TRADITIONAL FOLK SONG in MODERN JAPAN 2240 Pre.Qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page Ii 2240 Pre.Qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page Iii
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2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page i TRADITIONAL FOLK SONG IN MODERN JAPAN 2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page ii 2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page iii TRADITIONAL FOLK SONG IN MODERN JAPAN SOURCES, SENTIMENT AND SOCIETY David W. Hughes SOAS, UNIVERSITY OF LONDON 2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page iv TRADITIONAL FOLK SONG IN MODERN JAPAN SOURCES, SENTIMENT AND SOCIETY David W. Hughes First published 2008 by GLOBAL ORIENTAL LTD PO Box 219 Folkestone Kent CT20 2WP UK www.globaloriental.co.uk © David W. Hughes 2008 ISBN 978–1–905246–65–6 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by anyelectronic, mechanical or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publishers. David W. Hughes has asserted his right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the Author of this work. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A CIP catalogue entry for this book is available from the British Library The Publishers and Author wish to thank the Great Britain-Sasakawa Foundation and SOAS, University of London, for their generous support in the making of this book. Set in Garamond 11.5 on 13pt by IDSUK (Data Connection) Ltd. Printed and bound in England by Antony Rowe Ltd., Chippenham, Wiltshire 2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page v to Gina, to Sue and Jerry Hughes, and to all ‘the folk’ of Japan 2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page vi 2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page vii C ONTENTS List of Musical Examples xiii List of Figures xv List of Tables xvii Stylistic conventions xxi Foreword xxiii Acknowledgements xxix 1. Folk song in Japan: the background 1.1 Introduction: The heart’s home town 1 1.2 The word min’yo- and its changing meaning 8 1.3 Scholars’ definitions of min’yo- 14 1.4 Min’yo- and minzoku geino- 19 1.5 The concept of zoku in Japanese music 20 1.6 Musical features of traditional min’yo- 26 1.6.1 Metre and rhythm 26 1.6.2 Instrumentation 29 1.6.3 Polyphony 30 1.6.4 Ornamentation 31 1.6.5 Voice quality 32 1.6.6 Lyrics 32 1.6.7 Text setting 34 1.6.8 Scale and mode 35 1.7 Folk song, fo-ku songu and enka 39 1.7.1 Fo-ku songu 39 1.7.2 Enka 42 1.8 Summary 45 2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page viii viii CONTENTS 2. Song and music in the traditional village 2.1 Introduction: The hamlet as primary social unit 49 2.2 Class divisions and music in the traditional village 50 2.2.1 Traditional rural class relations 50 2.2.2 Elitist music and community music 53 2.2.3 Regional variation 55 2.2.4 Folk song and social protest 56 2.3 The folk song repertoire in the traditional village 61 2.4 Folk song life in the traditional hamlet 64 2.4.1 Gender roles in Japanese music life 65 2.4.2 Song as part of ‘calendrical observances’ 66 2.4.3 Work songs 72 2.4.4 Party songs 76 2.4.5 Bawdy songs 78 2.4.6 Songs of itinerant musicians 81 2.4.7 The villager travels 85 2.5 Folk song performance and transmission 86 2.5.1 Institutionalized transmission 86 2.5.2 Owning and stealing songs 88 2.5.3 Improvisation and composition 90 2.6 Summary 97 3. Folk song in transition 3.1 Introduction 104 3.2 The emergence of urban folk song: enabling factors 105 3.3 The first modern folk song: ‘Esashi Oiwake’ 108 3.3.1 From ‘Oiwake Bushi’ to ‘Esashi Oiwake’ 108 3.3.2 ‘Esashi Oiwake’ greets the twentieth century 110 3.3.3 Standardization and after 113 3.4 The pre-war folk song world 118 3.4.1 The first ‘folk songs’ and their diffusion 118 3.4.2 Standardization of accompanying instruments 121 3.4.3 The first folk song ‘boom’: the New Folk Song 122 Movement 3.4.3.1 Introduction 122 3.4.3.2 Lyrics 128 3.4.3.3 Music 130 3.4.4 The first min’yo- professionals 137 3.5 The war years and after 142 3.6 Musical tastes in transition 144 3.7 Summary 147 2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page ix CONTENTS ix 4. The modern urban folk song world 4.1 Introduction 153 4.2 Social parameters of musical preference 153 4.3 Attitudes towards min’yo- 158 4.3.1 Negative attitudes 158 4.3.2 Positive attitudes 160 4.3.3 Some opinions from Iwate 162 4.4 Who are the professionals? 165 4.4.1 Numbers and geography 165 4.4.2 Recruitment 166 4.4.3 Sources of income 173 4.5 Formal teaching of folk song 174 4.5.1 The iemoto system 174 4.5.2 Musical notation 180 4.5.3 Culture Centres 184 4.6 The repertoire 185 4.6.1 Eastern songs, western songs 185 4.6.2 Repertoire expansion 188 4.6.3 Repertoire expansion: a case study 191 4.7 The folk song bar 192 4.8 The role of the media and the recording industry 196 4.8.1 Television and radio 196 4.8.2 The record companies 198 4.8.3 Other private companies 200 4.9 Urban min’yo- contests 201 4.10Summary 203 5. The modern countryside and the performing arts 5.1 Introduction 207 5.2 Hamlet identity and local rivalries 208 5.3 Performing arts in the villages and towns 211 5.4 Preservation societies 212 5.4.1 The origins of preservationism 212 5.4.2 The birth of the hozonkai notion 213 5.4.3 The first folk song preservation societies 214 5.4.4 Post-war examples 215 5.5 Local single-song contests 224 5.6 City vs country 229 5.7 Tradition, identity, authenticity 234 5.8 Summary 237 2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page x x CONTENTS 6. At the edges of the ‘folk song world’ 6.1 Introduction 241 6.2 Min’yo-, furusato and nostalgia 242 6.3 Min’yo- and community-building 246 6.4 The newest ‘New Folk Songs’ and (inter-)national identity 248 6.4.1 Introduction 248 6.4.2 Lyrics 251 6.4.3 Music 252 6.5 Folk music and international socialism: Warabiza 256 6.5.1 History of Warabiza 256 6.5.2 Warabiza’s interpretation of folk material 260 6.5.3 Creative activities of the early Warabiza 261 6.5.4 The impact of Warabiza 263 6.6 Min’yo- meets other musics 264 6.6.1 Min’yo- and other Japanese traditional genres 264 6.6.2 Min’yo- arranged as popular songs 265 6.6.3 Min’yo- referenced in enka 268 6.6.4 Min’yo- and Western classical music 269 6.7 Summary 271 7. Japanese folk song: retrospect, circumspect, prospect 7.1 Introduction 275 7.2 The Nihon Min’yo- Kyo-kai as exemplar of recent trends 278 7.3 Min’yo- meets Tsugaru-jamisen, wadaiko and Okinawan music 280 7.4 Other recent developments 285 7.4.1 Evolved purists 285 7.4.2 Evolved festivals 288 7.4.3 Folk dance 289 7.4.4 A fo-ku shinga- approaches min’yo- 290 7.4.5 Kikusuimaru and boundaries 291 7.5 Tradition and music education 292 7.6 Modernization, Westernization and tradition 297 7.7 The future of min’yo-: beyond identity and tradition 302 7.8 A few final vignettes 305 Appendix 1: Texts of shin-min’yo- and related popular songs 310 1.1 Older shin-min’yo- 310 1.2 Shin-min’yo- from 1977 to 1981 318 1.3 Min’yo--connected popular songs, old and new 325 2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page xi CONTENTS xi Appendix 2: Addresses related to min’yo- 332 Appendix 3: A marketing guide for min’yo- recordings 335 Bibliography 338 Audio-Videography 360 Glossary of Selected Terms 364 Index of Musical Works 369 Notes to Accompanying CD 373 General Index 378 2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page xii 2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page xiii L IST O F M USICAL E XAMPLES Ex. 1.1 ‘Sado Okesa’, excerpt: vocal, shinobue 27 Ex. 3.1 ‘Chakkiri Bushi’, excerpt 132 Ex. 3.2 ‘Kamogawa Kouta’, opening vocal 133 Ex. 3.3 ‘Suzaka Kouta’, verse 1 133 Ex. 3.4 ‘Kamogawa Kouta’, instrumental introduction 134 Ex. 3.5 ‘Yama no Uta’, pentatonic harmonization 135 Ex. 3.6 ‘Sendo- Kouta’, excerpt 136 Ex. 3.7 ‘Shima no Musume’, opening 136 Ex. 4.1 ‘Esashi Oiwake’, first 11.6 seconds as sung by Aosaka Mitsuru 181 Ex. 4.2 ‘Shinodayama Bon Uta’, local version 190 Ex. 6.1 Ishikawa Akira’s arrangement of ‘Kiso Bushi’, excerpt 253 Ex. 6.2 ‘Sho-wa Ondo’, excerpt 254 Ex. 6.3 ‘Aozora Ondo’, excerpt 255 Ex. 6.4 ‘So-ran Wataridori’, excerpt 268 2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page xiv 2240_Pre.qxd 11/26/07 8:59 PM Page xv L IST O F F IGURES Fig.