Lester Frank Ward and the concept of social progress

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Authors Hebard, Paul Jones, 1908-

Publisher The University of Arizona.

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Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/10150/553423 L E S T E R FRANK WARD

and

THE CONCEPT OF SOCIAL PROGRESS

by

Paul Jones Hebard

A Thesis

submitted to the faculty of the

Department of Economics, Sociology

and Business administration

in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the degree of

Master of arts

in the Graduate College

University of Arizona

1939

dxy). 2-

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 II, BIOGRAPHY OF LESTER FRANK WARD • . . 5

III. SOCIAL ACHIEVEMENT THROUGH SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT...... 13 A. The Development of Man B. The social Forces C. The Dynamic Principles

IV. SOCIALIZATION OF ACHIEVEMENT .... 29

a . Social Regulation B. Social Invention C. Social Appropriation Through Education D. Attractive Legislation B. Sociooracy F. Eugenics, Euthenics, Eudemics

V. CRITICISM...... 70

VI. CONCLUSION...... 85

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 8?

1 2 2 6 5 3 CHAPTER I

IMTROBOOTIOH

The notion of progress has been the souree of mueh dis­ cussion since the time of Aristotle, but, only during the last three hundred years, has progress been considered an 1 achievement possible to man. In this sense it is a concept which has developed primarily in the vrostern world. The eastern world, with two exceptions, has failed to develop a theory of progress of any kind. These eastern cultures recognised changes but they considered such changes only the parts of a great cycle. Upon completion this cycle would begin once more and the process would proceed as it had many times before. The two exo^>ti

1 Teggart, F. J.. Theory of History. Ch. VTTT — 2Case, C. M., Social Process and Human Progress, Oh. II

3Ibia., p. 19

Ibid., .p, 25 " • *’.» '■ : - —• -. -..•

Spongier, Oswald, Decline of the West, Ch. IV 2

It remained, however, for Pascal to formulate the idea of the progressive nature of man. Progress was be­ lieved by Pascal to be analogous to the biological development of man, as if society, like the Individual, ... were bo m , matured, and advanced to old age*7 When

Turgot, in the eighteenth century propounded his social philosophy, he abandoned the analogous concept and propoe- e ed progress as intellectual accomplishment. Condoroet, a contemporary of Turgot, in his doctrine that man could reach perfectibility, also refused to use the analagoue concept which had so frequently recurred in the philosophical discussion of progress, but Comte, who followed Condorcet in time as well as in theory, return­ ed to the earlier notion once more.^ He did not, how­ ever, use analogy in the extreme way in which Herbert Spencer did. The latter

"....so expanded the analogy that it....became identified with the biological view of the universe so that the whole scheme of things la regarded as a single organism, advancing methodically through stages of its growth in 1n obedience to inevitable laws of self expression. W"LU

Progress, as Spencer conceived it* whether in the

.. 6;- ' : ' ■ - ■ • : : -. — Taggart, F. J., Op. Clt., p. 81

'. 7ibid.. p. 81 - ' ' v; - , ' ...... - ...

Ellwoodj C. A., History of Social Philosophy, p. 172 o ■ ; . • - ■ ' . ^ . , Ibid., p. 173 10 Syaonds, J. A. Essays, quoted in Teggart, F. J., Op. Clt.. p. 81 s lowest forms of life or in a highly complex society was

' 11 cooposeti ©f increasing heterogeneity alone# Hence society, as it develops from the simple to the complex, is progressing inevitably. In this idea Spencer undoubted­ ly confused . the Darwinian theory of evolution with social progress since it does not follow that extreme heterogene­ ity or diverse complexity adds to the sum of human progress, v . % ; ; v : "For this reason, Spencer * s....identifications of these two terns (heterogeneity and progress) are fallacious# Spencer has come to represent the social thought of

his time more completely than any other. He has, in his

ideas on natural liberty and laissez fairs, typified the

reactionary complacency of the Victorian era.

...Spencer was a child of his age. He rarely rose above the influence of his social environ­ ment.*15

A concept of progress such as his could not but cast a

pall of gloom upon the society of his day, especially

among those members of society who comprised the laboring

class. At the top of the social scale, the smug and self- . •• - • - ' '■ satisfied Victorians enjoyed an assured position which the

propagandizing of individualism seemed to have guaranteed

______. — - —r— —— Spencer, Herbert, First Principles, p. 396 x*Sorokln, P. Contemporary Sooiologioal Theories, . rev. ed., p. 218 : ““ ■ 13 Sllwood, C. A , . Qp.Clt., p. 464 4

them for an indefinite period to eoiae.

Upon this scene Lester F . Ward appeared to give the world a theory of progress which had as its end the im­

provement of society.^ The means he would use were the members of society. Joined together in a vast conscious

and deliberate effort to win for mankind the goal of all

striving, happiness,18 He agreed with Spenser that the

human type had developed from a lower form; But he denied

that development alone constituted social progress,^ In­ creasing heterogeneity and complexity did not ensure to

society an improved omditlbn, > Conscious direction,, or

telle action,' on the part of society would lead to the

increase of human happiness- the sole indication of

social progress.14 171516 *

14Hertzler. J. A.. Social Progress, p. 62

15Ward, L. F., Dynamic Sociology. Vol. II, p. 174

16Ward, L. F., Applied Sociology. Ch. Ill

17Ward, L. F., Dynamic Sociology, Vol. II, p« 161 CHAPTER II

BIOOR^HT OF LESTER FRANK WARD

Lester Frank Ward was born near Joliet, Illinois, in 1841. His early years were spent in rather great poverty and his opportunities for education were indeed slight.1 23 There burned within him, however, an insatiable thirst for learning. He availed himself, in oonsequenee, of every means to advance his knowledge. When, in 1860, the possibility of attending a school at Towanda,

Pennsylvania, earn® to him, he gladly accepted the oppor^ o tunity and immediately entered the school# The outbreak of the Civil War in the following year interrupted his education for he enlisted and remained in the army until 1865 after having suffered bullet wounds at the Battle of Chaneellorsville • ** At the close of the war

Ward was given a civil service appointment in the Treasury

Department. Two years later he began to attend night classes in Columbian University (later George Washington

^Ellwood. C. A.. Op. Git., p. 527

2Lichtenbefger, J. P., Development of Social Theory . p. 357 ; ■.: ------.

3Ellwood, C. A.. Op. Git,, p, 528 6

University) which he had helped to establish and in that institution he completed the required work for his a .B. . _ A degree and later degzses In law and medicine, In 1881 he secured the position of geologist with the United

States Geelogleri Survey while serving In this capacity he achieved considerable.renown for his outstand­

ing woric. in this field. The office of Chief Paleontolog­ ical Botanist was vacated in 1883 and Ward was appointed

to that position in the same year. Here he remained for

the balance of the years which he pissed in the service

of the government, that is, until 1906.4 5 During all of these years Ward had been developing

ah interest in the social sciences which were dominated

at this period by the social philosophy of Herbert Spencer whose heavy-handed determinism ruled contemporary

thought. Spencer’s writings seemed to be an effort to

justify the current social system as the writings of

Hleard© and other economists in the earlier part of the

century had attempted to justify the growing industrial

system with its vast Inequalities.

At first entirely Spencerian in his thought Ward later

began to question many of the Spencerian doctrines, espe-

4Ellwood. C* A.. Qp.Cit.. p. it?

SIbld., p. 53? ?

oially in regard to laissez faire theories and to the

eoneept of government,56 Ward, nevertheless, adopted 8ome of the evolutionary principles which Spencer had incor­

porated into his system and he went hack even farther to

borrow from the positivism of Auguste Comte,7 9*

IVardf a first publication appeared In 1883, This work comprised the two volumes of Dynamic Sociology in which he

embodied a thorough refutation of the Spencerian theory of evolutionary social determinism,® It produced quite a dis­

turbance among the Spencerian theorists which was made

greater by reason of the fact that its author was formerly

counted among those who followed along the path which

Spencer had marked,® That Ward had intended to stir the

world of social philosophy into action against the re­

actionary and dismal outlook which Spencer had created is

clearly shorn in the preface to Dynamic Sociology,

"The real object of science is to benefit man. A science which falls to do this is lifeless. Sociology, which of all sciences should benefit man most, is in danger of falling into the class of polite amusements, of dead sciences. It is the object of this work to point out a method by which the breath of life may be breathed into its nostrils**10

5 ' ' ' .. - - . Bogardus, E. S., History of Social Thought, p. 277

7Ibid., p. 277 ®Bllsmod, 0, A., Op, Cit., p* S28 9Ibid: , p. 528 . 10Ward, L, F., Dynamic Sociology, p, VII 8

Ward took Speneer to task particularly in regard to the latter’s concept of the state and its functions. In his earlier years Spencer had likened society to an or­ ganism which develops by means of an evolutionary process in which the will of the citizenry directs the efflores- : ■ 11 ■■ ' " ' " cense of the social progress. Some years later, never­ theless, he urged that government and its functions be so modified that there would remain scarcely more than the police powers and such other regulative functions as would enable the current laissez falre and individualis­ tic theories and practices to be carried into effeet.*1;2 Ward's entire disagreement with the Spencerian theory may, in fact, be said to reflect his revolt against the complacency which had spread a blanket of approbation over the social conditions found so generally in Great Britain and, to a large extent, in America after the arrival of the Industrial Revolution^ Improvement of the social order was a basic need but, because of the be­ lief in certain supposedly immutable 'laws of economic, no attempt was made to remedy conditions in anything but a half-hearted, disinterested manner,13

12Spenoer, Herbert, Principles of Sociology. Vol. II, pp. 6 4 3 - W " — ------“• 9

The immediate reaction to the publication of Dynamic

Sociology was not great so far as the general public was concerned# This was, not unexpected for a book of this type would not be accorded a wide reception# With most of his contemporaries, the book was accepted in the manner of seepage. The vital point was, however, that acceptance finally took place. One of the leading social scientists said some years after the book had appeared:

"It was at least a generation ahead of the sociological thinking of Great Britain and it saved American sociologists the long wandering in the wilderness of misconstrued evolutionism from which English sociology is at this late date working out the ru­ diments of its salvation"

Psychic Factors of Civilization was Ward’s next effort#

"The object of the.....work is to determine the precise role that mind plays in social phenomena."-10

This volume has been.said to mark Ward’s change in thought from the materialistic view of society which he had shared with Spencer, even though opposed to him in other things, to a view of life which revealed society developing through* and largely because of psychological factors.* 16*15

Hot content to rest on his achievements. Ward began

14' Small, A. V/., "Lester Frank Ward", American Journal of Sociology. Vol. XIX, p. 77

15Ward, L. F., Psychic Factors of Civilization, p. VII ^ - - - — 16 ■" „ .■ ' - ' 111 wood, 0. A., Op. Clt.. p. 528 10

ill 1900 to revise and to rewrite his sociological system.

The results of his efforts are found in his publication,

in 1904, of Pure Sociology and in his Applied Sociology published in 1906, This collated his system and in both books he clearly demonstrated that he had turned entirely 17 from the Spencerian tradition#

During the year in which he completed the Applied

Sociology. Ward gave up his governmental position to accept

the preferred chair of sociology at Brown University and he

retained this post until his death in 1913, In addition to his volumes and articles on sociology

Ward had found time to contribute extensively to numerous

scientific journals. "The bibliography of his writings would make j a fair-sized pamphlet. The total number of / his distinct publications amounts nearly to / six hundred, in this respect showing his kin- A ship with great European scholars like Virchow and Metohnlkoff.n18 z ■■■■■■ - Ward, it seems had, like Francis Bacon, delimited all ( ■ • - ' 1 fields of knowledge as the subjects for investigation for Y he wrote in the fields of geology, paleontology, biology, j

psychology, and anthropology.20 His Audios of the Mesozoic.

floras of the Halted States were especially noteworthy. 181917

17Ibid., p. 588

18Ibid., p. 588 19 Ross, E. a ., "Lester Frank Ward", ^unerican Journal of Sociology. Vol. XIX, p T 3 d p. 64 11

Throughout his later life, '.Yard won many honors and distinctions# The International Institute of Sociology chose him as president in 1905# Upon the organisation of the American Sociological Society in 1906, he was elected

: : :■■■ ■ ■ . 2 1 . . the first president of that body# His well-deserved reputation in the fields of botany and paleontology has V- y ■' ■ " ' ■' . 22 ■ ■ - - ' ' ' y '. already been noted. An illuminating incident concerning foreign reaction to Dynamic Sociology may be added at this point, lard had, in 1090, given permission to a prominent Russian scientist to translate the. book into that tongue. Ho sooner, howover, had the first volume been taken from the press than the Imperial Ministry seised the entire edition and ordered it to be burcmd# Ward knew nothlru^ of tiie affair until some months later Wien the news of the confiscation became common knowledge# The American press, of course, expanded on the proceedings to such an extent that,it gave to the work much publicity which it would not otherwise have enjoyed.

"•.••at last Americans will discover by the grace of the Russian.•••auto-da-fe, that an epoch-making book has been before their eyes since 1803, from the pen of one of their own countrymen, and only a handful of them have had the wit to discover it. What a debt we shall owe to Russia for this eye-opener."84

^gllwood, C. A., Op. Cit., p. 529 28Supra. c. 1 . : ■;. ,r ..■' ■ _ ' :

^Ward, L. F., Dynamic Sociology, preface. pp. XII-XIII 24Ibid.# p. XIV 12

Finally, Ward must be remembered for the great impetus which he gave to the study of all of the social sciences.

He was largely responsible for the incorporation into con­

temporary school curricula of embryonic courses in the

social sciences the influence of which it is almost

impossible to estimate. His has been a great contribu­

tion to the Ideas of social welfare in general.

"Few.realize that Ward's daring arraignment of the supposedly perfect methods of nature in his Psychic Factors of Civilization, publish­ ed in furnishes the philosophy that lies at the base of the reoent great extension of functions Of contemporary governments.M

ogists had preceded Ward, none of them ever attained the

distinction which was his at home and abroad. Hor did any

of them exercise the influence upon contemporaneous and

subsequent thought that Ward. did. He was well qualified,,

by reason: of his great talents and by reason of the

guidance which he gave to it, to be called the "Father

of American Sociology".®® * 2526

25 v ' Ross, .t!»• A., Oj).^ C5itji^, p « 64 26 Bllwood, C. A., Op. Pit.. p. 526 CHAPTER III

SOCIAL ACHIEVEMEHT THROUGH SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT

THE DEVELOPMEInT OF UAH

■ ■ ' / “Geneti© progress, the blind, unoonsoious work­ ing of the social forces for human perfeetion- ment in the collective state is what is general­ ly understood by social evolution, "i 2*

Through a long period of time, perhaps as much as one hundred thousand years, man, according to Ward, slowly lost his animal character and became human. Human kind had ac­ quired the capacity to stand erect, to speak, and to establish a few of those institutions which have come to be called human,3 This may be called the period of homoge­ neous development which was followed by a period, perhaps equally long, of heterogeneous development. This second period saw the rise of all of those differentiations of physical characteristics which have distinguished one race from another, the white from the yellow, the black from

1 Ward, L. F., "Social Genesis," American Journal of Sociology, Vol, II, p« 539 2Ward, L. F.. Pure Sociology, p. 201

3Ibid,v pi 192

13 14

the white and every one of the variations which are now found in the different peoples of the world.4 * Most important among the developments of the human species was that of an improved brain structure*8 This came about through negative and positive influences. The negative influence lay in the fact that only those .

Individuals survived whose mental efficiency was great enough to outwit the hostile environment of that remote age. This development continued from generation to generation and the increased cranial capacity was transmitted in successively large amounts to every new generation.6 As a positive Influence there acted upon

early man the stimulation to competition through the

struggle with the smaller animals that shared the avail­

able food supply with the human type. Had man been un­

able to outwit these creatures he would have perished.7

Concomitant with this improved brain structure, the

perception of the advantage of association slowly grew

within man# Man had originally been anti-social, living, alone or at most in small groups.8 Now, however, he was

able to see that association possessed advantages which

.... i'/ard, L. F.. Dynamic Sociology. Vol. I, pp. 440 ff

P- 429 6IbidL, p. 429

7Ibid.. p. 428-29

8lbid., p. 463 15

a life of solitude could not offer. This process of association has been divided into four stages of which the first comprised the time in which the association had as its principal aim the preservation of the species from the hostility of organic and Inorganic nature.9 The next stage was that of *forced association1 and it was marked by the utmost liberty and license.^ In the third stage there appeared the rudiments of control over sexual relations and property rights.11

While this process of establishing the elementary factors of regulation was taking place, the small communities began to combine with one another. In this was found the source of much strife and of encroachment by one group upon another. In order then to save them­ selves from extinction, the groups began to widen their social relationships and to consolidate into larger and more effective units.12

"This process is still going on, and will probably be one day extended to embrace all mankind".*3

Ward believed that the world had not progressed beyond this stage but he held forth the hope that the day would come when government, in this stage a cause of war, would be

*Ibid., P, 464 IQlbid., p. 465 11Ibid., p. 465

12Ibld.. p. 465

15Ibld.. p. 466 IS

a consolidation of the many divisions of the human race and a union of all nations working in cooperation for world progress.^

THB SOCIAL FORCES :

With this sketch of the framework of the development of group life, the social forces which underlie changes in social organisation may be considered* Primary and most important of these forces is desire; and the gustatory and sexual desires are the most powerful of all,*15 16 They are, in fact, the tvo principal means of securing the ends of nature, namely, the preservation of the individual and the continuance of the species* Subsequent to, and dependent upon the above forces, there have developed others which, although not directly connected with the nutritive and reproductive forces, are still of considerable importance. These are divided into three classes: .

-"First, the aesthetic sentiments, resting physiologically upon the remaining four senses, as the nutritive function rests upon that of taste; secondly, the emotional or moral forces, in so far as they can be distinguished from those presiding over riproduotlon; and thirdly. Idle Intellectual "

P* 466 15Ibid.. p. 469 16Ibia„ p. 469 17

forces or..i.those yearnings after normal . exercise which the mind soon begins t© manifest when lifted above the necessity of concentrating its energies upon the mere supply of bodily wants".17 Ward further contended that everyone of the groups of

desires had a physiological basis and that everyone also

had a localized seat in the human body.*1-® This Ward considered important since it demonstrated the composi­

tion of the social forces as well as their constitution,

and because it enabled these distinctive functions to be

differentiated from other things which are not

characteristically social forces,^*

During the period of heterogeneous development, there • ' •- was, apparently, not very much difficulty in securing

food.*9* #ien man sought to escape from the more unfavor­

able dements of his environment, however, he wandered into

less fruitful regions where he had considerable difficulty

in obtaining nutriment without expending a comparatively

large amount of effort upon the satisfaction of his wants.

Here, again, the increased train eapaelty Md e it possible 18192017

17Ibid, p. 471

18Ibld.. n. 472-73

19Ibid., n. 473-4

20Ibld.. D. 474

^Ibld.. P. 474 18

for him to overcome "climate and soil...••animate and inan­ imate foes”.22 * To this intellectual power alone did early man owe M a survival. By means of it he Invented tools, learned therstorage of food, provided himself and his kind with necessities, and in great measure, conquered his

environment.2S 26

When the human kind developed its inventive and eav-t

ing traits, it unconsciously laid the foundation of property rights# These traits inevitably led to the rise

of the acquisitive instimets whose "chief object is to

get" and which are supplemented by the principle of decep­

tion for man has obtained everything by some sort of

deception according to Ward.24 "It is deception to catch and domesticate an animal. It is a deception to ensnare one....Is it not a sort of deception to wring a surplus product from the soil?"25 Deception and Invention are actually the same thing in this view.2.6

Natural justice and the law of acquisition have been

22£bidL, p. 475 _ ’ ^ Ibid.. pp. 541-2

8^Ibld.. n. 497

25Ibid.. p# 501

26Ibld«, p. 501 19

made correlative by Ward because In his definition the former is the law of force by means of which the weak are overcome by the strong whether the milieu is in an ab­ original group or in a highly complex civilization#2728 29 It

is the counterpart of the struggle for existence in the go lower forms of life.

In the period following the development of property

rights, there began to appear in the psychic processes of man a mitigating influence which tended to modify the

effects of the law of force# This influence was exerted

by the Intellectual element and its component parts as they

affected the conduct of man#

"These....influences are: 1* Increase in the susceptibility to sympathy. 2. Increase in the capacity for foretelling effects. S. Decreasggof the power to perform desired

These influences then form the basis for the modifica­

tion of the law of force or natural justice. Concretely

this modification has become civil iustice# In the

achievement of this concept of civil justice the second

influence, the increase in intelligence, has been most

cogent. It has led on from this idea of civil justice to

27Ibld., p. 505

28Ibid.. p. 503

29Ibid.. p. 505 20

the idea of government which, in Ward^s system, originated through contractual establishment.^ Without the sanc­ tion of this contract mankind would hare perished from over-development of its acquisitive instincts. A Never­ theless, the acquisitive instincts, as represented by the money-making tendency in particular, have constituted one of the most powerful incentives to material progress as well as to Intellectual achievement.®^

After the satisfaction of. the nutritive desire the reproductive is the most important of the essential forces.

This force, although it is an appetite, has come under the influence of the intellectual development to a far greater extent than the preservative.®®

"....this mainspring of race preservation has become spiritualised and has-permeated society in the form of a refining and ennobling in­ fluence... ."34

The ♦necessity* of this force is not so great as the nutritive, Ward pointed out, but the ♦utility* is fair greater In that this force'influences socioty infinitely *3132

®QIbld.. pp. 510

31Ibld.. pp. 519-20

32Ibid., p. 494

88Ibld.. p. 698

®*Ward, L. F., Outlines of Sociology, p. 154 21

more than does the preservative force.®® Its effect has been dynamic since from this force have derived all of . the moral, aesthetic, and intellectual Ideals, In short, all of those subjective faetore which have so sharply ' ' • - ' " : : ■ - . . : v. . . . ; : ' __ distinguished the human species from all other animals. These Ideals oea^rise the third set of social forces which Ward delimited# These were called the sooiogenetie forces which, as noted above, developed subjectively from the preservative force.*37 * The first of these, the moral force, has been divided into two kinds; Individual and race. Individual morality has arisen with the increase in the susceptibility to sympathy which has already been noted

as one of the constituents of the intellectual element.

The term ! moral sense* was. In Ward * s theory, synonymous with conscious altruism,®® or the condition by which the psychic states of others are presented to the self.

This could, of course, be accomplished only after the intellectual capacity had improved and after a stage of group life had been attained wherein one individual could

- . : ; . . ; • ■ ■■ • :• ■

55Ibid.. p. 154

S6lbid.. pp. 156-?

37Ward, L, F., Pure Sociology. Ch. XII PP. «8-MS s9Xbld.. p. 483 22

interest himself in the welfare of another.40

Racial morality, on the other hand, implies both duty and virtue, the former having as its object conduct favorable to race safety and the latter having as its end

"an attitude of life.... consistent with the preservation

and continuance of man on earth".4-*' Morality in general has given birth to the various

forms of charity and of philanthropy which the world now

knows. From these there is a step to humanitarianism and

beyond that a step to meliorism or as lYard defined it,

"humanitarian!am minus all sentiment".4244 * Upon the

principle of meliorism Ward expected to build much of his

improved social structure. Next to be considered are the aesthetic forces which

are founded on the innate love of the beautiful.4® These

forces while holding great potentialities, have never been

capable of functioning to a great extent until the more 44 fundamental wants were satisfied. In the future achieve­

ment of social betterment these forces will play a very

prominent role.45

40IbidL, p. 426 41Ibid., p. 420 42Yiard, -L. F., Psychic Factors of Civilization, p. 281 4%ard, L. F., Dynamic Sociology. Vol. I, p. 668 44Ibld.. p. 668 45Ibid>, p. 684 S3 '

Last of the sooiogenetic forces which V/ard outlined are the intellectual,46 The mind, or the train, has crav­

ings like other bodily organs and these cravings find

satisfaetion only in the exercise of the intelleetual

faculty.47* 51484950 Its interest lies chiefly in acquiring knowl- 48 edge, in discovering truth and in imparting information.

The first of these, the acquisition of knowledge, is more

intense than the others and as already noted it has been

the means by which mankind was enabled to outwit his early

enemies and to overcome the hostility so potent in hiq

primordial environment.4,9 .

Ward distinguished between the Intellect as the seat

of emotion and feeling and the intellect as the source of

thought. v In the latter capacity, he considered the intel­

lect to be the directive agent, the final cause of human

progress. Upon this agent has rested all achievement since j

the origin of mankind.This was the dynamic force behind

the conquest of nature by man.In contra-dietinotion to

the method of nature which can, with its limitless resources,

produce great quantities "and trust the environment to se-

46Ibld.. p. 697 47iVard, L. F., Pure Sociology, p. 438 48Ibid., p. 438 49«ardj L. F., Dynamic Sociology. Vole. I, pp. 697-99 50Ward, L. F., Pure Sociology, pp. 458-62 513upra. Gh. Ill Ibid., p. 468 24

leet the best," the method of mind is one of economy.53

" % e mind sees the end end pursues it".54 Knowledge gives to the mind foresight which enables it to perceive the desirable end and to attain that end by the means most suitable, eliminating, thereby, the wasteful

means which nature uses,55 It was for this reason that

Ward considered the directive agent so essential in the

development of society and he viewed the thought proeess

as the element which would have to be properly cultivated

so as to direct individual and social progress in the

most useful direction.®6 This he called the telio method

by which he meant self-direction.57

' Thus far man’s development from a non-human to a

human type has been dealt with and the attempt has been

made to show how the individual has changed not only from

a non-human species to a human species but also from an

anti-social being to a social being whose ends are best

served by a group or social life. In this method social

55Ibid.. p. 459-70 54Ibld.. p. 470 55Ibld,. p. 470

56Ibid.t p. 471 " ".■."'L. .'.r • / ' 57Bllwood, G. A., Pit., p. 538 25

progress has been achieved uneooflolously rather than oonseiously by societal self-direction. It has been a matter of social progress through progress of the individual Mho has consciously directed his efforts toward the satisfaction of his wants and who has aeon in social living the most suitable means to attain his own objec­ tives.

'....It (social progress) has been accidental because it was not deliberately planned".Dti

THE DYNAMIC PRINCIHSS

Inherent in the human species are found three dynamic principles which have in the past made possible the achieve­ ments of social progress* Of these the first is that which Ward called difference of potential.^9 Through the cross­

ing of stains* new elements, physical and psychic, have been brought into the various cultures and have been effective

in creating organic differentiation.5860 * 61 Ward ascribed the significance of this principle to the fact that even in the most primitive culture groups there is found the insistence

upon the practice of exogamy.

"Everywhere it is and always has been realized.... that close interbreeding is deteriorating and endangers the life of society. ,f6*L

58Ibid.t p. 538 5%ard. L. F., Pure Sociology, o. 251 60Ibld.. p. 234 61Ibid.. p. 235 26

Dissimilar elements, if compatible, produce a new substance and something superior when fused according to

Ward*s theory#62 6564* Hence in human cultures the mating of a member of one group with a member of another may produce a third that, even though similar to the parents in many respects m y be distinct from and, perhaps* superior to both of them#6® The value, therefore, of this principle lies in the proper fusion of elements to achieve greater social utility*

The second dynamic principle which Ward has subsumed in his theory of social progress is that of Innovation* *

Its counterpart in the world of biology Is the sport or mutant and it is found only in those species wherein re­ production is sexual*6® A given quality may lie un­

developed for a number of generations in the strain and

suddenly it will appear in offspring which may be quite un­

like the parents.66 67 The possibilities in the appearance of these mutants is incalculable since over a period of time

it is inevitable that they will spasmodically appear*6^

62Ibid*. p. 837 62Ibid** p. 237 64Ibid*, pV 240

65IbidU, p. 340 , .

66Ibid.. p. 241

67Ibid*. p. 241 s?

’’These oonstituto an inexhaustible source of fresh variations, combining and recoabin- . ing in an endless chain of ever changing , forms”.68

This variation is, in society, progressive and its effect 69 upon the group is to improve it,

"It constitutes the means of producing some­ thing better than could have been produced 'before".vo

Conation is the third of the principles of dynamic action and is, in essence, the effort of the individual to modify the environment•71 As has already been noted7273, desire is the basis of all action having for its aims the satisfaction and the preservation or continuance of life by means of a modification of the surroundings,7® Con­ sequently the individual, in his attempt to provide for his own welfare and for that of his kind, constantly seeks to change his environment to satisfy his wants and desires. When these modifications are constructive, as, for example, the efforts of parents to rear their chil­

dren, they serve social progress by furthering the welfare

6aIbid., p. 243

, 69 70Ibid.. p. 246

70Ibid.. p. 24? 71Ibid.. p. 247 723upra, Oh, III 73Ibid.. p, 248 of some of the members of society*74

To these dynamic principles Ward later added another,

namely, social telesis or the conscious direction of effort

on the part of society to definite ends*75 These principles

Ward held to be the dynamic agents which in their bearing

upon matter benefit society in one way or another* Their

basis is, however, founded ‘'upon the fundamental truth...* that matter is dynamic*"76 Ward meant by this that, only as the expenditure of energy can bend and shape matter,

will advantageous results aeorue to society. / :: ' ...... ■ ; = ■ ' • ' ; - -V : . . ■ •■ ' ' <; ■■ ■. , ■ _ "Energy expended in other ways as in.i.*the purely spiritual things.;;.results in a weak, stagnant civilization, like that of India, oulmlnatl^ in caste, oppression, and quietism, hermetically sealed to all dynamic influences.n77

It is man’s duty so to use the materials supplied by nature

as to achieve not only for himself but for all of -Ms kind

the greatest possible useful result.7®

"Matter is for man, endowed with intelli- / . . genoe and inspired by science, a veritable lamp of Aladdin, which he need .but rub, and, as if by magic, all things take on the forms of utility and cast themselves at his feet.1,79

74Ibid.« p. 250 .

75Ibia.* Ch. XVI

7®Dealcy and Ward, Testbook of Sociology, p. 226 ^Ward, L. F., Pure Sociology, p. 254 78Ibid.. p. 255 7®Dealey and Yvard, Op* Clt. t p. 887 - CHAPTER IV

SOCIALIZATION OP ACHIEVEMENT

SOCIAL MIHLATION

Thus far t M s survey has covered the genetic method of progress. The other method of progress, the telle, may - now be considered. To Ward the latter method signified ]L the conscious direction of forces to perceived ends. Social achievement, as already noted, has in the past taken place but largely by way of accident since it has occurred as the offshoot of individual progress. Never­ theless, the growth of society has measurably proceeded through this method. How early in man’s history the telle method came into use for the whole group is, of * - ^ " course, impossible to state inasmuch as authentic data are unavailable. The earliest record for which proof can be adduced is that embodied in the pyramids of Egypt (dating from Circa 3000 B.C.) but from that time on there is well- established evidence which indicates that man slowly but consciously turned his efforts in the direction of objeo- 1*

1I M d L, p.:834

^Ward, L. F.. Op. Elt,, p. 545

89 30

tives which will lead to the betterment of group life, . : ,:v . . ■ , . ■■ - -■■■ ■ : t It has seemed to be the individual who has benefited principally from the achievements of the group while the group has benefited only slightly.* To quite an extent this is true, particularly in the past, hut in more recent times society has definitely benefited from individual telesls. The very-fact of government was, in Ward's opinion, a proof that society had derived some value from the telio g • -- method. When man established the state as a means of con­

trol, he had hazily in mind the good of society, as a whole.

It may have been that there was the hope for safety of in­

dividual rights in this step, but there was, in addition a

vague concept of social progress and of amelioration also,*6 45

The state is, in consequence, a product of social

evolution and in its legislation the social level of its

citizens is more or less clearly reflected. Herbert Spencer

had written in 1860 that all legislation by representative

governments was based on the national will and that even

though such legislation might not at the moment be a mirror

of national desires, it would eventually conform to the

5Ibid., p. 532

4Ibid.. p. 547

5Ibid«, p. 551

Glbid,. p. 551 wishes of the national body.7 He further insisted that even the enactments of the despot were initiated because of a supposed fitness to the welfare of the state,8 Despotic legislation, in his opinion, had as its aim the supremacy of that state regardless of the means used to obtain that supremacy*

"When they (the despot’s acts) are out of harmony with the national character they are soon practically abrogated.....He (the despot) may disturb, he may retard, or he may aid the natural process of organisation; but the general course of this process is beyond his control.'"* Thus it is seen that despite the genetic origin of the

state its method is telle. Its sole reasonifor existence

is the well-being of society.**'8

"....thus far in the history of society the state has rarely performed acts that tend to advance mankind....it has been the condition to all achievement, making possible the social. Industrial, artistic, literary, and scientific activities that go within the state and .under its protection."i* "

For Ward the right to property depended solely upon the state’s existence.12 If private property failed to

7Spencer, Herbert, "The Social Organism", Westminster Review, Hew Series, Vol, XVIII, Jan. 1, id&O, pp. 92-93 8Ibid.. p. 92 9Ibid., p, 93 19ward, L. F., Op. Clt., p. 555 11Ibld.. p. 555 12Iha., p. 550 32

exist, then the Industrial system could not exist. Hor could there he any wealth since the accumulation of wealth would he out of the question inasmuch as nothing of value could be for long retained. In short while the state is composed of and supported by individuals it is at the same time the aegis under whose protection individuals can pursue their right to happiness.^ The functions of the state, society in the aggregate, are then two-fold, namely regulative and operative.*14 *

"....while human achievement constitutes at least one of the most important operative functions of society, social regulation is that which makes it possible. Social achievement is, however, a term of such breadth that the concept of it must include regulation itself.16 It has already been noted17 that not until man had

acquired the social habit and had developed the regulative function was he able to deal effectively with his environ­ ment. From this developed the elements of jurisprudence

the beginnings of which were based upon the enforcement of

the group will and upon the insistence that antisocial

15Ibid.. p. §80

14Dealey and Ward. On. Git., p. 290

16Ward, L. F., Op. Git., p. 548

16Dealey and Ward. Op. Git., p. 290

17Supra, Oh. Ill Infractions of that will he punished*18 There is seen in this evolutionary process the conquest of the forces of nature by the individual through the use of the telle method and the conquest of the individual in turn by society through the use of the same methods19 *

"This has consisted in gaining a greater and greater mastery of the social forces, primarily of the anti-social effects of the social forces in the interest of social safety*«g0

It is true that the process of social regulation has

Indeed been,a slow one. It.has come about by means of adaptation which is always a slow process; but the

advantages of collectivism have become more and more

apparent as the group mind has come to appreciate the value of mutual action. Representative government has been, per­

haps, the most recent and far-reaching of the efforts of

collectivism. As the state has penetrated farther and

farther into the field of social welfare, it has become

ever more valuable to the Individual. Nevertheless the

struggle has- been;long-and ceaseless. V; . / ■ ''.. '

"Every one of the developments of the collec­ tive authority of the nation over the con­ ditions of its own life was denounced as an e_ illegitimate usurpation foredoomed to failure".21

1BWard, L. F., Op. Git,, p. 548 ^Dealey and Ward, Op. Cit., p. 895 - - 80?/ard, L. F.. Op. Git., p. 556 21Webb, Sidney, quoted by Ward, L. F., Op. Cit., p. 559 There have, of course, been failures, hut there have been more successes.22 25* . ' - ■ .' ■ - v

. SOCIAL INVEIITIOK

For the individual invention has been the cause of achievement in overcoming the natural forces.

"Social achievement consists in invention . , and discovery in the domain of the social sciences"*^ :- - , ■■■ ■ . - - .

Social achievement> although it has resulted from this in­ vention and discovery, has been an empirical process, a ___ method of trial and error. Hence Ward proposed that collective action should be scientifically analyzed and formulated so as to serve as a guide for social teles!#*

In the field of physical science the method msed to pro­ duce invention is to recognize a property or force la the subject of analysis and, after that recognition, to make the necessary material adjustments in order to cause the property or force to behave In the desired manner.2*

"....the desires and wants of men constitute the forces of society....Social invention consists in making men act in the manner most advantageous to society."®® ' • • • . ' • ... -• • " .- • • - ...... — - - - ■ : • ...... It is scarcely necessary to point out that it is more ad-

22Ibid., p. 561 28Ibld., p. 568 , . 2*Dealev and Ward. On. Git., p. 300 25Ward. L. F.. Op. Git., p. 56# vaiitageoug; to use persuasion or inducement to secure social ends than it is to use coercion.26 Force will, no doubt, achieve results of a sort but the sensitiveness of human intelligence is so quick to recognize the injustice of

force that in time the ends which are sought by compulsion will be effectually defeated.2^

In Ward's theory the state, an invention of the group, was considered to be tho directive agent of society, en­

joying a position similar to that which the intellect holds

in the individuals The latter has, naturally, developed

his directive agent more thoroughly and more usefully than

has society developed the state.28 This is principally

because of the fact that society has never been able to de­

fine its objectives and to achieve those objectives by the

most suitable means. In representative government. Ward

- . ... . ' .... ; believed, the law-maker was a type of social Inventor.

11 He has only to make sure what will con­ stitute a greater gain....and to devise measures that will harmonize this with the social good in order to secure.... such a course of action on the part of all affected....as will secure the ends sought”.29

26Ibia.. p. 569

27Ibid.. p. 569

28Ibld., p. 565

29Ibld.. p. 570 Ward maintained that legislators in general had failed to understand that man could he managed by intelligence even as nature had come to be dominated by man.30 Means of satisfying human wants through socially beneficial enact­ ments ought to be the aims of all human legislation.3132

SOCIAL APPROPRIATION T: a IDOOATIOH

The final phase of social achievement is that found in social appropriation.

....human achievement consists essentially - in knowledge....It is therefore of the ut­ most importance that.this knowledge be preserved

The sum of the accumulated knowledge is the essence, the germ-plasm of society.33 34 Civilized man, according to Ward, has as his supreme duty the preservation and transmission of this social germrplasm from one age to the next# All of the inventions of man should be called upon to perform this two-fold function of preservation and transmission* ^ ------M....complete social appropriation.... cannot be attained until the mass of man­ kind shall possess not merely the benefits, of achievement, but the knowledge itself.M34

3QIbid.. p. 570

31Dealey and Ward, Op. Pit., p. 302

32Ward, L. F., Ogu Git., p. 572 33Ibid., p. 572

34Ibld.. p. 573 37 :

Obviously no one person could hope to acquire all of the factual knowledge which the world1possesses* but by a practical classification this body of knowledge could be so systematized that the properly educated person would be able to grasp the great guiding truths which form the basis for the various fields of knowledge, .

.. - ' ■ ■■■■■■ : '?A knowledge of generalized truth enables a person to grasp the principles that underlie natural phenomena, to exercise control over the forces of nature, and to expand the powers of his mind for still- other and broader gener- ' allzations,"^®

Ward thought that the above truths would be easy to under­ stand upon the part of the average Individual since they deal with natural phenomena and the concrete,

"It is a knowledge of things,*..which,...would enable a person more wisely to forefond his life and to satisfy higher standards of physi­ cal. Intellectual, and social wants”.36

It is thus seen that Ward's definition of education is sumed up in the phrase, ’diffusion of k n o w l e d g e 37

In Dynamic Sociology Ward has distinguished the common­ ly accepted types of education, namely, education of ex- *56

8SDealey and Ward, Op, Git,. p, 305 56Ibid.« p. 305

3?Ward* L. F.. Dynamic Sociology. Tol. II. n. 568 perlenoe, of discipline, of culture, and of research, from the type, education of information, which he considered t© be the essential kind#38 4039 With this education of informa­ tion in mind. Ward established three basic principles of education for him system. The first of these principle# would seek to implant in the human mind, whose food is truth, a perception of a chain of essential truths which would enable the average individual to think teleological­ ly#3® There would be an insistence upon the quality of the content# of the mind rather than upon the quantity of information which the mind would hold. Brain-action,i Ward held, proeeeded from desires as all other action proceed# from desires. Since conflicting desires could exist in the,brain as well as elsewhere, there would be a great strain upon that mental process if the desires arising but of

interest or duty should be opposed to others,

"If the spontaneous impulses are in the same direction as the dictates of interest and duty, the product will be large and the effort small,"40 . .

The advantage to the individual in being enabled to produce

rational thought could be obtained. Ward thought, only in

this fashion, ...... :......

38Ibld.. p. 568

39Xbld., p, #71

40Ibid., p, 570 The second principle of education in this system is ^ that society itself must devise and carry out the educa­ tional system.

"....education must be entrusted to the state and can never be adopted until the state is ready to adopt it.”41 42-

Ward admitted that most legislatures were not of sufficient­ ly high intelligence to prepare and carry into operation a system of education which would effect the ends which he proposed.42 It would, until the legislature demonstrated higher mental capacity, devolve upon the executive branch of the government to initiate this educational program.43

Moreover, the fact that the administrative branch of government has always felt the national changes in sen­ timent rather.quickly would•enable this branch to meet the problem better than the legislative branch oould do.

Despite the current ineptitude of government to pro­ vide a suitable educational system, state education was, in Ward’s belief, superior to any other system largely be­ cause it would have as its aim the making of better cit­ izens an end which he considered practically the same thing as social,progress.44 The objectives of such a system

41Ibid., p. 572

4t*Ibid., p. 572

43Ibid2., p. 574 44Ibid.. p. 589 would be those of society itself because they would be out­ lined by society and they would be the goals of social achievement. Society could also insist upon the education of those most lacking in education in order to improve the condition of the uneducated class which has always been an economic debit as well as being deficient in effort leading to social achievement.45

This principle leads to the third and final one in

Ward*s system which has.to do with the universality of education. ; - ■ .

"The knowledge which society requires to be extended to one,it must require to be #x-' tended to all."46 Since civilization has come about through the use of know­ ledge by the individual it is essential that all be ed­ ucated in order to raise the social level and to lasurs social progress. . During the course of centuries, as know­ ledge has cumulatively Increased, it has been only the exceptional person that has availed himself of that fund of accumulated information. This meant, of course, that the

great proportion of mankind was, by comparison with the

exceptional case, in a state of ignorance. Such a condi­

tion, Ward mahtained, in the midst of so much knowledge,

45Ibid.. p. 591

46Ibld.. p; 593 could easily lead to an immeasurable amount of harm in the existing social structure, the erection of which had been don® only at great cost.47 Society, in being compelled to protect itself from such ignorance and the acts which such ignorance caused to occur, has had to expend a vast amount of effort in curbing the ignorant and in safeguarding it­ self. This energy applied to other and more useful pur­ poses should have long since achieved a considerable degree of social progress.48 Education, in consequence, must be absolutely universal and must be imposed upon all of those classes by whom it would not be voluntarily accepted.

w....the presence of these classes in the midst of civilization tends powerfully to lower the condition of the latter and clog its advance.”4®

The matter of education may now be considered. /Ward, in his system of education, postulated two principles for the kind of knowledge that was to be imparted. They are the principle of generality and the principle of practicality.50 By generality Ward meant general scientific truths which are easy to grasp and which are concerned with

47Ibid.. p. 595 4eIbid., p. 595 49Ibld.V p. 39#

50Ibid.. p. 619 42

the coner®t®« «By practicality he meant, "such knowledge aa tends to enable its possessor to perform the duties of life, to contributo to human pro­ gress, and to be happy".51

Practicality and generality would comprise the first of the three curricula which Ward's system of education included.

This curriculum would be made a compulsory part of all educa­ tion! In the second curriculum, while there would be a con­ sideration of deeper and more difficult truths, prac­ ticality and generality would also be stressed but, in addi­ tion* there would be made possible a considerable differen­ tiation.52 That is to say, in this curriculum there would be discovered for the individual the most suitable occupa- tion or vocation for him to follow.53 The third curriculum •• - ' v .. ; , would, of course, follow on the preceding ones but it would allow for a considerable element of choice upon the part of the individual. Included in this range would bo truths leading to greater specialty and detail, and pointing to achievement greater than the average person could expect to attain. It must be remembered, however, that Ward always considered the average person the pressing problem of education - not the genius or near-genius.54

51Ibid.. p. 620

8gIbld.. p. 621

5gIbid., p. 621

G^Ibld.. p. 368 Thane curricula would be based upon one general theory which Ward thus expressed:

"Everything that has been made known by man should be made known to all men".55 ' »• ■ This was the corner-stone of his system since, with this knowledge firmly grasped, every individual, Ward believed, would be well able to pursue happiness in whatever manner would be most satisfactory# Simultaneously society would be benefiting greatly from the progress which each and all would be making in a system drawn up for individual as well as for group improvement#56

The means of education Ward next considered and he meant by this term, "those auxiliaries through which know­ ledge is directly imparted to the mind,"57 These means which are reading, writing, and calculating would con­ stitute the arts of education# While they would not in themselves signify the acquisition of knowledge, they would provide the paths to knowledge and thereby to education.58

Method of education was Ward’s final point in his educational system. His belief was that the problem of

— ; ”‘T ■ / ■ : ; — — °?Ibl*. 6BS 00Ibld.» p. 624

57Ibid.y p# 625

58Ibld.. p. 626 education lay in inculcating in the entire field of eduea- tion a desire which would_ form the basis for the demand for real education.59 Above all, the method of education to be truly progressive would have to be telle, that is, direct­ ed towards definitely social ends and objectives.60 This would be, of course, the’ method of collective telesis lead­ ing to the greatest social progress*

During the second last decade of the nineteenth century when 1manual training1, as it was then called, was being introduced into theischool system of America, Ward wrote a treatise on the need of cultivating the inventive instinct of man.6^- By helping youth to learn the fundamen­ tal scientific truths and by. training youth to point its

Inventive powers in the-direction of the improvement of material surroundings, society would be greatly benefited.

The inclusion of this innovation, mmual training, with a

concomitant study of the nature of science would have this

desired effect.62

59Ibid.. p. 627 ' 60Ibid., p. 627

r 1 ' ■ = ' : . . . - . ^Ward, L. F., "What Shall the Public Schools . Teach?", The Forum. Vol. 7 (1888), pp. 576-83 08Ibid.. p. 583 48

"The educational training of the mind and hand together on a grand scale in the public schools....is the first effort ever made by society to lift the work of civilization out of the empirical groove and place it upon the high plane of syste­ matic soienoe."®*

ATTRACTIVE LEGISLATION

It has already been noted that social progress has been principally an accidental occurrence. Even in the acts of representative governments, the most recent of the forms of social achievement, there Is found but a minimum of teleology, of direction toward socially useful ends#64

To effect an application of the principles of the science of social progress, Ward proposed the development of the social art as the product of the science of society,6®

"Government is the art that results from the science of society through the legislative application of sociological principles",®6

In the natural forces, it was found that there are four steps, _____

"first the discovery of the laws governing phenomena; second, perception of the util­ ities (modes in which the phenomena can be modified to serve man); third, the necessary adjustments to secure the useful end! and, fourth, the application of all this in produc­ ing the result",®7 *67

6aIbid,. p. 885 ®4Ward, L. P., Outlines of Sociology, p, 270 ®5Ibld„ p. 271 ®6Ibid,, p. 271 67Supra, p, IS 46

Wart classed the first*of these steps as pure science; the second and third as applied science; and the fourth as art,6®

Society, since it has grown by means of natural forces, would have to he subjected to these processes, according to

Ward, in order to achieve the maximum of social progress*68 69 The laws of society would have to be discovered by the sociologist. The perception of the utilities and the nec­ essary adjustments would be the problem of the legislator who would, in turn, incorporate these principles, postulated by the sociologist, into law,70 «The execution of the laws is the resultant social art".71 Such a system Ward believed, would be immensely superior to the current one since it would make the natural forces to be the cause of the accomplishment of the ends sought*

Ward, in his classification of forces. Included the passions of men, in addition to the desires of men, as being great potential sources of progress if directed to the right goals* Should this attempt be made, the present expense of trying to curb these forces would be eliminated and "a

68Ward, L. F., "Collective Tclesis," American Journal of Sociology, 1897, Vol* II, p, 807 69Dealey and Ward, Op. Pit., p. 269 70Ibld,. p. 270 71ward, L. F., Outlines of Sociology, p. 278 4?

* nmol larger amount transferred to the other side of the

aoootmt"*^ . . - , ' • ' ■ •

The foundation upon which all of the above ideas rest­

ed was called the principle of attractive legislation#73

Ward saw in the application of this principle the eventual

performance of government in a manner so facile and smooth’

that society would come to the point where the execution of

laws would be no burden whatsoever#74 An analogy was drawn

showing how man had mastered and domesticated many animals

making them of great value to himself in effecting a more

comfortable existence# Thus if society should learn how

to enact legislation which would make use of the strong

human desires and passions, natural forces, it would make

the human animal "as useful to society as domestic animals

are to man#1,75 Ward made the point that attractive leg­

islation was merely a mode of inducing men to act for social

ends#7® The interests of society and of the individual

could be harmonised by showing the latter the advantage of

acting so aa to benefit the former# A cooperation between

the sociologist and the legislator to find the best method of75 76*

72'tfard, L# F., Collective Toleals," American Journal of Sociology, Vol. II, 1899, p. 608 - - V » -I - * ' * ’ " - ' ^ ■ -1 - - *'• 1 * ' " . - - ' > Ward, L, F.. Dynamic Sociology, Vol, I, p, 39

7^Wardt L, F.» Psychic Factors of Civilization, p# 307

75Ibia.. p. 307 76War6, L. F.. Outline* of Sociology, p. 274 48

allowing the-free flux of the social forces would provide the needed means which would lead to a maximization of social achievement. There remained for Ward to answer the question of how to induce men to desire those things which are socially beneficial#^? He well understood that not all individuals would have the same desires even though they ultimately would desire happiness. It followed then. Ward held, that the way to make the desires and the consequent action of men lead to social improvement would be to influence the opinions and beliefs upon which desires depend* The only satisfactory way of accomplishing this objective would be as noted before by the use of a suitable program of educa­ tion.77 7879 * The current system of education would, however, have to be renovated completely since, under the present . ’ ;' x " - ■ ’ ■ ...... program, the aims of society are not clearly outlined. And, in a nev; or revised educational set-up, the method and means, as well as the subject matter of education, could be so defined that they would coincide with the objectives of society itself.00 Society, pending the completion of

'; ' ' '■ ■ : : ‘ ' ' ; , ' .

77Ibid.. p. 274 78 • ■ •' Ward, L. F., Psychic Factors of Civilization, p. 308

79Ibid.. p. 308

eoIbid.. p. 80# this change, would be forced to exercise Its Ingenuity to the fullest extent to provide for the eradication of exist- 1 - •• - ' , " » • - ' . ' ; ' ' • • • ' ing evils#

"These (the existing evils) are so great and so universal that the first steps would necessarily : be taken#...in the direction of mitigating or removing these#"SI

This regeneration of society would presuppose, Ward held, not only the awakening of the social ©onselomsness, but also the changing of the eoneept of legislation# The legislator as a social inventor would have to be thorough- ly versed in social physios. His duty would be % . . fto devise ’ways and means’ for securing the true interests

Mid improvement for the people for whom he is to legiaate."82

Under the existing forms of government, this proeess would be practically impossible of application. Even in a democracy the unwieldly size of the representative body is such that progressive legislation is beyond the realms of possibility# Whenever worthy enactments are passed, they are effected not by the legislative body working as a whole but by a small group of that body working in the form of

committees where fitness and deliberation are most commonly

the standards of guidance for the committee members#06 It *8

81Ibld.. n, SOt

8SIbid.. p* 309

8SIbid.# p. 309 m

would then follow that seientifio legislation earn be seeured - ; ■- ' R4 only by a vast extension of this system. Ward was partio- ularly opposed to the fraquenoy with which partisanship was displayed in the aotlons of committees and he ^vas firmly convinced that the party-system was one of the weaknesses of representative democracies#00 "History furnishes the statesman an additional' basis for legislation". By this V/ard meant that the great collection of data upon the historical systems of finance, taxation, education, public works, military and naval equipment, and law in general should be the basis for intensive study upon the part ' • ■ - : " ' ■ ' : : ■ -■ ■ ■■■ ■ ■ ' 89 of those who seek to legislate for the group# It was admitted that few framers of law were so well qualified as this, but it was believed that the legislators who were thus equipped were most capable of directing the state and most valuable in exemplifying the type of individual that all

should be who aspire to political office.08 Another means of obtaining •attractive legislation*

®*Ward, L# F.. Outlines of Sociology, p. 278

85Ward, L. F., Psychic Factors of Civilization, p. 310

86Ibld,V p. 311

87Ibid., p, 311

88Ibid2e, p, 311 51

would lie. Ward felt, in the,

R....gradual assumption of legislative powers, at least advisory, by the administrative branch, which always feels the popular pulse much more sensitively than the legislature ...."89

Especially in the field of education would the influence of

the administrative branch of government be effective.8990 91

The above statements do not signify that Ward consider­

ed democracies to lack progressiveness.

"....tendencies in the direction of democra­ tic government do mark progress in social integration, however feeble may be the telic power displayed."*!

Democracy is, by its very nature, superior to all other types of government beoause, in theory at least, it is a

government of society by society. Whatever it achieves for

social betterment it achieves for itself.92 * This was in essence, Ward believed, the application of the telic method.

"....representative governments are essentially benevolent....they wish well for the people.... they mean wells"95

Democracy has been not only a forward step but it has also

89Ward, L. F., Outline of Sociology, p. 2?8 90Ibld.. n. 279

91Ibid.. p. 279 9&Dewey, John, The Public and Its Problems. Oh. I H 95Ward, 1. F.. On. Pit., p. 279 58

been the solution to the question of the moral side of government in that it has been the source.of ’good* (the 94 good being tho will of the group) for its constituencies* With the moral problem thus provided for there i remains the question of reform*9495 The solution to this must come from the.intellectual side; and it must be the sociologist who finds such solution. He can only bring this about by concentration upon.the problem of increasing the intellec­ tual status of the constituencies of the democracy*96 9897 It must be his duty to arouse the social consciousness to the point where it will fully appreciate this truth and bring every force to bear in order to devise ways and means for equalizing intelligence universally.

Ward, anticipating that the charge that society had failed to grow to a fairly high level of intelligence dur­ ing its long era of development would be hurled at him, advanced the argument that the principles which he had propounded were the basis upon which a scientific study of society could be laid* In view of the previous develop-

94Ibid*. p. 279

."■ 95Ibld.. p. 279 : ‘ ' . ■■.v v " ... -"V

96Ward, L. F., "Collective Teles!*". American Journal of 3ociologym Yol. II, 1899, p. 813

97Ibld. , p. 813 ::. '.: / V ... . - 98Ibld*. p. 814 meat of mankind these principles could be considered as unmistakable indications of the instinctive tendencies of 99 humans to seek the satisfaction of their wants and desires. To charge that the past history of society shows little

evidence of telle action would be to affirm that society has

achieved as much as it has only by means of blind evolution.

Such a charge would negative the claims and the abilities

of the intellectual capacities of man in their conquest of

the physical environment#^00

As a final means to secure worthy legislation. Ward,

proposed the use of the statistical method# This method

would simply present the facts which underlie governmental

science#

"They are to the legislator what the results of observation and experiment are to the man of sciences".a OI

The great volume of vital information which the census, for

example, has made available to the legislator would provide

much of valuable assistanee to him in enacting laws which

would increase the happiness of the body politic.Other

inquiries into the industrial and commercial circumstances *101102

"ibid., p. 814 1QQIbld., p.815

101Ward, L.F., Psychic Factors of Civilization, p# 311

102Ibid,. p. 312 54

of the nation are frequently made and these, too, may be utilized for directing legislation along scientific paths.

(What a wealth of material, from this point of view, must be

contained in the vast number of studies which have been

recently made in almost every phase of human activity!)

Ward Inferred that, as time went on and as further

sociological research would be undertaken, new ways of

broadening the science of government would be found. He

insisted, however, that even in his time there was a good

foundation upon which to rear a new and worthier social structure.

"The machinery already exists for the needed reformation and all that is necessary is that it be under the control of the develop­ ed social intellect."10*

SGCIOGBAGY

That the application of the scientific control of the

social forces was, in Ward’s system, an art has already been seen.105 To this art he gave the name sooiooraoy.l06 While soclooraoy might be able to exist under some other form of

government, it is clear that Ward felt the democratic form *104

10gIbid.V p. 312

104Ibia.. p. 312

1Q5Supra. p. 46 Inward. L. F.. Dynamic Sociology. Vol. I, p. 60 55

of government to be the most satisfactory type of control under which it could function.^*07 Certainly he did not feel that Socialism would provide a suitable political vehicle for the successful functioning of socloeraey.

Socialism he considered to be simply a change in the form of

government and not necessarily a change which would serve

socioeratie principles inasmuch as it would postulate too many fundamental changes in existing political institutions. It might well be that none of these changes would mean an

improved social order#108 109

Emphasis has been laid upon the fact that Ward believed

little social improvement to have taken place because of

plan or of societal self-direction#

"The social consciousness is as yet exoeedlng- - ly faint...."109 ^

The ♦social will1 because of conflicting opinions and ap­

posite aims has progressed in a slow way. Education* a#

seen above, was, of course. Ward's method of solving this

dilemma* To him it was quite apparent that the attainment

of education would be, for all, comparatively easy and

practical when society would have arrived at the point where

its Intelligence would be capable of directing its actions.

Ward,--L#';F., "Politico-Social Functions", quoted in Ward. Psychic Factors of Civilization, n. 315 1(%b i d v , p, 313

109Ibld.. p. 315 56

towards complete #e@tal aehievement# Government^ la that day, would he a fully developed. Inventive art.110

While most contemporary governnent had passed through the stages of autocracy, to aristocracy, and thence to democracy, there still remained among most people a fear and a dread of government and its forms.111 This transition from an autocratic to a democratic state did not signify that there had been a corresponding mutation in the nature of mankind. ^ ' - / V : ' '

“The spirit of sdlf-aggrandizement is un- . diminished but the methods of accomplish­ ing it have been changed."112 113 The innate, acquisitive characteristics of man were con­ sidered by Ward to exercise as much potency as they ever had even though they were compelled by changes In the group thought to manifest themselves in other ways. Since the power of the state has become great enough to curb individual efforts which are anti-social it has meant that the individ­ ual must seek to better his condition at the expense of his fellomen in new and circuitous ways.2-3-3 This, of course, he has done by excessive economic competition and by the

110Ibld.y D. 316

111Ibid.. p. 317 11£ibld.. p.r 317 113Ibidv, p, 317 5?

strong impetus whlote laissez faire policies give to man in the, effort to improve his eoonoado condition.*^* The state has, in fact, given to its members an unwarranted degree of protection in the enjoyment of legal, vested rights# The individual has been willing to go to excessive lengths to maintain those rights regardless of his neighbor's wel- fare.1^

Ward, in fact, felt that the pursuit of laissez faire policies had gone to such extremes that a fourth stage of government had appeared* He called this development physiocracy, after the Physiocratio School whose members had idealized the value of land, and he considered it to be the source and inspiration of the political philosophy which dominated the English-speaking world in all of its economic aspects

"This physiocracy*.•.now goes by the name of individualism and is carried so far that it amounts to a practical anarchism."11-7

In Ward * s opinion this individualism had become so powerful, nurtured as it was by Physiocratio teachings, that there was imminent another stage of government which *117

^Ibid.. p, 288

llSlbia.. p. 318 •

n 6Ibld.. p. 319 117Ibid.. p. 319 58

approached plutocracy• He attributed the development of

this fifth stage to the minimizing of the power of govern­ ment*^® The proponents of this latest idea seemed to Ward

to be clamoring for less and weaker government and to be

hastening that condition by doing everything possible to

implant the seed of distrust of government among the cit­

izens of many nations* These efforts have led to a sharp

cleavage of class from class, with those comparatively few

individuals at the top owning the sources of all wealth

and those at the bottom barely subsisting and "perpetuating - ■ - ' ' H O their race" as Ricardo’s Iron Law of Wages had it* The great evils which individualism has caused have

been considered - or, at least, were so considered in Ward*s

day - to be beyond the legal jurisdiction of the govern­

ment*8 119120 12 As a consequence these evils have continued to

increase in member as well as in size. The vested interests

by intimldatatlon of the controlling agent - the government

- have maintained their position and have even fortified it

at the expense of their fellow-men who, unable to take

advantage of economic conditions to any extent, have measur-

ably lost ground in the keenly competitive struggle. ti'L In . ■ 1- ■

ii8ibid.; p. sis 119Ibid;. p, 520 12QIbid.■ p, 320 12lIbid«. p* 320 59

addition, the former class has, by a constant argument against governmental interference, kept the fear of govern­ ment control alive among those upon whom the onus of the inequitable economic system rests.And the latter, naively believing in the inflexibility of the so-called

"natural laws of economics", have been inveigled into accepting the propaganda so earefully instilled by the dominant classes in order to maintain the status quo**"2® Ward's especial object of searching attack in this,

study was the monopoly whose strength had grown so great­ ly under the guidance of laissez falre principles as al­ most to supersede, in many ways, the functions of govern­ ment,^2* In the exercise of these functions it has been

the interests in control which have benefited entirely,

"It is a governing : power in the interest of favored individuals, which exceeds that of the most powerful monarch or despot that ever wielded a scepter",125 .

To remedy this situation and to achieve a true social progress. Ward proposed that society itself begin to wield

the power of governments .

"There is one power and only one that is. greater

122Ibia». p. 321 125ibld , , p.- 321

124ibid.. pp. 239-280

125Ibia., p. 525 60

than that nbloh now ehlefly rules society.... that la soolooraoy."126 The time had arrived. Ward held, when the rule of Individual­ ism should come to an end and, in Its place, society should assume its legitimate role of master of its own destinies.12^

Society, under the guidance of its own intellect, should follow the example which individualism has shown and, making itself conscious of its own Interests, should pursue them, in as thoroughgoing a fashion as individualism had formerly pursued its interests.12®

Ward felt that only in democracy would there be found a citizenry capable of accepting the concept of soeiooraoy since only the individuals that would accept or desire a democracy would be sufficiently far advanced towards a group consciousness to appreciate the advantages of the sooiooratio idea.129 Democracy, then, would be but the basis upon which soeiooraoy would rest.

Essentially there is but little difference between ; -- - . the concept of soeiooraoy and that of democracy* The

democratic forms of government have been weaker than a

126Ibid.. p. 323

127Ibld.. p. 523 128lbid., p. 324

129Ibld.. p. 324 SI

aoolooraoy would be because of the vitiating influence of the party system Which has always been un important element

in states under the democratic system. This has led to the unfortunate condition wherein the party which finds itself

in the strongest position very soon comes to consider it-

1 . . ■ - self the state W i l e the losing party, if not hostile to

it, at least believes the government to be alien to it and

seeks every opportunity to overthrow the party in power if possible,3-50 Such a state of politics has the inevitable

result of retarding, if not aetually restricting, social

pro6re3a' "From the standpoint of society this is child*s play".^31 • :

It becomes sooiety,s first duty, them to "get rid of this

puerile gaming spirit and have attention drawn to the real

Interests of society.. . . Should such a condition be

effected^ it would be discovered that the many and diverse

partisan elements would be agreed upon most of the important

points and that a simpler and less costly system of; govern­

ment would be achieved* Ward remarked the fact that after

every election time the victorious party which has promised

so many revolutionary reforms invariably maintains the

lsoIbid., p. 52S

lglIbid*. p. 525

lg8Xbid., p* 325 68

status of ,th® functions of government much in the same manner as that of the prseeding government even though it he of an opposition party.* *®3 - Another effect of the party system is to becloud

issues and to confuse the voters on the real issues.

"....the real interests of society are, temporarily at least, lost sight of, ....and men lose this grasp of the real issues, forget even their o t o best interests....and the result is....that nations continue in the hands of mere politicians who are easily managed.hy the shrewd representatives of wealth.

Under soeloeraoy the real issues would be those which

are stressed and measures for consideration would be dis­

cussed in a non-partisan spirit with an aim always to

maximize social well-being. If,it could be demonstrated

that government ownership of various utilities and industries

would mean greater social benefit, it would devolve upon the

elected offleiala to take the necessary steps to secure

control of that utility or industry. Or, conversely, if the

utility or industry could be proved more satisfactory left in

private handsV that is where the control should be allowed to remain**33 The investigation as to whether or not

government ownership ought to be effected should be fair

*53Ibid., p. 325 134Ibid., p. 325

*35Ibld.. p. 326

l 68

and open-elMed and it should always turn on the question of whether or not the puhllo will benefit by public or priTat© ownership,3,3®

How different this would be from the current system!

Under the present regime monopoly has succeeded not only

in arrogating to itself powers of government but has, in

the proeess, levied, so to speak, taxes of its own upon the

citizens of the country by chargii^ prices for commodities

and services vastly in excess of cost and ordinary profit.3,37 And the question which the monopolist asks is not how m o h

does this service or commodity benefit society, but rather,

how much net profit does it secure me.

"The individual cannot correct this state of things..«;But a government that really represents the interests of society would no more tolerate it than ah individual would tolerate a continual extortion of money on the part of another without an : ■ equivalent". 108 • ■ : ; - : - • ' • /- ■'■■ ‘' ■ ■ :

In shortj under a soeloeratic system society would as­

sume a disinterested and scientific attitude Upon all ques- ■ ■ ' " - - • o ' . - : ' tiohs v/hich would concern the general welfare of the group.

It v/ould, upon the completion of its investigations into

group needs and wants, provide for the removal of obstruo- *138

lg6Ibia., p. 526

157Ibid.t p. 32? 138Ibid.j p. 327 64

tiona in the path of social progress or it would improve the methods used to reach that goal. Whatever would further the Interests of society would he the guide to social action,139

It need scarcely he said that Ward fully realized the idealism in his theory of sooioeraey. He admitted frankly that such an Ideal state of living had never been achieved hy any people and that, in all probability, it never would he achieved by a national group,140 But he felt that it was not beyond reason to strive for such an ideal even though the consummation of it would have to be dated cen­ turies hence. It was his belief that the human species, because of the dynamic character of the intellect, could achieve such a blissful state if it would only begin to direct its egoistic forces towards social ends.141 Through his idealistic system of education, a spirit of meliorism would be developed and this, in turn, would be converted into a desire for sooioeraey. Sentiment and altruism would not be needed to support social welfare if this socially adequate educational ideal were reached.142

ls9Ibid.. p. 327

140Ibid,. p. 328

141Ibld,, p. 328

142Ibid., p. 328 65

It was also admitted by Ward that the process of es­ tablishing a new educational system and, consequent to that, a socioeratlo state, would be a long one. He felt, however, that goals must be set up In order to have something towards which to strive.^**' Ideals, likewise, must be created to serve as a challenge.

"....a positive stage will ultimately be reached in which society will consider and adopt measures for its; own advancementM.145 Again emphasis may be laid upon the fact that Ward did not believe that a socialistic form of government would be the most useful form of government. Because of the similar­

ity of some Ideas common to both Ward definitely distin­ guished between the socialistic idea and the socioeratlo by pointing out that

"....Socialism seeks to create artificial . . equalities. Sooiocraey recognizes natural inequalities and aims to abolish artificial inequalities. Socialism would confer the same benefits on all alike, and aims to secure equality of fruition. Sooiocraey would confer benefits in strict proportion to merit, but insist® upon equality of opportunity as the only means , of determining the degree of merit."146

145Ibid.. p. 3&9

144Ibld., p. 528

I45lbid.. p. 328 146Ward, L. F., Outlines of Sociology, p. 293 66

To suimarize Ward's idea of sociooracy it may be said that he considered eooiocraoy a method of aohiering group betterment through group action, A democracy is the basis for sociooracy since only a people of that intellectual plane would be capable of effecting social telesis* The principles of laissez faire and individualism which have permeated so much of the modern economy must be checked and the forces which those principles represent must be made to cooperate for the group welfare, not for the individual. Artificial inequalities mist be removed and the scientific method must be used to investigate and to solve all social problems when and as they arise#

"Collective telesis alone can remove the • artificial barriers raised by individual telesis"....147

And collective telesis and sooiocraey are/identical terms.

EmSHICS, EUTHmiCS, EUDEMICS

A survey of Ward's system vtmld not be complete with­ out mentioning his ideas of eugenics, euthenics, and endemics. His last published work was on these points and it may be called his final contribution to his theory of social progress.14® The activities of Francis Galton in

lAflbid.. p. 293

148y/ard, L. F., "Eugenios, Euthenics, and Endemics", „ American Journal of Sociology, Vol. XVIII, p. 737-56 67

bia study of genius had given rise to a school of thought which emphasized the theory of eugenics and which consider­ ed that theory the hope of the human raee. Ward, however, strongly opposed the applications of the subsequent interpretations of these studies because of the fact that they stressed the idea of eugenics at the top of society and completely ignored the value which eugenics might hold for the lower classes.149 151150 Ward was also antagonistic to the eugenic literature in its emphasis upon the intellect and its neglect of the affective faculties. This seemed to Ward to be an effort to increase the cranial capacity among a certain class of society without any regard for the rest of the body.150 This he felt to be contrary to nature which tries to develop the species in all respects*

"The normal becomes the ideal* A perfect race is one that is developed in all its quailt^gs, physical, moral, and intellect-

It might be inferred from this reaction of Ward’s to the eugenics movement that he believed little could be done in regard to the improvement of the racial stock.

Such was, however, scarcely the ease for Ward quite firm-

lASlbid*. p. 741 150Ibid., p. 741

151Ibld.. Dp. 741-42 68

ly believed that the race could well improve its condl- tlon.152 The means which he would use for this Improve­ ment v/ere not quite the same as those of the eugenistSe

His system was that of eutheaies or of a superior environ­ ment, This idea included a better conditioning of the physical and psychic surroundings but omitted a seeking for an enlarged brain capacity for the species. The human brain had already become so large that it was actually a source of disadvantagee153 154 It had led, in fact, to a faulty reasoning process because of man's ignorance of the environment#

"The thing needed for the Improvement of the race is therefore more knowledge and not more brains."104

Improvement in sub-human life. Ward pointed out, has

always been a rhythmic prooess.155 156*.

"A dynamic state is converted into a static _ one and kinetic activity into stagnation".■LOb

Thus when an organ reaches a resting-point it must adapt

itself to its environment in order to survive.13^ To do

15gIbld.. p. 746 15gIbia.. p. 746

154Ibia., n. 747 ------■ , 155Ibid.. p. 747

156Ibia.. p, 747

157lbld.. c. 748 69

this it wages a constant combat against its surroundings so that, while so occupiedt further growth or development is impossible. If, however, the hostile elements of the en­ vironment are artificially controlled the organism develops and expands greatly. Here Ward referred to many species of flora which, having been brought under cultivation, ef­ floresce so much more splendidly than in their native habitat,^® In consequence, should man attempt to control the environment he will "direct the forces of nature into channels of h u m n advantags".*®® This control should then be the great object of .concern on the part of the group so that all members may enjoy the resultant benefits mutual­ ly, And this enjoymentr must be for all classes since a great disparity in the scale of attainments between the upper and lower strata would strongly militate against any peaceful social life.*®® :

Some years before the article here referred to had been written a general interest had developed in regard to

the falling birth-rate. Ward saw in this decline a proof

of the law which he formulated in these words:159 *

i^bid.; p. 748 1 : . • " T K Q " - V - - ' V . ' - .. * ..V , 159Ibid., p. 749

l^Olbid., p. 749 "Population^ isr imr@raely proportional to in- :

This law, he believed, indleatea that man’s growing intelli­ gence had made him see the futility of rearing large fam­

ilies to become the victims of harsh laws of the organic

environment as expressed in the current economic system.

This was, of course, a tendency found almost entirely among

the ’enlightened1 classes of society for the lower classes,

it seemed, were found to have a generally increasing birth­

rate, That the population was being expanded by recruit­

ing its members from these latter classes did not partic­

ularly disturb Ward since these classes were, in his

opinion, capable of great accomplishment. They did not

evince the signs of decadence so common among the highest

stratum of society.

"The poor are well born; their infusion into the population imparts to it a healthy fi tone. It constitutes the hope of society".162

Society, therefore, must impose upon itself the task

of providing the great body of its members with a sound

environment. The application of the principles of

euthenics will so modify the environment that the masses

will be enabled to grow in intelligence and to expand in

achievement, finally culminating in a state of endemics.

-•’— IGllbid*t'. p#.-"T58 — ’ T ■ - .. - - - iGBibld.. p. 755 71

or a society of sound and happy people. The fate of future civilization. Ward believed, hinged upon a thorough comprehension of these two ideas.2,63

Ie3Xbid.. p. 753 CHAPTER V

CRITICISM

Criticism of >7ara*s system has been direoted at a number of points# Among these may be mentioned his psychology of desire and action; his intelleotualism; his extreme naturalism; andr of course, his educational system.

Another weak point in his theory is his concept of intelligence. His opinion was that Intelligw.ee in all normal members of civilized groups was approximately the same. This, of course, was proposed before the day of thorough investigation into the problem of intelligence with the subsequent disclosures which proved the variabil­

ity of the intellectual capacity among all people*

Ward's idea of forces "must be regarded as a variety

of animistic interpretation”•^ These forces determine

the trans-subjeetive phenomena (reproductive desires,

etc.) as well as they control them. But this, in effect,

means that man reproduces himself because he has the

reproductive desire. It is, according to this view, a

form of circular reasoning. The cause of the force with-

^Sorokin, P., Qp« Git., p. 646

72 73

In the IndiTldual is left unexplained in Ward1s theory.2 Another objeetion raised against Ward1s psychology Is that of methodology. Sorokin has depicted Ward1 a analysis of causation as follows:

A B A 1 B f A" B" •••• ' •••••• force overt force overt force overt A action A* action A" action causes B causes B* causes Bn

*It a psychological agency is regarded as the cause of an overt action* then, besides the mystery of auoh a causation, we have a . causal chain in which the trans-subjective phenomena: B, BT, BM, are disconnected from one another by the insertion of the psychic links: A, Af, AM, into the causal chain’'.3

This indicates, of course, that the ’force-theory* cannot ... ' ' ' : ... - .... satisfaetbrlly bridge the gap between the psychic process and the consequent behavior of the Individual. It fails to tell why and how the psychic experiences are transformed into overt actions and it neglects to demonstrate whence the psychic experience comes. In addition the theory cannot ex­ plain why the response to a desire nay be any one of a number of variables. Sorokin illustrates his point thus:

»My desire to eat may be followed by the actions of entering a restaurant, or of digging potatoes from a kitchen garden....or of singing in a theatre for dinner".4

2Ibid..p.647

3Ibld.. p. 648

4Ibld.. p. 651 n

This causation which Ward’s theory postulates is, in conse­ quence, subject to so many variables that a scientific in­ vestigator would be completely unable to analyze the behavior of the individual#5 Ward’s work in the field of psychology has, neverthe­ less, been lauded for its attention to the psychic bases of social phenomena which, previous to Ward’s time, had scarce­ ly been touched upon in any way.6 Spencer, Flake and the other early sociologists had neglected this aspect of society almost entirely. Certainly Ward appreciated the psychological approach to human development much more thoroughly than did his contemporary, Sumner.7 And as

Bogardes has so well said, "While his psychology does not stand present day, tests. Ward nevertheless was one of the founders of social psychology."8 More recently Ward’s sys­ tem of psychology has been considered the foundation upon which much of contemporary cultural sociology has been built^

even though the psychology of feeling and action which

underlie Ward’s basic contribution was an unhappy compound

of the psychology of sensation dating from Locke and of

Schopenhauer*s theory of the will."®

Olbidi, p. 650 6Small, a . W., and Vincent, G. IS., Introduction to the Study of Society, p. 52 7Bllwood, 0. A., Op. Git., p. 563 SBogardus, Essentials of Social Psychology, p. 179

9sS!rL4tteri*;; ! ^ 1i . " ^ 5Bzohan8e It has also been said that Ward has better demonstrated than any other the eorrelations of feelings, of pain, and of pleasure and the resulting activities which, in the process . ; ' - IQ of biological development, have produced the human species. At the same time he was no shallow rationalist,

"....he repeatedly stressed "the claims of feeling" as representing deep-seated demands of the^grganisn for expression and satisfao-

Hla psychology was, however, built upon the psychic traits of individuals as heirs to a long biological development? in, but not entirely dependent upon the group.And there­ in lay another of the great weaknesses of the system for, in his attempt to rake the tolic method fit the social develop­ ment as it did the individual, Ward failed to note that the lack of sensory feeling in the group as a unit resulted in a lack of means to transpose the whole process, by which desire develops into action, from the Individual to the group intellect.13 ______"....ability....to utilise scientific intel­ ligence depends on the harmony of interests of controlling individuals and groups who have....intelligence at their command."14* 1210

10Barnes, H. B., History and Prospects of the Social Sciences, p. 304 1:LIbld., p. 304 12Ibid.. p. 304 1^lbid., p. 306 14lbid., p. 506 Since Ward’s time there has arisen an interest in how:" the psfchic elements are affected by social interaction in­ stead of the reverse proeeas of how aoeial action is affect­ ed by the individual.15 That he failed to see this aspect of social psychology pan readily be understood in view of the fact'that he was himself one of the first even to consider the psychology of group life. : During his first years in the government service, Ward had been editor of the Iconoclast, a publication which was violently opposed to any theletic type of religion. Hie activities in his editorial capacity are clearly seen in all except his last sociological werka* He laid all emphasis upon a naturalistic development of life. Bellglon comprised errors in human development.16 This attitude has been

descried by many writers who have seen in religion a very valuable aid not only to social control but ala© to aoeial

progress*17 It seems incredible from this distance that

Ward failed to appreciate the value latent in religion to mitigate some of those hostile environmental factors which %

he felt needed to be removed before further social progress

15Lundber«. Head, and Anderson. Trends in American Sociology, p. 128 16Wara. L. g.. Dynamic Sociology. Vol. II. *. 266

17Case. ClafenceM.* Social Process and H m m n Progress, =h. XII 77

oould beachleved. ^He failed.;..to appreciate*• of religion and of an ethics of social order and progress in human society* wlS : With the appearance of Applied Sociology there seemed to be a modification of M s opposition to theistic concepts and a softening of some of his earlier naturalistic views. This change may or may not have come about because of the recognition by psychologists who reached maturity while Ward was still active of the value of a religious Influence in mankind.

"The notion of God....however inferior it maybe in clearness to those mathematical notions....in mechanical philosophy.... at least....guarantees an Ideal order that shall be permanently preserved".20

Ward1 a conception of the development of society by anti-social beings has been attacked because of the contradiction which is thereby imposed on his system.^1 In his Pure Sociology Ward postulated that man began to control

the environment only with the advent of achievement.28 Pre­ vious to man*s becoming human, however, he must have known* 222018

18Ellwood, 0. A., Op. Git., p. 551 — Ward, L. Applied Sociology, p. 65

20James,. William, Pragmatism, p. 197 21>Gillette, J. M., "Critical Points in Ward’s Pure Sociology", American Journal of Sociology. Vol. XX, ' P# 33 ;.v ' - 22Ibld., p. 16 78

some simple social products which enabled him to continue his existence* Among animals generally there is, in a modified sense, a measure of achievement. For example, among birds the teaching of the young by the parent how to fly signifies the possession of some knowledge.2® Analagous ly while man was still a brute, and before he had become

intelligent, he must have enjoyed some form of social life which would have carried over into his intellectual

acquisitions after the evolutionary process had made him

human* , - ... ' , : - . - ^:

"It is more logical- to think that, in descending item ancestors which were social and in starting on the road of truly human development, man kept the social nature as a working capital than that the conflict over food and•possessions made him ah anti-social being"*25

The same critic believes that, even though the family was

the only social grouping in primitive times, such a group

would have kept alive the social nature until such time as

a larger group life would have been possible.^®

Another evident contradiction in Ward's system is that

which is offered by his concept of the psychical nature of

society. He was certain that society was naturally

psychical.2? Yet upon carefully studying the processes of25 26272324

23Ibld., p. 33 24Ibid>, p. 33 25Ibid., p. 33 26Ibid.. p* 34 27Ward, L. F., Pure Sociology* Ch. V, VI, VII 79

his system, it is found that society is principally ra­ tional and intellectual in nature• It is apparent that society Is revealed as to its nature in its ^phenomena which. Ward said, are caused by social forces#**** One might then wonder whether or not social forces are social on phenomena* Ward, however, identified phenomena with activities which may he any phase of social life, fie insisted at the same time that ”it is not what men are but what they do”,**® This would then logically lead to the conclusion that ’’the nature of society is exhibited at in the nature of human achievement*. But achievement is a highly intellectual creation of the rational faculty.®2 This being so* Ward’s system holds in real­ ity that society is made up df achievement and that its character is intellectual and rational. This, of course, is contradictory to his original premise that society is highly psychical in nature.

Ward’s educational system has been, needless to say, the subject of much discussion. That it was a highly *

28Ibld.. p. 256

8%lllette. J. K.. Op. Git., p. 37

50Ward, L. F., Op. Cit.,p. 15

Gillette, J. K., Op. Pit., p. 57

S2Ihld., p, 37 80

Iflealtstio system and one difficult of establishment was probably admitted by its author.33 His confidene© in the ability of the intellect to acquire the knowledge which would enable man to overcome the environment completely and even to conquer th© economic system was somewhat misplaced as judged by the course of history between his time and the present.34 That it has given the educational system a goal to attain is, nevertheless, equally true despite the fact that for some years Ward*s theories in this field were considered valueless by educational psychologists in general.35 3637

• • • • ' ' "The name of Lester I?. Ward is anathema.... t just now....But the pendulum,will swing.... Educators....may then be more Interested in his conclusion that there is at least six hundred times as much talent and genius in society as has ever been developed".36

During his lifetime Ward’s theories were quite influen­ tial in directing Amricanveducational effort,57 The inclu­ sion of manual training in the elementary school curriculum, as already noted, was strongly, urged by him and its final acceptance was probably effected, at least in part, because

33Ward, L. F., Outlines of Sociology, Ch. XII p. 291 . . . SSfinney, It. L.. Sociological Philosophy of Education. pp.505-06 ' ".. 36Ibid., p. 506 • 37Lundb@rg, G. A., Bain, R., and Anderson, N., Op. Git. p. 79 ~ m

of his propagandizing. It was, however, in his defense of the intelleetUEl potentialities of the average person that

Ward did his greatest work for education. The doetrine of

Galton that genius was solely an inherited characteristic

and that it was confined to an infinitesimal fraction of the whole group was forcefully denied by Ward,38 The work'

of Binet and others during the first years of the preseht

century rather fully corroborated his contentions.^ In

this connection it may be pertinent to recall that Ward

very ably took up the cudgels for the intellectual

emancipation of women.As a consequence the women's

rights movement was greatly accelerated and the educational

facilities for women were considerably enlarged,4'**

Ward*8 definition of education as the * diffusion of

knowledge1 has been called inadequate and shortsighted,4^ "He (Ward) holds that the diffusion of know­ ledge will be sufficient to result in dynamic or progressive opinion and so....in dynamic or progressive action. This view....goes back to Socrates* contention.that knowledge will lead....to right social relations....We can no longer hold to such an easy-going psyohol- . : ogy."45 *4042

SSDealey, J. Q,., Sociology. Its Development and Applications, p. 334 ®9Todd, A, J.. Theories of Social Progress, p. 268 40Ward, L, F.. Dynamic Sociology, Yol. II, p, 614 ^ Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. Vol. IV, p, 545 42Ellwood. C. A.. Op. Clt.. p. 548 4SIbld.t p. 548 88

Ward seems to have forgotten that training in character was cf great importance in education and that this point was one of the essentials of the first educational psychologist, Aristotle.44 Ellwood believes that. If Ward had included in his system an education of habits and emotions, he would have outlined the perfect system of education. His failure to do so "was inconsistent with his own conception of human nature".4® With the above elements included, Ellwood thinks that " we may agree with Ward that education is the

indispensable and proximate means of social progress.....

the only way of elevating and universalizing the culture of the masses".46

Despite the many fallacies in his system of sociology

Ward must still be ranked as the first great American sociologist who, with Comte and Spencer, founded the science

of sociology. His advocacy of social teleais as an anti­

dote to the Spencerian determinism has already been noted.

This constitutes, perhaps, his principal theoretical con­

tribution to the sociological science even though the unin­

telligent behavior of so-called civilized nations has, in the past thirty years, shown unmistakably an attitude at

44ibia., p. 549 45ibid., p. 549 46ibia.. p. 549 4^Barnes, II. 12., Op. Clt.. p. 503 85

direct variance with the optimism which Ward so widely spread among social thinkers. It must be remembered, nevertheless, that Ward considered progress as something which comes slowly. For him future progress was prac­ tically inevitable, "The human race is supposed to have existed between 200,000 and 500,000 years....It has been conscious of it# existence only about 10.000 years, and really alive as a psychic being less than 5,000 years. The most that it has accomplished has been done within 2.000 years, and its greatest work within 200 years.

0. M. Case holds this optimism of Ward's to be "the most Inspiring aspect of modern social thinking".48 49 Al­ though few men have been able to grasp this lofty idea, it will, with the passage of time, secure more adherents and exercise more powerful influence among all civilized peoples.50 Ward's belief in the possibilities of achiev­

ing social progress through universal education has served to Inspire and to convince many sociologists as well as

educators of the efficacy of such a plan,51 Contrarily

there has been a disparaging attitude displayed by others

48Ward, I. P., Brown Alumni Monthly, quoted in Dealey, I. 0,. . Sociology Its Development and Applications, p. 362 49 •- Case, Clarence M., Op. Git., p. 81 '50Ibid., 51 p. 81 51Ibid.. p. 92 84

towards tills Idealism. Their opinion, as represented toy

Yteatherley is tliat it has overestimated its ovm. value and

It has not realized for anyone an increased amount of happiness.: 1 ':; " ' v : ' »....happiness has not....been increased, .... tout apparently diminished....rather the growth of intelligence has resulted in that kind of self-eonsclousnesa in which even abundance of instrumentalities of wolfarggproduces little positive enjoy-

This author admits, however, that the concept of the telle method is invaluable for its demonstration of the fact that the desired result can toe secured directly.* 54 "What Adam Smith did for the laissez . fairs principle, Lester F. Ward has done for the doctrine of effort".55

Besides tills contribution of the idea of telesis, another great gift was that of terminology.55 The science until Ward*s time had scarcely any distinctive terminology whatsoever, or if it had one, its terms had derived from the physical sciences. Their application to sociology served to confuse the field rather than to clarify it. Ward

5gWeatherley» U. G., Social Progress. Ch. XV ^Ibid.. c. 854 54Ibid., p. 195 ^ Itoid.. p. 103 ■ ' ' : ■" ' : ' , ' ■ . : ,

5®li'eatherley, U. G.. "Lester Frank Ward", American Journal of Sociology. Vol. XIX, p. 68 85

fully comprehended the neeeeelty of a terminology to validate the claim of sociology as a science.57 * He great­ ly enriched its vocabulary and, as a result, the signif­ icance which he attached to such terms as telesis, achievement, progress. Improvement, and many others has . JJQ carried down to the present day# In the furtherance of sociology’s claims to being a science. Ward rejected the earlier belief that the test of a true science is its power to prediet.

"The only legitimate demand on a science is that it be a systematic study of the laws of phenomena, a study not of mere facts but of uniform causation deduoible from re­ current facts".59 60 Ward’s own belief as to the scientific nature of sociology was made completely apparent in Dynamic Sociology as well as in his later works. He did not, however, believe in science for its own sake.

"To Ward it seemed more important to master ....the newer scientific teachings of the 19th century and then to synthesize all in­ to a coherent whole".65 His purpose was to point the way to social progress and his

57Barnea, H. E.. Op. Git., p. 505 5®Weatherly, U. 0., Op. Git., p. 68

59Weatherly, TJ. 0., Social Progress, o. 89 600dum, H. W., American Masters of Social Science, p. 91 06

effort was along scientific lines• In Applied Sociology, which may be said to epitomize his system, he gave good evidence that he had thought through a true science of society.*^ His thorough grounding In the physical sciences ensured, no doubt, that he would bring into the social sciences a soundly scientific method.*8

*!lbid.. p. 15

68Blaokmar, F. W., "Lester Frank Ward", American Journal of Sociology. Vol. XIX, p. 74 CHAPTER VI

GONCWfSXOlf

The preseat writer has attempted in the foregoing aiseussion to present Ward’s theory of the rise of man, of his acquisition of desires and of the resulting forces, of hie change from am anti-social being to a social be­ ing, and of the development of the state. The attempt has also been made to give Ward’s concept of social progress, of the means to secure it, and of the prominent part which education has in. the whole system. The hope of Ward that the members of society, now split and opposed, would, through self-direction, be one day integrated into a vast society co-operating for the achievement of happiness for all, has also been presented.

It has been noted that Ward made several distinct

contributions to the field of social science. Of these

the principal ones are the doctrine of societal self-

direotion* the terminology of sociology (although not so

permanent a gift), the theory of universal and compulsory

education, and finally, the idea of universal social achievement through sooiocracy. 88

That many of his Ideas and theories have been found to possess but slight value has also been remarked. That

Ward has, however, made an Indelible mark upon the thought of sociology and that he has. In large part, laid the basis for much of the subsequent development of the science has likewise been shown. . This discussion may well close with the words of

Edward Haworth Ross v&loh, uttered shortly after Ward’s death* indicate the high regard in which his contemporaries esteemed him not alone as a scientist but also as a man*

"In spirit he was Spartan and he never sacrificed a stroke in order to win either money or popular applause. . He \ was profoundly imbued with the true scientific man’s reverence for truth, and faith in its beneficence....His generalizations rested upon a vast knowledge of facts and nothing would induce him to use facts in a partisan way. Ho was indeed a worshipper of truth, and as such held himself to a high and exacting standard besides which the standards of the ordinary custodian of religion and morals seemed low and loose."1

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Ward, Lester F., "Eugenics, Euthenics, and Endemics*, American Journal of Sociology. Vol. XVIII, 1913.

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