 105, 288, 294; and Weldon, Letters, pp. 14–16, 155. 163. Tremain, Cupboard, p. 117 (Tremain’s italics); Hartley, Hireling, p. 9; Barstow, Kind of Loving, p. 272. See also Taylor, Summer Season, p. 218; Raven, Judas Boy, p. 20; Brookner, Providence, p. 88; John Wain, A Travelling Woman, new edn (1959; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963), p. 99; David Storey, Pasmore, new edn (1972; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), p. 76; Wilson, Hemlock, pp. 148–9; Bowen, After the Rain, p. 47; Wesker, ‘Six Sundays in January’, in Wesker, Love Letters, p. 9; Potter, Blackeyes, p. 48; Lodge, Picturegoers, p. 79; Gerald Hanley, The Consul at Sunset, new edn (1951; London: The Reprint Society, 1952), p. 11; and Cooper, Married Life, pp. 35–6. 164. Rhys, Letters, p. 87. 165. Frayn, Trick of It, p. 13; Golding, ‘A Moving Target’, in Golding, Moving Target, p. 168. 166. Wain, Strike the Father, p. 89. 167. Priestley, Saturn, p. 72; Priestley, Magicians, p. 47. 168. Jameson, There Will Be, p. 30; Sillitoe, Travels, p. 50; Frayn, Towards the End, p. 95. 169. Winterson, Oranges, p. 165; Murdoch, Under the Net, p. 60; Jameson, Road from the Monument, p. 97. 170. Onega, ‘British Historiographic Metafiction in the 1980s’, in D’haen and Bertens, eds, British Postmodern Fiction, p. 59. 171. Taylor, After the War, p. 269. 172. Wilde, Horizons of Assent: Modernism, Postmodernism, and the Ironic Imagination (Baltimore and London: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1981), p. 116; McHale, Postmodernist Fiction, p. 220. 173. Tynan, ‘Theatre and Living’, in Maschler, ed., Declaration, p. 122.

5 The End of Empire

1. Ahmad, In Theory: Classes, Nations, Literatures (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 69. See also Ania Loomba, Colonialism/Postcolonialism (London and New York: Routledge, 1998), p. xii. 2. ‘The chasm is too great’, Annie E. Coombes writes, ‘between the actual experience of economic, social and political disempowerment and the philosophical relativ- ism of postmodernism’ (Coombes, ‘The Recalcitrant Object: Culture Contact and the Question of Hybridity’, in Francis Barker, Peter Hulme and Margaret Iversen, Colonial Discourse/Postcolonial Theory (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1994), p. 110). 3. See Painter, Cold War, p. 1. See also Graham McPhee, Postwar British Literature and Postcolonial Studies (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2011), pp. 8, 20; and Roger E. Kanet, ‘The Superpower Quest for Empire: The Cold War and Soviet Notes 277

Support for “Wars of National Liberation”’, Cold War History, Vol. 6, No. 3 (2006), pp. 331, 334, 343. 4. Gaddis, Cold War, p. 123. 5. Darwin, The End of the British Empire: The Historical Debate (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1991), p. 57. 6. Quoted in Smith, Cold War, p. 70. 7. Quoted in White, Decolonisation, p. 62. 8. Ibid., p. 89. Although the policy was not ‘squared easily with support for the new world order promoted by the United States’, such nations soon learned to adver- tise it as ‘a bulwark against the Communist menace’ (P.J. Cain and A.G. Hopkins, British Imperialism, 1688–2000, new edn (1993; Harlow: Longman, 2002), p. 625. 9. Quoted in White, Decolonisation, p. 11. ‘Between 1945 and 1951 Britain exploited those dependencies that were politically unable to defend their own interests in more ways and with more serious consequences than at any time since overseas colonies were established’ (D.K. Fieldhouse, ‘The Labour Government and the Empire- Commonwealth, 1945–51’, in Ritchie Ovendale, ed., The Foreign Policy of the British Labour Governments, 1945–1951 (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1984), p. 95). 10. On this attempt at a ‘welfarist empire’, Reynolds comments that ‘offer[ing] investment, development aid and technical assistance in return for new treaties guaranteeing its essential interests … was the old ploy of empire by treaty, dressed up in socialist garb’ (Reynolds, Britannia Overruled, p. 190). 11. R.F. Holland, ‘The Imperial Factor in British Strategies from Attlee to Macmillan, 1945–63’, Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History, Vol. 12 (1984), p. 169. 12. Quoted in White, Decolonisation, pp. 125–6. 13. See Catherine Hall and Sonya Rose, ‘Introduction: Being at Home with the Empire’, in Hall and Rose, eds, At Home with the Empire: Metropolitan Culture and the Imperial World (Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), p. 3. 14. Churchill, ‘Iron Curtain’, p. 19; Amery quoted in Bernard Porter, The Lion’s Share: A Short History of British Imperialism 1850–1995, new edn (1975; London and New York: Longman, 1996), p. 344. 15. John Darwin, ‘The Fear of Falling: British Politics and Imperial Decline since 1900’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, Vol. 36 (1986), p. 42; Darwin, Britain and Decolonisation: The Retreat from Empire in the Post- War World (London: Macmillan, 1988), p. 7. 16. Quoted in David Dabydeen, ‘Preface’ to Dabydeen, ed., The Black Presence in English Literature (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1985), p. ix. 17. Ward, ‘Introduction’ to Ward, ed., British Culture and the End of Empire (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2001), p. 4. 18. See Webster, Englishness and Empire 1939–1965, new edn (2005; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), pp. 218–21. Rushdie’s term covers visual culture from films to television series and documentaries, much of which witnessed ‘the refurbish- ment of the Empire’s tarnished image’ and a ‘recrudescence of imperialist ideol- ogy’ (Rushdie, ‘Outside the Whale’, in Rushdie, Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Criticism 1981–1991, new edn (1991; London: Granta Books, 1992), pp. 91, 92). 19. Martin Green, Dreams of Adventure, Deeds of Empire (New York: Basic Books, 1979), p. 3. 20. JanMohamed, ‘The Economy of Manichean Allegory: The Function of Racial Difference in Colonialist Literature’, Critical Inquiry, Vol. 12, No. 1 (Autumn 1985), p. 63. 278 Notes

21. See Luke Strongman, The and the Legacy of Empire (Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi, 2002), p. x. 22. Schwarz, ‘Introduction: End of Empire and the English Novel’, in Gilmour and Schwarz, eds, End of Empire, p. 7. 23. Ibid., p. 10; Rachael Gilmour, ‘The Entropy of Englishness: Reading Empire’s Absence in the Novels of William Golding’, in Gilmour and Schwarz, eds, End of Empire, p. 99. 24. Boehmer, ‘Afterword: The English Novel and the World’, in Gilmour and Schwarz, eds, End of Empire, p. 240. 25. The full complexity of these reflections is beyond the scope of this chapter. When John Brannigan refers to British fiction ‘survey[ing] the landscape of the post- imperial aporia – the ubiquitous signs of slippage, decline, corruption and lost prestige – with a mournful backward stare’, he captures only one element of the post- imperial novel (Brannigan, Orwell to the Present: Literature in England, 1945– 2000 (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2003), p. 74). Boehmer is closer to the mark when she comments on its range of contradictory responses to decolonisation: ‘it speaks now of imperial denial, now of a concomitant yearning for empire; it seesaws between a mawkish late colonial humour and a belated grief at colonial retreat’ (Boehmer, ‘Afterword’, p. 239). Schwarz is also right to point out that ‘[s]ome of the most interesting fiction is that which does not appear to concern itself in any way with empire or its demise, but which nonethe- less carries the memory- traces of these former histories’ (Schwarz, ‘Introduction’, p. 21). 26. See Rushdie, ‘The Empire Writes back with a Vengeance’, The Times, 3 July 1982, p. 8. 27. Unwin, The Governor’s Wife (London: Michael Joseph, 1954), p. 16; Bates, Purple Plain, p. 49; Bates, The Scarlet Sword, new edn (1950; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1958), p. 16. For other examples, including attacks on anti- imperial , see Masters, The Deceivers, new edn (1952; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1955), pp. 193, 114–15; Unwin, Governor’s Wife, pp. 190–1, 210–11; Bates, Scarlet Sword, pp. 7, 15; Hanley, Consul at Sunset, pp. 15, 182; and Hanley, Drinkers, p. 119. 28. Bates, Jacaranda Tree, p. 245. 29. Hanley, Consul at Sunset, pp. 144, 254. 30. For examples, see Bates, Jacaranda Tree, p. 123; Masters, Bhowani Junction, p. 144; Greene, Heart of the Matter, pp. 5, 25, 30; and Wilson, ‘Union Reunion’, in Wilson, Wrong Set, pp. 29, 30, 33. 31. Scott, Johnnie Sahib, new edn (1952; St Albans and London: Panther Books, 1979), pp. 9, 10. 32. Scott, The Alien Sky, new edn (1958; St Albans: Panther Books, 1974), p. 62; Scott, The Birds of Paradise, new edn (1962; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), p. 258; Scott, The Jewel in the Crown, new edn (1966; London: Panther Books, 1973), p. 303. For other examples of Scott’s imperial nostalgia, as well as of his treatment of independence movements, see Scott, Birds, pp. 108, 149, 175–9, 195–9, 240; Scott, Alien Sky, pp. 12, 31, 64–5, 142; Scott, , new edn (1977; St Albans and London: Panther Books, 1978), pp. 12, 96–8, 170–1; Scott, The Day of the Scorpion, new edn (1968; London: Panther Books, 1973), p. 11; Scott, Bender, p. 58; and Scott, Male Child, p. 185. 33. Scott, Staying On, p. 30. Scott admitted in the 1960s that, despite misgivings about Powellism, ‘India always did, still does and probably always will bring out the Enoch in me’ (quoted in Schwarz, ‘Introduction’, p. 23). Notes 279

34. Quoted in Andrew Biswell, The Real Life of Anthony Burgess, new edn (2005; London: Picador, 2006), p. 169. 35. Quoted in ibid., p. 153. As Burgess points out, although the people of Malaya welcome communism, Sillitoe’s novel shows ‘practically nothing of these people; it is as though the whole land – with the exception of a Chinese prostitute and a rickshaw driver or two – were bare except for the working- class lads and their not very efficient officers’ (Burgess, The Novel To- Day (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1963), p. 39). For evidence, see Sillitoe, Key to the Door (London: W.H. Allen, 1961), pp. 227–40; and Sillitoe, Lost Flying Boat, pp. 20–2. 36. Masters, The Lotus and the Wind, new edn (1953; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1956), p. 11; Kaye, Death in Kenya, new edn (1958; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984), p. 31; Raven, Judas Boy, p. 19; Mackenzie, Thin Ice, new edn (1956; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1959), p. 76; Manning, School for Love, p. 146. For other examples of imperial discourse and nostalgia, see Manning, School for Love, pp. 155–6; Lewis, The Volcanoes above Us, new edn (1957; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1959), p. 7; Kaye, Death in Kenya, pp. 91–3; Burgess, Devil of a State (London: Heinemann, 1961), p. 227; Hanley, Drinkers, pp. 32–3, 108, 162–3; Hanley, Journey Homeward, p. 71; Raven, Judas Boy, pp. 22–3, 68–9, 85; Raven, Feathers of Death, pp. 36, 70–1; Greene, ‘The Blue Film’, in Greene, Twenty- One Stories, pp. 30–4; Greene, The Quiet American, new edn (1955; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), pp. 37, 88, 104; and Greene, A Burnt-Out Case (London: Heinemann, 1961), pp. 48–9, 63. Fears were aggravated not only by the left- wing sentiments of anti- imperial nationalism, but also by the nationalist ability to mount effective resistance: as one of Golding’s characters says, ‘[t]ime was, you used not to get wounded or captured. Nigs had a decent sense of who was who. Now you get shot’ (Golding, Darkness, p. 153). 37. See Scott, Birds, pp. 14–16, 18; Golding, Lord of the Flies, pp. 31–2, 202; and Spark, Robinson, new edn (1958; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), pp. 19–20, 87. 38. After a military coup in 1952, Nasser rose to head an anti- imperial government which, by extending trading and diplomatic links to the eastern bloc, convinced MI6 that Egypt was ‘an out-and- out Soviet instrument’ (quoted in Keith Kyle, ‘Britain and the Crisis, 1955–1956’, in Wm. Roger Louis and Roger Owen, eds, Suez 1956: The Crisis and Its Consequences (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), p. 109). 39. White, Decolonisation, p. 29. 40. Tony Shaw, Eden, Suez and the Mass Media: Propaganda and Persuasion during the (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 1996), p. 43. 41. Durrell, Justine, new edn (1957; London: Faber and Faber, 1963), pp. 11, 160; Durrell, Balthazar, new edn (1958; London: Faber and Faber, 1963), p. 19. 42. Kyle, Suez, pp. 14–15. 43. Durrell, Mountolive, pp. 132–3. 44. Durrell, Balthazar, p. 47; Durrell, Mountolive, p. 19; Durrell, Balthazar, p. 87; Durrell, Justine, p. 27. 45. Durrell, Clea, new edn (1960; London: Faber and Faber, 1961), p. 89; Durrell, Balthazar, p. 73; Durrell, Justine, pp. 58, 58. 46. Bowker, Through the Dark Labyrinth: A Biography of Lawrence Durrell, new edn (1996; London: Pimlico, 1998), p. 251. 47. Durrell, Mountolive, p. 94. 48. Ibid., p. 223. Michael Diboll reads the conspiracy as symbolic of the Egyptian Wafd, a popular nationalist movement which, composed of Muslims, Copts and Jews, formed the most powerful voice for Egyptian independence between 1918 280 Notes

and 1945 (see Diboll, Lawrence Durrell’s Alexandria Quartet in Its Egyptian Contexts (Lewiston, Queenston, Lampeter: The Edwin Mellen Press, 2004), pp. 185–97). 49. Keen, Romances of the Archive in Contemporary British Fiction (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2001), p. 16. Some support for Keen is offered by Bradbury, who calls the Suez Crisis ‘the great historical moment when the British Empire ended’ and who claims to ‘belong … to a generation fascinated by the year 1956’ (Bradbury, Unsent Letters, p. 90; Bradbury, ‘Introduction’ to Bradbury, After Dinner Game, p. 16). 50. For examples, see Amis and Conquest, Egyptologists, p. 75; Raven, Brother Cain, p. 121; Taylor, Mrs Palfrey, p. 81; Lively, Road to Lichfield, p. 91; Lively, Moon Tiger, pp. 171–2; Priestley, Magicians, p. 210; Alan Sillitoe, The Widower’s Son (London: W.H. Allen, 1976), pp. 280–1; Waterhouse, ‘Stoats and Weasels’, in Waterhouse, Rhubarb, p. 89; Wilson, Setting the World, p. 110; Barnes Metroland, p. 77; Sam Selvon, ‘Calypso in London’, in Selvon, Ways of Sunlight, new edn (1957; Harlow: Longman, 1987), pp. 115, 117; and Drabble, Middle Ground, p. 45. It should be said that denigration of Egypt pre- dated the crisis. For example, see D.J. Enright, Academic Year, new edn (1955; Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), pp. 21, 157); P.H. Newby, The Picnic at Sakkara (London: Jonathan Cape, 1955), p. 95; Durrell, Dark Labyrinth, p. 60; Waugh, Officers and Gentlemen, p. 124; and Robert Liddell, Unreal City, new edn (1952; London and Chester Springs PA: Peter Owen, 1993), pp. 186, 69. 51. Newby, Kith, p. 1; Newby, Revolution, p. 208. Elsewhere in his work, Egypt is summed up as ‘heat, sand, violence’, as ‘a murk of rubbish, tombs and minarets’ and as ‘a stinking country’ with ‘a crazy, treacherous people’ (Newby, Revolution, p. 211; Newby, Guest and His Going, p. 69; Newby, Something to Answer For (London: Faber and Faber, 1968), pp. 130, 132). 52. Waugh, Gilbert Pinfold, p. 141; Thomas, The World’s Game (London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, 1957), p. 237; Fitz Gibbon, When the Kissing, p. 10. 53. Fowles, Daniel Martin, pp. 494, 495. For other examples from the 1970s and 1980s, see William Golding, ‘Egypt from My Outside’, in Golding, Moving Target, p. 58; William Golding, An Egyptian Journal (London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1985), p. 143; Joseph Hone, The Private Sector (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1971), p. 166; Denis Pitts, The Predator (London: Robert Hale, 1977), pp. 43, 21; Durrell, Sebastian, p. 98; Durrell, Monsieur, p. 96; Durrell, Livia, p. 224; Raven, Bring Forth the Body, pp. 100, 209; Raven, Sound the Retreat, pp. 19–27; Raven, Rich Pay Late, pp. 105–6, 191, 229, 234–5; and Raven, Friends, pp. 34, 196. 54. Manning, Danger Tree, in Manning, Levant Trilogy, p. 24; Durrell, Constance, p. 10. 55. Rick Rylance, ‘1956, Suez and Sloane Square: Empire’s Ebb and Flow’, in McHale and Stevenson, eds, Edinburgh Companion, p. 137. In a 1958 novel by Claude Durrell, Egypt was still being termed one of the ‘far- flung outposts of the Empire’ (Claude [Durrell], The Rum Go (London: Faber and Faber, 1958), p. 17). 56. See Powell, Question of Upbringing, pp. 23, 55; Powell, The Acceptance World, new edn (1955; London: Fontana Books, 1967), p. 16; Powell, Casanova’s Chinese Restaurant, pp. 60, 72; and Powell, Military Philosophers, pp. 100, 243. 57. For example, see Cooper, Metropolitan Life, pp. 64–5; Orton and Halliwell, Boy Hairdresser, pp. 191–2; Andrew Sinclair, The Breaking of Bumbo, new edn (1959; London: Faber and Faber, 1985), p. 46; Barstow, ‘The Years Between’, in Barstow, Desperadoes, p. 178; Spark, Girls, p. 10; Tennant, Wedding, pp. 66–7; Amis, I Like It, p. 46; Ballard, Atrocity Exhibition, pp. 12, 109; Winterson, Oranges, p. 92; Drabble, Notes 281

Middle Ground, pp. 14, 48–9; Spark, Territorial Rights, p. 208; and Amis, Other People, p. 130. These allusions are often fearful or negative: for example, see Raven, Doctors, pp. 174–5; Jameson, Intruder, pp. 22, 114; Barstow, ‘The Assailants’, in Barstow, Season with Eros, p. 184; Barlow, Hour of Maximum Danger, pp. 265–6; Amis, Girl, pp. 17–19, 56; and Ballard, Crystal World, pp. 12, 30. 58. See Drabble, Needle’s Eye, pp. 83–4; Drabble, Middle Ground, p. 173; Mitford, Don’t Tell Alfred, p. 189; Fowles, Magus, p. 188; Mitford, Pursuit of Love, p. 64; Powell, Hearing Secret Harmonies, p. 177; Spark, Memento Mori, p. 23; and Taylor, Mrs Palfrey, pp. 2–3. 59. Dunn, Talking to Women, p. 176. See Winterson, Sexing the Cherry, pp. 11–13; Brookner, Providence, new edn (1982; New York: E.P. Dutton, 1985), p. 87; Weldon, Puffball, pp. 238, 267; Byatt, The Game, new edn (1967; London: Vintage, 1992), p. 237; Murdoch, Severed Head, p. 7; and Murdoch, Unofficial Rose, p. 37. For simi- lar examples in male fiction, see Amis, Jake’s Thing, p. 21; Carr, Harpole Report, p. 160; Lodge, Picturegoers, p. 45; Wilson, ‘A Visit in Bad Taste’, in Wilson, Wrong Set, pp. 124–5; Bertrand Russell, ‘Satan in the Suburbs’, in Russell, Satan in the Suburbs and Other Stories (London: Bodley Head, 1953), pp. 34–8; Scott, Corrida, pp. 13, 16; and Frayn, End of the Morning, pp. 194, 199–203. 60. Johnson, An Impossible Marriage, new edn (1954; London: Robin Clark, 1990), p. 60; Larkin, Girl in Winter, p. 169; Mackenzie, Hunting the Fairies, pp. 88–9; Mitford, Love in a Cold Climate, p. 277; Pym, Less Than Angels, new edn (1955; London: Virago, 2010), pp. 16–17; Powell, At Lady Molly’s, new edn (1957; London: Fontana Books, 1969), p. 6; Wilson, ‘What Do Hippos Eat?’, in Wilson, Darling Dodos, pp. 178–83; Waugh, Men at Arms, pp. 128–9; Carr, Harpole Report, pp. 105–7; Drabble, Needle’s Eye, pp. 114–16; West, ‘Only Poet’, p. 307; Bailey, Trespasses, p. 83; Brookner, Look at Me, pp. 28, 33, 56; Lively, According to Mark, p. 177; Tremain, ‘Colonel’s Daughter, p. 23; and Amis, Ending Up, p. 72. 61. Taylor, Mrs Palfrey, p. 96; Penelope Lively, Oleander, Jacaranda: A Childhood Perceived, new edn (1994; London: Penguin, 1995), p. 13; Durrell, Constance, p. 16. See also Bates, Jacaranda Tree, p. 240; Laurie Lee, Cider with Rosie, new edn (1959; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), p. 183; Unsworth, Rage of the Vulture, pp. 107–9; Murdoch, Italian Girl, p. 16; William Golding, The Pyramid, new edn (1967; London: Faber and Faber, 1969), pp. 22–3; and Golding, ‘Headmasters’, in Golding, Hot Gates, p. 120. At times, imperial nostalgia is mocked: see Bradbury, ‘Love on a Gunboat’, p. 97; Gee, Grace, p. 90; and Farrell, Girl, p. 87. 62. Lee, Cider, p. 102; Larkin, Girl in Winter, p. 96; John Berger, The Foot of Clive, new edn (1962; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), p. 9; Gee, Grace, p. 90; McEwan, ‘Jack Flea’s Birthday Celebration’, in McEwan, Imitation Game, pp. 26, 26; Hartley, Eustace, p. 266. See also Rebecca West, This Real Night, new edn (1984; London: Virago, 1987), pp. 184, 187; West, Cousin Rosamund, p. 3; David Storey, Flight into Camden, new edn (1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), p. 154; Tennant, Wild Nights, p. 45; Sillitoe, Widower’s Son, p. 46; Wilson, Old Men, p. 254; A.S. Byatt, The Virgin in the Garden, new edn (1978; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981), pp. 9, 237–41; L.P. Hartley, The Shrimp and the Anemone, new edn (1944; London: Faber and Faber, 1963), pp. 18, 99; Anthony Powell, O, How the Wheel Becomes It!, new edn (1983; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1984), p. 22; Amis, Alteration, p. 12; and Winterson, Oranges, pp. 4–5, 34, 170–1. 63. Lively, Going Back, pp. 21–2. See also Amis, Take a Girl, p. 177; Frayn, End of the Morning, p. 9; and Penelope Fitzgerald, At Freddie’s, new edn (1982; London: Flamingo, 1989), p. 39. 282 Notes

64. Taylor, Game, p. 104; Amis, Ending Up, p. 72; Barstow, Joby, p. 118; Heppenstall, Watershed, p. 62; Powell, Kindly Ones, p. 63. 65. Greene, Ways of Escape, pp. 50–3; Golding, ‘Fable’, in Golding, Hot Gates, pp. 88–9. Criticisms are occasionally made of imperialist writings: see Hanley, Journey Homeward, pp. 13–14; Burgess, Beds in the East, in Burgess, Malayan Trilogy, p. 580; Scott, Birds, p. 98; Greene, Heart of the Matter, pp. 129–31; and Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, , new edn (1975; London: Futura, 1976), pp. 170–1. 66. See Spark, Curriculum Vitae, p. 28; Carter, ‘England, Whose England?’, in Carter, Nothing Sacred, p. 60; and Carter, ‘The Mother Lode’, in Carter, Nothing Sacred, p. 10. 67. Sillitoe, Mountains, p. 56. 68. See Spark, Curriculum Vitae, p. 125; Lively, Oleander, p. 66; and Manning, Danger Tree, pp. 34–5. 69. Lively, Oleander, pp. 18–19. 70. Ibid., pp. 18, 19. 71. Ibid., pp. 83, 130. 72. Lively, Judgement Day, p. 64. 73. Johnson, Impossible Marriage, p. 24; Isherwood, Prater Violet, p. 50; Powell, Soldier’s Art, p. 5; Brookner, Latecomers, p. 136; West, Cousin Rosamund, pp. 273, 282; Taylor, Sleeping Beauty, p. 78. 74. Cooper, Married Life, p. 175; West, Cousin Rosamund, p. 230; Lynne Reid Banks, The Backward Shadow, new edn (1970; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1972), p. 15; McIlvanney, Remedy, p. 135; Barnes, Flaubert’s Parrot, p. 85. 75. Murdoch, Unofficial Rose, p. 183. For other examples of orientalist metaphor and cliché, see Murdoch, Unofficial Rose, p. 118; Murdoch, Bell, p. 197; Murdoch, Unicorn, p. 95; Penelope Fitzgerald, , new edn (1980; London: Flamingo, 1988), p. 7; Barstow, Ask Me Tomorrow, p. 107; Anita Brookner, , new edn (1984; London: Triad/Panther, 1985), pp. 56, 59; Hartley, Hireling, p. 170; Hartley, Sixth Heaven, p. 171; Angela Carter, (London: Victor Gollancz, 1977), p. 28; Powell, Military Philosophers, p. 152; Johnson, Unspeakable Skipton, p. 190; Weldon, Little Sisters, p. 115; Raven, Friends, p. 32; Priestley, Magicians, p. 20; Durrell, Quinx, p. 53; and Manning, The Great Fortune, in Manning, Balkan Trilogy, p. 202. 76. Amis, Lucky Jim, pp. 12, 166; Amis, Folks That Live, p. 147. 77. Ballard, Drought, p. 163; Boyd, Stars and Bars, p. 326; Durrell, Sebastian, p. 140. 78. Durrell, Livia, p. 182; Pym, No Fond Return, p. 252; Carter, Shadow Dance, p. 4; Isherwood, Down There, p. 222; Pamela Hansford Johnson, Night and Silence Who Is Here?, new edn (1963; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), p. 243. For other examples, see Isherwood, World in the Evening, p. 169; Mackenzie, Hunting, p. 293; J.B. Priestley, [etc], new edn (1965; London: Grafton Books, 1980), p. 216; West, Fountain Overflows, p. 235; Jameson, Short Interval, pp. 152, 205; Powell, Acceptance World, p. 14; Spark, Far Cry, p. 15; Amis, Rachel Papers, p. 36; Larkin, Jill, p. 73; Pym, Jane, pp. 95, 119, 226; Ballard, ‘Now: Zero’, in Ballard, Complete Short Stories, p. 99; Alan Sillitoe, ‘The Second Chance’, in Sillitoe, The Second Chance (London: Jonathan Cape, 1981), p. 51; and C.P. Snow, The Conscience of the Rich, new edn (1958; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1961), p. 58. 79. Boehmer, ‘Afterword’, p. 239. 80. By this stage, authors occasionally expressed weariness with the imperial theme: for example, see Barnes, Flaubert’s Parrot, p. 99; and Anita Brookner, A Start in Life, new edn (1983; London: Triad Grafton Books, 1985), p. 41. Notes 283

81. Bradbury, Cuts, p. 26. 82. Hanley, Consul, p. 252. See Burgess, MF, pp. 163, 195; Greene, Honorary Consul, pp. 19, 109; Manning, The Rain Forest, new edn (1974; London: Penguin, 1977), pp. 32–3, 181–2, 266; Drabble, Realms of Gold, p. 11; Ballard, Day of Creation, pp. 15–16, 20; Chatwin, Viceroy, pp. 22, 126. Simon Raven’s work during détente was distinct in its continued focus on the history and legacy of British rule, as seen in his descriptions of Cyprus in The Judas Boy (1968) and India in Sound the Retreat (1974). 83. See, for example, Boyd, Good Man, pp. 160, 293–5; Boyd, ‘Next Boat from Douala’, in Boyd, Yankee Station, pp. 74–6; Boyd, ‘The Coup’, in Boyd, Yankee Station, pp. 195–6; Boyd, Ice-Cream War, p. 245; and Boyd, Brazzaville Beach, pp. 326–7. 84. Amis, ‘Gloria Steinem and the Feminist Utopia’, in Amis, Moronic Inferno, p. 140; Rubens, Our Father, p. 43; Lively, Treasures, p. 32. See also Williams, Second Generation, p. 115; John Wain, ‘Further Education’, in Wain, Death of the Hind Legs and Other Stories, new edn (1966; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), pp. 94, 108, 119; Storey, Temporary Life, pp. 55, 131; Kelman, Disaffection, p. 296; Byatt, Game, pp. 87–90; Tremain, Cupboard, p. 85; Spark, Territorial Rights, p. 208; Berger, Painter, p. 85; Drabble, Jerusalem, p. 146; and Weldon, Female Friends, p. 101. 85. Farrell, Singapore, p. 42; Farrell, , new edn (1973; London: Phoenix, 2007), p. 225. For examples of Farrell and Golding’s critique or satire of empire, see Farrell, Singapore, pp. 47, 136, 156–7, 216, 479; Farrell, Siege, pp. 159, 193, 285, 313; Farrell, , new edn (1970; London: Phoenix, 1993), pp. 156–7; Golding, Rites of Passage, pp. 28, 60, 123; Golding Close Quarters, new edn (1987; London: Faber and Faber, 1988), p. 9; and Golding, Fire Down Below, pp. 98, 221, 261, 305. 86. For examples of how indigenous populations are reduced to background pres- ences, see Farrell, Siege, p. 137; Farrell, Singapore, p. 10; Farrell, The Hill Station: An Unfinished Novel and An Indian Diary, ed. by John Spurling, new edn (1981; London: Fontana/Collins, 1982), pp. 33, 37; and Golding, Fire Down Below, pp. 294, 298, 303. The lack of sympathy for anti- imperial nationalism could even appear in metropolitan narratives: for example, see Drabble, Realms of Gold, pp. 94, 62, 62. 87. Quoted in McMahon, Cold War, p. 69. 88. Banks, Defy the Wilderness, p. 14. 89. Alongside insisting that ‘the Arab guerrillas were fanatics’, Banks suggests that, before the Jewish influx, Palestine was a ‘wilderness’ with ‘[n]o orchards, no husbandry, no thought for the future”’ (Banks, One More River, new edn (1973; Harmondsworth: Puffin, 1980), p. 125); Banks, Defy the Wilderness, p. 179. 90. See Spark, Driver’s Seat, p. 64; Lively, Perfect Happiness, pp. 38–9; Barnes, ‘The Visitors’, in Barnes, History, pp. 40–58; Thomas, Summit, pp. 76–8; Drabble, Middle Ground, p. 84; Weldon, ‘Holy Stones’, in Weldon, Watching Me, p. 95; Amis, Alteration, pp. 42–3; and Burgess, 1985, pp. 205–6. See also Amis, Old Devils, p. 98; Sillitoe, Life Goes On, pp. 65, 326, 351; and Drabble, Ice Age, pp. 61, 128. 91. Barnes, ‘Visitors’, p. 40; Newby, Picnic, p. 229. 92. Head, Modern British Fiction, p. 18. 93. Snow, Corridors of Power, p. 126. 94. See Wilson, ‘More Friend Than Lodger’, in Wilson, Bit off the Map, p. 55; Sinclair, Breaking of Bumbo, p. 144; Johnson, Survival, pp. 358–9; Snow, Corridors, pp. 109–21; Weldon, Down Among the Women, p. 132; Cooper, Right Frame, p. 128; Bradbury, ‘Love on a Gunboat’, in Bradbury, After Dinner Game, pp. 85, 120, 284 Notes

126–7, 132; Tremain, Cupboard, p. 226; Lively, Moon Tiger, p. 116; Ishiguro, Remains of the Day, p. 188; and McEwan, ‘Introduction’, in Move Abroad, pp. 27–9. The novels were critical of what authors’ termed ‘the Suez farce’, ‘the Suez débâcle’, ‘the tragedy of Suez’ and ‘the disaster of Anthony Eden’ (Fowles, Daniel Martin, p. 170; Enright, Memoirs, p. 69; Golding, ‘Headmasters’, p. 120; Tennant, Wedding, p. 82). 95. See Spark, ‘The Go- Away Bird’, in Spark, Go- Away Bird, pp. 71–124; Spark, ‘The Portobello Road’, in Spark, Go-Away Bird, pp. 164–89; Forster, ‘Other Boat’, pp. 202–34; Lytton, Goddam White Man, pp. 39, 118, 153–4, 183; Berger, G., pp. 107–17; Williams, Second Generation, pp. 310–23; Unsworth, Sugar, pp. 41–2, 87–8; Sillitoe, Death, pp. 245–6, 253–62; and Sillitoe, Tree on Fire, pp. 131–3, 303–7, 333. The fact that most anti- imperialism came from the political left is further evidenced elsewhere: see Brophy, Hackenfeller’s Ape, p. 49; Taylor, Game, p. 231; Mitchell, Bodyguard, pp. 125–43; Snow, Affair, p. 75; Lindsay, Betrayed Spring, p. 162; Smith, Morning, pp. 90–9, 129–30; Doherty, Miner’s Sons, p. 124; and Isherwood, Meeting, p. 47. 96. Unsworth, Sugar and Rum, p. 42. 97. On the symbolic status of the SS Empire Windrush, see Robert Winder, Bloody Foreigners: The Story of Immigration to Britain, new edn (2004; London: Abacus, 2005), pp. 347–8. 98. Of the 20,000 black and Asian people living in Britain in 1918, many became involved in inter- war organisations dedicated to opposing racial discrimination and imperialism: see C.L. Innes, A History of Black and Asian Writing in Britain, new edn (2002; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008), p. 167. 99. As Randall Hansen remarks, Britain’s Nationality Act showed an ‘exceptional liberality and expansiveness between 1948 and 1962 (when some 800,000,000 individuals enjoyed the right to enter the UK)’ (Hansen, Citizenship and Immigration in Post- War Britain: The Institutional Origins of a Multicultural Nation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. v. 100. Zig Layton- Henry, The Politics of Immigration: Immigration, ‘Race’ and ‘Race’ Relations in Post- War Britain (Oxford and Cambridge MA: Blackwell, 1992), p. 9. 101. Between 1946 and 1953, some 228,000 Europeans entered the country, around the same number as West Indians: the figure includes the 145,000 displaced Poles who arrived in 1945, over 70,000 Cypriots who came during the 1950s and early 1960s and 22,000 Hungarians who were displaced in 1956 (see Panikos Panayi, An Immigration History of Britain: Multicultural Racism since 1800 (Harlow: Longman, 2010), pp. 60, 43, 41). 102. Webster, Englishness, pp. 160, 152. 103. See ibid., pp. 172–3. 104. In 1955, the Tories toyed with the idea of using ‘Keep Britain White’ as an electoral slogan and, in 1964, a Tory candidate, Peter Griffiths, achieved a massive swing in the Smethwick election with the help of an openly racist slogan: ‘If you want a nigger neighbour, vote Labour’ (see Layton- Henry, Politics of Immigration, p. 77). 105. Quoted in ibid., pp. 139, 139; and Webster, Englishness, p. 180. ‘As I look ahead I am filled with foreboding’, he went on: ‘Like the Roman, I seem to see “the River Tiber foaming with much blood!”’ (Layton- Henry, Politics of Immigration, p. 81). 106. Quoted in Panayi, Immigration History, pp. 234–5. Kureishi’s discussion of rac- ism in the Labour Party gives a sense of the consensual politics of the times: see Kureishi, ‘The Rainbow Sign’, in Kureishi, Dreaming and Scheming, pp. 49–50. Notes 285

107. Bailey, Old Soldiers, p. 68. 108. Amongst numerous examples, see Frayn, Sweet Dreams, p. 14; Fitzgerald, At Freddie’s, p. 81; Waterhouse, Happy Land, p. 10; Cooper, Later Life, pp. 45–58, 67, 227–9; Bailey, Trespasses, p. 171; Lively, According to Mark, p. 58; Raymond Williams, Border Country, new edn (1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1964), p. 9; Isherwood, Single Man, p. 111; Pym, Sweet Dove, pp. 15–16; and Pym, No Fond Return, p. 155. 109. Brookner, Look at Me, p. 146; Amis and Conquest, Egyptologists, p. 142; Larkin, Jill, p. 155; Golding, Darkness Visible, p. 202. For further examples, see Barstow, ‘The Search for Tommy Flynn’, in Barstow, Desperadoes, p. 154; Ballard, Concrete Island, p. 12; Ackroyd, Hawksmoor, p. 32; Johnson, Humbler Creation, pp. 147–8, 168; Hines, Looks and Smiles, p. 177; Unsworth, Stone Virgin, p. 226; Naughton, Alfie, p. 33; Lively, Perfect Happiness, p. 182; Murdoch, Nice and the Good, p. 235; Cooper, Metropolitan Life, p. 52; Beryl Bainbridge, Young Adolf (London: Duckworth, 1978), p. 128; Dennis Potter, Ticket to Ride, new edn (1986; London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1987), p. 53; Spark, Jean Brodie, p. 29; and Drabble, Millstone, p. 37. 110. Barstow, Ask Me Tomorrow, p. 80. As a second example, Frayn’s Towards the End of the Morning (1967) satirises the ‘tight little world’ of white race- relations experts, particularly the kind of TV discussion shows which feel obliged to include ‘someone coloured, of course’, yet the author fails to admit even a token black character into the text (Frayn, End of the Morning, pp. 140, 51). 111. Scott, Bender, p. 184; Waterhouse, Billy Liar, p. 43; Amis, The Riverside Villas Murder, new edn (1973; St Albans: Panther Books, 1974), p. 24; Drabble, Middle Ground, p. 220. 112. Powell, Casanova’s Chinese Restaurant, p. 33; Lee, Cider, p. 156; Jameson, Road, pp. 181, 206. For other examples of non- white characters being mocked, dehumanised or sexualised, see Spark, Comforters, p. 49; Waugh, Unconditional Surrender, p. 83; Bainbridge, Injury Time, p. 41; Burgess, Enderby Outside, in Burgess, Enderby, p. 214; Burgess, Doctor, pp. 52–5; Byatt, Game, pp. 128–30; Kingsley Amis, Difficulties with Girls, new edn (1988; London: Penguin, 1989), pp. 157–8; Thomas, Flute- Player, p. 24; Thomas, Birthstone, p. 113; Powell, Buyer’s Market, pp. 159–60; Drabble, Middle Ground, pp. 260–1; and Powell, Valley of Bones, p. 139. 113. Hartley, Shrimp, p. 130; Carr, Month, p. 17; Snow, Homecomings, p. 195, Bailey, Trespasses, p. 34; Taylor, Game, p. 168; Barstow, Kind of Loving, p. 78. See also Sillitoe, Widower’s Son, p. 216; Lively, Judgement Day, p. 150; Braine, Two of Us, p. 169; Paul Bailey, At the Jerusalem, new edn (1967; London: Penguin, 1982), p. 49; Burgess, Doctor, p. 164; Burgess, Honey, p. 72; Amis, Success, p. 20; Lodge, Picturegoers, p. 82; and Waterhouse, Jubb, p. 12. 114. Durrell, Monsieur, p. 22; Barstow, Kind of Loving, p. 79; Barstow, Right True End, p. 130. Kingsley Amis’s lament ‘that you had to be twice as nice to Negroes and Jews and Indians and so on whatever they were like’ was repeated in Raven’s complaint that ‘nowadays we are not allowed to be told anything nasty about blacks’ (Amis, ‘All the Blood within Me’, in Amis, Collected Short Stories, p. 125; Raven, Image of God, p. 156). 115. Lee, ‘Changing the Script: Sex, Lies and Videotapes in Hanif Kureishi, David Dabydeen and Mike Phillips’, in Lee, ed., Other Britain, p. 74. 116. At times, European immigrants in the workplace are also viewed negatively: see Bailey, Old Soldiers, p. 29; Amis, Green Man, pp. 9–10, 37, 67, 87; Braine, Stay 286 Notes

with Me, pp. 94–5; Jameson, There Will Be, p. 53; and Beryl Bainbridge, The Bottle Factory Outing, new edn (1974; London: Fontana/Collins, 1975), pp. 63, 89, 112, 145. 117. Braine, Life at the Top, p. 165; Braine, Jealous God, p. 117. 118. Bradbury, ‘Who Do You Think You Are’, in Bradbury, Who Do You Think, pp. 39–40; Pym, Few Green Leaves, p. 22; Frayn, Trick of It, p. 44. 119. Wain, Smaller Sky, p. 52. 120. Newby, Guest and His Going, pp. 135, 50. 121. Brookner, Look at Me, p. 168; Bailey, Old Soldiers, p. 66, Barnes, Flaubert’s Parrot, p. 11. 122. Amis, Difficulties, p. 91. 123. Amis, Success, pp. 42, 197. Similar problems occur with Fay Weldon’s self- reflexive first- person narrators: see Weldon, Shrapnel Academy, pp. 38, 141, 54; and Weldon, Darcy’s Utopia, p. 118. 124. MacInnes, ‘A Short Guide for Jumbles (To the Life of Their Coloured Brethren in England)’, in MacInnes, England, p. 2. 125. MacInnes, Absolute Beginners, pp. 147, 40, 11. 126. Ibid., p. 198. The narrator aligns himself against the British Empire: for example, he wishes that the country ‘stopped playing and the Great Armada when there’s no tin soldiers left to play with’ and is content that, in the Cold War, ‘her position is that she hasn’t found her position’, a take on Dean Acheson’s more critical comment that ‘Great Britain has lost an Empire and has not yet found a role’ (ibid., pp. 26, 27; Acheson quoted in John W. Young, Britain and the World in the Twentieth Century (London and New York: Arnold, 1997), p. 168). 127. Another example of inconsistency in MacInnes’s fiction is the absence of aboriginal peoples in his Australian novels, June in Her Spring (1952) and All Day Saturday (1966), despite the fact that he condemned their treatment by European settlers (see ‘Sidney Nolan: The Search for an Australian Myth’, in MacInnes, England, pp. 191–2). 128. MacInnes, ‘Welcome, Beauty Walk’, in MacInnes, England, p. 83; MacInnes, Absolute Beginners, p. 15. The phrase ‘mass exploration in reverse’ was echoed in what Louise Bennett called ‘colonisation in reverse’ and what Selvon called the ‘black adventurers’ (Bennett, ‘Colonisation in Reverse’, in James Procter, ed., Writing Black Britain 1948–1998: An Interdisciplinary Anthology (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2000), pp. 16–17; Selvon, Moses Migrating, p. 18). 129. See MacInnes, ‘Taste of Reality’, p. 204. 130. Wain, Strike the Father Dead, p. 141; Wain, Smaller Sky, p. 31. 131. Banks, The L- Shaped Room, new edn (1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1962), p. 43; Banks, Backward Shadow, p. 232; Banks, Two Is Lonely, p. 29. 132. See Taylor, ‘The Devastating Boys’, in Taylor, The Devastating Boys, new edn (1972; London: Virago, 1984), pp. 9–33; Murdoch, Time of the Angels, p. 223; Weldon, Fat Woman’s Joke, pp. 52, 77–9; Drabble, Waterfall, p. 17; Drabble, Needle’s Eye, pp. 172–3; and Nell Dunn, Tear His Head off His Shoulders, new edn (1974; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), pp. 22, 59. See also Barker, Union Street, pp. 81–4; Barker, Blow Your House, pp. 38–9; Gee, Dying, p. 88; Lively, Treasures, pp. 100–2; Weldon, Remember Me, pp. 64, 109–12; Banks Warning Bell, pp. 278–9; and Dunn, Junction, pp. 43, 46, 104–7. Taylor’s ‘The Devastating Boys’ and MacInnes’s Absolute Beginners are the only pieces of white- authored Notes 287

fiction reprinted in Onyekachi Wambu’s edited Empire Windrush: Fifty Years of Writing about Black Britain (1998). 133. Carter, ‘Industry as Artwork’, in Carter, Nothing Sacred, p. 63. See also Lively, Treasures of Time, p. 106; and Tennant, Wedding of Cousins, pp. 116, 129. 134. See Sillitoe, Saturday Night, pp. 166–75; Sillitoe, ‘The Magic Box’, in Sillitoe, Ragman’s Daughter, pp. 74–5; Sillitoe, Life Goes On, p. 88; Bailey, Old Soldiers, pp. 67–70; B.S. Johnson, Albert Angelo, in Johnson, Omnibus: Albert Angelo, Trawl, House Mother Normal, new edn (1964, 1966, 1971; London: Picador, 2004), pp. 54, 97–8, 123, 132; Greene, Travels, pp. 17–24, 163–8; Golding, Darkness Visible, pp. 67, 218; Waterhouse, Jubb, pp. 44–5, 206; Waterhouse, ‘Now We Have Yam On It’, in Waterhouse, Rubarb, pp. 71–3; and Lodge, Nice Work, pp. 32, 99–101. 135. Enright, Academic Year, p. 13. 136. Manning, Sum of Things, pp. 513–14; Newby, Guest and His Going, p. 147. 137. Berger, G., p. 247. 138. Unsworth, Sugar and Rum, p. 123. 139. Coe, Touch of Love, p. 98. 140. Ibid., p. 114; Lazarus, ‘National Consciousness and the Specificity of (Post)Colonial Intellectualism’, in Francis Barker, Peter Hulme and Margaret Iversen, eds, Colonial Discourse/Postcolonial Theory (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 1994), p. 197. 141. Quoted in Lee, ‘Changing the Script’, p. 74. 142. Bradbury, Eating People, pp. 31, 43. 143. Bradbury, Unsent Letters, p. 42; Lodge, British Museum, p. 45. Similarly, Wilson criticises the ‘ high- minded generalizing mist into which Indian and Pakistani thought had evaporated’, a factor which ‘prevents them from making a contribu- tion to discussion commensurate with their world importance’ (Wilson, ‘Some Japanese Observations’, in Wilson, Reflections, pp. 16, 15). An Indian student in Drabble’s The Millstone, who is receiving tuition for a Cambridge entrance exam, not only ‘had no more hope of getting in than a child of ten’ but is also criti- cised for sartorial inelegance, his ‘gold teeth and … dark brown suit’ causing his English tutor ‘despair at the sight of him’ (Drabble, Millstone, pp. 51, 50). A more sympathetic approach is taken in Drabble’s The Needle’s Eye, where the prejudices of British institutions are exposed: see Drabble, Needle’s Eye, pp. 145–7. 144. Raven, Image of God, p. 111; Durrell, Livia, p. 205. 145. For examples of Pym’s ethnocentrism, see Pym, Some Tame Gazelle, new edn (1950; St Albans and London: Granada, 1981), pp. 116, 180; Pym, Jane, p. 142; and Pym, Less Than Angels, pp. 10, 23, 238–45. 146. Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington, new edn (1961; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1967), p. 252; Ngu˜gı˜, Writers in Politics: Essays (London: Heinemann, 1981), p. 123; Césaire, ‘From Discourse on Colonialism’, in Bart Moore- Gilbert, Gareth Stanton and Willy Maley, eds, Postcolonial Criticism (London and New York: Longman, 1997), p. 82. 147. See Anderson, ‘Exodus’, Critical Inquiry, Vol. 20, No. 2 (1994), p. 321. 148. See Catherine Hall, ‘Introduction: Thinking the Postcolonial, Thinking the Empire’, in Hall, ed., Cultures of Empire: Colonizers in Britain and the Empire in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), p. 5. 149. For a censure of this focus, see Ahmad, Theory, p. 93; and McClintock, ‘The Angel of Progress: Pitfalls of the Term “Postcolonialism”’, in Barker, et al, eds, Colonial Discourse, p. 258. 288 Notes

150. See Louis James, ‘The Disturbing Vision of George Lamming’, in Lee, ed., Other Britain, p. 35. 151. In Salkey’s The Adventures of Catullus Kelly (1969), the ‘New World Section’ of a broadcasting company admits that its listeners include very few novelists because ‘[t]hey’re nearly all living in England’ (Salkey, Adventures, p. 38). 152. Lamming, Emigrants, p. 107. 153. Pratt, Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation (London and New York: Routledge, 1992), p. 4. Jhabvala is an interesting exception, retaining an inter- est in the meeting of East and West in post- independence India: see Jhabvala, New Dominion, p. 55; Jhabvala, The Householder, new edn (1960; London: Penguin, 1980), pp. 30, 46; Jhabvala, Stronger Climate, p. 27; and Jhabvala, Heat and Dust, pp. 20–1, 95–6, 139–40. 154. Salkey, Escape to an Autumn Pavement (London: Four Square Books, 1960), pp. 110, 121. 155. Ibid., p. 62. 156. Ibid., pp. 8, 22, 56. 157. For other criticisms of racism, see Sam Selvon, Moses Ascending, new edn (1975; Oxford: Heinemann, 1984), pp. 5–8, 35; Selvon, ‘Johnson and the Cascadura’, in Selvon, Ways of Sunlight, p. 8; Salkey, Adventures, pp. 10–11; Lamming, Castle of My Skin, pp. 289–90; Lamming, Emigrants, pp. 76–7; Emecheta, Rape of Shavi, pp. 50–1; Phillips, Final Passage, pp. 122, 155; Naipaul, Mr Stone, p. 27; Jean Rhys, ‘Pioneers, Oh, Pioneers’, in Rhys, Sleep It Off, pp. 11–22; and Rhys, ‘Let Them Call It Jazz’, in Rhys, Tigers, pp. 47–67. Selvon also directly condemned ‘Enok Power’ and the way ‘he make things rough for black people’ (Selvon, Plains of Caroni, p. 14; and Selvon, Moses Migrating, p. 145). 158. Selvon, Lonely Londoners, p. 97. 159. Ibid., pp. 137, 40, 40, 108. 160. Naipaul, Mimic Men, p. 27; Rushdie, Satanic Verses, p. 49. See also Salkey, Autumn Pavement, pp. 182, 181–2; Lamming, Emigrants, p. 131; Rushdie, Shame, new edn (1983; London: Picador, 1984), pp. 85–8; and Rushdie, Midnight’s Children, new edn (1981; London: Vintage, 1995), pp. 10–12. 161. Quoted in Loomba, Colonialism, p. 185 (Lamming’s italics). 162. Quoted in Edward Said, ‘Reflections on Exile’, Granta, Vol. 13 (1984), p. 159. 163. Ibid., pp. 172, 170. 164. Selvon, Lonely Londoners, p. 110. 165. On the shift from metropolitan ‘English’ to peripheral ‘englishes’, see Bill Ashcroft, Gareth Griffiths and Helen Tiffin, The Empire Writes Back: Theory and Practice in Post- Colonial Literatures (London and New York: Routledge, 1989), p. 8; and John McLeod, ‘Fantasy Relationships: Black British Canons in a Transnational World’, in Gail Low and Marion W ynne- Davies, eds, A Black British Canon? (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2006), p. 104. 166. Quoted in Sandra Courtman, ‘Not Good Enough or Not Man Enough? Beryl Gilroy as the Anomaly in the Evolving “Black British Canon”’, in Low and Wynne- Davies, eds, Black British Canon, pp. 59, 64, 64. 167. Gilroy, Black Teacher (London: Cassell, 1976), p. 1. 168. Ibid., p. 63. 169. Ibid., p. 63. 170. Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, trans. Richard Philcox, new edn (1952; New York: Grove Press, 2008), p. 89. Self- estrangement is further dramatised in The Lonely Londoners, where one of Selvon’s characters, receiving a comment Notes 289

on his black skin, begins to ‘watch the colour of his hand, and talk to it, saying: “Colour, is you that causing all this, you know. Why the hell you can’t be blue, or red or green, if you can’t be white? You know is you that cause a lot of misery in the world”’ (Selvon, Lonely Londoners, p. 88). In an autobiographical essay, Kureishi also talks of how, in his childhood, he ‘tried to deny my Pakistani self’ and how he ‘read with understanding a story in a newspaper about a black boy who, when he noticed that burnt skin turned white, jumped into a bath of boiling water’ (Kureishi, ‘Rainbow Sign’, pp. 25, 26). 171. This unity was not something that novelists were optimistic about: see Sam Selvon, A Brighter Sun, new edn (1952; Trinidad and Jamaica: Longman Caribbean, 1971), p. 188; Selvon, Lonely Londoners, p. 37; Selvon, Moses Ascending, p. 42; Selvon, Moses Migrating, p. 1; Salkey, Escape, pp. 20–1; Salkey, Adventures, pp. 120–1, 124; Lamming, Emigrants, pp. 128–9, 159; and Gilroy, Frangipani House, p. 95. 172. Gilroy, Boy- Sandwich, pp. 1, 2, 2. 173. Loomba, Colonialism, p. 126. 174. Gilroy, Boy- Sandwich, p. 22; Geoffrey Elton quoted in Panayi, Immigration History of Britain, p. 210. For a flavour of postcolonial writers’ commentary on history, see Salkey, Adventures, p. 121; Rushdie, Satanic Verses, p. 343; Lamming, Castle of My Skin, p. 50; and Lamming, Emigrants, pp. 206–7. 175. Gilroy, After Empire: Melancholia or Convivial Culture? (Abingdon: Routledge, 2004), p. 98. 176. Caryl Phillips decries ‘a Eurocentric and selfish history’ that conceals the fact that ‘black people … are an inextricable part of this small continent’ and argues that the latter ‘must dig deep for the evidence of our equally great contribution’ (Phillips, European Tribe, pp. 128, 129, 128). Phillips’s point that white Europeans ‘must learn to understand this for themselves’ is repeated in Kureishi’s conviction that ‘[i]t is the British, the white British, who have to learn that being British isn’t what it was’ (ibid., p. 129; Kureishi, ‘Rainbow Sign’, p. 55). 177. Mike Phillips, ‘Foreword: Migration, Modernity and English Writing – Reflections on Migrant Identity and Canon Formation’, in Low and Wynne- Davies, eds, Black British Canon, p. 28; Phillips, European Tribe, p. 2. 178. For examples of hybrid identities in metropolitan- based narratives, see Salkey, Escape, pp. 41, 131; Salkey, Adventures, pp. 2, 34; Selvon, Moses Ascending, p. 96; Gilroy, Boy- Sandwich, pp. 41–2, 56; Rhys, ‘The Insect World’, in Rhys, Sleep It Off, p. 126; Rhys, ‘Let Them Call It Jazz’, p. 67; Kureishi, ‘Rainbow Sign’, pp. 52–3; Abdulrazak Gurnah, Dottie (London: Jonathan Cape, 1990), pp. 14–24; and Mo, Sour Sweet, pp. 1, 135. 179. Laura Hall, ‘New Nations, New Selves: The Novels of Timothy Mo and Kazuo Ishiguro’, in Lee, ed., Other Britain, p. 92. 180. Quoted in ibid., p. 101; Kureishi, The Buddha of Suburbia (London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1990), p. 3. 181. For examples of British- Jewish writings, see Bernice Rubens’s Madame Sousatzka (1962), (1969) and Spring Sonata (1979), Clive Sinclair’s Bedbugs (1982) and Blood Libels (1985) and the short stories collected in Arnold Wesker’s Six Sundays in January (1971) and Love Letters on Blue Paper (1980). In the autobiographical The Envoy from Mirror City (1985), Janet Frame writes touch- ingly about how, upon first arriving in London, she was ‘much influenced by the West Indian writers and … inadequate in my New Zealand-ness’, and went on to 290 Notes

write and submit poems in a Caribbean vernacular (Frame, The Envoy from Mirror City, new edn (1985; Auckland: Vintage New Zealand, 1991), p. 22). 182. McLeod, ‘Fantasy Relationships’, pp. 102, 103. 183. See Gurnah, Memory of Departure (London: Jonathan Cape, 1987), pp. 7, 43–4; Emecheta, Bride Price, pp. 36–41, 207–8; Harris, Far Journey, pp. 56–8; Jhabvala, Householder, p. 63; and Jhabvala, Heat and Dust, pp. 83, 163–5. For further exam- ples, including treatments of cuisine, language, flora and fauna, see Selvon, ‘The Mango Tree’, in Selvon, Ways of Sunlight, p. 89; Selvon, ‘Obeah in the Grove’, in Selvon, Ways of Sunlight, pp. 155–62; Nichols, Morning Sun, pp. 1–2, 29, 84; Naipaul, Mystic Masseur, pp. 4, 6, 10, 63, 66, 149; Mo, Sour Sweet, pp. 96–7; Selvon, Turn Again Tiger, p. 96; Selvon, Brighter Sun, pp. 20, 37; Ruth Prawer Jhabvala, A Backward Place, new edn (1965; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1980), pp. 88–9; and Gilroy, Frangipani House, pp. 18, 105, 111. 184. See Selvon, ‘Johnson and the Cascadura’, in Selvon, Ways of Sunlight, p. 1; Rhys, ‘Let Them Call It Jazz’, pp. 66–7; Jhabvala, Householder, p. 133; Emecheta, Bride Price, pp. 28–9; and Buchi Emecheta, Double Yoke, new edn (1982; London: Fontana, 1984), p. 77. The analyses of postcolonial societies also revealed the syncretic forms of culture created in the empire’s ‘contact zones’. For example, see Emecheta, Bride Price, p. 101; Emecheta, Double Yoke, p. 130; Lamming, Castle of My Skin, p. 119; Wilson Harris, The Secret Ladder (London: Faber and Faber, 1963), p. 36; Harris, The Whole Armour (London: Faber and Faber, 1962), pp. 19, 108; Selvon, Moses Migrating, p. 87; Selvon, Plains of Caroni, p. 11; Jhabvala, Stronger Climate, p. 38; Rhys, ‘I Used to Live Here Once’, in Rhys, Sleep It Off, pp. 195–6; Naipaul, Bend in the River, p. 17; Naipaul, Hot Country, p. 5; Nichols, Morning Sky, pp. 15, 52; Mo, Monkey King, pp. 3–4; and Caryl Phillips, A State of Independence (London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1986), p. 98. 185. David Spurr, The Rhetoric of Empire: Colonial Discourse in Journalism, Travel Writing, and Imperial Administration (Durham and London: Duke University Press, 1993), p. 89. For example, see Naipaul, Bend in the River, pp. 32, 220–1, 284; Naipaul, Free State, pp. 12, 111–12, 179–80; Naipaul, Guerrillas, pp. 50, 155, 191; Naipaul, Hot Country, pp. 52–5, 60, 168–73, 184–5; Naipaul, The Chip- Chip Gatherers, new edn (1973; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1976), pp. 172, 198–9; and Naipaul, ‘The Illusion of the Third World’, in Naipaul, An Unfinished Journey, new edn (1986; London: Abacus, 1988), pp. 35–6. 186. As Gurnah once commented, ‘I had to write with the knowledge that … I would be representing myself to readers who perhaps saw themselves as the normative, free from culture or ethnicity, free from difference’ (Gurnah, ‘Writing and Place’, World Literature Today, Vol. 78, No. 2 (2004), p. 28). 187. Wilson Harris, Palace of the Peacock, new edn (1960; London and Boston: Faber and Faber, 1998), p. 114; Selvon, Moses Migrating, p. 91; Phillips, European Tribe, p. 54. See also Salkey, Late Emancipation, p. 26; Lamming, Castle of My Skin, pp. 28–9; Lamming, Emigrants, p. 67; Selvon, Moses Ascending, pp. 36–7; Selvon, Cascadura, p. 42; Buchi Emecheta, The Slave Girl, new edn (1977; London: Flamingo, 1989), p. 222; Emecheta, Bride Price, p. 107; Emecheta, Double Yoke, p. 129; Nichols, Morning Sky, pp. 79–80; Naipaul, Bend in the River, p. 23; Naipaul, Hot Country, pp. 3–4; and Naipaul, ‘Why Australia?’, in Naipaul, Unfinished Journey, p. 5. 188. Quoted in Carl Plasa, ‘The Creole is of Course the Important One: Rewriting Jane Eyre’, in Plasa, ed., Jean Rhys: Wide Sargasso Sea (Basingstoke and New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), p. 38. Notes 291

189. Rhys, Wide Sargasso Sea, new edn (1966; London: Penguin, 1997), p. 40; Robert Miles, Racism (London and New York: Routledge, 1989), p. 10. 190. Rhys, Wide Sargasso Sea, p. 64. 191. Quoted in Carl Plasa, ‘“Like Goes to Like”: Race and the Politics of Identification’, in Plasa, ed., Jean Rhys, pp. 122–3. 192. See Phillips, State of Independence, p. 21; Jhabvala, New Dominion, p. 66; Emecheta, Rape of Shavi, p. 74; and Selvon, Plains, pp. 22, 28, 35. 193. Quoted in Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, new edn (1983; London and New York: Verso, 2006), p. 93. 194. For these and other examples of the importance placed on education, see Emecheta, Double Yoke, pp. 9–10, 16; Dangarembga, Nervous Conditions, pp. 180–1; Gilroy, Boy- Sandwich, pp. 30, 38; Selvon, Plains of Caroni, pp. 34–7; Salkey, Late Emancipation, pp. 139–40; and Salkey, Escape, p. 83. 195. In his book of this title, Ngu˜gı˜ argues that imperialism aims ‘to annihilate a people’s belief in … themselves. It makes them see their past as one wasteland of non- achievement and it makes them want to distance themselves from that wasteland’ (Ngu˜gı˜, Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature (London: James Currey; Nairobi: Heinemann, 1986), p. 2). 196. Salkey, Escape, p. 41. See also Selvon, Turn Again Tiger, p. 158; Selvon, Plains of Caroni, p. 159; Selvon, Moses Ascending, p. 80; Dangarembga, Nervous Conditions, p. 147; Lamming, Castle of My Skin, p. 19; and Lamming, Emigrants, p. 229. 197. Ashcroft, Griffiths, Tiffin, Empire Writes Back, p. 4. 198. John McLeod, Beginning Postcolonialism (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2000), p. 241. 199. Bradbury, Unsent Letters, p. 17; Wain, Winter in the Hills, p. 208. 200. Pym, Very Private Eye, p. 316. Other ways of dealing with the perceived threat were to satirise postcolonial writing, as found in Amis’s Girl, 20, to mock post- colonial recipients of literary prizes, as Sinclair does, and to claim, bizarrely, that postcolonial writing was inspired and led by British post- imperial fiction, as Burgess does (see Amis, Girl, pp. 31, 236; Sinclair, Beau Bumbo, p. 152; and Burgess, Novel To-Day , p. 39). 201. Malak, ‘From Margin to Main: Minority Discourse and “Third World” Fiction Writers in Canada’, in Anna Rutherford, ed., From Commonwealth to Post- Colonial (Sydney: Dangaroo Press, 1992), p. 51. 202. See Selvon, Moses Ascending, p. 139; Phillips, European Tribe, p. 7; Salkey, Adventures, p. 139; Phillips, European Tribe, p. 7; Emecheta, Double Yoke, p. 77; Selvon, Moses Migrating, pp. 42, 47; and Selvon, Moses Ascending, pp. 138, 42. 203. Rushdie, Satanic Verses, p. 292. 204. Ibid., p. 292. 205. Wilson Harris, ‘The Fabric of the Imagination’, in Rutherford, ed., Commonwealth to Post- Colonial, p. 29. 206. See Davies’s Into Suez (2010), Gee’s The White Family (2002), Levy’s Small Island (2004), Ali’s Brick Lane (2003) and Smith’s White Teeth (2000). 207. Sahgal, ‘The Schizophrenic Imagination’, in Rutherford, ed., Commonwealth to Postcolonial, p. 36. 208. Quoted in W. David McIntyre, British Decolonization, 1946–1997: When, Why and How Did the British Empire Fall? (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1998), p. 7. 209. Hinde, High (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1968), p. 36. 210. Koestler, Call- Girls, p. 80. 292 Notes

6 The American Age

1. Fred M. Leventhal and Roland Quinault, ‘Introduction’ to Leventhal and Quinault, eds, Anglo- American Attitudes: From Revolution to Partnership (Aldershot and Burlington: Ashgate, 2000), p. 2. 2. William Fox quoted in Reynolds, Britannia Overruled, p. 173. 3. Quoted in Victor Rothwell, Britain and the Cold War 1941–1947 (London: Jonathan Cape, 1982), p. 432. This was very different to Macmillan’s confident claim, only a few years earlier, that the ‘Americans represent the new Roman Empire and we Britons, like the Greeks of old, must teach them how to make it go’ (quoted in Alex Danchev, On Specialness: Essays in Anglo- American Relations (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1998), p. 4). 4. See Alan P. Dobson, Anglo-American Relations in the Twentieth Century: Of Friendship, Conflict and the Rise and Decline of Superpowers (London and New York: Routledge, 1995), pp. 84–8. 5. Shaw, Labour Party, p. 102. 6. Quoted in Kenneth O. Morgan, Twentieth- Century Britain: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 83. 7. Porter, Lion’s Share, p. 368. No less dramatic were those who foresaw Britain’s reduction to ‘another Luxembourg’ (Bevin), ‘another Netherlands’ (Macmillan) or ‘a sort of glorified Belgium’ (Curzon) (quoted in Greenwood, Britain, pp. 194, 194; quoted in Danchev, Specialness, p. 164). 8. Quoted in Sked and Cook, Post- War Britain, p. 327. 9. Harold Wilson famously quipped that ‘the “independent British deterrent” was neither independent nor British nor even a deterrent’ (Sked and Cook, Post- War Britain, p. 167). 10. One of Lessing’s characters, getting hold of the 1961 US defence estimates, finds ‘a figure so enormous that it was meaningless to the ordinary mind, like distance expressed in light-years’ (Lessing, Four-Gated City, p. 460). 11. Ronald Steele quoted in Kennedy, Rise and Fall, pp. 389–90. 12. Wilson and Dean Rusk quoted in Reynolds, Britannia Overruled, pp. 228, 232. Interestingly, several dystopian novels set in Britain have characters waiting in vain for US assistance: see , The Day of the , new edn (1951; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1954), pp. 194, 202–3; and Tennant, Crack, p. 24. 13. Quoted in John Baylis, Anglo-American Defence Relations 1939–1980: The Special Relationship (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1981), pp. 91, 99. 14. Peter Byrd, ‘The Development of the Peace Movement in Britain’, in Werner Kaltefleiter and Robert L. Pfaltzgraff, eds, The Peace Movements in Europe and the United States (London and Sydney: Croom Helm, 1985), p. 65. For criticisms of the US military presence, see MacInnes, Absolute Beginners, p. 169; Smith, Field of Folk, p. 167; Kelman, Disaffection, p. 62; and Boyd, Stars and Bars, p. 167. 15. Horn, Juke Box Britain: Americanisation and Youth Culture, 1945–60 (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2009), p. 193. 16. See Lodge, ‘Afterword’ to Lodge, Out of the Shelter, p. 278. 17. See Horn, Juke Box Britain, pp. 66–70; and Alistair Davies, ‘Britain, Europe and Americanisation’, in Davies and Alan Sinfield, eds, British Culture of the Postwar: An Introduction to Literature and Society 1945–1999 (London and New York: Routledge, 2000), p. 104. 18. Quoted in Jack Lindsay, After the ’Thirties: The Novel in Britain and Its Future (London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1956), p. 231. Notes 293

19. Hoggart, The Uses of Literacy: Aspects of Working- Class Life with Special Reference to Publications and Entertainments, new edn (1957; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1958), p. 193. 20. MacInnes, ‘Young England, Half English: The Pied Piper from Bermondsey’, in MacInnes, England, pp. 18, 15. 21. Quoted in Hewison, Too Much, pp. 11–12. 22. Ibid., p. 43. 23. Davies, ‘Britain’, p. 105. 24. Jack Lindsay and Montagu Slater quoted in Patrick Parrinder, ‘The Road to Airstrip One: Anglo- American Attitudes in the English Fiction of Mid Century’, in Gilmour and Schwarz, eds, End of Empire, p. 42. 25. Croft, ‘Introduction’ to Croft, ed., Weapon in the Struggle, pp. 1–2. 26. Quoted in Bergonzi, Situation of the Novel, pp. 64, 65. 27. Ibid., pp. 67, 71. 28. Sutherland, Fiction and the Fiction Industry (London: The Athlone Press, 1978), pp. 46, 46, 63. 29. See ibid., pp. 56–7; and Denning, Cover Stories, p. 82. In what reads as a satire on his brother’s fiction, Peter Fleming ridicules ‘the pseudo- American toughness which the writers of thrillers had come, in this period, to regard as a more or less obligatory part of their heroes’ make-up’ (Fleming, Sixth Column, p. 28). 30. Connor, English Novel, p. 27. 31. Stephan- Alexander Ditze, America and the Americans in Postwar British Fiction: An Imagological Study of Selected Novels (Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag Winter, 2006), p. 356. In a discussion of US novelists, Burgess admits that ‘British fiction looks very shoddy in comparison’ and hopes that it will not ‘yield primacy to America in the art of fiction totally without a struggle’ (Burgess, ‘The Jew as American’, in Burgess, Urgent Copy: Literary Studies, new edn (1968; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973), p. 149; Burgess, ‘The Postwar American Novel: A View from the Periphery’, in Burgess, Urgent Copy, p. 143). 32. Ginden, Postwar British Fiction, p. 109. 33. Quoted in Schwartz, Political Warfare, p. 89. 34. For example, see Lindsay, Betrayed Spring, pp. 156, 219; Lindsay, Rising Tide, p. 132; and Lindsay, Moment of Choice, pp. 83–4, 305. 35. See Caute, Politics, p. 141. Speaking of the critical reception of his work, Golding mentions that ‘[a]n anonymous gentleman from the state of Texas accused me of being un- American, an accusation I must bear with what fortitude I may’ (Golding, ‘Utopias and Antiutopias’, in Golding, Moving Target, p. 171). 36. Drabble, Millstone, p. 48; Burgess, Beds in the East, p. 550; Priestley, Saturn, p. 51. For further expressions of anti- Americanism, see Amis, Take a Girl, p. 111; Amis, Difficulties, p. 158; Kelman, Disaffection, p. 135; Hartley, Hireling, pp. 33–4; Raven, Brother Cain, p. 42; Amis, Rachel Papers, pp. 75, 106; Coe, Touch of Love, pp. 31–2; and Rushdie, Satanic Verses, p. 77. 37. Amis, Memoirs, pp. 193, 193–4; Amis, Folks That Live, p. 184. A strand of anti- American commentary is also found in the fiction of Martin Amis, Angus Wilson and J.G. Ballard, despite these authors praising the nation (see Amis, ‘Introduction and Acknowledgements’, in Amis, Moronic Inferno, p. ix; Wilson, ‘America – A Celebration’, in Wilson, Reflections, pp. 135–7; Ballard, Miracles, pp. 20–1, 99, 133, 213; and Ballard, ‘Introduction’ to Ballard, Hello America, pp. 4–5). 38. Tremain, Cupboard, p. 17. 39. Lodge, Out of the Shelter, p. 204; Burgess, Honey, pp. 86, 86. 294 Notes

40. Isherwood, World, p. 29; Isherwood, Single Man, pp. 71–2. 41. Carr, Battle, pp. 10, 46. 42. Ibid., pp. 46, 46, 47. In Johnson’s Night and Silence (1963), a lecturer resident in the US is ‘always so afraid I shall be brought before the Committee’ and in Bradbury’s Stepping Westward (1965) a writer bound for the States is ‘tested for syphilis and intellectual loyalty at the American Embassy’ (Johnson, Night, p. 155; Bradbury, Stepping, p. 41). 43. Boyd, New Confessions, pp. 469, 481. 44. Lessing, Making of the Representative, p. 166; Lessing, Four-Gated City, p. 218. See also Mitford, Blessing, pp. 405–7; Smith, Field of Folk, p. 239; Rhys, ‘To Morchard Bishop’, in Rhys, Letters, p. 107; Spark, Far Cry, p. 149; Muriel Spark, The Bachelors, new edn (1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963), p. 13; Powell, Temporary Kings, p. 228; Snow, Corridors, pp. 246–53; Rushdie, Satanic Verses, p. 399; and Priestley, Saturn, p. 52. 45. Lessing, Four- Gated City, p. 219. See also ibid., pp. 177, 189; Lessing, Golden Notebook, pp. 169, 293–4, 519, 546–8, 622; and Lessing, Walking, pp. 126–30, 286–7. 46. See Jenks, British Propaganda, p. 102. 47. Selvon, Brighter Sun, p. 196; Salkey, Late Emancipation, pp. 65, 65. 48. Wain, Strike the Father, p. 148. 49. Spark, Driver’s Seat, p. 63. 50. Quoted in Winder, Bloody Foreigners, p. 329. 51. Lively, Going Back, p. 55. 52. Bainbridge, The Dressmaker, new edn (1973; London: Flamingo, 1985), pp. 29, 31. 53. Those expressing concern about fraternisation included politicians, such as Anthony Eden and Herbert Morrison, and army personnel. For example, upon the deployment of US forces in Britain, Major- General Dowler issued the pam- phlet ‘Notes on Relations with Coloured Troops (1942) to district commanders. As Layton- Henry writes, ‘these notes included the advice that white women should not associate with coloured men, that British soldiers should not befriend them and that white American troops should not be criticized for the way they treated their black compatriots’ ( Layton- Henry, Politics of Immigration, p. 25). 54. Priestley, Three Men, pp. 16, 51, 62. 55. The US deployment in Vietnam was supported by Amis and Conquest (see Martin Green, The English Novel in the Twentieth Century: The Doom of Empire (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1984), p. 148). 56. Brands, Devil We Knew, p. 58. For rare examples of writers’ treatment of Korea, see Lindsay, Moment of Choice, pp. 158–63, 188–92, 201–2, 314–15; Lessing, Four- Gated City, pp. 189, 218; Shaw, Hiding Place, pp. 173–5; Raven, Brother Cain, p. 164; Sillitoe, ‘Good Women’, pp. 156–9; Sillitoe, Saturday Night, p. 136; Lively, Going Back, p. 120; and Linklater, Year of Space, pp. 78–9, 134–52. Linklater toured the frontlines in Korea and even fired off a field gun: ‘I let off a 25-pounder, and twice, barking histrionically at the microphone, gave orders for three rounds gunfire. … This I did with the utmost satisfaction’ (Linklater, Year of Space, p. 136). 57. Diggins, Up from Communism, new edn (1975; New York: Columbia University Press, 1994), pp. xi, xiii. 58. Greene, Quiet American, p. 18. 59. See Burgess, Clockwork Testament, p. 405; Drabble, Needle’s Eye, p. 294; Sillitoe, Tree on Fire, pp. 84–5, 223; Snow, Last Things, pp. 94, 132; Bradbury, History Man, Notes 295

pp. 1, 36; Banks, Two Is Lonely, pp. 57–8; Carter, Several Perceptions, pp. 82–3; Lodge, Changing Places, p. 172; Amis, Dead Babies, p. 158; Ballard, Atrocity Exhibition, pp. 147–52; and Ballard, ‘The Greatest Television Show on Earth’, in Ballard, Complete Short Stories, p. 806. 60. See Boyd, ‘On the Yankee Station’, in Boyd, Yankee Station, pp. 139–62; Boyd, Stars and Bars, pp. 147, 149; Swift, Out of This World, pp. 12–13; Raymond Williams, The Fight for Manod (London: Chatto and Windus, 1979), p. 67; Murdoch, Accidental Man, pp. 12–13, 74–5, 440. See also Lessing, Four-Gated City, p. 606; Greene, Human Factor, p. 116; Weldon, Remember Me, p. 36; Fowles, Daniel Martin, p. 16; Lively, According to Mark, p. 27; Tremain, Cupboard, p. 167; and Kureishi, Buddha, p. 20. 61. Greene, Human Factor, p. 116; Boyd, ‘Yankee Station’, p. 150. 62. Ballard, Atrocity Exhibition, pp. 23–4 (Ballard’s italics). 63. Ibid., p. 104; Carter, Several Perceptions, p. 10. 64. See Selvon, Brighter Sun, pp. 17, 137–9, 146, 152; Selvon, ‘Wartime Activities’, in Selvon, Ways of Sunlight, pp. 72–83; and Selvon, ‘Basement Lullaby’, in Selvon, Ways of Sunlight, p. 166. 65. Naipaul, Guerrillas, p. 194. 66. The novel recalls the political events in in 1953, when the election of a socialist government under Cheddi Jagan was overthrown by the British, the Colonial Office claiming that Jagan was ‘threatening the order of the colony’ and ‘destroying the confidence of the business community’ (quoted in Mark Curtis, The Great Deception: Anglo- American Power and World Order (London and Sterling: Pluto Press, 1998), p. 20). 67. Nichols, Whole of a Morning Sky, pp. 73, 70. 68. Selvon, Brighter Sun, p. 196. 69. Phillips, State of Independence, p. 125. 70. Harris, Far Journey, p. 73; Selvon, Turn Again, p. 111; Selvon, Brighter Sun, p. 62; Naipaul, Mystic Masseur, p. 145; Selvon, Cascadura, p. 31; Selvon, Brighter Sun, p. 84. 71. Salkey, Late Emancipation, p. 185; Lamming, Castle, p. 263. 72. Naipaul, Miguel Street, new edn (1959; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971), p. 147; Salkey, Adventures, p. 90; Naipaul, Mystic Masseur, p. 39; Selvon, Brighter Sun, p. 158; Phillips, State of Independence, p. 56. This identification was also evident in the way that emigrants tend to choose the States over Britain: see Selvon, ‘Johnson and the Cascadura’, in Selvon, Ways of Sunlight, p. 15; Salkey, Adventures, p. 110; Lamming, Castle, pp. 78–9, 208, 274–7; Gilroy, Frangipani House, pp. 7, 39; Nichols, Whole of a Morning, p. 59; Phillips, State of Independence, p. 103; and Naipaul, Free State, p. 25. 73. Emecheta, Double Yoke, p. 73. 74. Naipaul, Bend in the River, p. 160. 75. Phillips, State of Independence, p. 114; Naipaul, ‘An Unfinished Journey’, in Naipaul, Unfinished Journey, p. 118. In an interesting contrast to this, Hanif Kureishi, Caryl Phillips and Paul Gilroy all write about the inspiration they have drawn from black American literature, culture and history: see Kureishi, ‘Rainbow Sign’, p. 29; Phillips, European Tribe, pp. 5–8; and Gilroy, The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness (London and New York: Verso, 1993), p. 4. 76. See Greene, Our Man, pp. 46, 171; Greene, Comedians, pp. 10–13, 21–2, 114, 124–8; Greene, Captain, pp. 157–8, 185–9; Greene, Travels, pp. 190–2, 213, 232; Greene, Ways of Escape, p. 218; Greene, ‘Europe’s Relationship with the 296 Notes

US: Implications of Vietnam’, in Greene, Yours Etc., pp. 163–5; and Greene, Honorary Consul, pp. 40–1, 149–50, 165, 216. Piette argues that Greene’s report- age for Life magazine in Malaya, which had drawn on anti- communist propa- ganda circulated by an outfit headed by Hugh Carleton Greene, led to feelings of guilt that were partly worked off through the vehement anti- Americanism of The Quiet American (see Piette, Literary Cold War, pp. 152–61). The point supports David Watt’s argument that hostility to US foreign policy ‘enable[d] a whole seg- ment of liberal opinion, spreading much wider than the left proper, to transfer feelings of guilt about the British imperial past to American shoulders’ (Watt, ‘Introduction: The Anglo- American Relationship’, in Louis and Bull, eds, ‘Special Relationship’, p. 8). 77. Quoted in Amis, ‘Graham Greene’, in Amis, Visiting Mrs Nabokov, pp. 3, 6 (Greene’s italics). 78. Burgess, ‘The Greene and the Red: Politics in the Novels of Graham Greene’, in Burgess, Urgent Copy, p. 19. 79. See Lewis, Volcanoes, pp. 14, 53–8; and Burgess, Doctor, p. 174. 80. Barstow, Right True End, p. 110; Powell, Books Do Furnish, p. 91; Fowles, Daniel Martin, p. 298. 81. See Thomas, Summit, pp. 18, 22–3; Coe, Touch of Love, pp. 95–8; Ballard, Hello America, p. 190; and Thomas, Swallow, pp. 121–31. 82. Quoted in Amis, ‘Graham Greene’, p. 4. 83. See Ballard, ‘Why I Want to Fuck Ronald Reagan’, in Ballard, Atrocity Exhibition, pp. 168–70. 84. Scott, Alien Sky, p. 24; Salkey, Adventures, p. 28. 85. See Newby, Guest and His Going, p. 67; Enright, Academic Year, p. 177; Raven, Judas Boy, pp. 70–1, 95, 111; Scott, Johnnie Sahib, pp. 60, 113; Hanley, Journey Homeward, pp. 174, 286; Jhabvala, New Dominion, pp. 231–2; Lessing, Ripple, p. 159; Lessing, Going Home, pp. 64–5; Farrell, Singapore Grip, pp. 74–5, 296; Manning, School for Love, p. 113; Manning, Danger Tree, p. 71; Burgess, Beds in the East, p. 486; and Greene, Quiet American, pp. 63, 140, 155–6. There are also Ishiguro’s portraits of US influence in Japan after World War Two: see Ishiguro, Artist, pp. 35–6, 55, 102, 185–6; and Ishiguro, Pale View, pp. 11–13, 65–6. In the context of British responses to decolonisation, a remark made in Burgess’s Honey for the Bears, that ‘Anglo- American bitching was really nothing but love-bites’, underestimates the level of hostility (Burgess, Honey, p. 20). 86. Burgess, Beds in the East, p. 548; Jameson, There Will Be, p. 35; West, Cousin Rosamund, p. 266. An American in Amis’s I Like It Here summarises Britain’s plight: ‘We make all your goods for you and then give you the money to pay for them. When the States goes you’ll just rot away’ (Amis, I Like It, p. 47). For fur- ther responses to US wealth and commerce, see Weldon, Letters, p. 80; Weldon, Shrapnel Academy, p. 10; Weldon, Down among the Women, p. 34; Mitford, Don’t Tell Alfred, p. 210; Sinclair, Beau Bumbo, p. 35; Ishiguro, Remains of the Day, pp. 3–6, 14–15, 102, 242; Johnson, Summer, p. 131; and Pym, Less Than Angels, p. 6. 87. Bradbury, Unsent Letters, pp. 13, 48. 88. Bradbury, Stepping Westward, pp. 11, 69. One of Lodge’s novels describes how the trustees of a Colorado college, keen to improve their prestige, have decided ‘to buy the British Museum and transport it stone by stone to Colorado, clean it up and re- erect it’ (Lodge, British Museum, p. 151). 89. Lodge, Nice Work, p. 327. For similar passages in Lodge’s work, see Lodge, Changing Places, pp. 13–15, 47, 234; and Lodge, Small World, pp. 313–15. Notes 297

90. For self- reflexivity in the campus novel, see Hinde, High, pp. 88, 166; Lodge, Small World, p. 63; and Lodge, British Museum, p. 125. 91. Johnson, Night, p. 26. 92. Ibid., p. 69. The protagonist pays little regard to the professionalism and attainment of US academics which, at this stage in the Cold War, can be easily dismissed: ‘They may work longer hours’, he tells a friend, ‘but they don’t get any more done than we do’ (ibid., p. 50). 93. Lodge, British Museum, p. 45. 94. John McRae and Ronald Carter, The Routledge Guide to Modern English Writing: Britain and Ireland (London and New York: Routledge, 2004), p. 73. 95. Amis, Memoirs, p. 211; Evelyn Waugh, The Loved One, new edn (1948; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1951), p. 105; Burgess, Enderby Outside, p. 372. 96. Greene, ‘Congo Journal’, in Greene, In Search of a Character: Two African Journals, new edn (1961; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1968), p. 27. 97. For expressions of anger at the disparity of wealth, see Fitzgerald, Human Voices, p. 130; Ballard, High- Rise , pp. 14–16; Bainbridge, Injury Time, p. 92; Lodge, Changing Places, pp. 28, 56–7, 72; Unsworth, Sugar and Rum, p. 72; Braine, Vodi, p. 72; Wain, Smaller Sky, p. 124; Wilson, ‘A Story of Historical Interest’, in Wilson, Wrong Set, p. 83; Weldon, Heart of the Country, p. 174; Weldon, Female Friends, p. 95; Snow, Last Things, pp. 55, 160, 231–2; and Johnson, Cork Street, pp. 128–30. 98. Hartley, Go- Between, p. 7. 99. Carter, ‘Robert Coover: A Night at the Movies’, in Carter, Expletives Deleted: Selected Writings, new edn (1992; London: Vintage, 1993), p. 131; Carter, ‘Introduction’ to Carter, Expletives Deleted, p. 5. ‘Like most Europeans of my generation’, Carter writes, ‘I have North America in my bloodstream’ (Carter, ‘Introduction’, p. 5). 100. Weldon President’s Child, p. 205; Orwell, ‘As I Please’, in Orwell, Collected Essays, III, 73. A few years later, Orwell was less hostile to the States, writing that ‘[t]o be anti- American nowadays is to shout with the mob’ (Orwell, ‘In Defence of Comrade Zilliacus’, in Orwell, Collected Essays, IV, 452). 101. Taylor, After the War, p. 50. 102. Lodge, ‘Afterword’ to Lodge, Out of the Shelter, p. 273. 103. Bainbridge, Dressmaker, p. 28; Wain, Strike the Father, p. 224. For other refer- ences to the plenitude, wealth and glamour of US troops stationed in Europe, see Waterhouse, Jubb, pp. 71, 76; Sillitoe, ‘Good Women’, pp. 151–2; Sillitoe, ‘Scenes from the Life of Margaret’, in Sillitoe, Men, Women and Children, pp. 174–6; Barstow, Kind of Loving, p. 31; Spark, Girls, pp. 67, 75; Isherwood, Single Man, p. 117; Weldon, Female Friends, p. 115; and Taylor, Mrs Palfrey, pp. 185–6. 104. Braine, Vodi, p. 107; Barstow, Kind of Loving, p. 173. 105. Burgess, Enderby Outside, p. 225; Frayn, Towards the End, p. 156; Taylor, Wreath, p. 126; John Wyndham, , new edn (1968; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), p. 119; Waterhouse, Billy Liar, p. 128; Storey, Temporary Life, p. 64; Chaplin, Day of the Sardine, p. 90; Burgess, Absolute Beginners, p. 75; Byatt, Game, p. 147. See also Wain, Hurry on Down, p. 179; Weldon, Letters, p. 13; Fitzgerald, At Freddie’s, p. 31; Hartley, Eustace, pp. 12–13; Harvey, Within and Without, p. 9; Dunn, Poor Cow, p. 10; MacInnes, Absolute Beginners, p. 23; Lodge, Out of the Shelter, pp. 122, 124–5, 151–2; and Taylor, Summer Season, pp. 24, 30, 149. 106. Waterhouse, Bucket Shop, p. 21; Byatt, Shadow, p. 188; Brookner, Latecomers, p. 17; Dunn, Junction, p. 32; Burgess, Doctor, p. 28. For further treatments of Americanisation, including critical treatments, see MacInnes, Absolute Beginners, pp. 48, 58–9, 118; Priestley, Three Men, pp. 99–100; Bradbury, Eating People, 298 Notes

pp. 215, 178; Waterhouse, Billy Liar on the Moon, pp. 5–7; Barstow, Kind of Loving, p. 90; Amis, Take a Girl, p. 200; Bainbridge, Sweet William, p. 44; Lively, Judgement Day, p. 91; Chaplin, Day of the Sardine, p. 208; Ballard, ‘Theatre of War’, in Ballard, Complete Short Stories, pp. 953–67; and Williams, Second Generation, p. 164. 107. Amis, Rachel Papers, p. 52; Cooper, Metropolitan Life, p. 123; Amis, Rachel Papers, p. 152. See also Braine, Life at the Top, p. 40; C.P. Snow, The Sleep of Reason, new edn (1968; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), p. 11; Barstow, ‘Waiting’, in Barstow, Season, p. 112; Pym, No Fond Return, p. 198; Waterhouse, Thinks, p. 102; Priestley, Shapes, p. 70; Bailey, At the Jerusalem, p. 114; Waterhouse, Billy Liar, p. 69; Weldon, Down among the Women, p. 138; Byatt, Virgin, p. 66; Tennant, Colour of Rain, p. 111; and Snow, Sleep of Reason, p. 298. 108. Johnson, Impossible Marriage, pp. 112, 19. 109. Burgess, Honey, p. 186. 110. Wain, Strike the Father, p. 69; Amis, Colonel Sun, p. 64. 111. Bainbridge, Sweet William, p. 36; Golding, ‘Wiltshire’, in Golding, Moving Target, p. 7. The same awe is expressed by one of Drabble’s characters, who feels that America is ‘on too large a scale. It drives people mad. Everything there is too big, the rivers are too wide, the mountains are too high, the canyons are too deep, the geology is too dramatic’ (Drabble, Realms of Gold, p. 99). Closer to home, one of Lodge’s protagonists admires the impact that US architecture is having on the British urban landscape: ‘Morris found it an oddly stirring sight, for the city that was springing up was unmistakably American in style … and he had the strange feeling of having stumbled upon a new American frontier in the most unexpected place’ (Lodge, Changing Places, p. 210). 112. Wilson, Hemlock, p. 139; Priestley, Three Men, p. 80; Carter, Several Perceptions, p. 60; Johnson, Error, p. 61; Johnson, Humbler Creation, p. 50; Powell, Hearing Secret Harmonies, p. 45. 113. Amis, Take a Girl, p. 145; Amis, Rachel Papers, p. 106. For further examples, see Amis, Dead Babies, p. 33; Johnson, Avenue, p. 70; Farrell, Girl, p. 91; Drabble, Jerusalem, p. 12; Wain, Hurry on Down, p. 237; Drabble, Middle Ground, p. 188; Taylor, Sleeping Beauty, pp. 175–6; Muriel Spark, The Ballad of Peckham Rye, new edn (1960; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1963), p. 38; Barnes, Staring, p. 34; Waterhouse, Bucket Shop, p. 24; and Burgess, Doctor, p. 198. 114. Fowles, Magus, p. 334. Wain makes reference to what he terms the ‘demotic English of the mid twentieth century, rapid, slurred, essentially a city dialect and, in origin, essentially American’, and Waterhouse speaks of an Americanised English that ‘is processed by the business colleges and the advertising agencies and the legal offices and the computer workshops’ (Wain, Hurry on Down, p. 185; Waterhouse, ‘Talking ’, in Waterhouse, Rhubarb, p. 168). 115. David Forrest, And to My Nephew Albert [etc], new edn (1969; London: Book of the Month Club, 1969), p. 9; Barnes, Metroland, p. 80; Waterhouse, Thinks, p. 20; Cooper, Memoirs, p. 72; Snow, Sleep of Reason, p. 146. See also Isherwood, World, p. 258; Lewis, Volcanoes, p. 142; Waterhouse, Billy Liar, p. 47; Golding, Darkness, p. 245; Lively, Moon Tiger, p. 32; Lodge, Changing Places, pp. 21–2; Lodge, Out of the Shelter, pp. 66, 102–3, 154; and Barstow, Ask Me Tomorrow, p. 204. 116. Frayn, Towards the End, p. 157. See also Amis, Folks That Live, p. 200; Amis, Lucky Jim, p. 41; Amis, Take a Girl, p. 145; Johnson, Cork Street, p. 65; Johnson, Summer, p. 64; Iris Murdoch, The Sandcastle, new edn (1957; Harmondsworth: Penguin, Notes 299

1960), p. 57; Spark, Takeover, pp. 16–17; Raven, Friends, p. 48; Potter, Blackeyes, p. 47; Potter, Ticket, pp. 34–5; and Wilson, Setting the World, p. 110. 117. Fowles, Collector, p. 185; Spark, Territorial Rights, p. 207; Wain, ‘A Few Drinks with Alcock and Brown’, in Wain, Nuncle, p. 50. 118. Kelman, Disaffection, p. 78. 119. Barstow, Ask Me Tomorrow, p. 147; Burgess, Clockwork Testament, p. 383; Sinclair, Beau Bumbo, p. 74; Banks, Backward Shadow, p. 240. See also Amis, Rachel Papers, pp. 142, 208; Amis, Success, p. 12; Cooper, Memoirs, pp. 262; Greene, Travels, p. 57; Braine, Two of Us, p. 6; Bradbury, ‘Composition’, in Bradbury, Who Do You Think, p. 110; Priestley, Magicians, p. 35; Johnson, Error, p. 210; Wain, Smaller Sky, p. 13; and Weldon, Letters, p. 47. Occasional criticism is made of Americanese: see Sillitoe, Life Goes On, p. 86; Banks, End to Running, p. 22; Spark, Loitering, p. 12; Lessing, Golden Notebook, pp. 523–5; Brophy, In Transit, p. 210; Golding, Paper Men, p. 72; and Rushdie, Satanic Verses, p. 415. 120. Katherine Bucknell, ‘Who Is Christopher Isherwood’, in James J. Berg and Chris Freeman, eds, The Isherwood Century: Essays on the Life and Work of Christopher Isherwood (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2001), p. 23; Isherwood quoted in Len Webster, ‘A Very Individualistic Old Liberal’, in James J. Berg and Chris Freeman, eds, Conversations with Christopher Isherwood (Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2001), p. 65. In another interview that took place in the US in 1979, Isherwood said ‘that while I’m in England, my American half – after all, I have lived here more than half my life – comes out; but while I’m here, my English half comes out’ (quoted in Studs Terkel, ‘Christopher Isherwood’, in Berg and Freeman, eds, Conversations, p. 167). 121. Isherwood, Single Man, pp. 28, 20, 35. 122. Burgess, ‘The Postwar American Novel: A View from the Periphery’, in Burgess, Urgent Copy, p. 142. Walter Allen makes the same point about Malcolm Lowry: ‘Lowry spent most of his life in Mexico, … the United States, and British Columbia, and as a novelist could probably be regarded as no less American than English’ (Allen, Tradition and Dream, p. 263). 123. Burgess, Clockwork Testament, p. 393. In a similar way, one of Banks’s characters finds herself ‘turning into an American’ and Cooper’s fiction has one charac- ter who ‘became an American’ and a second whose ‘characteristic reaction to getting back from the United States’ was the feeling that he had ‘returned to a stagnant backwater’ (Banks, Backward Shadow, p. 240; Cooper, Provincial Life, p. 233; Cooper, Memoirs, p. 126). 124. Bowen, After the Rain, p. 11; Lodge, Nice Work, p. 94; Frayn, Towards the End, p. 157; Johnson, Error, p. 64. See also Byatt, Virgin, p. 12; Berger, Painter, p. 170; Cooper, You Want the Right, p. 140; Cooper, Memoirs, p. 158; Tremain, Swimming Pool, pp. 197–8; Braine, Queen, p. 130; Wain, Strike the Father, p. 227; Malcolm Lowry, ‘Elephant and Colossuem’, in Lowry, Hear Us O Lord from Heaven Thy Dwelling Place, new edn (1961; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1969), p. 142; Bradbury, ‘Composition’, in Bradbury, Who Do You Think, p. 111; Lodge, Out of the Shelter, p. 90; and Lodge, Changing Places, pp. 20–1. Resistance is put up by a British character in Powell’s Temporary Kings (1973), who says to a US academic, ‘we’re not Americans. You must humour our straying from the norm in that respect’ (Powell, Temporary Kings, p. 79). 125. Burgess, ‘Postwar American Novel’, p. 139; Banks, Warning Bell, p. 21. See also Larkin, Jill, p. 180; Waterhouse, Happy Land, p. 153; Johnson, Summer, p. 163; Lodge, Changing Places, pp. 194–5; and Raven, Bring Forth, pp. 77, 104. 300 Notes

126. Bradbury, Possibilities, p. 167. 127. Brookner, Look at Me, p. 164; Burgess, Clockwork Testament, p. 392; Waterhouse, Billy Liar, p. 176. 128. Cooper, Married Life, p. 95; Cooper, Later Life, p. 87. 129. Cooper, You Want the Right Frame, pp. 54, 249, 211. 130. Lessing, Golden Notebook, p. 527; Priestley, Margin Released, p. 144. 131. For the encroachment on British cultural life of US writers, journalists, musi- cians and academics, see Lively, According to Mark, p. 13; Lively, Next to Nature, p. 13; Wain, Strike the Father, pp. 133–44; Drabble, Garrick Year, p. 100; Durrell, Dark Labyrinth, pp. 12–13; Pym, No Fond Return, p. 13; and Durrell, Livia, p. 174. 132. Burgess, ‘Postwar American Novel’, p. 139. In a rare expression of dissent, Kingsley Amis argues that ‘most American literature is a disaster, one reinforced by its being taught in universities there to the virtual exclusion of British, even the British classics (Amis, ‘USA 1’, in Amis, Memoirs, p. 197). 133. This is not to mention the many novels in which characters either visit the US or desire such a visit. For example, see Brookner, Female Friends, pp. 91, 153–4; Bainbridge, Sweet William, pp. 5–6; Drabble, Waterfall, pp. 122–5; Wilson, ‘Mother’s Sense of Fun’, in Wilson, Wrong Set, p. 173; Banks, Backward Shadow, pp. 240–1; Isherwood, Meeting, pp. 7, 119; Golding, Paper Men, pp. 26–7; Priestley, Lost Empires, p. 329; Lodge, Picturegoers, p. 85; Wain, Strike the Father, pp. 212, 216; Thomas Hinde, Happy as Larry (London: MacGibbon and Kee, 1957), p. 189; Amis, Success, p. 32; James Kelman, ‘A Notebook To Do with America’, in Kelman, Not Not While the Giro and Other Stories, new edn (1983; London: Minerva, 1989), p. 159; Tremain, Swimming Pool Season, p. 268; Cooper, Provincial Life, pp. 19, 159; and Heppenstall, Woodshed, p. 40. 134. Carter, Passion, p. 38; Spark, Hothouse, p. 93; Jhabvala, Search of Love, p. 22; Martin Amis, Money: A Suicide Note, new edn (1984; London: Penguin, 1985), pp. 29, 3; Burgess, Clockwork Testament, p. 414; Sinclair, ‘America’, in Sinclair, Bedbugs, p. 73. 135. See Isherwood, Single Man, p. 123; Jhabvala, Search of Love, p. 65; Ackroyd, Last Testament, p. 53; Carr, Battle, p. 96; Sinclair, ‘Genesis’, in Sinclair, Bedbugs, p. 23; Carter, Passion, pp. 160, 133, 134, 117; and MacInnes, Absolute Beginners, pp. 40, 188. 136. Thomas, Swallow, p. 49. For further examples of the enthusiasm for US foods, goods and services, see Spark Hothouse, p. 123; Sinclair, ‘Somewhere over the Rainbow’, in Sinclair, Bedbugs, p. 67; Drabble, Waterfall, p. 123; Boyd, Stars and Bars, pp. 103, 169; Burgess, Clockwork Testament, p. 394; Isherwood, World, p. 38; and Carter, Passion, p. 93. 137. Carter, Passion, pp. 13, 100, 23, 27, 93, 93, 93. 138. Golding, ‘Body and Soul’, in Golding, Hot Gates, pp. 150–1. 139. Ballard, Atrocity Exhibition, pp. 163–4; Golding, Preface’ to Golding, Hot Gates, p. 7. 140. Larkin, Jill, p. 13; Taylor, ‘Praises’, in Taylor, Devastating Boys, p. 86; Johnson, Cork Street, p. 86. See also Snow, Corridors, pp. 86, 198; Wain, Hurry on Down, p. 198; Burgess, Inside Mr Enderby, p. 123; Amis, Riverside Villas, p. 13; Carter, Magic Toyshop, pp. 11–12, 70; Amis, Take a Girl, p. 133; Heppenstall, Woodshed, p. 21; and Chaplin, Day of the Sardine, p. 140. 141. See Boyd, New Confessions, pp. 469–501; Boyd, Ice-Cream War, pp. 32–3, 126–31; and Boyd, Yankee Station, pp. 17–24, 61–71. Notes 301

142. Boyd, Stars and Bars, pp. 11–12. A concern with how Britain was viewed by the States was not uncommon: see Amis and Conquest, Egyptologists, p. 12; Barstow, Watchers, p. 81; Carter, Shadow Dance, p. 35; Cooper, Ever-Interesting Topic, p. 37; Golding, ‘Crabbed Youth and Old Age’, in Golding, Moving Target, pp. 99–100; Priestley, Bright Day, pp. 111, 199, 201; MacInnes, Absolute Beginners, p. 21; and Wain, Hurry on Down, p. 198. 143. Amis, Money, pp. 91, 326. 144. Burgess, Clockwork Testament, p. 478; Carter, Passion, pp. 121–2; Ballard, ‘Preface’ to Ballard, Vermilion Sands, p. 7. Burgess also commented that ‘[t]he American city is the arena where contemporary Western man [sic] must find himself’ (Burgess, ‘The Jew as American’, in Burgess, Urgent Copy, p. 150). 145. For examples, see Cooper, Metropolitan Life, pp. 8–9; Fitzgerald, Human Voices, pp. 48–51; MacInnes, Absolute Beginners, pp. 112–13; Spark, Far Cry, pp. 155–6; and Lessing, Four-Gated City, pp. 189, 606. 146. For example, see Burgess, Honey, p. 36; Burgess, Doctor, p. 72; Tremain, ‘Colonel’s Daughter’, pp. 5–6; Pym, Jane, p. 50; Banks, Two Is Lonely, p. 204; Amis, Rachel Papers, p. 51; Carter, Nights at the Circus, pp. 9–10; Fay Weldon, The Life and Loves of a She Devil, new edn (1983; London: Sceptre, 1993), p. 186; and J.B. Priestley, Jenny Villiers: A Story of the Theatre (London and Toronto: William Heinemann, 1947), pp. 132–3. 147. See Mackenzie, Rival Monster, pp. 87, 100–1; Snow, Corridors, p. 51; Johnson’s Cork Street, p. 17; Wilson, Setting the World, p. 16; Brookner, Misalliance, pp. 62–3; Rubens, Mr Wakefield’s Crusade, p. 12; and Muriel Spark, The Public Image, new edn (1968; London: Penguin, 1970), p. 16. 148. Banks, Warning Bell, p. 147; Thomas, Swallow, p. 48; Spark, Takeover, pp. 15, 19; Isherwood, World, pp. 250, 253; and Bradbury, Stepping Westward, p. 47. See also Johnson, Cork Street, p. 17; Johnson, Night, p. 26; Braine, Two of Us, p. 14; Fitzgerald, Innocence, p. 12; Drabble, Waterfall, pp. 125; Powell, Temporary Kings, p. 79; Lessing, Going Home, p. 26; and Snow, Corridors, pp. 21–2. A third stereotype was that of the naive American tourist, one that, interestingly, sug- gested US ignorance of the world just at the time it was conquering the world. For examples, see Thomas, White Hotel, p. 179; Thomas, Birthstone, pp. 7–10; Bainbridge, Bottle Factory, p. 80; Lodge, Small World, p. 251; Mackenzie, Hunting, pp. 30–1; Carter, Shadow Dance, pp. 89–90; Durrell, Quinx, p. 46; and Swift, Out of This World, p. 65. 149. Lodge, Out of the Shelter, p. 70; Amis, Rachel Papers, p. 159; Priestley, Shapes, p. 71. 150. Barstow, Ask Me Tomorrow, pp. 48–9. 151. See Tremain, Cupboard, pp. 34–5, 99–100, 177; Amis, Dead Babies, pp. 64–7; Swift, Out of This World, pp. 147–61; Phillips, Higher Ground, new edn (1989; London: Penguin, 1990), pp. 63–172; Barnes, Before She Met Me, pp. 66–71; Barnes, ‘Project Ararat’, in Barnes, History, pp. 249–80; and Thomas, Birthstone, pp. 148–50. 152. Saunders, Who Paid the Piper, p. 278 (Saunders’s italics). 153. Fowles, Daniel Martin, p. 252. 154. Ibid., p. 170. Daniel argues that ‘[t]he outward cynics may live in the States; but the fundamental ones, the true quietists, live in Britain’, and believes that, in terms of historical development, Americans are ‘eternally stuck in the first few pages, when we reached the last chapter ages ago’ (ibid., pp. 80, 253). 302 Notes

155. Ibid., pp. 38, 143. 156. Ballard, Hello America, p. 162. 157. Burgess, Honey, p. 178. 158. Ibid., p. 179. 159. Ibid., p. 180. 160. Ibid., p. 87. The notion of superpower equivalence was a common feature of ‘third way’ doctrines and appeared in a number of novels or non- fictional works: for example, see Fowles, Aristos, p. 119; Delaney, ‘Vodka and Small Pieces of Gold’, in Delaney, Sweetly Sings, p. 109; and Thomas, Ararat, p. 143. 161. Quoted in Reynolds, Britannia Overruled, p. 160. 162. See Sked and Cook, Post- War Britain, p. 50; Schwartz, Political Warfare, p. 35. 163. Quoted in Ritchie Ovendale, Anglo-American Relations in the Twentieth Century (Basingstoke and London: Macmillan, 1998), p. 73. 164. Defty, Britain, p. 119. 165. Williams, Dragoman Pass, p. 188. 166. Spender, Untitled, in Richard Crossman, ed., The God That Failed, new edn (1949; New York: Books for Libraries Press, 1972), pp. 272–3. 167. Amis, ‘Saul Bellow and the Moronic Inferno’, in Amis, Moronic Inferno, p. 7. 168. Mitchell, Bodyguard, p. 184; Weldon, Shrapnel Academy, p. 157. Weldon’s novel, written towards the end of the Cold War, may have benefitted from hindsight, but the ‘carve-up’ was already evident to commentators in the mid-1940s. ‘The Russians and the Americans between ’em will settle what everybody should have’, Priestley wrote in 1945: ‘If you don’t like the Russian Cement Workers’ Annual Conference, then you can try the Jitterbug Contest in Los Angeles’ (Priestley, Three Men, p. 75). 169. Wain, Young Shoulders, pp. 33, 104, 104. 170. Burgess, Honey, pp. 201, 201, 236. As Burgess wrote in Any Old Iron (1989), the US and the USSR both ‘dream of a radiant future into which the past can uncoil no qualifying tentacles’ and will decide between them ‘what kind of stere- otypical soul we’re all going to be issued with’ (Burgess, Any Old Iron, pp. 347, 244). Speaking of The Golden Notebook (1962), Lessing also criticised Cold War dichotomies: ‘the thought was that to divide off and compartmentalize living was dangerous and led to nothing but trouble. Old, young; black, white; men, women; capitalism, socialism: these great dichotomies undo us, force us into unreal categorization, makes us look for what separates us rather than what we have in common’ (Lessing, Walking, p. 308). 171. Greene, Monsignor Quixote, new edn (1982; Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1983), pp. 26, 256; Bradbury, Eating People, p. 207 (Bradbury’s italics). 172. Lessing, Four- Gated City, pp. 211, 210, 211. 173. Greenwood, Britain, p. 52. Bevin’s ideas were expressed in a specifically Cold War language: the ‘third force’, he claimed, ‘would form a bloc which, both in population and productive capacity, could stand on an equality with the western hemisphere and the Soviet blocs (quoted in ibid., p. 54; Bevin’s italics). Interestingly, amidst the plans for a military and economic union was also the hope of closer cultural ties. As described in FO minutes, Bevin ‘felt that a good deal more could be done by broadcasts to Western European countries and from the Western countries to the United Kingdom, by making paper available for the export of books and by promoting personal contacts between Frenchmen and Englishmen of those classes which hitherto have had no opportunity of mixing’ (quoted in Rothwell, Britain, p. 449). Notes 303

174. Michael J. Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987), p. 87. 175. Quoted in Greenwood, Britannia Overruled, p. 198. 176. Amis, I Like It, p. 23. 177. Drabble, Jerusalem, p. 82. On occasion, writers set whole scenes in one of the western European nations, but these could be as inconsequential as brief ref- erences to those countries. For examples of both, see ibid., p. 127; Drabble, Summer Bird- Cage, p. 24; Drabble, Needle’s Eye, p. 109; Sillitoe, ‘The Rope Trick’, in Sillitoe, Guzman, pp. 101, 105; Pym, Sweet Dove, pp. 76, 89; Brookner, Misalliance, p. 9; Weldon, Rules of Life, pp. 31–2; Murdoch, Under the Net, p. 7; Banks, Two Is Lonely, pp. 126–34; Barstow, Right True End, p. 85; Wyndham, Chocky, pp. 12–13; Swift, Out of This World, pp. 125–32, 173–81; Rhys, ‘The Chevalier of the Place Blanche’, in Rhys, Sleep It Off, pp. 113–22; Rubens, Our Father, pp. 56–7; Lively, Perfect Happiness, p. 42; Lively, Judgement Day, p. 22; Lively, According to Mark, pp. 34, 115–16; Wain, Strike the Father, p. 202; Isherwood, Down There, pp. 56–113; Isherwood, World, pp. 162–245; Hartley, Eustace, pp. 9–23; Scott, Corrida, pp. 75–88; Powell, Question of Upbringing, pp. 105–62; Barnes Metroland, pp. 75–7; and Taylor, Angel, pp. 153–7. 178. For example, see Storm Jameson’s The Intruder (1956), Kingsley Amis’s I Like It Here (1958), Pamela Hansford Johnson’s The Unspeakable Skipton (1959) and The Holiday Friend (1972), John Fowles’s The Magus (1966), Rebecca West’s The Birds Fall Down (1966), Anita Brookner’s Hotel du Lac (1984), Rose Tremain’s The Swimming Pool Season (1985), Barry Unsworth’s Stone Virgin (1985), Penelope Fitzgerald’s Innocence (1986), Fay Weldon’s Leader of the Band (1988), Sebastian Faulks’s The Girl at the Lion D’Or (1989) and Anthony Burgess’s (1980). 179. Amis, I Like It, p. 169; Swift, Out of This World, p. 191; Bradbury, Stepping Westward, p. 88. Even the parliamentary debate on entry is described in Snow’s In Their Wisdom (1974) as ‘sober, practical, sometimes qualified’, although the result produces some ‘excitement’ (Snow, In Their Wisdom, pp. 156, 159). 180. Drabble, Middle Ground, p. 107; Carr, Harpole Report, p. 146. 181. Weldon, Darcy’s Utopia, p. 250; Bradbury, Unsent Letters, p. 171; Boyd, Stars and Bars, p. 36; Hines, Looks and Smiles, p. 38. The threat to Britain in Raymond Williams’s The Fight for Manod (1979) is not the EEC per se, but a shadowy multinational, Anglo- Belgian Community Developments, which is in the busi- ness of creating new urban conurbations for its own profit (see Williams, Fight for Manod, pp. 156–8). Only rarely is acknowledgement made of a common European culture: see Fitzgerald, Offshore, p. 108; Wain, Winter, pp. 186–7; Wilson, Old Men, pp. 304–5; John Berger, Corker’s Freedom, new edn (1964; London: Granta Books, 1992), pp. 229–34; Berger, ‘Historical Afterword’, pp. 195–213; and Powell, Temporary Kings, p. 275. 182. Priestley, Shapes, p. 182 (Priestley’s italics). In a novel from 1966, one of Cooper’s narrators overhears a conversation about possible EEC membership and fails to see what all the fuss is about. As he says, ‘I’d bet that in 1972 those conversa- tions reported in a novel will read as flat as the flat-earther’s earth. … “What’s all this?” a 1972 reader will ask in pardonable boredom and incomprehension’ (Cooper, Memoirs, p. 112). 183. See Curtis, Great Deception, p. 22. 184. Quoted in ibid., p. 28. 304 Notes

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Acheson, Dean 59 Angola 3 Acheson, James 14 Angolan 3 Ackroyd, Peter 79, 144, 206 Angry Brigade 38 Action Directe 42 ‘angry young men’ 12, 122–4, 130 Adam, Guy 46 Anisfield, Nancy 81 Adams, Douglas 55 anti-Americanism 7, 10, 15, 29, Aden 4, 85, 159, 166 192–201 Addison, Hugh 24 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972) 52 adventure fiction 86, 156, 159, Arab-Israeli War (1973) 3, 12 161, 166 Aragon, Louis 133 13, 41–4, 69, 85, 159, 215 Arden, John 59, 140–1 Africa 2–3, 7, 16, 22, 62, 71, 83, 85, Arena 132–3, 190 89, 128–9, 134, 153–4, 158–9, 162–8, Argentina 11, 101, 108 175–6, 181–2, 184, 197, 213; see Artery 135 individual countries Artrage 176 Africa Newsletter 134 Asia 2–3, 7, 16, 22, 40, 57, 70, 83, 85, Ahmad, Aijaz 151 89, 105, 153–4, 156, 168, 175, 181, Alamogordo 52, 55, 75–7 184, 189, 195; see individual countries Albania 22, 85 Asian Women Writers Collective 176 Aldermaston 12, 59, 79–80 Association for Teaching Caribbean and Aldiss, Brian 57, 79 African Literature 179 Aldrich, Richard 54 Asterley, H.C. 61 Algeria 162 atomic espionage 58–9, 83–4, 91, 103 Ali, Monica 185 Attlee, Clement 20, 23, 117, 119, 133, Allen & Unwin 22 153, 189, 211–13 Ambler, Eric 87, 89, 110 Auden, W.H. 7 America Committee for United Auschwitz 61–2 Europe 213 Austen, Jane 75, 247n Americanisation 6, 10, 16, 124, 186–7, Australia 40, 71, 133, 164 190–2, 200–10 Austria 24, 108–9, 214 Amery, Leopold 154 ‘axis of evil’ 16 Amis, Kingsley 7, 11, 40–1, 57, 97, 110, 113–14, 122–4, 141, 148, 161, Baader-Meinhof Gang 42 163–4, 170–1, 190, 193, 199, 202, Baden-Powell, Robert 86–7 213–14, 233n, 235n, 249n, 259n, Bahrain 159 265n, 268n, 285n, 291n, 294n, Bailey, Paul 11, 130, 148, 163, 169, 296n, 300n 171, 173 Amis, Martin 13, 42, 49, 51, 64, Bainbridge, Beryl 34, 63, 97, 124–5, 70, 77–8, 144, 148, 166, 170–1, 128, 194, 201–2 202–3, 208–10, 212, 246n, 247n, Baldwin, James 184 268n, 293n Balkan peninsula 35, 44, 102; Ampersand Limited 22 see individual countries Anand, Mulk Raj 134, 176 balkanism 44–5 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty (1936) 159 Ballantyne, R.M. 163

312 Index 313

Ballard, J.G. 27, 42, 48, 61–3, 70, 81, Boehmer, Elleke 156, 164 113, 131, 142, 148, 164, 195, 198, Bogle L’Ouverture Press 176 206–7, 209–10, 223n, 293n Bolsheviks 95 Baltic States 85 Bolt, Robert 132 Banerjee, Mita 49 Bonnar, Robert 132 Banks, Lynne Reid 41, 69, 166–7, 173, Booker, M. Keith 16, 31, 47, 121 178, 195, 209, 221n, 283n, 299n Booker Prize 140, 162, 184 Barbados 184 borders 49, 94–5, 106–10, 115 Barker, Pat 49, 129–30, 173, 236n Borneo 156, 164 Barlow, James 28 Borodin, George 57 Barnes, Julian 40, 42, 49, 71, 79, 91, Bowen, Elizabeth 88, 90–1, 93, 99–100, 105, 131, 144, 148, 161, 167, 171, 121–2, 221n 210, 236n, 274n Bowen, John 10, 59 Barstow, Stan 31, 91, 110, 125–8, 149, Boyd, William 42, 76, 96, 115, 164–5, 169–70, 198, 201, 210, 267n 193, 207–9, 214 Barthes, Roland 145 Boyer, Paul 56, 63 Bartholomew’s atlas 164 Bradbury, Malcolm 7, 14, 44–7, 49, 70, 52 106, 115–16, 131, 145–7, 164, 167, Batchwood Press 22 170, 175, 184, 195, 199, 209, 212, Bates, H.E. 96, 156–7 214, 234n, 256n, 274–5n, 280n, 294n Bates, Ralph 132 Braden, Tom 38 Baudrillard, Jean 145 Braine, John 40, 88, 110, 122–4, 126, Behan, Brendan 132 130, 136, 170, 173, 201, 266n Belgium 152 Braithwaite, Edward Kamau 176 Bellow, Saul 212 Braithwaite, E.R. 178 Bengal 164 Brandt, Willy 32 Bennett, Dorothea 96 Brannigan, John 14 Berger, John 13, 59, 89, 101, 139–41, Brazil 171 167, 174, 272n Brecht, Bertolt 36, 141, 272n Bergonzi, Bernard 8, 15, 191 Bretton Woods Agreement (1944) 188 Berlin 4, 30, 84, 109–11, 134, 144 Brezhnev, Leonid 32 2, 11, 30, 52–3, 211 Brians, Paul 51 Berlin Wall 2, 4 Brierley, Walter 119 Berry, Bryan 60 Briggs, Raymond 70 Beveridge Report (1942) 117 Britain 4–5, 7–9, 16, 20–3, 28, 32, 36, Bevin, Ernest 20, 117, 171, 211–13 40–2, 44, 52–4, 64, 69, 82–6, 102, 104, Biafra 12, 162 110–12, 115–21, 124, 131, 141, 149, Bismarck, Otto von 3 152–3, 168–9, 180–2, 185, 187–91, black and Asian writing 71, 151, 156, 211–16 176–86, 194, 196–8; see individual British-American Association 194 authors British Broadcasting Corporation Black Panthers 12, 140 (BBC) 22–3, 41, 78, 163, 176–7, Blake, George 84, 111 190, 192 Blake, William 132 British Commonwealth 3, 21, 154, Bletchley Park 83 160, 163, 168–9, 176, 182–5, 195, Bloom, Clive 92, 104, 114 211, 213 Bloomsbury 120, 123 British Council 14, 44, 109 Blumenfeld, Yorick 70 British Empire 1, 6, 10, 20, 40, 93–4, Blunt, Anthony 110 110, 120, 151–68, 176–7, 179–80, Bodley Head 22 182–3, 185–6, 210, 213 314 Index

British Guiana 154; see Guyana Caribbean Artists Movement 176 ‘British hypothesis’ 4 Carr, J.L. 163, 193, 199, 200, 214 39 Carter, Angela 8, 11, 13, 46, 68, 72–3, British Nationality Act (1981) 169 94, 142, 144, 163–4, 173, 195, 200–1, British Nuclear Forum 55 206, 209–10, 232n, 268n, 297n British Petroleum 188 Carter, Jimmy 19, 32, 41, 60–1, 69 British Society for Cultural Freedom 7, Cary, Joyce 132, 166 131 Caserio, Robert 14 British Telecom 112 Castro, Fidel 107, 215 Brockriede, Wayne 18 Caudwell, Christopher 119 Brontë, Charlotte 173, 182–3 Caute, David 1, 6, 13, 15–16, 125, 135, Brooke-Rose, Christine 59, 142 140–1, 167 Brookner, Anita 46, 89, 130, 148, 163, Cawelti, John 87, 90 171, 205, 209 Ceaus˛escu, Nicolae 33 Brophy, Brigid 35, 97, 142, 148, 244n censorship 29, 48, 57 Brown, Alec 138, 142 Central African Federation of Rhodesia Brunner, John 59, 137 and Nyasaland 154 Brussels Treaty (1948) 4, 21, 213 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) 6–8, Brzezinski, Zbigniew 3 19, 25, 38–9, 82, 85, 96–100, 104, 110, Buchan, John 86, 92, 101, 107, 156, 113, 190, 195–6 252n, 260n Césaire, Aimé 175 Buchenwald 11 Ceylon 93, 153; see Sri Lanka Bulgaria 44, 87 Chad 3, 13 Burgess, Anthony 8, 13, 27–8, 32–5, Chaplin, Charlie, 107, 227n 37–8, 41–2, 71, 88, 93, 130, 142, 159, Chaplin, Sid 125–7, 267n 164, 167, 193, 195, 198, 201–2, 204–6, Chatwin, Bruce 46–9, 164, 235n, 246n 209–12, 222n, 224n, 244n, 279n, CHEKA 82 291n, 293n, 296n, 301n, 302n Chekhov, Anton 47 Burgess, Guy, 84, 96, 110–11 Chernobyl 54 Burma 153, 156–8, 162 Cheyney, Peter 86 Burns, Alan 143 Chiang Kai-shek 11 Butler, R.A. 118 Childers, Erskine 86 Byatt, A.S. 130, 163 Childs, Peter 111 Chile 3, 97, 107, 178, 188 Callaghan, James 22, 42, 69 Chilton, Paul 76 Cambodia 97, 162, 195 China 2, 10, 12, 23, 25, 28, 33, 40, Cambridge Five 84, 96 42–3, 59, 67, 111, 159, 164, 189 Camp, William 122 Chomsky, Noam 3 Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament Christianity 21–2, 144, 147, 197 (CND) 59, 67, 69, 78–9, 85, 190 Christmas Island 71 campus novel 12, 199–200, 203–4, Churchill, Winston 4, 9, 20–1, 28, 42, 206, 209 53, 67, 75, 154–5, 187, 189 Camus, Albert 132 Church Rock 54 capitalism 2–4, 17, 21, 28, 34–5, 44, Circus 132 46–8, 107, 112, 116, 120, 123–4, 138, civil defence 53–5, 65 142–3, 145, 147, 149, 152, 188, 200, Civil Defence Act (1948) 53–4 206–9 Civil Defence Corps 54 Caribbean 16, 40, 109, 134, 153–4, Clifton, Merritt 63 168, 178–80, 182–3, 196–7; see Coal Board 132, 136 individual countries Cockin, Katharine 14 Index 315

Coe, Jonathan 70, 79, 92–3, 148, Cooper, William 38, 89, 91, 103, 124, 174–5 148, 167, 205, 265n, 299n, 303n Cold War 1–7, 10–14, 16, 18–23, 26–7, Coover, Robert 146 32, 40–2, 49–55, 69–71, 76, 81, 83–7, Cordle, Daniel 69 92, 106, 115–16, 121, 141, 146–7, Cornford, John 132 150–3, 155–6, 160, 164, 175–6, 185–6, Cornis-Pope, Marcel 15 188–93, 198, 205, 211–16; see cultural Corston, George 60 Cold War countdown fiction 60, 67 ‘Cold War’ 3–4, 25 Cournos, John 24 Colonial Development and Welfare Act Crimean War 20 (1945) 153 Croft, Andy 120–1, 132, 141 Colonial Development Cromie, Robert 56 Corporation 153 Crosland, Anthony 118 Colonial Information Policy Crossman, Richard 120, 211–12 Committee 153 Cross, Anthony 45 Colonial Liberator 134 Cuba 12, 33, 38, 100, 106–7, 196, 204 Colonial Office 71, 153, 196 2, 52, 100, 203–4, Comfort, Alex 59 215 Commission on CIA Activities 97–8 cultural Cold War 6–9, 24, 38–40, Committee of 100 12, 124 44–7, 120–1, 132, 145, 150, Common, Jack 127, 267n 187, 197 Commonwealth Immigrants Act Cunard, Nancy 132 (1962) 169–70 Cyprus 4, 13, 40, 85, 134, 154, 158–9, Commonwealth Immigrants Act 162, 171, 198 (1971) 169 Czechoslovakia 22, 35, 47–9, 107, 109, communism 6–7, 11–12, 18–23, 51, 118, 120 58–9, 78–81, 86, 93, 102, 107–8, 117, 123–4, 131–41, 154, 157, 159, 166, Dabydeen, David 180 188, 192, 195, 212–3 d’Aguiar, Fred 181 Communist Information Bureau Dahl, Roald 57 () 6 Daily Express 33, 79 Communist Party of Great Britain Daily Mail 30 (CPGB) 42, 78, 85, 116, 120–1, 125, Daily Telegraph 79, 117 131–41, 190, 192 Daily Worker 120, 132, 134 Communist Party Writers’ Group 42 Dalby, Simon 41 Compton-Burnett, Ivy 110, 122 Danchev, Alex 215 Concert of Europe 213 Dangarembga, Tsitsi 71, 183 ‘condition of England’ narrative 110; Darwin, John 152, 154 see ‘state-of-the-nation’ fiction Davie, Donald 173 Congo 3, 10, 52, 162, 195 Davies, Alistair 190 Connolly, Cyril 97 Davies, Stevie 185 Connor, Steven 15, 74, 141 Daylight 132 Conquest, Robert 22, 39, 97, 123, de Bernières, Louis 49, 236 259n, 294n decolonisation 10, 15–16, 151–69, Conrad, Joseph 158, 16 175–6, 178, 185–6, 216 containment 1–2, 4, 9, 12, 15, 18–50, Defense Intelligence Agency 82 53, 57, 59, 82, 96, 121, 152, 188, 215 Defoe, Daniel 155 containment discourse; see free-world de Gaulle, Charles 12, 160, 213 discourse Deighton, Len 87, 94, 99, 102, 110, Cooper, Alfred Duff 89 113, 191, 250n, 256n, 257n, 261n 316 Index

Delaney, Shelagh 59, 96 eastern bloc narratives 12, 31, 33–4, Dennis, Nigel 7 45, 204 Derrida, Jacques 56, 72, 145, 151 eastern European revolutions 14, 48–9 detective fiction 86, 142 Echo 176 détente 2, 4, 12–13, 19, 24, 32–41, Economist 104, 117 43–5, 52–3, 67, 84, 96, 164, 189, 205 Eden, Anthony 159, 160 détente fiction 35–6, 41, 96–7, 103 Edinburgh Fringe Festival 132 Deutscher, Isaac 25, 27 Edinburgh Review 125 Dhondy, Farrukh 176 Edmonds, Harry 24 Diacritics 55 Egleton, Clive 79, 86, 232n Dickens, Charles 132, 174 Egypt 4, 40, 71, 93, 154, 159–62, 164, Diego Garcia 215 174, 198 Diemert, Brian 49 Eisenhower, Dwight D. 19, 52, 110, Diggins, John 195 189 Directorate of Military Operations 166 83, 86 Eliot, T.S. 6, 59 disaster fiction; see nuclear fiction Elliott, Robert 28 Djibouti 162 Ellis Island 192 ‘D Notice’ System 84, 86, 104 Ellison, Ralph 184 Doctorow, E.L. 146 El Salvador 3, 198 Doherty, Len 132–5 Eluard, Paul 132 Dominica 185 Emecheta, Buchi 128–9, 134–6, 176, Dominican Republic 3, 108 181–4, 197, 268n Donne, John 5 Encounter 7, 39, 122 Dostoyevski, Fyodor 47 English Speaking Union 194 Doubleday 198 Eniwetok 61 Douglas, Ann 14 Enlightenment 8, 106, 141, 149, 151 Dowling, David 60 Enright, D.J. 7, 39, 57, 123, 164, Drabble, Margaret 13, 33–4, 38–9, 41, 173–4, 265n 91, 130, 141, 144, 148, 161, 163–4, Equiano, Olaudah 176 167, 170, 173, 175, 195, 214, 268n, Eritrea 162 286n, 298n escaper narratives 12, 129 Driberg, Tom 27 espionage 5, 9, 29, 34, 58–9, 82–9, 91, Dubcˇek, Alexander 118 93–4, 97–8, 101–2, 104, 106–7, 110, Dulles, Allen 110 115–16, 215 Dunn, Nell 64, 128, 130, 163, 173 espionage fiction; see spy fiction Durrell, Claude 280n Esty, Jed 8 Durrell, Lawrence 8, 31, 42, 88–9, Ethiopia 3, 162 97, 114, 142, 144, 160–2, 164, Europe 7, 32, 39, 48, 62, 70, 85, 89, 170, 175, 178, 184, 214, 224n, 104, 106, 109, 111, 115, 133, 152–4, 273n 157, 159–61, 168, 175, 182–3, 187–8, dystopian fiction 12, 27–32, 41, 60–1, 204, 211; see individual countries 86, 104–6, 112, 137, 206, 208, 210 European Coal and Steel Community 213 Eagleton, Mary 121, 125 European Economic Community (EEC) Eagleton, Terry 9, 140 3, 12, 118, 160, 188, 213–14 Easlea, Brian 66 eastern bloc 4, 6, 9, 16, 19, 20–5, 32–6, Faber and Faber 25 41, 53, 94, 110, 121, 176, 189, 206; Fabianism 140 see individual countries Fadeyev, Alexander 133 Index 317

Falkland Islands (Malvinas) 85, 154, Frayn, Michael 34–5, 39, 60, 93, 97, 214 109, 113, 115, 149, 171, 203, 224n, Fanon, Frantz 175, 179 232n, 285n Farjeon, J. Jefferson 57 Freeman, Ted 15 Farrell, J.G. 40, 46, 76, 130, 166 Freemantle, Brian 87, 110 Farrell, Thomas 56 free-world discourse 1, 19, 27, 31–2, Faulks, Sebastian 42, 210 38, 43–4, 48–9, 107, 147 Federal Bureau of Investigation Fuchs, Klaus 58 (FBI) 82, 97, 107, 193 Federation of Worker Writers & Gabon 171 Community Publishers 135 Gaddis, John Lewis 3, 20, 152 Federman, Raymond 142 Gainham, Sarah 109 fellow-travellers 7, 36–7, 39, 44, Gaitskell, Hugh 118 116–17 Gallie, Mena 127–8 Fiedler, Leslie 191 Gambia 153 Figes, Eva 143 Gandhi, Mohandas K. 28 Financial Times 22 Gardner, John 97, 232n Firewood 135 Garfield, Brian 45 First Arab-Israeli War (1948–49) 166 Ga˛siorek, Andrzej 14 First World War 83, 97, 100, 107, 140 Gee, Maggie 73–7, 79, 81, 173, 185, Firth, Anthony 97 238n Fitzgerald, Penelope 42–3, 46–8, 235n, General Strike (1926) 20, 117 252n George, Peter 59, 67, 70, 244n Fitz Gibbon, Constantine 29–31, 79, Germany 4, 22, 24–5, 30, 32, 38, 42, 132, 162, 258n 46, 48, 86, 88, 108–11, 114, 133, 161, Fleming, Ian 86, 94, 101–2, 113, 218n, 189, 201 252n, 256n, 262n, 266n Gerry, Thomas 56 Fleming, Peter 27, 256n, 258n, 293n Ghana 164; see Gold Coast Foot, Michael 211 Ghose, Zulfikar 176 Ford, Gerald 32, 97–8 Gibraltar 93 Foreign Office 4, 20–1, 32, 60, 84, Gilroy, Beryl 178–82 87–9, 187, 211 Gilroy, Paul 180, 295n Fore Publications 132 Gindin, James 7, 15, 192 Formosa Strait Crisis (1954) 52 god-that-failed novel 12, 125, 145 Forrest, David 35 Gold Coast 153, 162; see Ghana Forster, E.M. 23, 28, 90, 120, 167, Gold, Harry 58 175 Golding, William 27, 60, 73, 93, Forsyth, Frederick 86, 191 141–2, 149, 159, 163, 166, 170, Foucault, Michel 145, 151 173, 200, 202, 205–7, 221n, 227n, Fowler, Bridget 90 240n, 249n, 279n, 293n Fowles, John 8, 31, 76, 88, 131, Gollancz, Victor 25, 120 141–2, 144, 148, 162, 198, 203, Gorbachev, Mikhail 2, 42 206, 210, 227n, 241n, 244–5n, Gottlieb, Erika 16, 31 262n, 270n Government Communications Fox, Pamela 124 Headquarters (GCHQ) 83–5 Fox, Ralph 119–20 Grant, Matthew 54 Frame, Janet 289–90n Granta 147 France 38, 42, 45, 86, 114, 135–6, Grassic Gibbon, Lewis 119, 132–3 139–40, 152, 160, 162, 195, 213 Graves, Robert 204 Franco, Jean 15 4, 21 318 Index

Green, Henry 138 Hewison, Robert 190 Greene, Graham 3, 8, 13, 24, 41, 76, hibakusha 59, 75 87–9, 91, 96, 99–100, 107–10, 113, Hill, Christopher 135 125, 132, 157, 159, 163–4, 173, 192, Hill, John 124 195, 197–8, 200, 205, 212, 214, 229n, Hillegas, Mark 28 253n, 256n, 259–60n, 262n, 296n Hinde, Thomas 122–3, 186 Greenham Common 70, 74, 80 Hines, Barry 128, 214, 230n Greenpeace 80 Hiroshima 11, 52, 57, 61–3, 66, 73 Greenwood, Sean 4 88, 140, 147 Greenwood, Walter 119, 127 Hitler, Adolf 20, 27 Grenada 4 Hoban, Russell 70, 77–8 Grice, Frederick 125 Hoggart, Richard 128, 190 Griffith, George 56 Holmes, Frederick 145 Griffiths, John 61 Holtby, Winifred 120 Groom, Pelham 57 Hong Kong 40, 156–7, 186, 215 Guardian 22, 73 Horn, Adrian 190 Guatemala 4, 198 Hosain, Attia 176 10, 215 Household, Geoffrey 87, 252n Gunn, Tom 39, 123, 173, 265n House Un-American Activities Gurnah, Abdulrazak 176, 181–2, 290n Committee (HUAC) 193 Guyana 40, 176, 178–9, 182, 196–7; Howe, Irvine 116 see British Guiana Hughes, Ted 7 GPU 82 Humm, Maggie 183 Hungary 12, 22, 30, 38, 120, 122, Hackett, John 69 135–6, 139, 160, 178 Haggard, Henry Rider 156 Hunt, E. Howard 98 Haiti 107, 162 Huntington, Samuel 49 Hall, Adam 87, 96, 254n Hutcheon, Linda 142 Hall, Stuart 59 Huxley, Aldous 27, 30, 57, 60–1, 204 Halliwell, Kenneth 96, 123, 244n Hammond, Andrew 16 Illegal Immigration Intelligence Hanley, Gerald 96, 156–9, 164 Unit 169 Hanley, James 127, 267n imperialism 10, 12, 20–1, 117, Hardie, Keir 137 120, 134, 147–8, 151–86, 188, Hard Rock 55 196, 198 Harper, Frederick 132 India 22, 40, 71, 89, 96, 120, 134, Harris, Wilson 71, 176, 182, 185 153, 156–8, 162, 164, 166, 175–6, Hartley, L.P. 27–9, 60, 90, 96, 101, 121, 182–3, 185 130, 149, 200, 241n, 252–3n Indonesia 4, 22 Harvey, John 123 Information Research Department Hattersley, Roy 42 (IRD) 22–3, 25–7, 41, 78–9, 98, Haywood, Ian 126, 138 110, 134, 192, 211–12 Head, Dominic 14–15, 167 Inglis, Fred 5, 15 Healey, Denis 118 Inner London Education Authority Heath, Edward 94, 118, 169, 189, 213 (ILEA) 135, 179 Hegel, Georg 122 intelligence state 6, 9, 82–8, 91, Heinemann, Margot 136 102–16, 216 Helsinki Accords (1975) 32–3 Intermediate Nuclear Forces Treaty Henty, G.A. 163 (1987) 81 Heseltine, Michael 3 International Labour Party 117 Index 319

International Monetary Fund Karl, Frederick 7 (IMF) 118, 152, 160, 188 Kashmir 162 International Union of Students 134 Kavan, Anna 68 invasion novels 24, 86 Keats, John 175 Iran 4, 22, 41, 85, 153, 158, 166, 171, Keen, Suzanne 161 178, 189, 215 Keenaghan, Eric 16 Irangate 10 Kelman, James 128, 140, 150, 203 Iraq 158–9, 162, 166, 215 Kennan, George F. 18–21, 28, 31–2, 50 Irish Republican Army (IRA) 78–80 Kennedy, John F. 19, 189 Iron Curtain 5, 9, 11–12, 21, 39, 42, Kennedy, Robert 12 48–9, 106, 121, 154, 187, 190 Kenner, Hugh 8 Isherwood, Christopher 8, 13, 31, 38, Kenya 3–4, 10, 107, 153–4, 158–9, 125, 142, 193, 203–5, 208–10, 274n, 162, 178 299n KGB 82 Ishiguro, Kazuo 42, 70, 167, 181, 241n, Khrushchev, Nikita 2, 4, 29, 35, 100, 296n 110, 152 Israel 3, 71, 96, 107, 160–1, 166–7 Kiernan, V.G. 4 42, 135, 140, 214 Kinnock, Neil 119 Ivie, Robert 35–6 Kipling, Rudyard 86, 156, 163 Kirk, John 126, 129 Jamaica 154, 176 Kissinger, Henry 2, 43, 198 James, C.L.R. 134, 176, 192 ‘’ 35 Jameson, Fredric 27, 61, 145 Kitchener, Horatio Herbert 164 Jameson, Storm 27, 31, 109, 119–21, Klaus, H. Gustav 141 144, 149, 170, 198 Klein, Richard 73 JanMohamed, Abdul 155 Knight, Stephen 128 Japan 42, 57, 61, 67, 156–7, 166 Koestler, Arthur 5, 7, 22, 31, 38–9, 120, Jenkins, Peter 189 186 Jhabvala, Ruth Prawer 91, 164, 182–3, Korea 4, 23, 85, 189, 215 185, 206, 288n 3, 10–11, 13–14, 22, 52–3, John Lewis Partnership 23 111, 189, 195, 212 Johnson, B.S. 143, 148, 173 Kovacˇevic’, Nataša 49 Johnson, Lyndon 19, 32 Kremlin 5, 19, 29, 44, 50, 54, 198–9 Johnson, Pamela Hansford 24, 34, 39, Kureishi, Hanif 49, 181, 216, 264n, 68, 79–80, 91, 110, 120, 122, 146, 284n, 289n, 295n 148, 163, 167, 199–200, 202–3, 209, Kuwait 166 294n Kyle, Keith 160 Johnson, Thomas L. 176 Joint Intelligence Committee 106 Labour Party 9, 20, 23, 26, 29–30, 39, Jonathan Cape 25 59, 69, 117–20, 124, 131, 134, 141, Jones, Claudia 134, 192 168–9, 190 Jones, Lewis 119, 127, 132 Laing, Stuart 128 Jones, Mervyn 59–60, 137 Lambert, Dave 132 Jordan 4, 153, 159, 166, 189, 215 Lamming, George 134, 176–8, 182, Josipovici, Gabriel 14 184, 197 Juraga, Dubravka 16 Laos 195 Larkin, Philip 39, 63, 123, 163, 184, Kádár, János 30 190, 265n Kafka, Franz 31, 134 Larsen, Neil 8 Kaldor, Mary 5–6 Lashmar, Paul 23 320 Index

Laski, Harold 23 Loomba, Ania 180 Latin America 2, 94–5, 105, 175, 196; Los Alamos 52, 55, 67 see individual countries Lowry, Malcolm 132, 299n Lawrence and Wishart 132, 134–5 Lucky Dragon Incident 54 Lawrence, D.H. 134 Luxembourg 213 Lazarus, Emma 43 Lyotard, Jean-François 141, 151 Lazarus, Neil 174–5 Lytton-Bulwer, Edward 20 League Against Imperialism 134 Lytton, David 167 Leavis, F.R. 15, 173–4 Leavis, Q.D. 174 Macaulay, Rose 13, 63, 109, 114–15, Lebanon 3–4, 13, 166, 188, 215 164, 256n le Carré, John 87, 93–4, 96, 101–2, Macaulay, Thomas 183 110, 113, 252n, 254–5n MacDiarmid, Hugh 131 Left Book Club 120 MacInnes, Colin 7, 13, 88–9, 91, 113, Left Review 119 125, 130, 164, 171–2, 175, 185, 190, Lehmann, John 120, 127 230n, 286n Lee, A. Robert 170 MacKay, Marina 8, 15 Lee-Browne, Patrick 15 Mackenzie, Compton 89, 97, 122, 163, Lee, Laurie 170, 200 209, 256n Lenin, V.I. 43, 80, 95, 152, 212 Maclean, Donald 84, 96, 110–11 Le Queux, William 86, 93, 101, 107, Macmillan, Harold 4, 23, 29, 32, 78, 252n, 256n, 258n 93, 118, 124, 154, 160, 169, 185, Lermontov, Mikhail 47 189–90, 215 Lessing, Doris 4, 7–8, 10–11, 13, 25, magic realism 44, 88, 137, 149, 206 37, 40, 42–3, 59, 68, 71–3, 80–1, 89, Mahjoub, Jamal 181 123, 132, 135–6, 159, 167, 185, 193–4, Major, Patrick 6, 16, 215 205, 212–13, 232n, 233n, 239n, 250n, Makarenko, Anton 133 292n, 302n Malak, Amin 184 Levy, Andrea 185 Malaya 3–4, 14, 22, 85, 107, 153, 156, Lewis, Bernard 16 158–9, 162, 164, 198 Lewis, C.S. 27 Malayan ‘Emergency’ 14, 153, 164 Lewis, Cecil Day 131–2 171 Lewis, Norman 5, 8, 93, 159, 198 Manhattan Project 52, 57 189, 198, 215 Manning, Olivia 8, 30–1, 89, 121, 132, Lifton, Robert Jay 67 158, 162, 164, 167, 174 Lindsay, Jack 133–5, 272n Mannix, Patrick 54, 63, 81 Linklater, Eric 294n 12, 33, 44, 106 Littlewood, Joan 132 37, 171 Litvinenko, Alexander 115 Maralinga 71 Lively, Penelope 7, 11, 42, 69–70, 144, Markandaya, Kamala 176 148, 161, 163–4, 167, 173, 194, 200 Marshall, Bruce 24, 65, 109 Lockhart, Bruce 102 Marshall, H.E. 164 Lodge, David 37, 41, 89, 148, 173, Marshall Islands 61 175, 184, 193, 199, 200–1, 209, 255n, Marshall Plan 2, 4, 188 296n, 298n Marson, Una 176 London 23, 25, 62–3, 78–80, 84, 90–1, Maschler, Tom 123 99, 127, 129, 134–5, 143, 148, 171–2, Mass Observation 64 177, 179–80, 201 Masters, John 96, 156–8, 164 London School of Economics (LSE) 23 Masuji, Ibuse 56 Longmans 127 Martin, Kingsley 27 Index 321

Marxism 7, 9, 27, 31, 36, 38–9, 44, 48, Mo, Timothy 40, 181–2 80, 85, 95, 106, 118, 124–5, 128, 132, modernism 8–9, 27, 115, 133–4, 141–2, 134–7, 139, 142, 144–6, 151 145, 150, 178 Marx, Karl 129, 144, 171 Monte Bello Islands 71 Maud Committee 57 Mooney, Bel 49, 236n Maugham, W. Somerset 87, 256n, Moore, Henry 23 266n Morgan, Kenneth O. 119, 191 Mauritius 154, 215 Morgan, Kevin 135 Maus, Derek 16 Morning Star 97 May, Elaine Tyler 35 Morris, Edita 59 McCarthy, Joseph 11–12, 192, 207 Morris, William 132–3 McCarthyism 6, 15, 23, 25, 121, 178, Morrison, Jago 14 192–3, 209 Moscow 4, 18, 20, 35, 37, 42–3, 46, 84, McCormick, Donald 96–8 117, 134 McEwan, Ian 13, 49, 70, 79, 81, 89, Mossadeq, Mohammed 22, 85, 153 91, 110–12, 115, 130, 141, 144, 167, ‘Movement’ 123, 173–4 232n, 246n, 258n Mozambique 3 McEwan, Neil 108 muhjahidin 43, 85 McHale, Brian 150 Mullins, Chris 113 McIllvanney, William 76, 128, 137–9 Munro, Hugh 125 McLeod, John 181 Murdoch, Iris 7, 12, 45–6, 65, 68, 89, McMahon Act (1946) 52 91, 93, 109, 125, 141, 144, McMahon, Joseph 140 148, 163–4, 170, 173, McMinnies, Mary 159 233n, 264n Medhurst, Martin 18 Mutual Security Administration 188 Mensheviks 37 Menworth Hill 85 Nabokov, Vladimir 81 Meredith, Christopher 128 Nadel, Alan 9 Merril, Judith 56 Nagasaki 52, 57, 61, 70 Merz, Caroline 15 Naipaul, Shiva 109, 182, 197 Metternich, Klemens von 3 Naipaul, V.S. 176–8, 181, 184, 196–7 MI5 23, 83–5, 88–9, 96, 106, 112, 119 Nasser, Gamal Abdul 85, 159–60, 215 MI6 7, 22, 82–5, 96, 102, 104, 107–8, Nathanson, Charles 31 110–11 National Association for the Teaching of Michael, Livi 150 English (NATE) 135 Middle East 10, 20, 22, 40–1, 70, 83, National Association of Evangelicals 19 96, 133, 153, 158, 160, 164, 166–7, National Council for Civil Liberties 85 174, 184, 189; see individual countries National Front 179 Militant Tendency 119 National Health Service Act (1946) 117 Miller, Arthur 272n National Insurance Act (1946) 117 Miller, Karl 191 Nationality Act (1948) 168–9, 172 Miller, Walter M. 56 National Security Agency 82, 97 Milton, John 174 Naughton, Bill 125, 127–8, 267n Ministry of Information 25, 91 Nazi-Soviet Pact (1939) 20 Mitchell, Adrian 105–6, 212, 248n, near-war narratives 60 258n neo-barbarian fiction 61, 68, 77–8 Mitchison, Naomi 137, 264n Neruda, Pablo 132–3 Mitford, Nancy 13, 122, 163, 214 Neubauer, John 15 Mittelholzer, Edgar 176 Netherlands 135, 152 Mitter, Rana 6, 16, 215 New Beacon Press 176 322 Index

New Criticism 8–9 Oliver, James 23 New Left 25, 137 Olympic Games 42 New Statesman 38, 55, 59 Oman 85, 166 New Writing 120 Onega, Susana 149 New Zealand 164 Operation Barbarossa (1941) 20 Newby, P.H. 11, 161–2, 164, 171, 174, Operation Gold (1955–56) 110–11 227n Operation Square Leg (1980) 55 Newman, Bernard 79 Operation Valuable (1947–49) 85 Newman, C.J. 230n Oppenheimer, J. Robert 55–6, 66 News of the World 79 Organisation for European Economic Ngu˜gı˜ wa Thiong’o 134, 175–6, 183–4, Co–Operation (OEEC) 4 291n orientalism 20, 27, 44, 160–1, 164–5, Nicaragua 3, 41, 107, 189, 198, 215 167, 175 Nichols, Grace 181, 196–7 Ortega, Ramón López 127, 139 Nigeria 128–9, 153, 157–8, 162, 164–5, Orwell, George 13, 23, 25–7, 30–1, 39, 182 51, 89, 104, 132, 148, 151, 159, 164, Nixon, Richard 2, 19, 32, 35, 40 185, 189, 198, 201, 239n, 258n, 267n, NKVD 30, 82, 88 297n Non-Aligned Movement 3, 152 ‘Orwellian’ 25, 30, 53, 102 Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968) 4, 52 Orton, Joe 13, 79, 96, 123, 130, 244n North American Spy Ring 58 Osborne, John 59, 122, 124, 261n, North Atlantic Treaty 4, 189, 211–12 265n North Atlantic Treaty Organization 32 (NATO) 4, 29, 52–3, 69, 78, 87 Ottoman Empire 100–1 Northern Ireland 78, 85 Our Time 132 Norway 213 Outline of Future Policy 53 Notting Hill Carnival 132 nuclear anxiety 6, 9, 15, 51, 53, 56, Padmore, George 134, 176 63–72, 74, 81 Painter, David 2, 12, 151 nuclear blackmail narratives 60 Pakistan 43, 153, 171, 185 Nuclear Criticism 55–6, 63–4, 67, 81 Palestine 4, 85, 153, 158–9, 161–2, nuclear family 69, 74–5, 92 164, 166–7, 198, 214 nuclear sabotage novels 60 Palmer, David 14 nuclear shelter fiction 12 Palmerston, Henry John Temple 20 nuclear technologies 1–4, 9–12, 16, Panama 107, 215 20, 25, 29, 39, 51–55, 60, 62–3, 67, Panek, LeRoy L. 107 72, 74–7, 82, 88, 118, 147, 189, 195, Paraguay 108 215–16 Parker, Steven 15 nuclear testing narratives 60 Parkes, Lucas 57 nuclear war fiction 56–81, 86 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty nukespeak 55, 76–7 (1963) 4, 52 Nunn May, Alan 58 Pasternak, Boris 39, 132 Nyasaland 163 Peace News 23 Peace Pledge Union 60, 63 Observer 22 peace movement 29, 43, 69–70, 74, O’Casey, Sean 132 78–81 Office of Strategic Services 82 Peake, Mervyn 164 Official Secrets Acts 84, 86, 96, 115 Penguin 191 3 Phelan, Jim 132 Okri, Ben 181 Philby, Kim 83–4, 96, 104–5, 107 Index 323

Phillips, Caryl 40, 181–3, 197, 210, Quebec Agreement (1943) 52 289n, 295n Quin, Ann 143 Phillips, Mike 181 Phoenix House 22 Rabinovitz, Rubin 7 Pierce, David 121, 125 Race Relations Act (1976) 178 Pierre, D.P.C. 236n Race Relations Bill (1968) 169 Piette, Adam 16 racism 31, 38, 41, 62, 156, 159, 162, Pietz, William 20, 26 164–6, 168–75, 177–80, 183, 194–5, Pincher, Chapman 86 209 Poland 22, 35, 85, 98 Radcliffe Report (1962) 85, 106 Political Warfare Executive 22 Radical Students’ Alliance 38 Popular Front 117, 135 Radio Free Europe 19 Porter, Bernard 86, 188 Radio Liberation 19 Portland Spy Ring 84 Randhawa, Ravinder 71, 79, 181 Portugal 100, 107, 152, 214 Raven, Simon 8, 39–40, 42, 79, 89, 91, postcolonialism 9–10, 14, 16, 23, 49, 96, 103, 114, 130, 158–9, 161, 175, 109, 134–5, 151, 156, 175–87, 209 184, 199, 201, 214, 218n, 237n, 239n, post-imperial fiction 12, 156–86, 198 269n, 283n postmodernism 10, 44, 101, 112–13, Rawnsley, Gary 50 116, 119, 121, 140–51, 174–5, 185, reactor disaster narratives 60 191, 205 Reader’s Digest 205 postmodernity 14, 56, 116 Reagan, Ronald 2, 19, 23, 32, 41–2, 44, post-revisionist historiography 3 52, 69, 189, 198 poststructuralism 8, 145–6 realist historiography 1–2 Potter, Dennis 130 Red Army 30 Powell, Anthony 13, 37–40, 46, 63, 89, 42 104, 125, 130, 162–3, 170, 198, 201, Red Letters 135 205, 256–7n, 299n Reilly, Patrick 26 Powell, Enoch 169–70 revisionist historiography 2–3 47 Revolutionary Marxist-Leninist Pratt, Mary Louise 177 League 106 25 Riley, Joan 181 Price, Anthony 94 Rimbaud, Arthur 175 Priest, Christopher 62, 79 Rhys, Jean 149, 182–3, 185 Priestley, J.B. 13, 31, 59, 88, 113, 125, Riordan, Colin 15 130, 149, 161, 190, 194, 203, 205, Roberts, Frank 20 210, 214, 227n, 262n, 265n, 302n Robertson, Kenneth 100 Profumo Affair 114 Rogachevskii, Andrei 15 propaganda 4, 6–7, 16, 18–50, 82, Rohmer, Sax 262 94–5, 98, 107, 109, 113–14, 116, 126, Romania 31, 33, 87 133, 136, 144, 146, 160, 187, 211–12 romanticism 55–6, 77, 148 Protect and Survive 55 Roosevelt, Franklin D. 187 Protestantism 19 Rosenberg, Bruce 87, 90 Psychological Strategy Board 19 Roshwald, Mordecai 56, 59 Puerto Rico 191 Ross, Jean 61 Punjab 164 (RAF) 53, 67, 70 Pushkin, Alexander 47 Rubens, Bernice 92, 130, 175 Pym, Barbara 88–9, 163, 171, 184, 200, Ruff, Ivan 113 205 Rushdie, Salman 49, 144, 148, 155–6, Pynchon, Thomas 146 164, 176–7, 181, 184–5, 232n, 277n 324 Index

Russell, Bertrand 7, 22, 59–60, 78, Shaw, George Bernard 227n 240n Shaw, Robert 161 Russia 16, 20, 23, 45–7, 56, 86, 158; Shaw, Eric 188 see Soviet Union Sheffield Peace Conference 42 Russia Committee 22 Shelley, Percy Bysshe 132, 174 20, 25, 45, 139–40 shelter fiction 60 Ruthven, Ken 56, 62–3 Sherif, Ann 15 shock-lit 130 Sabin, Philip 60, 69 Shute, Nevil 56 Sahgal, Nayantara 185 Sidgwick & Jackson 69 Said, Edward 178 Siebers, Tobin 8–9, 146 Salkey, Andrew 71, 176–7, 182–4, 194, Sierra Leone 107, 162 197–8, 288n Sillitoe, Alan 3, 13, 42–3, 59, 65–6, 67, Sancho, Ignatius 176, 184 71, 78, 89–91, 96, 113, 121–2, 125–8, satire 35–6, 45, 96–7, 103 130, 140, 149, 159, 161, 164, 167, Saunders, Frances Stonor 7, 22 173, 195, 230n, 238n, 243n, 267n, , John 135 279n Scanlan, Margaret 15 Simon, David 181 Schapiro, Leonard 2 Sinclair, Andrew 59, 167, 241n, 291n Scheick, William J. 75–6 Sinclair, Clive 42, 91, 144, 206 School of Slavonic Studies 23 Sinfield, Alan 15, 30 Schwarz, Bill 155 Singapore 154, 156, 166, 198 Schwenger, Peter 72–3, 81 Sitwell, Edith 132 science fiction 60, 86, 142, 157 Smith, Herbert 132–4 Scott, Paul 92, 105, 148, 157–9, 164, Smith, Zadie 185 170, 178, 278n Smollett, Peter 25 Scott, Robert L. 18 Snow, C.P. 12, 37, 57–60, 70, 89–90, Seacole, Mary 176, 184–5 96, 103–4, 110, 115, 121, 130, 167, Secker and Warburg 25, 139 175, 195, 199, 209, 231n, 247n, Second World War 2, 4–5, 13–14, 18, 258n, 303n 20–1, 50, 57, 61, 63, 65, 83, 88–91, socialism 1, 9–10, 26, 49–50, 58, 117, 120–1, 132, 136, 142, 152, 157, 116–21, 142–3, 145, 150, 166, 192, 160, 164, 168, 179, 187, 190, 194, 210, 216 196, 201, 209, 215 socialist fiction 50, 59, 119–21, 128, Secret Intelligence Service (SIS); 131–42, 143, 150 see MI6 Socialist Leader 23 secret services 1, 5–6, 9, 12, 16, 22–3, socialist realism 6, 8–9, 31, 38–9, 45, 25, 82–9, 91, 93–4, 97–8, 102–15, 119, 47, 145, 187, 201, 210 146, 216 Soddy, Frederick 55 Security Service Bill (1988) 112 Solzhenitsyn, Aleksandr 39, 69 Selvon, Sam 71, 109, 134–5, 161, Somalia 157 176–8, 181–2, 184, 194, 196–7, 270n, Sommerfield, John 125, 127, 132 288–9n Sontag, Susan 63–4 Senate Select Committee on Sorabji, Alice 176 Intelligence 97–8 Sorabji, Cornelia 176 Senghor, Leopold 185 South Africa 11, 42, 71, 162 Seton–Watson, Hugh 22 Southern Rhodesia 42–3, 154, 163–4; Seven 132 see Zimbabwe Seychelles 184 Soviet Union 1–6, 11–12, 18–51, 53–4, Shakespeare, William 173, 270n 57–9, 68–9, 78–9, 82–5, 87, 96–7, Index 325

107–10, 114–15, 120–1, 124, 135, 145, Sunday Express 22 151–3, 159–60, 162, 169, 187–9, 192, Sunday Pictorial 84 210–11, 214, 216; see Russia survivalist fiction 12, 60 Sovietology 23 Sutherland, J.A. 191 Soyinka, Wole 176 Sweden 161 space exploration 10, 17 Swift, Graham 88, 144, 210, 214 Spain 42, 152, 214 Swingler, Randall 132–3, 135 Spanish Civil War 25 Swinton, Ernest 256 Spark, Muriel 8, 11–13, 37, 40–1, 43, Switzerland 89 88–9, 96, 99, 102–3, 110, 115, 148, Symons, Julian 99 159, 163–4, 167, 194, 203, 206, 209, Syndicalist Worker Federation 106 214, 256n, 266n Special Air Service (SAS) 215 Tanganyika 153 Special Branch 83, 85–6 Tanner, Tony 146 Special Operations Executive (SOE) 22, Tanzania 154 39, 82, 89, 97 TASS 42 Spender, Stephen 7, 120, 131, 212 Taylor, A.J.P. 59 Spring Offensive 69, 78 Taylor, D.J. 14, 149–50, 201 Spurr, David 182 Taylor, Elizabeth 68, 89–90, 97, 121, spy fiction 9, 12, 86–116, 142, 191 130, 148, 161, 173, 244n, 286n Sri Lanka 197; see Ceylon Taylor, John Russell 120 SS Empire Windrush 168 Teddy Boys 37 Stafford, David 88, 107 Telegraph 22 Stakhanovite movement 43 Teller, Edward 60, 66–7 Stalin, Joseph 4, 6, 10, 20, 27–8, 38, Tennant, Emma 41, 71–3, 77, 130, 167, 43–4, 120, 135, 178, 193 232n, 258n, 259n Stapledon, Olaf 119 Tennyson, Alfred 55, 204 ‘state-of-the-nation’ fiction 87; see Thatcher, Margaret 5, 23, 42, 44, 47, ‘condition of England’ narrative 110 53, 69, 78, 80, 86, 112, 119, 124, 147, Stead, Christina 120 155, 164, 169, 188 Steiner, George 178 The Times 3 Stephanson, Anders 20 Themerson, Stefan 143 Stevenson, Randall 15 third way politics 10, 95, 192, 211–16 Stevenson, Robert Louis 107 Third World 2–4, 10, 22, 41, 50, 86, Stockholm International Peace Research 164, 166, 171, 178, 188–9, 196–7, 215 Institute 51 Thomas, D.M. 7, 40–1, 144, 167, 206, Stoker, Bram 44 209, 227n, 230–1n Stonebridge, Lyndsey 8, 15 Thomas, Dylan 132 Storey, David 91, 125–7, 136, 267n Thomas, Hugh 162 Strategic Arms Limitation Talks Thompson, E.P. 135 (SALT) 42, 44, 52, 69 Three Mile Island 54 Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty Time 207 (1991) 81 Tito, Josip Broz 39, 120 Strategic Defense Initiative 19, 52 Tolstoy, Leo 47 Strath Report (1955) 53, 60 Torrijos, Omar 107 Sudan 159 Torrington, Jeff 150 Suez Crisis (1956) 12–14, 22, 93, 113, 9, 23, 26–7, 30–1, 34, 122, 159–62, 167, 189 44, 49, 60–1, 105, 121 Suez fiction 12, 161–2, 167 Townsend, Peter 129 Sukarno, Achmed 22, 85 Towry, Peter 122–3 326 Index

Toynbee, Philip 132 von Rosenberg, Ingrid 122, 125 trade unionism 20, 41, 117–9, 129, Vonnegut, Kurt 56, 146 132–3, 136, 138, 188, 196 Trades Union Congress (TUC) 118 Wain, John 7, 31, 36–9, 41, 110, transatlantic novel 12, 203–10 122–3, 130–1, 149, 171, 173, 184, 190, Tremain, Rose 42, 79, 149, 163, 167, 194, 200–3, 212, 298n 192, 210, 236n Walcott, Derek 184 Tressell, Robert 127, 132, 272n Wald, Alan 141 Trevor-Roper, Hugh 7 Wallace, Doreen 61 40, 154, 176, 192, Wang Lingzen 15 196–7 ‘war on terror’ 16, 49, 215–16 44, 85, 106, 119 Ward, Stuart 155 Truman Doctrine 2, 19, 21, 88 Wark, Wesley K. 89 Truman, Harry S. 19, 28, 30, 55 Warner, Rex 119 Turgenev, Ivan 47 Warner, Sylvia Townsend 121, 132, 135 Turkey 21 Warsaw Pact 2, 33, 42, 87, 110 Twentieth Century 7 Wasafiri 176 Twentieth Congress of the Communist Watergate 84, 97–8 Party of the Soviet Union 2, 120, Waterhouse, Keith 90, 126–8, 130–1, 135–6 161, 170, 173, 205, 298n Tynan, Kenneth 150 Watt, Cameron 115 Waugh, Evelyn 24–5, 28, 41, 88–9, Uganda 154, 178 93, 97, 119, 122, 130, 162–4, Ukraine 85 166, 203, 205, 226n, 238n, United Nations 160, 171, 175 266n United States 1–11, 15–16, 18–21, Waugh, Patricia 15, 141–2 29–30, 32–3, 38, 41, 50–4, 58–61, Weathermen 12 67–9, 78, 82–3, 85, 87, 95–6, 99, Weber, Max 129 107–8, 110–11, 117, 133, 151–3, 158, Webster, Wendy 155, 168 160–1, 166, 169, 175, 186, 187–216 Weldon, Fay 13, 55, 70, 79, 88, 91, (USAF) 53, 67, 98–9, 110, 125, 130, 148, 163–4, 190, 215 167, 173, 206, 212, 214, 227n, United States Congress for Cultural 249n, 251n, 257n, 273n, 286n, Freedom (CCF) 6–7, 9, 39 302n United States Information Agency Welfare State 117–18, 120, 129, 19, 25 131, 133 Unsworth, Barry 13, 91–2, 100–1, 114, Wells, H.G. 55, 241n 137, 144, 164, 167–8, 174, 262n Welsh, Irvine 150 Unwin, David 156 Wesker, Arnold 12, 38, 59, 132, 137 Upward, Edward 119, 132, 137, West, Alick 119 264n West, Rebecca 31, 41, 45, 68, 88, utopianism 27–8, 31, 133, 147 93, 114–15, 130, 163, 198, 224n, 262n Varsori, Antonio 21 Western Samoa 154 Vassall, John 84, 110 Wheatley, Dennis 252n Vietminh 195 White, Brian 23, 32 Vietnam 3, 10–12, 15, 52, 85, 96, 107, Wibberley, Leonard 244n 161–2, 178, 189, 195–6 Wilde, Alan 150 Vietnam Solidarity Campaign 38 Wilford, Hugh 5 19, 25 Williams, Alan 96 Index 327

Williams, Eric 212 World Peace Council 78 Williams, Raymond 92, 104, 106, 113, Worpole, Ken 145 127, 129, 135, 137, 167, 190, 303n Wright, Patricia 45 Williams, Rhys W. 15 Wright, Peter 84 Wilson, Angus 7, 59, 88–9, 121, 132, Wright, Richard 184 141, 148, 157, 161, 163, 167, 170, Wyndham, John 27–8, 57, 71, 209, 214, 244n, 287n 206, 239n Wilson, Colin 265n Wilson, Elizabeth 150 Xiaomei Chen 15 Wilson, Harold 4, 23, 84, 110, 118, 154, 188–9, 215 212 Windscale 54 Yemen 3 Winterson, Jeanette 70–1, 129, 144, Yevtushenko, Yevgeny 197 147–9, 163 youth culture 37–8, 106, 171–2, 190 Woburn Abbey 102, 110 Yugoslavia 24, 31, 39, 41, 120 Women’s International Democratic Federation 78 Zambia 154 Woolf, Virginia 120, 134 Zhdanov, Andrei 6, 9, 38, 39, 132 working-class writing 121, 124, Zimbabwe 165; see Southern 125–33, 138, 141, 150, 178; see Rhodesia individual writers Zimmerman, Marc 15 World Bank 152, 188 Zubaida, Sami 129 World Federation of Trade Unions 134 Zuckerman, Solly 76