h e Pedago gy o f College

E t hics

EDMUND S CONKLlN

A DISSE RTATION SUB MITTE D T O T HE FACU LT Y OF CLARK VE W E E M IN ART IAL UNI RSITY . ORC ST R , ASS P FULFILM E NT OF T HE RE %UIRE M E NTS FOR T HE E G E E OF OF AN D E E D R DOCTOR PHILOSOPHY , ACC PT D N T HE E MM E F G E O R CO NDATION O . STANL Y HALL

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Rep rint e d fr om t h e P E D A G O GI CAL S E M INA R Y

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T HE PED AGOGY O F COLLEGE ET HICS

E M D K L By D U N S . CON I N

I ETH ICS AND T H E COLLE GE YOU T H

The fire of moral r eform which swept through the country

- leaving in its path the scare heads of the muck raker , the renovated departments of government , and the investigated n public servant and interstate corporations , has bee followed and supplemented by the wave of reform and investigation for business efficiency and efficiency standards . The one is the complement of the other , if they are not identical in func

t % tion . Moral enthusiasm bent on the suppression o . vice in f in all forms of life increases e ficiency ; and convers y , the enthu crease o f efficiency eliminates immorality . Hence the siast for either morals or efficiency cordially welcomes the work of the other . The wave of moral reform has struck the school , demanding appreciation of responsibility for the moral integrity of the coming generation . And the school is r trying to respond . Opinions and experiments galore are e ported ; France is claiming to be well on the road to the solution o f the problem of secular moral education ; and the eyes o f moral educators are turned with expectation and

ff . interest to the e orts of Japan President Hall , after an exten sive review of the literature on moral education in the public schoo l , states that there is no agreement and thus far no accepted solution of the problem ( 34 . Vol . I . Chap . The ha s value of the various schemes yet to be ascertained . Much of the force of this storm of criticism h a s fallen upon the college course in ethics . Where it has not been struck has directly , it been severely j arred , for it is inevitable that immoral c onditions of college life and moral inefficiency of the college product should reflect upon the course in ethics .

Perhaps the criticism may not be wholly j ustifiable , because

2 3 6 7 3 5 42 2 T HE PE DAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS

many never take this course , and because there are so many other factors to build up or break down the moral life of the college student . Yet it has forced the teacher of ethics to many a hea rt searching with the result that m a ny reforms have been attempted ; a nd it is sure to cause a careful considera tion o f the proper content and the function of the ethics course . At present we have no scientific pedagogy of college ethics ; only im a vast collection of old line texts , a few attempts at an a o ‘ proved text , c nsiderable literature of criticism ; and a smaller literature reporting methods tried and suggestions for improvement based on an intimate knowledge of the needs and capacities of the college adolescent . The teaching of ethics and the cultivation of the moral lif e may never be reduced to an exact science , nor even as approximately exact as the teaching of other subj ects , for the large part of morality is below the threshold of consciousness and many other factors than the class room affect it ; but the fact that greater effi ciency has been attained in some cases indicates that the methods of the many may be improved and that a thorough understanding of the needs and capacities of the adolescent plus a knowledge and control of the moral influences of col lege life will produce a course in ethics the content of which and the teaching of which will be a tremendously effective part of the moral development of the student . The complexity and the seriousness of the problem must be hi appreciated . The teacher who knows s problem sees per fectly well that restrictions of college life cannot and must s not be o close as those of the home and preparatory school . Dean B riggs of Harvard calls attention to the protest on the part of the preparatory school teacher that students who under him have been exemplary in conduct for several years re break down in a few months after entering college , and plies that something must be wrong with the preparatory methods if the student cannot stand up under the new con i n d tio s more than a few months . The blame falls not entirely

on the college . Freedom of life in college is necessary as a o f preparation fo r the greater freedom life after college . The adolescent must gradually learn to depend on himself and whether in college or not the process is at best a danger A ous one . side light is thus thrown on the importance of

- some degree of self government in preparatory school days . in loco ar entis In a sense the college does stand p , but even in the best ordered home the parental cont rol begins to relax

in these years. When a boy enters college he begins a new mode of life which immediately makes a deep impression upon i s him . The emotional change and excitation tremendous T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLE G E E TH ICS 42 3 and for a time more important than what he learns of an in th t ellectual n ature . There is the thrill of realization of e a o r a desires of ye ”rs months of anticipation . At l st he is a m i college an . It s incumbent upon him to adopt the ways “ ” of a man . And here is danger . There is to be change , a e there must be change , but in what direction shall the ch ng and ? be , can the cou rse in ethics direct it In part the ethics taught can direct the change , but apart from some talks on hygiene in Freshman year the ethics rarely comes before

Junior or Senior year . Much of the moral education must and will come from the contact with other”s , and from that - vague but rea l thing termed college Spirit . The nature of that spirit is all important and it may be directed somewhat by the teaching of ethics . As this course directly touches the upper classmen and the college spirit is largely determined m a nd influ by the , it may thus influence the environment the ences at work upon the younger students . The emotion aroused by the new experiences and opportunities of college life are bound to find expression in changed ideals and changed conduct . New moral problems arise because of the new opportunities and new freedom of conduct . With the large number , the moral attitudes and reactions have been a fl gradual growth under home and other healthful in uence . n un The moral character is very largely u conscious , or v reasoned . Habits of j udgment and conduct ha e been formed because such was the way of associates in home and school life . Now all this is seen from a new point of view . Real f moral questions arise , conscience is ef ective , and new stan

to . dards are be reasoned out , rightly or wrongly The youth

' feels that h e should accommodate himself to the ways of the upper classmen who surely know what is right and in con trast with their learning and experience with life the old f h ways o t e home folks are likely to look prudish and picayune .

He has not , far too often , learned to discriminate between the good and the bad among his college elders ; but even though he does attempt to discriminate and even though he does discriminate rightly , there is nevertheless a new and real experience with temptations and perhaps real wrong which he has never had before . Morality can no longer be f an unconscious a fair . He has thought upon these things ; he has been tempted ; he has met men who live according to

d r a iffe rent a mo al sta nda rds than his own ; and it has forced morality to become a matter well within the field of con i u s c o s nes s . The nature of these college temptations an d the way they influence the stu dent thought must be taken into consideration in th e making of a course in ethics . How bad 42 4 TH E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS they are is a matter of much difference of opinion ; probably much of the disagreement due to the conditions prevailing in ff A di erent sections of the country . few yea rs ago a Con necticut woman caused a furore of discussion by publishing “ the statement that sh e would rather send her s on to hell ’ than to Yale College . If Mr . Birdseye s description of s he student life were to be literally accepted , would not have been far wrong . His awful description of the extent of sexual immorality , venereal disease , drunkenness , etc . , assented to as he says by many college authorities , is harrowing in the extreme ; and if true in its entirety , demands immediate and drastic measures ( 5 Chap . In spite of his sweeping m state ents , the basis for which he does not fully give , there is considerable evidence which points to a rather better condi tion than he generalizes . The vast extent of Christian Asso ci ation r work , Bible study movements , student volunteer mis s io na r y movements and interest , social reform work , and the like indicate that college life is not quite the hell which he depicts . And the study of conditions made by the association ’ O a of hio colleges provoked by Mr . Birdseye s st te so ments , indicates that conditions in those colleges are not hi s bad as gen eral estimate , but are decidedly better . Every college man and every one who has had much to do with college students knows that such temptations exist and ’ f that some fa ll before them . Brockman s collection o con fidentia l statements from college and theological students in dicates clearly the strength of these in the lives of m any i s youths . His list of severest temptations not long t em ta Dishonesty , profanity , etc . , figure largely , but sexual p

(tions number more cases than any other three put together . The long list of statements which he prints shows the a wful extent of the s ex problem and the morbid state of mind often aroused by it . The curse of dirty athletics , now fortunately b ad much less severe , fraternity spirit , college politics , drunken ness , cheating , lack of honor in business relations , and a long list of other sins might be mentioned as existent and demand ing consideration . They do exist and perhaps always will a s more or less , college is but a miniature world in itself and what the wo rld has it has ; but a s the aim in life is to stamp out disease a nd vice s o should the aim in college be ; for al ma a though the aim y never be attained , moral ch racter is made by the effort . Those who study deeper s ee something of the ment a l pro cess which the student passes through in the adjustment o f his m o ral st andards to the larger relations of life . He is n t o mature , the adolescent process is not complete , the moral TH E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS 42 5

instinct has not yet reached its fullest adj ustment . There is a lack of appreciation of mo ral proportion . Dean Briggs has treated this in a little book with sympathetic understanding . o Paraphrasing from his text , as a scho l of character college must be a school of integrity , yet there are certain kinds of dishonesty readily condoned among college students . Undergraduate standards of honor for college officers are sensitively high and there is often a high standard of honor manifested in the conduct of athletic training , in the selection a of men for cl ss presidencies , athletic captaincies and as lead ers in general ; yet there is an inconsistent want of honor e manifested in athletic contests , in writt n work , in excuses

- for neglect of study, in relation to non students , etc . This want of proportion is peculiarly evident when it i s considered to an unpardonable disgrace break training, yet not disgrace ful to squander the hard earned funds sent by parents . The student needs to learn that a lie is a lie and a theft a theft r wherever it is committed . Dean Briggs , as do othe s , con siders this a part of the development process . This lack of the undergraduate is due to l a ck of experience which time will correct . The setting of high standards for others in some cases will in time bring him to s ee the necessity of them for himself . And . the few psycholog ical studies which have been made of the college adolescent indicate this progressive ad ’ f j ustment of moral standards . Dr . Tanner s study o the col ’ lege woman s code of honor ( 83 ) assuming common honesty “ finds that the college girl appea rs to be a person with a thoroughgoing contempt for sneaking and out and out lying but with sufficient intelligence and sense of humor in most ca ses to enj oy any sort of contest with wits even though s he

a . risks her scholarly reput tion thereby ( p And again , Even in the cases where she is below the average in her a standards , the fr nk , almost naive admissions and the reasons given for the views , seem to indic”ate that these girls , at least , are more undeveloped than bad . ( p f The fact that the full appreciati o n of self - control and its moral contin g encies is not yet atta ined is indicated by the retu rn s s um ma ri z d : e by Dr . Tanner thus The thing that is least o c ndemned is deception for the sake of some one else , while the thing that is hardest for a girl to do is to undertake the a reporting o f a wro ng doer ( p . Earl B rnes obtained returns from both men and women in a university on a prob a lem of ho nor . He fo und th t if the penalty seemed extreme ' a to a there was tendency shield wrong doers , and th t the feel ing of social obligation thus invo lved seemed to be a little A more developed in the men than in the women . significant 42 6 TH E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS statement in his study is that 18 % of the men and 17% of “ the women kn ew the ”right but fra nkly s ay they lack the moral courage to do it ( 3 p . It is his conclusion tha t the sense of the larger s ocial self is only p a rtially de ’ velo ed p ( p . Sharp s studies ( 75) might be used to a wa s indicate a Similar f ct although such not his purpose . This progressive adj ustment and enlargement of standa rds is m a nifest also in the changes of attitude which take place a s a nd toward religion in college years Starbuck , Coe Hall have shown . Dr . B urnham , too , has called attention to the philosophical tendency and propensity of the later adolescent which is now generally recognized in adolescent litera ture . All these Show that the college years are a period of adj ustment and it is in large part a conscious adj ustment . The youth is trying to get a rationally integrated concept of ff . i life , a airs , morals , religion , etc Bizarre notions and . pr n ci les p are sometimes worked out and adopted , immorality is thus sometimes j ustified , but each is only a stage in develop

' ent and not a fina lity. The youth is in process and it is the privilege of the moral teacher to take the youth at the very time when he i s formulating his ideas of right and wrong and to guide those formulations .

It is to be remembered , too , that there is a change in pro t a gress from external o internal authority . Hitherto extern l authorities have been submitted to , especially in morals and religi on ; but now there is with approaching maturity the pro res sive g change to an internal authority . The unconscious moral standards gained largely by imitation and the reliance upon some external authority for moral control are breaking down , especially the latter , and something must be put in their place . What to put in their place will be the substance of most of this paper but in a word it is the feeling of honor , s l f- a ( respect , person l superiority to anything beneath the i s . ost virile of moral standards , and moral vision This is i - . o the relig ous attitude The union of self respect , hon r , which is the essence of individual morality , and moral vision which sees the cosmological significance of life , is religion . It is the union of the ethical and the cosmo logical . Together they p roduce sympathy and all its higher derivatives which are the a flower of modern mor ls , and they touch the old fundamental , basal feeling of religion which has motivated s o much of life . Where religious teaching is for one reason or another pro h ibit d e , there is no reason why the religious feeling may not be appealed to indirectly in presenting the cosmologica l as

ect s . p of ethics The more directly it can be used , however ,

o . the better , for it reinforces and deepens the impressi n T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS 7

a efli cienc With the world c lling for moral power and y, and with the adolescent of college yea rs in the nascent period of f a a moral adj ustment , how insu ficient , foreign , b rb rian do the ? arid ethica l logomachies of most text books appear When moral problems are rife with the student we have been lead a ing him through discussion s of Hedonism , Intuitionism , Ide l i sm n Indet er , Egoism , Altruism , Utilitaria ism , Determinism , minism , a little of Kant , some of Hegel , enough to confuse the student , various references to Plato , Aristotle , Bentham , S en the Mills , Sidgwick , Martineau , and perhaps a dash of p T . o cer or Darwin , if they were not too heretical be sure , many of the text books have some things to say about the development of personality and the value of habit in the o f a formation character , but in point of time and sp ce they are far outstripped by the speculative problems . One can easily believe the truth of the oft - quoted story of the college ’ boy who upon being dismissed from college s a id he didn t

0 . care , he got 9 in ethics j ust the same There is a growing e f eling , as a few of the new text books indicate , to relegate these historic discussions to an advanced , elective course and to make the first course in ethics meet so fa r as is possible T the needs of the student . o do this there must be a con s iderable treatment of personal hygi ene , eugenics , all the

efli cienc . factors in vital y , social ethics , moral reforms , etc t r These are indispen sable topics , yet the old his o ic problems which have formed a large part of the ethics teaching of the past need and deserve careful scrutiny before they are bodily ej ected . Those who are clamoring for the rej ection of the old and seemingly worn out discussions a nd systems are not without much right on their side , for there is a manifest danger in dwelling upon them with students of the present . The par ticular turn which each took at any part icular time in the history of thought was the product of the exigencies of that a T a stu time and of the temper ment of the thinker . o le d a dent through these old discussions is a waste of good energy which might be utilized in the consideration of living prob lems , or the consideration of modern phases of the same prob lems ; and if perchance the student becomes interested in these ancient q uibbles , the interest is calculated to detract from the real problems of present life and when he gets out in the world h e will find that the ethics within the college walls was a vastly different thing from the ethics of commerci a l and o professi nal life . And the critics are doubtless right when they s ay further that the ratiocinative treatment of ethics de velo s p an undesirable attitude toward the subj ect . It divorces ethics from life and places it in some transmundane sphere 42 8 TH E PEDAGOGY or COLLE GE E TH ICS

is where it treated as material for speculation . It is directly opposed to the long established pedagogi cal principle of pro cedure from the concrete to the abstract . But a further criticism may be raised to the effect that in the time allotted to the average co urse in ethics no adequate presentation of the men , the problems , and the systems produced is possible .

Look , however , at the topics stressed in recent texts and con ffi a i sider if they are su cient ; person l hyg ene , manners and eti u ette q , liberties , trespass , j ustice , selfishness , service , welfare , a m ch rity , duties to the family , the co munity , and the State . a These are valu ble , important and necessary ; and they pos r sess the additional cha m , necessary today , of being prag a - m tic . But it is the successful life Pragmatism of Protagoras ; not the Pragma tism of James which sees a real value in the — t he a n belief in free will , belief in a moral universe , etc . , y of those great concepts which h ave so long helped ma nkind - to interpret experience and to progress . These problems con a a t in a germ of truth , are fund mentally human , else they would not have been s o warmly discussed and have lasted

s o a . at through m ny ages And furthermore , they arise some time in the life of every individu a l . No college student can ta ke a course in psychology without facing the freedom of a the will problem , no college stu dent can t ke a course in bio m log y , if it is at all dyna ic , without being stimulated to think a o a little concerning the n ture of the w rld in which he lives , and none can view life with the spirit of independence in the broadening and emancipating environment of academic m life without these broader; deeper , ore vital , ancient moral problems co ming more or less clearly to his attention . In teaching physiology today we do not force a student to work through to full comprehension the Vesalian and Ca rtesian theories of the movement of animal spirits in the nervous system , but we do teach him the present solution of the same problems which Vesalius and Descartes struggled with . Like wise it may not be wise to force a student of ethics through a o the systems of Pl t , Augustine , Spinoza , Butler , Paley ,

Hume , Kant , Hegel , Sidgwick , Spencer and the Mills , but it does seem wise to give him the mo dern attitude toward these problems o r at least a working basis for the solution of his on e them as they arise in own life , which shall be in har mo ny with the spirit of dynamic practical ethics expressed by the advocates of radical reform in the ethics teaching . Put to the pragmatic test one finds that with the vast maj ority it does make a mo mentous difference whether or not an indi l vidua l believes th at he lives in a mo ra universe . The history o n reli iou s at of human experience shows that the prof u dly g ‘ T HE PE DAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS 42 9 t itud e is a moral dynamic of superio r potency . Here the depths of the soul are touched , and here , if the geneticist is a right , the whole experience of the race reverber tes . The importance of emotion in the formation of moral j udgm ents and moral stand a rds has been demonstrated by psychology and the course of ethics which does not reverently use thi s fa ctor is missing the most powerful dynamic in the b uild ing of Chara cter and in the inspiration to moral activity which a n the r ce possesses . The familiar terms Hedonism , Intuitio ism ,

Idealism , Egoism , Altruism , Utilitarianism , Determinism and

Indeterminism , stand for bewildering mazes of controversy T h but they conceal very real problems . ey are the scars left by the struggle to reach the present more perfect concepts , but the product of the struggle is none the less important , the more s o rather because of the fight to atta in . The yo uth has these same problems to face and without guidance he may a l nd on any one as an adequate aim and principle of life .

The principle of health , happiness , pleasure , vitality , involved in a Hedonism and Utilitarianism , is an essenti l part of modern as ethics , but an end in itsel f it is not adequate ; the prin ci le m p of immediate j udg ent of right and wrong, the seem ing to know intuitively involved in Intuitionism , contains

' much of truth , but as a court of final appeal in moral prob ins ufli cient a lems it is utterly ; the principles of loy lty to the self , l loyalty to the family , loyalty to the community , oyalty to the a o nation , loy lty to the race , involved in Eg ism and Altruism , a ll are essentials in modern life , but to stop at any one of them is to have made but part of the j ourney which the moral thinkers of the race have made ; and the principles of supine helplessness in the face of circumstances or of internal power m a to overco e any obst cle , involved in the wearisome discus a fundamen sions of determinism and indeterminism , present tal problem , a working solution of which is indispensable in an epo ch of m o ral evolution . These may seem transcendent and other - worldly to the advocate of crass practica lities merely ; butt hem e the principles under which the m e re p rac me tical and concrete problems are subsu d , and to which the student will more or less consciously soar , and they meet the a m pr g atic test of v a lue . It is the prerogative of yo uth to dream and to seek the s o lution of universal problems ; hence it is the privilege o f the teacher of ethics to g uide him t o a soluti on which shall bring him back with unabated but i n creased zest and enthusiasm to the immediate problems of conduct 430 T HE PE DAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS

II INFLUE NCE OF S CI E NTIFIC STUDY ON M ORAL T HOUGHT Fatalistic determinism presents a grave danger to the

- o 1n . I i t f a college y uth the moralizing process It S a p all , blind o alley , into which he IS alm st sure to slip if there IS not some well designed in struction to prevent . However great the familiarity with the scientific attitude may have been before a a s i college d ys , and it is rarely very gre t , the force of its g nificance i s no w doubled and trebled by the very natural ap plication to personal problems . In the readjustment pro l s cess the youth aware of various appetites , desires , and pas a i s sions which persist in their dem nd for satisfaction . He confronted with the scientific attitude which seems to him a decidedly mechanistic , expl ining everything by an indefinitely extensive chain of antecedent causes . There seems no place i for will , for individual nitiative . It is the almost inevitable result that the youth finding his appetites , desires , and pas sions so powerful and persistent should interpret them as his m own peculiar endow ent beyond his power of co ntrol . Such an interpretation is of course indescribably dangerous and not that of the broader - minded scientist ; but it is the one which the student tyro in science is most likely to make . Physics and chemistry have left on his mind a decidedly mechanistic impression . Psychology , too , if he has had it , a a leaves a simil r impression , perh ps even more dangerous because it is interpreting the phenomena of mind causally even to an explanation o f the will as an instinct foreseeing its end . And on top of that , biology interprets life in terms f O a causal series . m The study of living organisms and their trans for ations , follo wing them out in their evolutiona l series down to and so including man , is fascinating because it is closely related a to the most fundamental problems of the person l life . Here the student touches the perhaps hitherto tabooed theory of evoluti o n and sees it h a ndled without gloves . It Sends a thrill of excitement through his whole being , which is easier to feel than to expl a in . He feels himself no longer a tyro ; he has grasped for himself the great fundamental problemof life and he will no longer be subj ect to the absurd dictates of religion , the hushing attitude of pious parents and former a teachers . Smug with the co nceit of his own v st learning he proceeds to expl a in life and himsel f in causal and mechanistic wa terms . Pres . Hyde has cleverly presented the y in which the youth thus educated thinks it far better to accept -the opin o f a ions Tynd ll , Huxley , and Spencer , who have studied at the very fundamentals of life first hand , than to accept the dogmatizing of the priest and theologian He is

43 2 T HE PE DAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS

n o o f illustratio of the p wer nurture over nature . Some of that

family , in spite of the direful Juke heredity , were by virtue of different enviro nment and different interests developed a into moral la w- abiding citizens Approa ched from this bio logical standpoint and with the a ttitude of the genetic psychologist a working solution of the ’ student s free will problem may be reached which is not in a ll opposition to his scientific interests . O f modern writers Jules Payot comes nearer than any other to such a genetic o f h e u theory freedom , but n fortunately j ust misses that ex planation which might be perfectly satisfacto ry to the yo uth

struggling with the deterministic problem . All that Payot a s ys concerning the development of liberty , the cultivation o-f a a ch r cter , the education of the will as he calls it , cannot i be too highly commended . It has made of h s book a work s o valu able that it should be on the desk of every teach er ‘ o f not ethics , if in the hands of every student . No one else has so feelingly and so a dequately and s o stimula tingly presented these all important fa cts in the cultivation of chara cter and a flfl i n ‘ i s person l e c e cy . But there a confusio n regarding the sta tement of his theory of the will which if left a s it stands ’ a would not solve the student s problem . In the pl ce of the a a uns tisfactory theories of history , Payot attempts com promise by which freedom is g ained by struggle a nd hard a work . In his own abbrevi ted form his who le aim is to “ Show how to t”ransfo rm a weak vacillating desire into a lasting volition ( 64 p . It is upon this desire th a t he

builds . He posits its existence in every one not mentally aflflict ed ; h e believes that every one h a s a desire for impro ve m a f a . o ment , weak and faint though it be By e ns medit tive o o o f a reflecti n , the ass ciation ideas and the arous l and nature of the emotional life may be altered to develop the desire and to assist it ; the importance of action in the development o f will is stressed ; and the indispensable fa ctor of hygiene is described a t length a s a ba sis for physical power behind the

will . The attainment of the goal is only possible by a long to and bitter struggle , and is not designed appeal to the lazy a ma n . It is a l ong and rduous undertaking but the rewards

are worth the fight . i s But this is not an answer to the freedom problem . It substituting a very va luable presentation of pedagogical ap

plica tions of the psychology of attention in the pl a ce of will . His aim for all in life is a trained attention which ca n re main fixed upon ' it s work for long periods of time and thus a assist the possessor to valu ble p ro ductivity . The student puzzling over the mechanistic interpretation of the universe TH E PE DAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS 433

and himself, especially himself , would not find much help al l in this . He might be perfectly willing to admit that Payot says about the cultivation of the desire by meditation , action , hygiene , etc . , yet he might think to find in himself a lack of

- power for the self application of such a regimen . Payot has made the inhibitory power of the strong will synonymous with freedom , whereas freedom is a feeling aroused by the choice process of consciousness and may occu r a s well in the — ’ - Pa ot s strong willed as in the weak willed , according to y de i scription of the strong and the weak . It s desire plus this feeling of freedom to choose which makes possible the trans a w a fo rm tion from e kness to strength . The feeling of free d m f a o makes all the di ference between ctivity and passivity . The psychological key to the problem lies in this feeling of o f freedom . The fact this state of consciousness , its univer

s alit . y, and its persistence , demand explanation A functional examination of it reveals th a t it i s important to both the i n dividual and the race , and is of long, very long standing in the latter . To get at the genetic point of view it is necessary to drop for the moment all other discussions and theories of free dom and will consciousness and to consider what gave rise a to all this . Loo ked at thus we find a very gener l belief among all mankind th at a man can do about a s he plea ses if t i nm a o . he wants Much of the time he responds h bitual , a a o f wa a t mech nic l sort y , but he , nevertheless , feels that times he can alter his co nduct and respond in a ma nner not suggested by circumsta nces . There is a seemingly innate a capacity for ccomplishment which gives to the healthy , vigo rous a dult the idea that he can do whatever he con m siders wise . Man has overco e all sorts of obstacles in the struggle to exist , he has fought and vanquished the beasts o f the forest , he has overcome other men who have opposed ma his progress , he has risen above the exigencies of cli tic a nd h a s conditions , he learned for the sake of future com not fort to yield wh o lly to present impulses and de”sires . When Can a s ? the question is asked , you do you wish the natural man a O I do a s I n”swers , f course can wish , anything within reason . Thu s there is the peculiarly human recognition of the possession of power whereby it is possible if wise to rise o a at above the c nstr int of environment and habit , to act times to a o to contrary the usu l reacti n given conditions . Any other ’ attitude is the attitude of a mind sicklied o er with the pale a c st of thought , and the product of like minds . It is this feeling of power , feeling of superiority to conditioning cir cums tances - , the feeling of freedom for self expression a s 434 T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS

’ a Baldwin calls it , which has preserved in m n s mind in spite a nd of the sophistication of theology , philosophy , psychology , “ ” a re the idea that our wills ours , although we m”ay be a s not obliged to add does the poet , we know how . This i s e - the generic f eling underlying the much abused term , freedom of the will and explains the oft - recognized persis tence of the theory . Its great age is overpowering in its f ; magnitude . Any e fort to comprehend it would strain the imagination to the breaking point . It is as old as humanity and perhaps far older . Its history could be tra ced far back

O f civilization . The savage council of war sitting in delibera a a tion , the barbari n choosing a temporary place of bode , the troglodyte preferring to wander northward with the retreating ice sheet , and the arboreal ancestor of man selecting a com fo rt abl e tree, would all figure in the history of the feeling of a ' freedom . Perhaps its history goes farther b ck still even into ha s ant ece the lives of the lower animals , perhaps it as its Of dents every experience selection , the choice of a mate , the lace fo r choice of a good p a nest , the choice of one food as preferable to another; and so on down to the very earliest experiences of life . Just where in the prehuman or the human scale the feeling of freedom to have done otherwise or a s to do preferred begins , we may never know ; but we can ascertain enough to be certain that it is very old , one of the oldest , perhaps , of human feelings . Its persistence today is not then to be wondered at . In spite of all the arguments to the contrary mankind still believes in his freedom . From this feeling of power with the recognition of the desirability of an act , the giving of assent , and the occurrence of the act as an immediate consequent arises the idea of will . will If one particular experience of , one will attitude of con O scio us nes s -m l , is isolated fro all the rest of ife and analyzed a ff a into sensations , im ges , and a ections , we learn its an tomy ; if all the will experiences and expressions of an individual a or a race are examined for their rel tions , effect on them o n a selves , the individu l , on the race , on the environment , if their general principles , their potency , their values under

ff . di erent conditions , etc , are determined , we learn its physi ology ; but if all the conscious accompaniments of action and reflection , in all species extinct and extant , from the most primitive living organism to a twentieth century man are collect ed ' co rrelat ed carefully , and arranged to show their evolutional sequence and value and their ontogenetic parallels , we learn its embryology . And this in brief is the whole of the necessary distinction between the structural , the func

tional . , and the genetic psychology of will The structural T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS 435 psychologist reduces will to an attitude always made up of ff three elementary processes , sensation , image , and a ection

8 . ( Titchener , 4 , p the functional psychologist defines 2 2 will as an instinct which foresees its end ( Ebbinghaus , 86 p . ) and the genetic psychologist describes will as an event that plunges its roots into the profoundest depths of the in dividual an”d , beyond the individual , into the species , and into

6 . all species ( Ribot , 9 , p From whichever point of view the psychologists examine will they report their find ings in the sequential order in which the events studied uni formly take place ; and this order is customarily termed

. o causal In the genetic study of consci us experience, the psychologist sees a point where t eleogical responses to situa tions take place . Increasing complexity in the functional activity of the organism in response to the increasing com l i p ex ty of the conditions of life has brought about awareness . Further progress in the same direction leads to the memory

. awareness of the end before the action begins , to the aware ness of the nature of the r esponse required by particular stimuli as soon as the stimuli appear as sensations . Then f follows the simultaneous awareness O several possible actions .

There is the delayed response , called deliberation , during which the various p ossibilities rise and fall in conscious clear ness until one receives the feeling of assent and the action r h follows . The choice stage in progress has been eac ed . In the choice process the various possible reactions are held up as imaginal presentations ; they are compared in the light of all past experience and knowledge in any wise obtained , in i s psychological terms , there an ascription of meaning . This may all pass o ff quickly and as like situations are presented frequently an habitual form of response may be acquired , m but whenever so e new factors complicate the situation , the choice process again occurs . This process , plus the emotion the aroused by recall of past experience , inhibits certain and n permits other actions . There is o more the mechanica l r eac t h e tion to stimuli present , but for it is substituted the delayed reaction in the process of which the reaction is governed quite as much , if not more , by the past experience of the indi vidual as by the present situation . When primitive man , or those individuals of whatever species first had the exp eri ence , reflected on his choice and recognized that there were I- other possibilities present at the time , there came the could

- - have done otherwise feeling . And as he looked ahead at the a new situ tion just arising with its several possibilities , he did so with the feeling that within him was the power of choice , that he was free to select that which he thought best . It is 436 TH E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS conceivable that disappo intments and mistakes may have f stimulated this feeling . The regretting o an action and the wishing to have done otherwise throws the fa ct of other possibilities strongly into relief . The first recognition of the fact of unconstrained choice must have been a tremendous h is impulse . The brute is subj ect to environment ; but man can ch ange and conquer his environment beca use he has this power of deliberative choice , and the feeling of per sonal power which the recognition of its possession gives

us e . to stimulate its further The , feeling of superiority , r o f the feeling of powe over conditions , the feeling inde p endence which the reco gnition of the value of the choice process gives , stimulated its further use and thus fixed its m possession , it ade it of selective value and insured its s possessor of succes in the struggle for existence . This great feeling, which is the feeling of freedom , motivates f “ new conduct , new ef orts , and thus makes possible new a a chievements in the progress of the race . It has rele sed a new source of energy and stimulates its expression in new s n channels . What it ha do e in the race it can and does do for the individual . Sometime in the experience of every o o child or ad lescent there c mes the experience , attained a gradually perh ps , of feeling that he is independent , or could be if he were allowed , that he is a self , an ego , that he can control his own conduct , that he is to be a free soul . With that feeling growth and the overcoming of difficulties are

o . p ssible If it never comes , the individual is deficient and ends in an asylum , unless some one by proper treatment n r ca cultivate it in him . If it is crushed out o discounted by disease or sophistication , the individual is handicapped for life or until the feeling is again acquired . From the attain ment of this point on the race or the individual makes rapid o strides in advance , bstacles are overcome , problems are solved , habits are broken up to be replaced by new when new are needed , a vast new developmental power seems to have e been attained . The events in the causal seri s of the history of man or the race which have this free consciousness as their antecedent are quickly recognized as being far more efficient and valuable ; and it is the nature of man apparently to make a more and more of it , to emphasize its v lue and thereby to bring about a greater and greater number of such responses . Thus we find that freedom is a feeling included in the gen eral treatment of the will consciousness and that it is a part

ff . of the causal series , at once both e ect and cause And we find further that it is a most indispensable factor in the human causal series because it is the cause which has motivated th e T H E PE DAGOGY OF COLLE G E E TH ICS 437

a a great a chievements . Without it the gre t adv nces might have been impossible and the individu a l who l a cks it ab so lutely is a h o peless derelict . From the psychological point of view it would seem that the whole free will question must

ff . o take on a di erent aspect , it must become pedagogical Phil sophical disquisitions no longer s uflflce . The feeling of free

. dom is a state of consciousness to be carefully cultiva ted . The intensity of this feelin g in any individual depends upon the perfection of the native endowment , on the vitality and on the individual experien ce . If the native endowment is de fective o r weak this a ll - important feeling of s uperiority to i s constraint discounted , the personality is less well knit to a ff gether , is lacking in potenti lity , lacking in di erentiation , is — flat faced , plastic , and consequently the responses to situa tions are simpler and more direct . There is a diminution of effec the choice processes of consciousness , at least in their tiveness o , and the individual is prop rtionately more con strained by every situation . The power of initiative is di minished . If there is a strong native endowment , a powerful a development l nisus , there is not only a strong feeling of a s a personal power , there is a feeling of weakness in the c se above , but also the conduct of life will be more positive , there o are m re complex and indirect reactions , more and surer i o o . s choice processes in c nsci usness There more initiative , more assertiveness and power to rise a bove immedi ate situa ff f tions . This di erence is commonly mani ested in the daily is m a contacts of life , but it peculiarly de onstr ted in cases of a o a nd mel nch ly , where there is a feeling of helplessness e resignation . But a goo d heredity do s not always insure b a . d health If disease , unhealthy surroundings , habits of eat u s e ing , sleeping , working , and thinking, the of drugs and a o dissip ti n condition growth , the best of heredity can be

% o o f a wasted , and the same c ndition l ssitude , weakness and

o . a re passivity be devel ped If the activities of life checked ,

If x a o . f a simil r result may be pr duced the child or youth , o a a even the dult , is repressed const ntly, frightened into sub — o o fr eedo a ract ic -~ f -s nd , e o missi n , not all wed the mw p elf ex

- n l - . an . - pression , then the feeling of perso a power d c apa city is m ~ o . stunted , undevel ped , rudi entary Good heredity , hygienic

- cultu re and habits , and freedom for directed self expression are equ ally necessary to the feeling of freedom a nd personal f a o f n e ficiency . The l ck a y on e may be overcome by the a n others , but all are to be desired d worked for . Depression due to l a ck of vitality or ill health o f a ny kind is likely to a a injure the feeling, while the cold intellectu l mech nistic con 438 TH E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS ception of nature i s dangerous because it retards and inhibits ff C e ort , crushing the will to hoose . If this discussion of free will i s Characterized by the smug complacency with which most articles on this subj ect con n elude, implyi g that the final word has been spoken , the writer is apologetic . He is keenly aware of the fact that much more knowledge is necessary befo re the final answer may be scientifically given to the problem ; but it seems estab lis hed that the ethics taught in college must present the free dom of will as a vital evolutional and developmental factor . The aim must be for both teacher and student to develop the great fundamental underlying feeling, if there is a to be moral progress . To this all th t makes for healthy heredity and completeness of life applies , hence from this point of view eugenics , euthenics , and the crasser practicalities - ” a advocated take on v lue . All that develops the spirit o f - co nfi en i power and self d ce s indispensable .

III PLACE OF HYGI E N E IN E TH ICS Enough has already been said to make clear the ethical o a n imp rtance of health . But hygiene c and will produce more than the feeling of fitn ess and the ability to act freely . Of The very process attaining a healthy , harmonious func tionin g of the organs of the body , not forgetting the brain , relieves the individual of some of the temptations mentioned by removing the provoking conditions . And hygiene belongs the a in the instruction in ethics , because best of health is part of the social demand for morality and a necessary condi f a tion of moral e ficiency . That concept of mor l health which includes only the attainment of personal mora lity in the nar meanS ' onl rower sense , which y that the individual is free o from the guilt of moral sins of c mmission , will not be toler ated in this day when moral progress is the slogan . The con coO eration cept must include the capacity , interest and actual p in the fight a gainst immoral conditi o ns . In an epo ch of moral renascence , in a time when posterity is considered , w when practical eugenics even is discussed , and hen every

' effort i s being turned by many to the moral imp rovement o f conditions which need generations for complete reform , the coO erate individual must be fitted to p in the moral progress , a to facilitate evolution , not merely to be a gre sed cog in the o machine , m ving easily when others push ; he must help in ffi the push . This means abundant health and the e ciency now a s o much in demand . It means that hygiene must be t ught it s and its practice stimulated for moral value, and not alone as a science for academic interest .

440 TH E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS

o f is leading only the history the future can tell , but that o such a movement exists nly the blind could deny . The force o f a and extent it often f ils of appreciation . The physical

- - - fads , the get strong quick schemes , the out door sleeping t a porches , the interes in the fight against dise se , the many a nd o a Societies c mmittees for he lth reform of all sorts , the Of a a nd millions dollars invested in gy mnasi , public baths a bathing places and playgrounds , and the thousands who m ke

- use of them , out door magazines and health literature beyond m a a - a enu er tion , reviv l of folk dancing, p rticipation in sports , a rapid increase of demand for physical tr iners , not only in o S our own c untry , but even in China , India , and outh Amer ica s ex , societies for prophylaxis , eugenic movements , schoo l a fo hygiene liter ture and committees , ef rts for national — a . vit lity , etc , etc . , are but a few of the indices of the modern

. n health crusade And the whole has a vast moral sig ificance . The college which does not read these as the signs of the times and adj ust its course in ethics accordingly may not only find the moral and physical efficiency experts battering down its own doo rs but may also lose a magnificent oppo r ni tu ty to be of real vital influence in moral education . To be sure many colleges already have courses in hygiene and where such is the case ethics is relieved of a part of what would otherwise be its burden . But the plea here is that the hygiene taught must be with a moral significance . If only the scientific facts are . given in the hygiene course , then the o ethics must build upon it , make the m ral applications and inspire to practice in a way which the bare Scientific teaching a a no may not have tt ined . There need be danger of wasteful repetition . The two courses , where they exist , may supple ment each other and make each the more effective . From a t this point of attack ethics becomes frankly biologic l . Ye a has it leads to no crass materialism , but r ther , as Sutherland and shown , to a most inspiring comprehension of the fullness grandeur Of mo rality . By leading back to the biological , it leads out to the cosmologica l aspect which arouses that o great fundamental religious interest , aroused riginally by bioli ical reverence for nature . Fear of the g trend reverberates the old theo logy which condemned the flesh . The modern e steems the body and gives it its rightful place ; and thus a

‘ biological ethics comes into harmony with the modern Chris tian concept of life .

The simpler principles of cleanliness , toilet and the like a stu are learned before the college ye rs are reached , but the a dent rarely learns by home training or by soci l contact. the art of using his body so as to produce the maximum of mental TH E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS 44 1 N ;A

a and physic l work , and with it the euphoria which aecom p a nics healthy functioning . Lack of this knowledge is one a of the gre test sources of supply for the college scrap heap . The students broken by dissipation of one sort or another a re largely the product of this ignorance . The boner who forgets to exercise and stays over his books until the early hours of morning is quite as likely to seriously inj ure himself a f as the happy lo er who while rarely troubling a book , keeps equally late hours and wastes his energy through dissipation . Perhaps both do so innocently ; doubtless much of the phy ' cal o r s i misuse in college is innocent even well meant . Some students overwork themselves with studential and social a duties and obligations . They get their work and pl y and a duty all mixed up . The v lue of alternate periods of work a and rest needs to be presented and pplied , or the applica - M S tion stimulated . The well known law of O SO and Maggi O ra that work done by a muscle a lready fatigued acts on that muscle in a more harmful manner”than a heavier task per 1 0 formed under normal condition s ( 59 p . 5 ) should be shown and its mental correlate demonstrated . Prove to the grad—grind that he can do better work and more work by taking proper rest and exercise . The value , too , of spurts , o of periods occasi nally of extra exertion , need to be included , for by such spurts the organism is stimulated to g ro w and to make the structure necessary for harder work . Occasional a ff fo rcing thus has its value as well s regular rest . The di er ences - - , too , between morning workers and evening workers m a a . so have their pplic tion and i portance And , also , does a diet deserve much emph sis in the course . Where some stu dents are starving themselves to make ends meet and others a r e filling themselves with indigestible foods and ruining ~ their systems with liquors , there needs to be inspired an atti tude o f reverence for the digestive system upon which we depend for the preparation of the material from which we get the energy to live and to work . The results of careful experimentation with alcohol and othe r stimulants should be included th at there may be no misunderstanding or hasty generalization concerning their value . The student wh o is in clined to use drugs for crams and special seasons needs to know that th e new lease of energy is fictitious or mislead ing , that it has to be made up for later , and that the regular use of drugs reduces the power to do mental work . The morals of oxygen supply need dwelling on . The neurological erwo rn aspects of oxygen supply , the work of V and others , t and the various tests of work done , may inspire o the better care for ventilation . Recreation needs hardly to be men 442 T HE PE DAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS tioned , one would at first think , when the cry is that the col lege youth does not do work enough ; but the importance of regular exercise for all does need emphasis . Its moral value needs to be stressed and applied not only to college life but to the conditions o f li fe into which many o f the students are going . The explanation of fatigue a nd its effects should a never be omitted . The unnecess ry fatigue from overwork among the more able students , which sometimes occurs , has already been referred to . When this fact is added to the statement made by Irving Fisher that fifty per cent of the f - a people in this country are suf ering f rom over f tigue , the importance of instruction concerning fatigue becomes evident .

, There is the danger of incomplete recovery , the increased e a a susceptibility to inf ction when f tigued , the gre ter loss by working in a fatigued condition , etc . , which the student should and a know know well . If illustr ted by the known physio i f log cal e fect upon the nerve cells , the fact of fatigue becomes ff a a e the more impressive . But the e ect on ch r cter is the most s tial a s en . There is a relax tion , the bars are let down and the - i a r power of self control s discounted . In the fight for ch racte a bad ca se of fatigue may so rel a x control that the gain of weeks may be lost in minutes . And this makes the ethical a treatment and consideration o f f tigue imperative .

Without the broader aspects of the hygiene problems , such

- studies may tend to the cultivation of self centeredness . As a so there is danger in const nt moral introspection , there is ’ danger in constant consideration of one s own physical co n dition . The practice of hygiene must become habitual . But to m in order ake the impression deeper , without the danger of too great emphasis upon the individual and in order to orient the student for the eugenic aspect and the cultivation a of personal interest in the larger mor l problems , the national

. and racial aspects of hygiene should be included As _ the morals of the individual depend in large part upon the phy sical s o condition ; must the morals of the nation , as a col lection of individuals , depend largely upon the health of the ffi nation . The moral and e ciency value of national vitality and the mea ns and possibilities for its improvement can thus be linked to the individual studies and make the individual the ’ M etchnikoff s more responsible . scheme for the prolonga tion of life and the elimination of old age is more than a dream , and his optimism is the spirit to be desired in our col ’ 2 6 a lege youth . Prof . Fisher s report ( ) on national vit lity is a thesaurus of information and references for the tea cher who wishes to include this material . The moral and economic loss to the country by the reduce l vita lity of the T H E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS 443

the syphilitics , tubercular patients , and the ’ a cases of malaria each ye r ( Fisher s statistics ) , besides the vast number of other preventable diseases and the slight but equally preventable ailments is too stupendous for compre h ens ion . But it is the inspiring fact of their preventability which needs to come before th e student . B ecause the tuber — culos i s death rate in England is now only one third of what e it was seventy years ago , because typhus fever has been pra l tically stamped out , because the ravages of small pox , ye low a fever , and typhoid h ve been checked , there is good reason for the motto of Pasteur : It is within t he power of man to rid himself of every parasitic disease . In thi s the de veIO in p g social consciousness is appealed to , the biological as pect of being a part of the race and of assisting it in its prob S lems is aroused . ympathy and honor in their best and fullest sense are appealed to and it is these characteristics which are most to be desired . The cultivation of health , per i nst ru c sonal and social , is the immediate aim in this kind of tion but the ultimate a im is the stimulation of these funda mental moral qualities . ( In the appended bibliography are mentioned some of the most practical works on hygiene , those written from the personal , community , national , eugenic , and 1 1 16 2 8 0 66 1 8 ethical standpoints . See numbers , 5, , , 5 , , 7 , 7,

IV EUGE NICS AND S E x INSTRUCTION IN ETHICS f Modern Christianity , socialism , hygiene , e ficiency and the growing social consciousness has directed popular as well as scientific attention to the improvement of physical conditions ff of life . The e ort is to give all a Chance to live and to live f well . Resignation to wrong and su fering in this vale of tears as a preparation for eternity has ch anged to aspiration z i for the reali ation of heaven on earth . The progress of s c ence and its wonderful conquest of the powers of nature plus the growing recognition of the meaning of evolution has im brought the realization that present conditions, may be proved indefinitely and that it is possible to cope with retard a ing forces and facilit te the progress of human evolution . It h a s forced a recognition of immortality as due not only to an undeveloped social consciousness but also to the physical and mental deficiencies of certain members of society . The a defi attempt to do away with ment l , moral , and physical ci ency ha s directed attention to its source with the result tha t has the newer science of Eugenics sprung up . The aim of this new science is to seek out and to control the sources and ‘ biological forces which make for or against the efli ciency 444 T H E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS

f o life . It is not content with the expenditure of time and thought in the co rrection o f criminals when they find th at a h the crimin lity is due to ereditary mental deficiency . In the o f o a words its f under , Francis G lton , Eugenics is the sci ence which dea ls with a ll influences that improve the inborn qualities Of a ra ce”; also with those that develop them to the utmo st a dva ntage The idea l is to substitute for n atural selection a n a rtificial selection which shall breed a O f o f a higher race man , every member which sh ll be physi

a . cally , mentally , and mor lly fit Although the scientific prin ci les ma m o o a nd p for this y be drawn fro bi l gy , sociology, o f m other sciences , the spirit it is essentially oral . The ’ actu a liza tion of the eugenist s aspirations depends upon the development of popul a r feeling . This can only be attained by wide and careful dissemination of the fa cts and in doi ng this the ethicist should feel himself under moral obligation . a Eugenics is new and to m ny repulsive , but the repulsive ness is due chiefly to misunderstanding . The facts which the enthusiast for practical ethics is obliged t o fa ce ma ke an in 1 clus ion of eugenics imperative . Davenport states ( 7 ) that a re a - there ins ne and feeble minded , blind or deaf , annually cared for by hospitals or Homes ,

' ri soners a nd p thousands of criminals not in prison ,

paupers in almshouses and out , constituting from

3 to 4 per cent of the entire population . When one realizes th a t a very large percentage of the blind and sick here re s a a po rted are o because of venere l disease , one begins to re lize the magnitude of the mora l problem involved . Rentoul reports similarly sta ggering statistics fo r England ( 68 ) D a venport continues by estimating the cost to this country : 0 2 0 annu a lly of all this deficiency 3 millions for hospitals ,

“ o 2 0 a 1 milli ns for insane asylums , millions for lmshouses , 3 — o millions for pris ns , and 5 millions for the feeble minded , deaf and blind But the cost cannot be estimated in doll a rs and cents . Morally the financial cost is great because a large per cent o f that money might have been invested for the furthering of va rious movements for moral improve o a ment . It is greater still , h wever , because of the moral dr g o which all this deficiency exercises upon the race . The s cial worker knows perfectly well th at many prostitutes are defi

a . cient , and therefore le d the life they do But it is still further known th a t these deficient reproduce themselves a nd s o keep up the stream of immorality both through heredity and through the effect of the environment into which they o bring offspring . Statistics in pro f of this criminal or de

ficient heredity are rolling up to an incontrov ertible degree . T H E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS 445

Davenport gives the case of an insane man who ha d two mentally weak wives by whom he had 13 children a ll men

a . t lly weak With these cases of mental defectives , he pre sents charts Showing the apparent hereditary nature of maniac ’ a o depressive insanity , the neurotic di thesis , Huntingt n s

o a . ch rea , heart dise se and other diseases He shows at least that the marriage of those who possess such defects reduces in the offsp ring the resista nce to such disease and increases “ ” the susceptibility to these diseases and defects , There is , so fa r a he says , as I am aware , no c se on record where two ‘ a 1 imbecile parents have produced normal child ( 7 p . His appeal is that everything poss i ble should be don e to dry . up the springs that feed the torrent of defective and de ’ generate protoplasm . And Goddard s extensive studies con ’ firm Davenport s statements . In a recent paper ( 3 1 ) he re ports the studies o f several family histories . One of these h a s 3 19 members of whom the facts are known and out of m 1 1 - 2 this nu ber , 9 are feeble minded and only 4 are known to be normal . The Volta bureau in Washington has reported the results of a study of over four thousand marriages of c is deaf and find that this defe t , too , hereditary Years ley in England recently reports a study of 2 84 cases of deaf mutism of which were undoubtedly the result of a i m rriages either amongst those who had cases , d rect or col o f - lateral , congenital deaf mutism in the”ir families , or amongst those who were blood relations ( 90 p . Rentoul reporting from the English census returns says that on one day alone we ( the English people ) had mar

- ried or widowed idiots , imbeciles , feeble minded , and lunatics in the United Kingdom , many of them engaged and , by us , n l be encouraged in the , to us , appare t y pleasant function of n ff getting dege erate o spring, in fouling the stre”am of human - t a 68 . life , and in adding to the sum to l of insanity ( p But the marriage of defectives of this sort is not the only group who are bringing defectives into being . Rentoul , ff Saleeby , Metchniko , Fisher and the rest all mention alcohol

. o ism , and venereal diseases as tributary The predispositi n to other diseases and the effect upon the offspring of alcohol ism and venereal disease is well reported , but the actual ex tent o f them no man knows . Fisher quotes Morro w as say ing that the elimination of social diseases would probably

- make one half of our institutions for defectives unnecessary, and adds that “ in the opinion of very competent j udges social disease constitutes the most powerful of all factors

. 2 6 in the degeneration and depopulation of the world ( p . Fisher reports also several studies concerning the effect 446 TH E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS

80 of alcoholism one of which finds that over % of crime , 48 % of pauperism and 3 5% of insanity are due to the use of alcohol . Luther Burba nk condemns this crossing of bad species as a crime against the state and every individual against the state . And if these physically degenerate are also morally degenerate , the crime becomes all the more appal 11n 1 1 g ( p . It is evident that if by some means the germ plasm b e comes defective it remains so and that the offspring con tinu es to be defective , a burden and a moral risk to the com m ’ munity . It is a an s moral Obligation to care for and make the most of the unfortun ates who are already brought into th e Of ffi a nd world ; but for the sake e ciency , moral economy , moral progress they should not be a llowed to b ring others into the world . Yet the eugenist goes further and advocates the arousal of a spirit which shall control the mating of

. and youth This seems at first , to many , as an idle dream ; but the fact remains that sentiment does control the nature of ha matings to the elimination of some . Sentiment s brought in the rule of monogamic marriage ; sentiment prevents the marriage Of brothers and sisters and to a considerable degree the marriage of cousins ; and sentiment very largely prevents the marriage between different races . There is equal reason to think that sentiment may be developed which will prevent the marriage of the unfit . The eugenist would have the young consider the parenta ge and health before marr”iage . Their idea is to keep the germ plasm on the upgrade . If l this is to be rea ized , it mu st come through instruction . The ethical sign ifica nce and importance of eugenics has fo r become patent , but the best methods its presentation have not yet been determined . Some suggestions are , however , possible . The more biological phrases must be linked closely to the course in biology if not handled by it . Building on the Weismannian theory of the continuity of the germ plasm ’ and on the Spirit of Burbank s Training of the Human Plant , the significance of a defective germ plasm and the dangers of crossing with it or allowing it to breed can be made im d pressive . From the study of evolution the stu ent can be led to s ee the vast advantage possible to the race of an in lli t e g ent selection substituted for the older natural method . Spencer ’ s law of the decrease of birth rate with the progress of civilization , as contrasted with the Malthusian theory, ( well presented by Saleeby is an excellent basis for dwelling upon the importance of cultivation of the race by m seeking quantity of quality . Few suggestions will be eces sary to Show to the average youth the application of all this .

448 TH E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS

a s teaching of child culture of far less Significance . The same a attitude is fortun tely not true today , not to the same degree . But when the prophyl a xis societies are bewailing the igno r a O f o e nce parents , it beh oves the college teacher to S e that no t a the next generation are likewise ignor nt . For the sake a nd of the children they will bring into the world educate , a m they need to know the an to y , physiology, hygiene , and f An psychology O s ex . d they need to know the best times and the best means of giving such information to their children . This point of view as well as the eugenic adds dig mity to the subj ect . Much of this should have been learned o to previously in ther courses ; but if it has not , it needs be ma given in ethics . In such event it y be wise to call in some o n e especially equipped for such instruction ; and if the col

- co . lege is educational , to divide the class B ut the needs are such that the teacher should be equipped with all necessary m infor ation on these subj ects .

Voluminous as the literature upon the subj ect has become , its r m in ill is un e a s st . pedagogy , an unsolved problem It _ doubtedly wise to put something into the student ’ s hands and which can be quietly thoughtfully read over , but whether this something be a book o r a pamphlet is still a question upon i which there is no consensus of opinion . The writer s inclined t o think that it is better not to place a detailed book in the ’ a student s h nds . It holds the attention too long upon the one is m a topic , and if it purchased , it re ains upon the t ble or book ' n r l Shelf where it will be taken up at i te va s . The student who has had wise home and school inst ruction from time to o time needs no such book . And the student whose educati n in these matters has been neglected is morbidly interested .

For the latter , a book is too fascinating and exciting . Leaflets can seem to be better . They are cheap , be given away , and little time is spent in their perusal . They are read and then if not thrown away are easily covered up and lost . The atten tion given to them is brief ; the instruction needed is obtained m and the matter dropped . It must always be assu ed , how m ever , that the student will be called upon so e day to give r f o r others inst uction , and this reason enough should be said about the work and publications of the best s ex prophylaxis societies so that in case of need they can be resorted to . For the same reason the best books upon the subj ect need to be ’ O referred to and described . At present , in the writer s pinion , the best series of pamphlets is that issued by the Spok ane

o O f a . S ciety Social and Moral Hygiene , Spokane , W sh

Theirs is a graded series , and at present is the only such . d The value of the grading is obvious . The Rho e Island Fed T HE PE DAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS 449 c ration of Churches and th e Massachusetts Committee on S ex a re Hygiene ( Boston ) publish three pamphlets each , which O fo r excellent and very much alike . ne of the series is young a men , one for young women , and one for the venere lly dis o f and eased . The well known New York Society Sanitary Moral Prophylaxis now publishes Six different p amphlets for O ' students , parents and teachers . ne of their recent publica r tions , How My Uncle, the Docto , Instructed M e in Matters O f S ex , is a valuable addition to the English literature of sex

- . was . O instruction It written by Dr Max ker Blom , a pro fes s o r a nd h a s t en in Helsingfors , Since been translated into s at di fferent languages . It outlines for the tudent in an

r flo wers . tractive manne , how through , fishes , birds , and ani

S ex . mals , the first instruction may be given to a child There are now several good publications for this purpose . The two 1 2 Confidences little books by Miss Lowry ( 5 and 5 ) one , , for girls , and one , Truths , for boys , are excellent ; and the two by W Son Smart , hat a Father Should Tell His , and What a

Mother Should Tell Her Daughter , are almost equally good 8 Fo r o ( 7 and the youth , or later ad lescent , th e Supply ’ a o 6 is not so good . W . S . H ll s two bo ks ( 3 and From o Youth int Manhood and Reproduction and Sexual Hygiene , man are good for the young , but there are none equally good m for the young wo an . Much of the literature produced for these purposes is too full of presentations of th e h o rro rs of a venereal disease , of personal prejudice of some sort , or is ch r act riz a a e ed by a lack of knowledge of dolescence . The te cher O f m ethics ust of course know all of these and many others . I f he should desire a more thorough knowledge of the s ex probl em he can turn to Forel Scott ( 73 ) and the medi 62 cal literatu re . Northcote ( ) presents similar materi al with a clearly expressed religious feeling . If suggestions for the teaching of sex through biology are wanted for the untrained parent or t eaCh er they are to be found happily presented in ’ a Miss Morley s book , The Renew l of Li fe There seems now to be a consensus O f opinion among those who h ave ex amined c a re fully into the extent of and dangers from venereal disease that some instruction conce rning these dise a ses should a be given to all . This to be done not only s a warning aga inst a r a sowing wild oats but lso , and much mo e , as a me ns of arousing caution in the f a ce of the fearful possibilities of accidental innocent infection . And for the s ake o f moral reform and self - protecti o n something too must be included f a about the facts of the white Slave tra fic . Much materi l on these two topics is to be found in the literature alrea dy men t io ned an d in the references they cont a in . Un fortunately much of the literature o n venereal disease and the white slave 4 50 T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS

ffi is a tra c more likely to create phobias th n foresight, and this is the danger to be avoided in its presentation . An excel lent book On these two topics is that by Lavinia Dock entitled Hygiene and Morality In this the facts are adequately presented and yet in a manner as slightly repulsive a s it is possible to handle such a topic . s ex The problems can be easily over emphasized . They need to be included ; but too much detail should be avoided . The effective instruction is that which arouses feelings of - confidence - self , self respect , aspiration to the responsibilities h o f parenthood, and C ristian sympathy .

P E F R M E V . R PARATION O ORAL EFFICI NCY

In the preceding sections the aim h a s been for the ethics taught to develop feelings of moral and physical power , honor - - m be and sel f respect ; now , honor and self respect ust even more sought for, and with them the moral enthusiasm which r T h e expresses itself through co Op e ation in moral progress . aim must be to supply , in large part at least , that lack o f a h sense o f proportion in honesty , trut fulness , j ustice and moral obligation characteristic of the co llege adolescent . By show ing both the principles and p ractice of moral conduct and of moral refo rms and by presenting the material in a concrete manner, the student may be fitted for life in the modern com s munity . He will be o taught that after leaving college he will realize that his ethics was close to the problems O f life and not so divorced as much of the ethics of the past has been . When the social consciousness spreads out in late r adoles cence , when the developing sympathy reaches out beyond the family group and includes the nation and the race in its benig a i n nce , the indiv dual is peculiarly interested in solving the great problems of society . By debates , the study of sociology , read ing or by some means the youth becomes easily impressed by the immoralities of the social order which permits various in j ustices to exist . He sees things in the large , the very large , and overflows with big ideas and Utopian schemes . This enthusiasm loosens up the soil and makes the very best season th e for sowing the seeds of moral activity . One of these is evolutionary attitude toward social problems . If the individ ual is not to relax later into a hopeless indifference toward immorality and inj ustice in the larger relations and functions O f a society , he must have well planted th t view of life and society which sees it constantly evolving , constantly changing and as such susceptible to reform . Without the evolutionary view conditions would seem hopelessly fixed and the inspira T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS 451

tion to moral activity killed . But with it there is inspira tion to strive and to eliminate the evils recognized . It fur thermore links up to the broad racial religious view cultivated by eugenics . Thus the present moral conditions of society A appear no more hopeless than those of the individual . S so culture may change the individual character, progress may change in society what is not possible to wholly overcome in one generation . The evolutionary aspect gives a perspective which makes the presentation of modern social problems e asier and more readily understood . Dewey and Tufts after a long experience recommend the presentation of the histo ry o f o ethics , actual moral principles not ethical the ry , as the best introduction because it orients the pupil and enables him to s ee the problems to be discussed in their social and evolutional s et 1 O ting ( 9 , and there comes ften with the evolutionary

as . view , with the eugenic idea, a feeling of obligation The a h is individual realizes the Signific nce of relation to the whole, that what he is can help or hinder , and this feeling of obliga is tion fundamental to ethical activity . In bringing th e student into the evolutional attitude toward AS ethical problems stress must be placed upon the family . ' an evolutionary and Civilizing factor the family stands s u its e preme . Not only must permanenc be insured by such t e instruction , but from such a viewpoint some of h dangers of evolutional ethics may be obviated . Without some point of orientation the student might well be lost in the s ea of evo lution an d r , but i f oriented by the family , its welfare prese va th e tion , he Should be able to steer clear of dangers which some As s ee in this form of teaching . the deterioration of family the b e life is one of the great moral, problems of present , it comes increasingly important that its value to morals and civilization be SO stressed . Both as a factor in the preparation for moral efficiency and in the solution of immediate moral m m . problems , the fa ily must be e phasized Most of our col a o m lege youth h ve come from g od ho es , and in many , i f not most , there is deep down in thei r hearts a love for their O a r parents . Like religion it is ften too deep and s c ed to be , a dr gged out and discussed , but a tactful consideration of the family and of family ties can be used to rearous e a perhaps mo mentarily submerged love of mother or of father which will serve as an anchor in the turmoil of moral doubt and fi change . As a part in his preparation for moral ef ciency , the

n eds ‘ t m Of Of m youth e o know so ething the history the fa ily , how it has come to be , and the steadying force which it has Of 82 exerted . The inspiring story Sutherland ( ) and the forceful words of M rs . Bosanquet ( 7) should be brought to his attention . After such an orientation , the appalling statis 452 T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS

tics o f divorce and the decline of home life can arouse app re ciation of the importance of the efforts to maintain th e home as a vital institution . With the presentation of the ethical value of the family and the home is opportunity for the presentation O f what is known

about the moral training of children . The demand for this m n needs hardly to be e tioned . The literature is vast ( s ee ’

President Hall s chapter on moral education , and while there is little consensus o f opinion concerning the best methods

to be employed in the School , there is a considerable body O f knowledge produced by the students of child life and by teach ers h which can be readily applied to home training . All t e - a studies Show a world wide demand for better mor l training . Toward this the cou rse in ethics can contribute by prep a ring

f - the parents of the future . For simpler presentations and for ’ practical use and recommendation Prof . Sisson s recent book a M r on the essenti ls of character ( 77 ) and the books by s . 1 1 m Cabot ( 3 and 4 ) are especially worthy of ention . The preparati o n fo r a life of moral activity that is worth is m ffi while the p reparation for oral e ciency . Part of this has been provided for in the sections on hygiene and eugenics , bu t . only part The field , conditions , and opportunities for e such activity need also to be presented , and to be consider d V ffi from the iew point of e ciency . That in moral activity w f S m hich is ine ficient is by O much i moral . The moral man whose influence is discounted by certain shady practices in b by s o f usiness is much immoral as well as ine ficient . The philanthropy which is wasting trust funds by neglect o f ac efli cienc counts and supervision is by so much immoral . The y movement led by experts is turning its light upon all fo rms n of life . The energy wasted by children in our schools i the study o f subj ects which are afterward of no use or v alue is being brought to light and the rapid growth of industrial edu f a cation is the result O the appreciation of that w ste . The industrial education has branched out and grown into voca nal a n t tio tr ining . Colleges and universities prepare o only for the different professions but also for callings not hitherto n f dig ified by the name o f profession . E ficiency tests and standards are being worked out for the various departments o f business , government , education , philanthrop y , etc . Allen defines the scope of this movement thus : Where standards o f administration are unsatisf a ctory ; where taxes are too high ’ a m and buy too little ; where schools waste taxp yers oney , ’ ’ pup ils time and democracy s opportunity ; where results of religious work are disap pointing : where hosp itals regularly incur deficits ; where crime is neither controlled nor under stood ; where civic and educational leaders make futile p ro TH E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E THICS 453

tests against political corruption ; where good intention is per mitted to cover a multitude of administrative sins ; where — ch ari ty inj ures”those it aims to help efficiency tests will be 2 s u found lacking . ( . Preface) . And here they are to be p ’ plied . Allen s work well represents the spirit and methods

of the movement . H e proposes to substitute an efficiency test t for the goodness test . For him the good man we talk abou so much does not exist ; or rather he exists in so m”any shapes h 2 and t e e . types that composite can n ver be found ( , p There are at this very time good men so bigoted as to be ff h e lieve that all who oppose trusts , protective tari , hig licens , b a are good while all who defend them are d. Thus it happens man that knowing a to be good , upright , honorable , Christian , furnishes no basis whatever for dete rmining whether he be lieves in free silver or gold only , whether he is Protestant, reac Catholic , or Jew , republican or democratic , socialist or tionar m y , total abstainer or oderate drinker, a help or a hin r n d a ce to his fellowman . Still less does it of itself indicate his a suitability for position of mayor , auditor”, alderm n , pastor, 2 hospital trustee or school superintendent ( , p . 3 and

And he proceeds to apply this rigidly to hospitals , schools , m k charitable work , prevention of cri e , religious wor , govern

ment , and the making of bequests , showing the methods for s tatistical reporting and treatment in order to present the r n actual efficiency of each . This may be in large pa t eco om

ics , but its ethical significance is likewise apparent . If the aim of the ethics course is to have its graduates participate in the affairs of life morally and in the active movements for ffi moral reform e ciently , it must inculcate this spirit of moral f e ficiency by studying the wrongs , the maladministrations , the

mistakes , the frauds , and the means of their alleviation . Its presentation of practical ethics must be f rom the efficiency e view point . President Hadley has pr sented the problem from the evolutionary moral aspect by comparing the conduct o f m r a en i . of today in p v te and in public life In private li fe,

with their families , neighbors , and club associates , men are

- generally courteous , self respecting , helpful , unselfish , gener

ous in case of a great calamity , and commit a thousand acts

of daily sacrifice the world never knows . But the same men in politics or in business will ruthlessly hurt a weak competitor fi and for money or for of ce , will be selfish , will be snobbish r m se vile for the sake of advance ent or power, will lie or cheat . And in answer to the question why concludes that men have ‘ b een trying to live in peace and harmony with those about them fo r so many thousand years , that we know what is needed to keep the peace . But there have been so few hundred years since we began experimenting with the present commercial 454 T H E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS and industrial system , that we d”o not yet know what virtues 2 are needed for its maintenance ( 3 , p . Every muck rake brings up a new argument for the need of moral efficiency and the preparation for those higher and racially newer fields o f morality for which imagination is needed . The things s ee which are immediate , which we can and feel or readily a re imagine, emphatically j udged right or wrong , real moral emotion is aroused ; but the things which come to us only ff t indirectly , which are long circuited , the actual source or e ec is o f which hard to follow , which tax the imagination , are the things which are not so emphatically praised or condemned . as d n ex eri We have not had , President Ha ley says , so lo g an p ence with these forms of immorality and hence they do not R h . as arouse such intense emotion Prof . OSS happily said e ( 70 ) that distance disinfects dividends . Unfortunately it do s for the many becaus e the distance makes the filth invisibl e . It is fo r these problems that the student needs careful and sp ecial preparation . He must have seen them in the concrete so many times as to be ab le to detect at once the wrong involved and to respond readily with the condemnatory j udgment . All f m these immoralities and ine ficiencies , these sins of com ission and omission , must be worked over until a real and strong aversion is built up . The world into which the student is go is f ing not made of such stuf as most ethics texts are made of , but it is a world where moral problems are hot . He is going into a world where discussions of the highest good , categorical C are imperatives , and Hedonistic alculus , overshadowed by fal s ification of values , Short weights , watered stock , bogus mines and medicines , gold bricks , counterfeit money , fake corpora mb inter fer tions , stock ga ling , bucket Shops , secret rebating, a ence with legislation , evasion of l ws and a host of other Sins Hi against society . s knowledge of actual morality must be such and the breadth of his social consciousness such that the immorality in all these will be recognized instantly . That character and insight is to be sought which can follow the f path of the long circuited e fect and responsibility to its end , a and which will conduct all aff irs municipal , commercial , pro fess ional a , and phil nthropic with the same maximum degree of effi ciency . The character which is good because it is efficient both in work and moral conduct is superior even to Allen ’ s n efficient ma . He would substitute efficiency for goodness only because our standards of goodness have no t kept pace f with our standards of e ficiency . Such being true we need to clean up our sta ndards of goodness and inculca te the best

in our students . The best will be superior even to effi ciency f n because , while including e ficie cy , it will add to it the moral

456 T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E T HICS to business have already been mentioned ; and it is evident in that the man the laboratory or the schoo l room , faces ethical problems as different from tho se of the man in th e studio , the pulpit , the factory, the forest , or the chair o f fi ff Of ce as their moral problems are di erent from each other . The student should be acquainted with the moral dangers p e culia r to hi s chosen calling before he is blinded to them by the furious struggle to succeed . And when the youth is in tensely interested in the problem of vocational choice , there is a nascent period for such instruction . It would make ethi cs real and appealing . It would give the youth a preperception for moral dangers which might save from calamity . For the sake of mere efficiency his choice of a vocation must be intelligently guided , and a knowledge of the moral problems given , but for the sake o f moral progress he must be to ff r prepared participate intelligently and e ectively . P epara tion for participation in the affairs of state may be included in this as every man must to a greater or less degree assist in government . The relation of every vocation to the wel fare of the people at large i s a part of the ethics of eve ry vocation . This relation has in ethics mo re than any other so— of the called practical problems been stressed . It was one o of the first to be intr duced , as the next section shows , and it is almost invariably included in some manner or degree . But the facts of it need vitalization by an infusion of the concrete . The vast number of social betterment and moral improve ment societies and movements which have grown up rapidly in the last twenty years brings a new department into modern o ethics . They not only indicate a recognition of resp nsibility for the improvement of moral conditions , for the facilitation f in o moral progress , but they also p resent a demand for t lli nt ffi i s e ge cooperation and di rection . E ciency the spirit f of modern philanthropy . E ficiency tests and standards are a C being pplied to hurch work , hospitals , settlements , and the like , with a view to making the time and money invested for moral betterment as effective as possible . The inefficiency of many such movements has been , and may still be in ff some cases , due to ignorance , indi erence , and a feeling that such work should be dominated more by emotion than by sound j udgment and knowledge of the best methods . As

Allen and others have shown , trustees and directors have leniently allowed methods which would not be tolerated in busin ess . Now that such vast sums are being invested in

W elfare work there is the demand for effective administration . And this demand is extensive because of the vast number of TH E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E T HICS 457

s . uch , organizations It means that a large number of people B e must be able to direct these movements intelligently . sides this it must be recogn ized that the college students are to be citizens and parents and as such should be prepared to use the publications and employees of these societies when w there is need , and to know what sort of ork is done in order that they can suggest and initiate when their community has i l some spec a need . Work for the protection and reform of the morals of child life is an extensive department by itself . The j uvenile courts , a est blished now for more than ten years , demand expert S thought and direction . The probation ystem which has grown up with them demands the co Operation of intelligent people of sound j udgment and knowledge of child life and s social conditions . Both young men and women graduate f can if prepared be e ficient in such service . College women have been especially effective as probation Officers for way ward girls . In the first ten years of the Chicago court over thirty - one thousand children passed before the j udge and of the boys put on probation 80% never again came before the court , but of the girls only 5570 did not come up again . This is an index of the seriousness of the delinquent girl problem . The thrilling story of Lindsey ’ s fight for the children of Denver should be familiar to every student of ethics Some mention Should be made of the work of Societies for the prevention of corruption , as that of the New York So ciet y for the Prevention of Vice , made famous by the life and work of Anthony Comstock ; of the work of the National Child Labor Committee which is endeavoring to relieve the conditions made by the employment in this country o f more than a million and three - quarters of children under fifteen ’ years of age ; of the scheme for a children s bureau of the

Federal Government for the investigation of infant mortality , delinquency , degeneracy , employment , orphanage , and the like : of the work of Day Nurseries which provide for the children of the unfortunate ; and something too of the laws for child protection concerning immoral Shows , selling liquors to minors , admittance to pool rooms , distribution of obscene ’ literature , immoral advertisements , for children s courts , and ff for parks and playgrounds . The e orts for the prevention of the wastage of child life through their eugenic aspects i . n have much of ethical importance And this , of course , cludes the ignorant mother as well as the child . The work of the Kaiserin - Auguste - Victoria Haus in Charlotten - i bu rg could well be taken as a model . It has twenty nine d f ferent departments of research , owns its own milk plant and 458 TH E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS

has stables , laboratories for research , consulting physicians , a o scho l for mothers , an out department , a training school for nurses , a kindergarten course , teaches cooking , washing, ’ sewing, mending, makin g of children s clothes , the physiology

and . and hygiene of the child , the practical care of the child A Similar piece of work in Ghent has in a few years reduced the infant mortality from 33 70 to In this country the

Caroline Rest in New York, some churches , settlements , an d societies are doing much the s ame work although not on so large a scale . And in addition , the graduate going out into the wo rld Should know something of the work of social set tlements , the methods of institutional churches , Christian As ’ S sociations , boys clubs , Boy couts , Big Brother and Big a Sister Movements , substitutes for the saloon , the Internation l

Reform Bureau , and the various agencies with which he will come into contact as a citizen or have occasion to use i n the moral improvement of his own community . And this material should not be presented as so many bare

- facts . Morality based on a race old feeling is not easily B ut a aroused by reason . concrete illustr tions of the condi tions which the various organizations are attempting to fight arouse the moral instinct and make the impression lasting . The teacher should collect a store of such illustrations to be a used as occasion Offers . If the college is connected with ’ ’ o b s cial settlement , or has access to oys and girls clubs , some first - hand knowledge can be obtained by actual partici p ation in the work for moral betterment . Such doing is eminently more valuable than much telling. But there are many fields where doing is impossible and here imaginal situa tions must be used to arouse the feelings . The heroism of a Comstock , the magnificent fight which Lindsey has m de ,

- the thrilling career of Jacob Riis , the less known , but none the less inspiring work of Mrs . Josephine Butler in England , and the campaigns for moral reform led by Hughes , Roose La Follett e ff velt , , Folk , Jerome, Heney and others o er a vast storehouse of material which may be drawn upon for moral n t inspiration . The ethics which does O inspire by great tales i t s from the front of the fight is missing opportunity . Ethics must bu rn with the realities of modern moral enthusiasm .

T H E T E % VI . ETH ICS T

President Hall has in an Obscure publication reviewed the

ethics texts , along with others , which were used from the founding of Harvard down to the early yea rs of the nine teenth century . From this paper we learn that for a hundred years after the founding of Harvard logic came to dominate T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS 459

h t e interest of pedagogues . Disputations and the ability to participate in them creditably was ranked of superior impor a ins i nificance al tance , while ethic l teaching sank into g , though the forte of the New Englander had always been ” “ character . The works of John Robinson , collected by a Ashton , are largely ethical , and tre t of health , marriage , lib

ert . y, fashions , studies , etc But after Roger Williams was banished in 1636 and the Cambridge Synod had condemned 2 8 opinions , the Puritan mind narrowed and darkened down , S and morals consisted in abbath obser”vance , Bible reading , baptisms and other theological duties ( 33 , p . The beginnings of an effort to teach morals apart from theology are indicated some years before the Revolution in a text pub i 1 l sh ed by President Thomas Clap of Yale in 765. This is entitled an Essay on the Nature and Foundation of Moral Virtue and Obligations : Being a Short Introduction to the se S Study of Ethics , for the U of the tudents of Yale Col “ 66- lege . This page ethics premises that as moral philos ophy makes a considerable part of our academical educati on im and is nearly connected with true religion , it is of great portance that it should be clea rly stated and fixed upon the “ right foundations . Virtue, the text says , is not by nature

. a but Divine gift . Yet he discusses several of the chief ar virtues on their merits , and defends stratagem in w as not lying . Another index of the beginning of a separation from theology is to be seen in the gift of by John Alford to Harvard College in 1789 for the establishment of a chair of i Natural Relig on , Mental Philosophy , and Civil Polity . Presi ’ dent Hall includes ( 33 ) a lengt hy quotation from Alford s th e will which declares the duties of chair to be , among others , demonstration of the moral attributes of the Diety , the doctrine of future rewards and punishments , obligations ” “ and duties of man to his Maker , the most important duties of social life , resulting from the several relations which men mutually bear to each other ; and likewise the several duties in which respect ourselves , founded no”t only on our own t erest but also on the will of God , to the coincidence of revelation and reason on these points , to read lectures on “ application of la”ws of nature to nations and their relative rights and duties , also on civil government . His lectures on natural religion were to be read to all four of the academic classes , those on moral philosophy to the two senior classes , and those on polity to the seniors only . l Ethics was at first sternly opposed . The Ca vanistic colo nials believed that through religion and not through ethical instruction was moral conduct and character to be attained . 460 T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE ETHICS

Cotton Mather is quoted as objecting to the employment of so h t r r o f muc”time on e hics , which he te med a vile fo m pagan ism . In continuing President Hall says that although taught not th e 1 0 did it from the first, until after revivalism of 74 At slowly advance to a place bes ide and then above logic . first virtue was likeness to God and the religious sins o f

. was prayerlessness , unbelief etc , were dwelt upon . There little change from More s Enchiridion down into the 18th cen tury to Paley whose Principles of Moral and Political Philos o h 2 its h p y reached in 18 1 tent American edition . About the only progress was a tediously controversial transition from the view that morality was a code of laws revealed in Scrip ture by God to the view that his code was best studied in the innate intuitions and sentiments . This change being due to the

es r . influence of Clarke , Shaft bu y , Cudworth , and Hutcheson Strangely enough not until two decades before the De clara so tion of Independence, which owed much to this movement, as did the ethical texts begin again , they had rarely done since Aristotle , to expatiate upon political rights and duties ” ’ M cB ride s that though few were inalienable ( 3 3 , p . Principles o f Morality was one of the first to have phys iolog ical references (published in President Hall concludes

- by saying that the Unitarian movement , the anti slavery move ment and other reforms left an indellible mark on college ethics . Mark Hopkins incidentally remarks in his text - book that ’ Paley s ethics were formerly taught a lmost universally in this

c u 2 . a o ntry ( 4 , p And lthough his own teaching at Wil liams is said to have been considered a radical innovation in the eyes of his predecessor , his ethics are well described as

- semi theological . His teaching which culminates in his book ,

The Law of Love and Love as a Law , is a hybrid product of Christian ethics and the Common Sense school ; and although published m any years after Darwin really belongs to the pre T in Darwinian school . hus naturally he bases his theory on t ellect s al , sen ibility , and will , with the moral nature treated n most a s a co Ordi ate faculty . All these are but functions of the person , the ego , which has the power of choice . Choice is the obj ect o f moral j udgment ; and obligation is recognition o f the right through reason . Less than a third of the book is e given to th ory , while the remainder is devoted to what the law o f love would require us to do , to practical ethics . It is ’ this which made Mark Hopkins ethics famous , or possibly a inf mous in the eyes of his critics , and it Shows the keen ability of the man to sense the real needs o f his students . He presents in lucid terms the duties we owe to ourselves , the duty of perfecting the powers of the mind and the body and T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E T HICS 461 th e r a spirit , care in the fo mation of h bits , duties regarding the h t rig ts of o hers , regarding the wants of others , perfecting and directing the powers of others ; also duties from Special rela as mar tions , the family government , relation of the sexes , i a r e s . g , divorce , parent and children , society , etc The last chapter concerns the duties to God , cultivation of the devo i nal t o . spirit, prayer, use of the Sabbath , and like topics Thus did h is genius lead him to anticipate much that is now advo c l h ated in our modern socia et ics . Two other texts which ’ ’ n Hickok s have had exte sive use in this country , and Janet s , ’ h becau s e like are to be classed wit Hopkins , it they are chiefly i k k ’ a presentation of classified duties . H c o s appeared about the middle of the last centu ry For him the ultimate ’

a is . a rule in mor ls Right This is ascertained by reason , m n s im distinctive quality . This ultimate rule of right is Simple , is mutable , and universal . Submission to this Right the great duty which involves all other duties . Practically the entire book is devoted to a statement of duties and authorities . The duties are classified and worked out in elaborate detail , seem n l i g y covering every possible question . The authorities p re s a ented are the civil government , divine government , and p ’ ri ll . a cadave ca rental government Janet s text is cold , dead , y repulsive handbook of duties . The law of duty is in it”sel f its as is own aim . Do thou shouldst do come what will its ‘ T he' maxim . Duty being absolute is universal . law of duty is obligatory in itself and also because derived from God . The whole is a detailed statement of duties of j ustice , concerning property of others , toward liberty and honor of others , equity , - sacrifice du charity , and sel f , toward the state , professional ties , family duties , bodily duties , etc . , etc . , each being treated - m in numerous sub headings . The absolute nature and assu p tion of finality in these is oppressive . The individual is seem in l Of g y placed under the law reason , but the laws have already r been completely worked out and fo mulated for all time . All m there is left for the individual to do is to eekly submit , take one of these books as his Baedeker in life and attempt to guide himself through each experience according to its dicta . — The American market has been flooded with text boo ks in ethics . President Hall says in the article j ust described that “ i in neither log c , psychology , nor any branch o f the great man all so science of , if in combined , have the”re been many — n text books of American make as in ethics . The adva ces ff made in ethical thought , the rivalry between the di erent r n schools , uncertainty conce ning the conclusions adva ced , and the unsatis factory results of its pedagogy are doubtless suffi r cient to account for the plethora of texts . But the ve y fact its o f a superabundance calls attention to causes , and it will be 462 THE PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS seen that they contain the germ of some of those principles which when full grown will make for a more efficient and satis f factory pedagogy o ethics . Besides that written designedly us e is for student , there a voluminous controversial literature .

Unfortunately some of this has been tried out on the students , a e and still more unfortunately , many writers of texts h v allowed controversial material to Slip into their pages . The difference between a treatise for an ethicist and a text for a student ought to be too well appreciated to demand comment . ’ ’ Such books as Sidgwick s Methods of Ethics , Stephen s Sci ence of Ethics and Bradley ’ s Ethical Studies are obviously not texts , and if used as such are more likely to lead to ethical ratiocin ation than to a real interest in the live problems of daily morality . A recent text by Fite illustrates the confusion f f n n O treatise and text . The nature O the work is i dicat ed i the pref a ce where the author himself says that the wo fk was begun with the intention of furnishing simply a plain state ment of the existing ethical Situation . But it was found impossible to make a plain statement without adopting a point of view for the definition of the problem and the theo ries in question He expresses the hope also that the book will be of interest to those already familiar with the problems as well as of value to those beginning the study . Some books which have been widely used in teaching are avowedly and clearly devoted to some one school or theo ry ; 8 as , for instance , Bowne ( ) and Martineau The former ’ s Principles of Ethics is a critique in the form of an extended essay , with theism as the basis and end of his argu t ment . His frequent dogmatism migh be condoned , but what excuse can there be for the omission of a bibliography or full ? foot notes when references are frequent And not infr e q uently the references are anonymous . However quickly the evolutionary theory may have been and r adopted applied by certain schools of ethicists , the inco r p o ation of its attitude in our texts has been long delayed .

Religious opposition may account in part for this , but doubt less the failure to appreciate at first what the full significance o f evolution in ethical science was to be had quite as much to do with it . Evolutional ethics was at first but a modified form O f Utilitarianism and this was sufficient to arouse a hindering ’ n Hickok s opposition . Mark Hopkins ig ored it and when text was revised in 1901 evolution found no place in its pages . ’ Von Gizycki s manual adapted from the German by Stanton

8 . Coit ( 5) shows the Darwinian influence Paulsen , although rej ecting the evolutionistic hedonism which had sprung up , was nevertheless apparently much influenced by the Darwinian theory in the formulation of his own theory of teleological ener

464 TH E PE DAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS

. n theories But the modern discussions of Utilitaria ism vs .

vs . vs . Intuitionism , Determinism Indeterminism , and Egoism Altruism are clearly reflected in the texts and sometimes pre f sented at length . Evidently there has been a decided di fer ence of opinion concerning the importance of presenting these 18 discussions to the student . Some like Davis ( ) would give an introductory course in the elements of ethics and postpone the philosophical quibbles to a later stage , his aim being to provide the student with a rounded scheme of ethics by a careful consideration O f his obligations to himself and to society before t aking him into the variou”s and often con fl in iz ki ict . G c g views of philosophical moralists Von y , in ’ a his students manu l , presents ethics as independent of meta physics and theology , and this point is stressed . Mackenzie , m on the contrary , concludes that etaphysics is indispensable .

“ Hyslop has devoted an entire text to theoretic ethics . Not infrequently the texts present a confusing discussion of ethical theory . Perhaps their aim was to avoid the tedium of a thorough treatment of the different schools by a briefer pre s entation O f the substance of the argument between them and a so what the uthor thought to be the fallacies in it ; if , the aim was commendable but the result has been a bewildering array m of references to unfa iliar names and schools . The mere mention of Sidgwick or Stephen or Kant with a few s en t ences about their position scattered here and there through a discussion cannot be expected to do more th an to create confusion . Mackenzie and Seth are both guilty of this to an un fortunate degree . Paulsen and Hyslop have avoided the difficulty by devoting an introductory chapter to the history of ’ r in A M a t eau s . s ethical theory . work is unique in this field Of is the title suggests , Types Ethical Theory , his aim to classify the types psychologically and under each type to pre sent the system o f some representative thinker ; his purpose his was not , however , historical but to throw a side light on re res en own system , hence the systems presented , although p

t ative . of his types , do not form a complete historical series

In fact , some of the greatest thinkers are omitted entirely . There is no good history of ethics in the English language i either for class room work o r for general reference . S dg ’ wick s little history ( 76) is much too brief and over- emph a sizes th e English school s at the expense of the presentation of

German ethics . There is an excellent sou rce book for collat eral reading by Benj amin Rand which is a compilation of selections f rom the writings of ethicists from Socrates to

M artineau , and there is now a good history of ethics within a in org nized Christianity by T . C . Hall For the more n te sive study of particular ethical thinkers of the past , a small TH E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS 465 series of condensations from the originals h as been started

' under the editorship of Prof . E . Hershey Sneath . Three of these have been published ; the Ethics of Hegel the Ethics of Hobbes and the Ethics O f Hume Every writer recognizes that ethics is based in large part s o on psychology , and states it in his text , but the psychology

' on which each bases it , wherever it is presented , is with a very few exceptions the traditional faculty psychology . The and historical antithesis between body soul , between emotions and intellect has been preserved and will be so long as ethical writers persist in ignoring the contributi ons of modern p s y h l c o ogy . Ethics admits that it is based upon other sciences ; hence it has no right to dictate wh a t the nature of those sciences shall be , but to accept from them whatever they say is the truth . And the psychologist has long said that the faculty psychology wa s fa lse a nd hence the a ttempt to deter mine the relative moral value o f intellect and feeling vain and futile . The tendency now among psychologists is to consider emotions and intellect as Of the same origina l stuff or a s so interrelated as to be inseparable for purposes of moral j udg a re ment . But writers of ethics texts have been slow to pp a ciate the significance of the adv nces made in psychology , in spite of the fact that it has thrown so much light upon the processes involved in ethic a l j udgments and~ t he develop

' ment of conduct . What psychology is given is treated with such an ethical bias that a student coming to a course in ethics after a course in psychology would scarcely recognize

. O the references to the science he had just left ne would , of O course , expect the faculty psychology in the lder texts like that of Mark Hopkins , but one would scarcely expect it in

6 1 18 1 . Murray ( ) published in 9 It is , nevertheless , there and Murray devotes about one hundred and forty pages to what he calls the psychological basis of ethics . But his treat ment of the moral consciousness under the familiar three h eads , intellect , feeling , and will , is antiquated and superficial . ’ M a rtineau s well - known Types of Ethical Theory ( 55) is a specific attempt to present ethical systems from the psycho us e logical view point , but as a text for present it is of course quite useless because its psychology is that of three decades ’ N O ago . psychologist today would classify Plato , Descarte

Malebranche , and Spinoza as unpsychological ; nor would he Sharply separate Shaftesbury and Hutcheson from the utili tarian and evolutionary hedonists and treat the former as distinctly an ethics of the feeling faculty and the latter as an 2 ethics o f the faculty of sensibility . Muirhead in 189 happily departs from the faculty treatment of will and considers it 466 TH E PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E TH ICS a s a conscious process . Thus treating it he finds that the m moral j udg ent may apply with equal j ustice to conduct , self , character , and motive . Mackenzie and Seth , both of whose texts appeared within the next two years , contain but a super fi i l c a treatment of the psychological basis . Mackenzie has a section which he calls chiefly psychological , but it is a very general treatment of desires and will , motive and intention , conduct and character , with the suggestion of a faculty

a . psychology . Perhaps there is in this a tr ce of Martineau

Seth emphasizes the importance of psychology , but his treat i s o ment more ethical than psychological . He m ralizes on the sign ificance of deliberation and choice in the formation

. O of character , and stresses habit and instinctive action n ’ the whole it savors strongly of James chapter on habit . ’ f to Davis whole purpose is dif erent , postpone the theory of a ethics until the student is well grounded in practic l ethics , in hence his treatment is very brief , apparently it is merely tended to familiarize the student with the significance of the F s o terms , desire , volition , choice , etc . ite is absorbed in his own discussion Of the classical theories that he h a s little time a nd for psychology . The Dewey Tufts text , although it has o no section devoted exclusively to psych logy , is , nevertheless , pervaded with the contributions of gene tic and social p sy h l ’ c o ogy . In Mezes treatment of the origin and development of conscience there is also much O f the descriptive genetic method of treatment . S ince ethics came to have a place of its own in the currie a recia ulum , there has never been a complete lack of pp tion of the importance of social ethics , although the emphasis and space given to it h a s depended upon the inclinations and an personal interests of the author . Yet there has been unmistakable tendency toward a greater stress upon socia l o ethics , which may , doubtless , be c rrelated with the growth ~ of sociology , interest in social welfare , and the general de a i mand of loy lty to the larger group . An interesting and s g nificent index of the early stages of this growth is to be ’ found in the preface to the 1879 edition of Hickok s text - fi which appeared twenty ve years after the first edition . This states that the new edition contains a more complete con sideration of the general questions of the state and s tate a to authority , with p rticular reference punishme”nt , property , a t xation , representation , religion , and education . Strangely enough , however, it still included a lengthy discussion of P Slavery . ersonal ethics , also , in the early texts was stressed , O f a n even down to the little details daily life , but with arbi t ra ry manner which savors of the heteronomous theological T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE E TH ICS 467 ethics from which the science was then slowly separating it self . Janet and Hopkins belong to this type . In Martineau is the personal and social involved but indirectly , it is apart from his field and purpose . Although Muirhead has an ex cellent o presentation of theory and psych logy , he is peculiarly deficient in applied ethics . Mackenzie touches this field but only that : he says that he has not space to more than men tion the personal and social problems . Seth includes some of the problems of social ethics , but like Mackenzie in a a f o r ther insu ficient manner . His great aim is the devel pment of personality and toward that end all that he mentions is de signed . The moral life is treated with insight and sympathy evidently born of much thought and of a great soul , but if one is looking for the consideration of the current moral problems of society and social conditions he does not find it

e . her Nearly a half of Paulsen , however, is devoted to the Illumi discussion of these personal and s ocial problems . nated by his winning style , his lectures stimulate a serious consideration of vital questions . But they are lectures and as such are probably better adapted to use as corollary read ’ is ing than for text book work . Davis elementary text , as has been intimated above , devoted almost exclusively to these top i s c . His first section on obligation discusses in a descriptive dis cursive manner and in a carefully - chosen sequence these s ub ect s : j Rights , liberty , trespass , law , sanctions , right and wrong , j ustice , duty and virtue , selfishness , service , charity , welfare , deity . In this section man is presented in his indi vidual relations , while in the second section he is presented in his social relations a nd the rights and obligations thereby — entailed are discussed under the topics , family , community , ’ state , and church . In this regard Mezes text has certain peculiar features . Nearly a half of the book is given to the discussion of obj ective morality the criterion of which is ultimate sentient welfare . The Platonic virtues of courage , w ben temperance , wisdom , and j ustice ith the addition of evo lence are taken up singly and discussed at length , although i s the treatment rather more historical than modern . Under temperance the ethical problems of sex and marriage are in cluded but are discussed in very general terms . Justice is treated at length and almost entirely from a legal aspect . This lengthy legal discussion is at least unusual in an ethics text . Two pages only of the section on j ustice are devoted to the consideration of charity , in which welfare agencies are men tioned in the abstract . Benevolence is treated historically and

a . e . a s an lytically , i , discussing the various feelings involved , , hostile , friendly , etc . A chapter on welfare is a discourse in 468 T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLE GE E T HICS

a rather abstract manner on Hedonism , Eudemonism and national welfare . The emphasis placed in such a text on the importance of moral education for the development of con science in the child is unique . Dewey and Tufts have two excellent chapters on the place of self in the moral life and i on personal vi rtues . About a third of their text s given to a discussion of conduct as action in society, but instead of attempting a general survey, they find it best to center atten tion upon three pha ses of conduct which are of especial in t erest o and importance ; namely , p litical rights and duties , the production , distribution , and ownership of wealth , and the t relations of domestic and family life . In the tex s generally ’ the presentation of the individual s relationship to philanc th ropi es and movements for moral improvement tends more

‘ to be a n abstract discussion of principles ; and in th eg con sideration of social problems in ethics , politics , as it has often been termed , the presentation , with the exception of Dewey ’

o . and Tufts , is more abstract than c ncrete A few books have appeared which represent individual departures in the pedagogy of ethics . Among these are Presi ’ ’ dent Hyde s Practical Ethics President King s Rational ’ Living and M acCu nn S Making of Character

The first of these is j ust what its name implies , a practical ethics . President Hyde includes no philosophical system nor any theoretical ethics ; his book is wholly practical and is a short presentation of the virtues o f life and the fa ctors in ff virtuous living . He takes the di erent Obj ects of life and presents their several phases , namely , as duty , virtue , reward , temptation , vice of defect , vice of excess , and penalty . The — obj ects of life discussed are , food and drink , dress , exercise , e work , property , exchange , sex , knowledg , time , space , for w- - tune , nature , art , animals , fello men , poor , wrong doers , friends , family , state , society , self , God . It is significant that s ex is omitted from the text proper and is treated briefly in the preface . President Hyde says , It is unwise to intrust a subj ect so pers”onal and delicate to the vicissitudes of a - public class room . He considers this to be the imperative duty of parents and that which he has put in his preface on the subj ect is in the nature of an outline for parents . The

to o . style of the book is aphoristic , brief, terse , and the p int — Motto like sentences may be picked up at random . The em m phasis is rather on the individual , or fro the point of view

- of self realization , and public morality , or politics , is rather incidental . Welfare agencies and movements for civic better ’ ment are mentioned in the abstract . President King s text is ff or an e ort to present or to call attention to the moral aspects , T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE E THICS 469

contributions , of psychology . He thus presents the impor

- tance of habit forming, mental hygiene , as well as physical hygiene , exercise of body and phases of mental activity , as will and attention , with some slight philosophical and educa ’ i nal M ac u n t o suggestions . C n s Making of Character i s writ t en ff from an entirely di erent view point , but a suggestive one . It is written for schools and training colleges and its purpose is educational . Its scheme is the presentation of the factors and forces to be met and used in the building of character . The first pa rt dis cu s s es the congenital endowment and its manifestations in temperament , also the instincts , desires , capaciti es , development and repression , and habit . The second influ ences part concerns the educative , the bodily health , family , livelihood , citizenship , religious organizations , social influences , power and use of example , precept, etc . Another part is on soundness of j udgment and concerns the education of the moral j udgment , the growth of the individual ideal , the practical value of theory, etc . A fourth and last part presents

- the facts of self development and control . It is written simply , clearly , and in a stimulating manner . The aim is for a dyn amic rather than a static treatment of facts of the mora l a life . For the teacher of soci l ethics there are now several bibliographies of literature for both direct and corollary use such as , the Harvard bibliography for reading in social ethics and allied subj ects that on business morals by Edwards and that by the Fabian Society CONCLUSION

n sum Prophecies are proverbially da gerous , but by way of mary and conclusion it may be wise to indicate in brief the pro bable nature of the ethics text and course of the future as indicated by the facts brought together in the foregoing . It is

- O f evident that it can not be a presentation arid theories , which h ma have so characterized t e ethics of the past . In the de nd fo r an improvement of the moral conditions of college life and o f the morals of its product is th e call to differentiate between the presentation of moral speculation and the preparation for a life of moral activity . It means that the ethics course is to be based first of all upon the immediate and the future needs of the student . I f moral philosophy , speculative ethics , is taught at all , it will be presented in an advanced course . The practi cal must take precedence over the theoretical . The e ffi course will be dominat d by the spirit of moral e ciency , the preparation for and attainment of efli cient moral character . Eve ry effort will be made to clear the path to such attainment over every obstacle . The essence of the great moral problems of the past will be included because of their reality in the life of every individual , but they will appear divested of their archaic terminology and reference . This to guide the fo rma tion of ideals . In the place of the disappearing external au tho rities th e n n will be built up internal authority , largely u co scious , based on experience, breadth of moral vision , the feel

- ing of honor, sel f respect, sympathy and the feeling of per sonal superiority to anything beneath the most virile of moral standards . The whole tempered and vitalized by the religious spirit and attitude . As the attitude of fatalistic determinism is dangerous to the moral progress of the individual and to the formation of pro res s ive s e g ethical idea , it must be combat d by a presentation o f the fact and the power of the feeling of freedom as looked at by genetic psychology , a position which is at once true tO the causal interpretation of science and to the fact of personal r influence in the mo al progress o f the individual and the race . The evolutional attitude dominant in the other natural sciences must be dominant in ethics . But for pedagogical and moral reasons the evolution of ethics needs to be presented with its emphasis upon the family and the home . The evolutional

. im study of ethics presented rather briefly , will be designed to press the student with the age and power of the moral instinct and how from the home it has grown . out to include the com

and . munity , the nation the race Special stress will be laid on the moral value of the family and the home and the principles of moral education . The moral life will be presented as active , i . s fi not as the mere passively sinless The ideal moral ef ciency , l which includes in its scope physica , mental , and moral power . For the development of these there must be ample considera tion of the facts of personal hygiene which lead out into ’ the larger problems o f community and national hygiene . And the newer science of eugenics because of its vast moral s ignifi cance will find an incre asing place in et hics . In its b rea dth and its ideals it reaches to the depths of th e rapidly enlarging social consciousness of the adolescent and can be used to - O f arouse feelings o f self r”espect , Obligation to pass on the torch of life undimmed , and of a religious reverence for the and o f a t vast po wer of life of which he is a part , which a p r I l is to him int rusted . ts reverentia attitude toward the phe

r n fi r ‘ momena of procreation t a s gu e the sex problem . Condi tions indicate the need of s ex instruction and from the eugenic point o f view it will have a place in ethics . As a part of the ’ f youth s preparation for the morally e ficient life , must be o f included the m ral problems peculiar to the dif erent vocations , much of the work and needs of the different agencies for social betterment and moral reform which he may have occasion to co erate use or to Op with , and in considerable detail the newer

472 T HE PEDAGOGY OF COLLEGE ETH ICS

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