U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command – Soldier Center

5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

U.S. ARMY COMBAT CAPABILITIES DEVELOPMENT COMMAND – SOLDIER CENTER

Flame Resistant Materials and Soldier Sustainability

Margaret Auerbach

Textile Technologist Distribution Statement A: Approved for public release. Emerging Materials Development Team Soldier Protection and Survivability Directorate

20 May 2020 UNCLASSIFIED 1

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Objective

To provide an overview on the health and environmental issues associated with the use of inherently flame resistant (FR) or FR treated materials in protective clothing and equipment as it relates to soldier survivability and sustainability.

UNCLASSIFIED 2 2

1 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

FLAME RESISTANT UNIFORMS – IN FACT, ALL MATERIAL CHANGES EVOLVE TO MEET SOLDIERS' NEEDS

UNCLASSIFIED 3 3

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Primary goal of FR materials: Sustainability of the Soldier

To provide soldiers with protection against specific threats to prevent burn injury provide additional time to escape from flames/fire

https://www.pinterest.com/virgilusa/vietnam-war-photos/ https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jul/15/first-photograph-ied-afghanistan-roadside-bomb UNCLASSIFIED 4 4

2 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

In Vietnam, helicopters were used to - transport troops, supplies and equipment, - aid ground troops with additional firepower - evacuate killed or wounded soldiers

In 1968, the Army was reporting an increasing number of deaths or burn injuries as a result of post-crash fires. Soldiers were actually surviving the impact during helicopter crashes but needed more time to get out.

Egress times to survive: Large transport planes - 90 seconds Helicopters - less than 17 seconds to make it outside the fireball

Auerbach, M., Ramsay, J., D’Angelo, P., Cameron, S.,Proulx, G., Kaplan, J., Grady, M., and Coyne, M. (2019) Next Generation Test Forms for Testing in Fire Simulations ASTM E54 STP1614 Symposium on Homeland Security and Public Safety: Research. presented June 2018, published 2019. UNCLASSIFIED 5 5

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Early in Vietnam War (before 1968)

Helicopter pilots wore fire retardant cotton twill coveralls early in the Vietnam War

They were treated with a Borax solution but lost their protective properties after approximately 14 washes and had to be retreated

Army and Marine Corps helicopter pilot U.S. Navy and Marine Corps pilots

MIL-C-5390 http://www.vietnamgear.com/equipment.aspx?cat=2

UNCLASSIFIED 6 6

3 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

1968 Nomex flight suits were issued to flight crews

Need : To give crewmembers and passengers sufficient time to escape from crash damaged helicopters

Result: Increased survivability A dramatic decrease in thermal/burn injuries

Note: The Army also developed a crashworthy fuel system for the helicopter - impact resistant fuel cells, and fuel lines with break-away valves and non-leak features. MIL-C-81126 Auerbach, M., Ramsay, J., D’Angelo, P., Cameron, S.,Proulx, G., Kaplan, J., Grady, M., and Coyne, M. (2019) Next Generation Test Forms for Testing in Fire Simulations ASTM E54 STP1614 Symposium on Homeland Security and Public Safety: Research. presented June 2018, published 2019. UNCLASSIFIED 7 7

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

1970 Nomex uniforms were issued to tank crews and mounted soldiers

Need : Increased concern about fire within the crew compartments

By the end of the Vietnam War, all mounted soldiers were being issued FR clothing.

Feldman, C. (2009, August 6).Vietnam-era captain campaigns for soldiers' recognition due for an honor. Houston Chronicle. Scott, B., Hernandez, V., Goodman, M. (August 8-11, 2011). Initial Composite Material Fire Evaluation. Joint Classified Bombs/Warheads & Ballistics Symposium. Monterey, CA. UNCLASSIFIED 8 8

4 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

There had always been a desire but no requirement for FR protection for the dismounted soldier – a lower cost alternative to Nomex

FR vs Non FR: increased weight (tradeoffs) lower tear strength decreased comfort increase cost

Dismounted Soldiers did not received FR uniforms until 2007

UNCLASSIFIED 9 9

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Changes made to uniforms worn by the dismounted soldier focused on comfort, protection from the environment and utility.

Changes were made to: • fiber content • fabric weight • fabric weave • fabric color • design of uniform

• fabric treatments/finishes (anti- vesicant, water-resistant chemical treatments, water repellency, permethrin, FR)

UNCLASSIFIED 10 10

5 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

WWI (1917-1918) The standard uniform in World War I was the service coat and breeches introduced in the first decade of the century

olive drab (OD 33) continued to replace blue

olive drab wool varied from mustard green to brown. U.S. Army Captain in training with gas mask, 1917. black leather changed to russet Source: Library of Congress chevrons became smaller and pointed up instead of down insignia and buttons changed

https://www.wearethemighty.com/history/this-was-the-armys-battle-dress-throughout-the-centuries

https://books.google.com/books?id=OVpNT6Vpkx8C&pg=PA11&lpg=PA11&dq=What+was+the+anti- vesicant+compound+used+on+WWII+uniforms&source=bl&ots=PtING8S13G&sig=ACfU3U02bkD__ePGmyJGkh0gwmTMsTNxtw A World War I Soldier with full pack. &hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjetOecg7bpAhWyKX0KHZm5C0cQ6AEwEHoECAkQAQ#v=onepage&q=What%20was%20the%20a nti-vesicant%20compound%20used%20on%20WWII%20uniforms&f=true UNCLASSIFIED (U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center) 11 11

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

World War II (1941 –1945) a variety of standard and non-standard dress and battle uniforms were used which often changed depending upon the theater of war, climate, environment, and supply exigencies.

European theater of operations (ETO) the basic wool uniform (OD 33) 18 ounce serge wool became the standard material for field trousers, 22 ounce version continued in limited production – issued in cold climate conditions

wool had the most use and had the greatest functionality, (U.S. Army Heritage and Education Center) warm in the winter with its insulation and relatively cool and breathable in Northern European summer weather.

UNCLASSIFIED http://www.usww2uniforms.com/353B.html 12 12

6 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Shirt, Flannel, OD, Coat Style adopted in 1934, with seven buttons down the front and two large chest pockets closed by buttons. During World War II (adopted November 1941) this style was augmented with a convertible collar (i.e. could be buttoned up with a tie or could be worn open) and buttoned gas flaps in the cuffs and inside the front -- with these. The Special pattern also included buttons at the back of the collar to attach a gas hood.

M-1941 field jacket was poorly insulated light cotton shell (anticipated wool shortages) provided little protection from wind or rain the OD3 coloring - inappropriate for use in northern Europe, soldiers visible targets against most backdrops

Soldier on the right is wearing the M-1941. Olive Drab no. 3 is a light olive tan OD3 is a green - OD3 is a Image via Wix.com shade of green. Not “Khaki” It's brown + green = olive drab. https://www.atthefront.com/category-s/471.htm no. 7 is a dark olive green UNCLASSIFIED https://olivedrab.com/od_soldiers_clothing_ww2_wool_2pc.php 13 13

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

M-1943 designed as a layered system, meant to be worn over the wool shirt and trousers and in conjunction with a wool sweater and liners in colder weather

field jacket longer than the earlier 1941 field jacket, coming down to M-43 Field Jacket. Image via QM Fashion the upper thighs made of windproof cotton sateen and was issued in darker olive drab color OD7 adjustment tabs at cuffs and waist to protect against environment hip length and bi-swing back to allowed greater range of motion and comfort trousers OD7 cotton sateen material with white cotton twill inner lining had front and rear pockets, buttoned tabs to cinch the waist (airborne troops had treated canvas) crotch and seat areas set lower and wider to facilitate Detail from an Army Signal Corps photograph showing three members of the 92nd Infantry Division in formation wearing the Model 1943 Field Uniform and “Double-Buckle” Combat squatting and bending. Boots, Italy 1945. cargo pockets added

https://www.heddels.com/2018/04/army-field-jackets-ages-m41-m65/

https://history.army.mil/html/museums/uniforms/survey_uwa.pdf UNCLASSIFIED https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_uniforms_in_World_War_II#Herringbone_Twill_Uniform 14 14

7 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Asia–Pacific War - Pacific Theater WWII Fatigue Uniform 8.2-ounce cotton herringbone twill (HBT) cloth

superior wear and shrink resistant characteristics

Treated with an anti- vesicant compound, HBTs were also used as chemical protective garments, particularly during the invasion of US troops approaching Japanese positions near Baguio, France in June 1944. Luzon,Philippine, 23 March 1945 http://www.usww2uniforms.com/photoessay1.html https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Baleta_Pass%2C_near_Baugio%2C_Luzon.jpg

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_War#/media/File:Surrender_of_American_troops_at_Corregidor.jpg

UNCLASSIFIED 15 15

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

1943 an experimental tropical uniform made of a single-layer of untreated long- staple Egyptian cotton, made in a tightly woven herringbone twill .

Need: To protect soldiers from insects (mosquito bites) and disease cool the body even when continuously wetted in a humid, rainy jungle environment Design Changes short-tailed shirt trousers with cuffs fitted with half-inch boot top fastening tapes flap-protected fly to keep out crawling insects - leeches, ticks, chiggers shallow pockets to increase cooling load-bearing belts, suspenders, or low-mounted field packs to minimize body contact

https://www.google.com/search?q=photo+of+leeches&sxsrf=ALeKk00rz1hnudwYIwuAM11MKnjfjJMbYQ:1589922898535&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=nKlgrdUpoSSJCM%253A%252Cg1XbW96V3SRavM%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_kR taQLDuxcxgbySjwX5SlZP3qMvTw&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjxkNms7MDpAhUHop4KHc4BBwIQ9QEwCnoECAMQNg#imgrc=nKlgrdUpoSSJCM: UNCLASSIFIED https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army_uniforms_in_World_War_II#Herringbone_twill_uniform 16 16

8 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

1944 Because of the shortage of suitable weaving machines and cost of weaving this cloth, a less expensive 5-ounce OD cotton poplin shirt and trouser were issued on an experimental basis for use in jungle and tropical regions; while reports were favorable, existing HBT stockpiles were deemed adequate, and the uniform was not adopted

UNCLASSIFIED 17 17

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Uniforms worn in the Korean War (1950-1953) were those of an Army in transition and reflected innovations from the closing days of World War II. In fact, the original fatigues in this conflict were leftover World War II summer uniforms from the Pacific theater

Herringbone twill cotton clothing needed to adapt to frigid Korean winter

M-1951 field jacket was made from a 9 ounce, wind resistant, water repellent treated cotton sateen cloth in Olive Green Shade 107 (OG 107) resembled the M-1943 with the exception of snaps and a zipper M51

and an attachable hood for extra functionality https://www.heddels.com/2018/04/army-field-jackets-ages-m41-m65 UNCLASSIFIED 18 18

9 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

1952 olive green shade 107, cotton sateen utility uniform replaced the herringbone twill (HBT) uniform adopted in World War II and used during Korean War

https://www.ww2gear.com/p-5216-us-gi-hbt-fatigue-jacket-wwii.aspx Cotton sateen OG-107 https://www.mooremilitaria.com/utilities-fatigues.html

UNCLASSIFIED 19 19

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Uniforms worn during the Vietnam War (1964-1975) are remarkably similar to those worn during the Korean War

Modifications in clothing and equipment came rapidly as the Army tried to solve the special problems encountered in hot and humid Vietnam.

wind-resistant fatigue jackets and pants cargo pockets and other utilitarian features fast-drying boots with nylon uppers

* direct U.S. involvement ended in 1973

https://www.wearethemighty.com/history/this-was-the-armys-battle-dress-throughout-the-centuries

https://www.army.mil/article/59305/a_war_remembered_i_would_not_dare_to_wear_my_uniform_out_in_public UNCLASSIFIED 20 20

10 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Early in Vietnam war

1958 The utility shirt was made from olive green (OG-107) 8.5 oz. cotton sateen. Designed to be loose fitting was tucked into the utility trousers

Worn by Infantrymen early in Vietnam war

https://www.ebay.com/itm/313079355165

https://www.mooremilitaria.com/utilities-fatigues.html UNCLASSIFIED 21 21

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

1962- Tropical Combat Uniform designed for Special Forces personnel in Vietnam

5.5 oz. wind-resistant cotton poplin in OG-107

lightweight and quick drying, but it's exposed pocket buttons had a tendency to get snagged in the jungle

UNCLASSIFIED 22 22

11 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

1963 tropical combat clothing was type classified for production and issue to soldiers serving in Vietnam.

5.5 ounce cotton poplin dyed Army Shade Olive Green 107

6 ounce cotton poplin for better wear better - OG-107 Covered buttons on the coat and pants were covered - had a tendency to snag on brush https://www.mooremilitaria.com/utilities-fatigues.html UNCLASSIFIED 23 23

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

1965 M-65 field jacket replaced the M-51 field jacket most notable differences built-in hood that could be folded into the collar velcro on the sleeve cuffs and collar

Like the M-43 and M-51, the jacket had four generous pockets and was meant as a waterproof layering piece. It had internal buttons to allow the addition of a liner and button-holes on the collar for a separate extreme-weather hood. Too warm for the majority of humid jungle combat, the jacket came in handy especially in the colder, Guys in M-65s, with a few M-51s featured as well. You can tell the M-51 by its shirt collar, whereas post-Monsoon months the 65 has that chunkier collar for the collapsible hood. Image via Heddels.

https://www.heddels.com/2018/04/army-field-jackets-ages-m41-m65/ UNCLASSIFIED 24 24

12 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

in late 1967 - 68

jungle fatigues transition from poplin to ripstop

shift from button fly trousers to zipper fly jungle fatigue pants

https://www.mooremilitaria.com/utilities-fatigues.html UNCLASSIFIED 25 25

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

1967 ERDL (Engineer Research & Development Laboratories)* Camouflage jungle fatigues were first produced

1967 cotton poplin 1968 cotton ripstop

*Developed by the United States Army at its Engineer Research & Development Laboratories (ERDL) in 1948. It was not used until the Vietnam War, when it was issued to elite reconnaissance and special operations units beginning early 1967.

https://www.mooremilitaria.com/utilities-fatigues.html

UNCLASSIFIED 26 26

13 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

1975 – 1991 – The Cold War (1947 – 1991)

Need: Army refocused on providing protection against a nuclear thermal threat.

Thermal Radiation vs Flame Protection

Population at Risk from a Bomb 8 % - TOTAL DESTRUCTION 10%- SUBLETHAL IONIZING IRRADIATION SICKNESS BURNS,WOUNDS 82%- THERMAL BURNS, WOUNDS

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Primary Objective : To find or develop materials suitable for clothing which will resist destruction and ignition

Second objective: To find materials and/or develop systems that will isolate this outer layer of clothing from the man's body and thus restrict heat by incorporating an air space

14 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Cotton when exposed to the radiation exhibits relatively high heat transfer and low ignition irradiance

Nylon when exposed to the radiation, exhibits a decrease in heat transfer and a substantial increase in resistance to ignition

The greatest stability was obtained when natural and synthetic fibers were blended and the least stability occurred in 100% synthetics blends

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Superior performance was observed when cotton was blended with nylon there was a resistance to degradation and ignition - heat transfer properties were similar to those of fire retardant treated cotton - resistance to ignition is greatly improved over that of untreated cotton

Performance was influenced by : the color of the nylon relative to that of the cotton the physical relationship of the cotton and nylon yarns within the fabric

Substantial protection can be offered by the careful engineering of fabrics and systems which utilize conventional materials

15 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

A 50% nylon content : allowed the greatest flexibility in adjusting the colors of the two fibers produced a fabric with high ignition resistance and acceptable heat transfer characteristics

at a 60'% nylon content there was greater thermal destruction

Consequently, a 50/50 cotton/nylon blend provided an optimum solution

UNCLASSIFIED 31 31

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

cotton/polyester blend vs cotton/nylon blend

The cotton/polyester, although more effective than the combination of synthetics, is much less effective than the cotton/ nylon and is actually ignited at a lesser irradiance than required for an equivalent all cotton fabric

Woodland Camo Uniform (BDU)

https://www.google.com/search?q=woodland+BDU&tbm=isch&ved=2ahUKEwjEgOyUkLbpAhVRlp4KHWv4D4wQ2cCegQIABAA&oq=woodland+BDU&gs_lcp=CgNpbWcQAzIECAAQQzICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADICCAAyAggAMgIIADoECCMQJzo ECAAQHjoGCAAQCBAeOgQIABAYOgcIIxDqAhAnUJ8eWMJeYLtkaAFwAHgAgAG_A4gB-iSSAQowLjIwLjMuMC4xmAEAoAEBqgELZ3dzLXdpei1pbWewAQo&sclient=img&ei=e62-XoTXA9Gs-gTr8L_gCA&bih=616&biw=1349&hl=en

UNCLASSIFIED 32 32

16 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

1981 Battle Dress Uniform or BDUs introduced. This uniform descended from the tropical combat uniform of the Vietnam War (replacing the M65 field jacket) and consisted of a coat made of a 50/50 nylon and cotton (NyCo) blend in woodland pattern camouflage with matching trousers, and a field cap.

Desert Camouflage Uniform (DCU) introduced at the same time, in a six-color then changed to a 3 color desert camouflage pattern

1988 Hot weather version of the BDUs in a 100% cotton rip-stop was available.

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/294634000595532436/?autologin=true&lp=true UNCLASSIFIED 33 33

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

1990 – 1991 - Desert Shield/Desert Storm * *Permethrin first registered in 1990 for use as a repellent on clothing by the military and issued in 1991.

Need In the Vietnam War and the Persian Gulf War, disease casualties (caused mostly by insect bites) outnumbered combat casualties. U.S. military personnel deployed on field operations all over the world face an increased risk of mortality or morbidity from insect-borne diseases. ”

Mites Chigger Sand Fly Ticks Mosquito

National Research Council (US) Subcommittee to Review Permethrin Toxicity from Military Uniforms.(1994). Health Effects of Permethrin-Impregnated Army Battle-Dress Uniforms. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US)

https://www.google.com/search?q=images+of+sand+flies&sxsrf=ALeKk02qE400xwkYeV0XcPioYMM5k_DfEQ:1589646910028&tbm=isch&source=iu&ictx=1&fir=KZKR4XlTRDWEFM%253A%252CQL2dJu4Gjq68MM%252C_&vet=1&usg=AI4_- kSQm8aTjDlvw8oYUvCXxS1FMd5KwA&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi1qo-b6LjpAhUBn-AKHbCOC8wQ9QEwCnoECAoQNA#imgrc=TeBi3_j48AQmwM

https://anamericanhomestead.com/flies-and-ticks-and-chiggers-oh-my/ https://easyscienceforkids.com/all-about-mites/ https://www.terminix.com/pest-control/mosquitoes/pictures UNCLASSIFIED 34 34

17 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Global War on Terror – Persian Gulf War (2001–present) 2001 Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF) - Afghanistan

2003 – 2011 - Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF) - Iraq 2010 - Operation Iraqi Freedom renamed Operation New Dawn

2004 – Army Combat Uniform (ACU) replaced BDU/DCU 50/50 Nylon/Cotton (NyCo)

Universal Camouflage Pattern (UCP)

https://www.pinterest.com/pin/386887424212110893/ UNCLASSIFIED 35 35

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

During the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan 2007 Flame Resistant Army Combat Uniform (FR ACU) issued to dismounted soldiers

Defender M : 65% FR Rayon /25% para aramid/10% Nylon “ Nomex uniforms restricted air movement more than the traditional Cotton/Nylon ACU and were hotter for soldiers to wear.” Need: To reduce burn injuries caused by Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs)

/NOTE : 2008 - 4200 MRAPS in Iraq 320 MRAPS in Afghanistan replacing Humvee Until late 2007 the Humvee was the principal means of ferrying troops in Afghanistan and Iraq. Its flat unarmored bottom absorbed the force of the explosion and was labeled by the military as a “death trap” “The V -shaped hull of the MRAPS helped deflect the force of roadside bombs away from troops inside and was 10 times safer than the Humvee in a blast and is credited with saving thousands of lives.” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Combat_Shirt UNCLASSIFIED https://www.pinterest.com/pin/318066792416876677/ 36 36

18 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

2009 FR Army Combat Shirt (ACS) was issued – to be worn under the outer tactical vest/armor

Need: To provide soldiers with improved comfort (moisture-wicking) and flame- protection designed to be worn under the new improved outer tactical vest (introduced in 2007)

Constructed of three flame-resistant performance fabrics proprietary to TenCate Protective Fabrics or Massif Mountain Gear Company. torso has two highly breathable flame-resistant fabrics with advanced moisture management capabilities, increasing comfort under body armor sleeves and side panels made of lightweight, abrasion-resistant fabric designed to provide extra protection for areas not protected by body armor

https://www.wearethemighty.com/history/this-was-the-armys-battle-dress-throughout-the-centuries

UNCLASSIFIED 37 37

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

CURRENT FLAME AND THERMAL PROTECTIVE ITEMS UTILIZED BY THE ARMY

Several other uniforms incorporate FR or offer FR alternatives to previous fielded items. Each of these has a unique set of requirements which may necessitate different FR solutions.

UNCLASSIFIED 38 38

19 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Ideal FR Fabrics

self-extinguishing no melt/no drip when exposed to heat or flame

How are FR characteristics determined?

UNCLASSIFIED 39 39

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY Fabric Testing

VERTICAL FLAME TEST Sample Size: 3” x 12” Heat Source: Convective Test Method: ASTM D6413 Test Results: After flame After Glow Char Length

UNCLASSIFIED 40 40

20 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY FR Clothing System Testing - Fire Pit Testing Pit: - 30ft. long x 20 ft. wide x 1 ft. deep - lined with impermeable barrier - backfilled with 3 inches of sand - partitioned with 4ʺ steel T- Beams - filled with water to within several inches of the top then filled with 25 -30 gallons of JP-4 fuel

Walls: Concrete with fire doors

Heat source : Convective - JP-4 ignited

Manikin: - paper strips/copper calorimeters - suspended over fire pit on ¾ʺ steel cable – feet of manikin to within 12 ʺ of pit - travelled across the pit using constant speed - testing done on one, two or three manikins Water: Upon exiting the fire high pressure water created a barrier between the flame and the manikin Simulates: major threat to the military at that time - survival of - reducing heat load post-crash fuel fires from helicopters and other aircraft - - reducing absorption of radiation of outside test facilities using JP4 fuel tested system from the flame

Textile Research and Engineering Division, Clothing and Personal Life Support Equipment Laboratory, U. S. Army Natick Laboratories,UNCLASSIFIED Natick, MA. (1971) The Behavior Of Protective Uniforms In Large Scale Simulated Fires. Technical Report 71 - 40- CE. 41 41

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY FR Clothing System Testing – ASTM F1930 -Stationary Manikin

Manikin Test - 2.0 cal/cm2/sec ( 84 kW/m2) – typically 4 seconds (60% convective /40% radiant heat flux) Thermal Radiation 30 cal/cm2/sec – 10 x higher than 3- 5 cal/cm2/sec for skin burns UNCLASSIFIED 42 42

21 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Toxicity Testing

• not focused on the off-gassing or toxic fumes a warfighter may inhale during a flame/fire/high heat thermal event or what is being released into the environment

• focus is on prolonged, direct skin contact acute dermal irritation skin sensitization

Note: All Army clothing items must be approved by the Office of the Surgeon General. Chemicals recognized by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as human carcinogens can not be used.

UNCLASSIFIED 43 43

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Documented concern over the toxicity of smoke produced in fires dates at least as far back as the 1930s.

Tests were developed to assess toxicity and exposure to large amounts of smoke in burning buildings using different furnace set- ups.

Hartzel, G.(Ed). (1992). Advances in Combustion Technology, Volume 3. Technomic Publishing Company. UNCLASSIFIED 44 44

22 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Carcinogens in smoke

 benzene,

 toluene,

 ethyl benzene,

 xylenes,

 styrene,

 aliphatics,

 phenols,

 aldehydes,

 ketones,

 poly-aromatic hydrocarbons,

 dioxins,

 particulate matter,

 (heavy) metals.

Heus, R. (2020, May 15). Cancer as an occupational disease in the fire services. Instituut Fysieke Veilighei.

https://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-white-phosphorus.htmhttps://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Large_explosion_aboard_USS_Lexington_%28CV-2%29%2C_8_May_1942_%2880-G-16651%29.jpg

UNCLASSIFIED 45 45

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Small Scale and Swatch Level Testing

Micro-scale combustion calorimetry ASTM 7309 Thermogravimetric (TG) analysis ASTM E1131, ISO 11358 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) ASTM D3418,ISO 11357 Limiting oxygen index (LOI) ASTM D2863 or BS ISO 4589-2 Vertical Flame test ASTM D 6413 16 CFR 1615/1616 45 fabric burning test ASTM D 1230 and 16 CFR 1610 Cone calorimetry ASTM E1354, ASTM D6113 and ISO 5660 Thermal Protective Performance ASTM F2700,F2703 (Formerly ASTM D4108, F1060) ISO 17492 per NFPA 1971 2007 (edition) NFPA 1971,1975,1976 2112

UNCLASSIFIED 46 46

23 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Nomex ® IIIA “Finished products present no known adverse health or environmental effects. NOMEX® aramid fiber products present minimal risk to human health and the environment.”

the conjugated amide bonds which link the aromatic rings together, makes Nomex : - strong - resistant to degradation by a wide range of chemicals and industrial solvents (good chemical and corrosion resistance) - heat resistant - does not melt and drip, chars when exposed to high temperatures for prolonged periods - is not digestible and is not attacked by insects ).

DuPont.(2001, July). Technical Guide for NOMEX® Brand Fiber. H-52720 Revised July, 2001 (Replaces H-52703 April, 1999).UNCLASSIFIED 47 47

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

NOMEX® - at combustion temperatures (800 F), releases

carbon dioxide carbon monoxide sometimes traces of hydrogen cyanide nitrogen oxides

various other chemical residues (some possibly toxic or irritating) may be produced, depending on the conditions of burning

DuPont.(2001, July). Technical Guide for NOMEX® Brand Fiber. H-52720 Revised July, 2001 (Replaces H-52703 April, 1999). UNCLASSIFIED 48 48 48

24 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

(below 800 F) NOMEX® degrades very slowly, releasing small quantities of organic compounds These may include Identification of Nomex Pyrolysis Products carbon dioxide . acetone acetamide acetaldehyde benzene Health Hazard butane toluene

other compounds Toxic (some possibly toxic or irritating) in trace amounts

DuPont.(2001, July). Technical Guide for NOMEX® Brand Fiber. H-52720 Revised July, 2001 (Replaces H-52703 April, 1999.

Italiano, B. (2019). New Methodology to Assess Health and Environmental Impact of Flame Resistant Textiles. [Unpublished Student Poster]. Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Soldier Center (CCDC SC). UNCLASSIFIED 49 49

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Rayon - regenerated cellulose fibers - chemically treated natural materials carbon disulfide (CS2), carbonyl sulfide (COS), and toluene hazardous air pollutants (HAP) emitted from viscose process CS2 is highly toxic and exposure associated with pain, distal sensory loss, neurophysiological impairment and cardiovascular disease

Cellulose is treated with alkali and carbon disulfide to yield viscose Because of EPA regulations (40 CFR Part 63 Subpart UUUU), rayon is no longer produced in the United States (U.S. cuprammonium rayon production ceased in 1975) and a Berry Amendment Waiver has been granted to purchase the required FR rayon overseas. FR Rayon incorporates an ammonium polyphosphate into the fiber for FR properties.

“Lenzing FR Rayon - This product has no known eco-toxicological effects. It is considered to be a biodegradable fiber”. – MSDS. http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Rayon.html http://www.newtex.jp/downloads/064_Lenzing_FR_Rayon_Products.pdf https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscose UNCLASSIFIED https://www.epa.gov/stationary-sources-air-pollution/final-amendments-cellulose-products-manufacturing-risk-and 50 50

25 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY Materials Used in Shelters In the 1930s flameproof canvas tentage for outdoor use by the military was produced with a treatment of chlorinated paraffin and an insoluble metal oxide, mostly antimony oxide as a glow inhibitor together with a binder resin. The treatment required application from an organic solvent.

https://www.thebalance.com/world-war-ii-economic-impact-4570917 Resulting treatments were based on the chemical reaction of the fire retardant with cellulosic molecules. The hydroxyl groups of the cellulose molecule can react directly or with an acid catalyst.

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

General Purpose (GP) fabric used in military shelter systems polyester and poly vinyl chloride (PVC) coated fabrics pose a risk of environmental contamination leaching smoke dermal exposure from manufacture operational use disposal activities

https://www.dla.mil/Portals/104/Documents/TroopSupport/CloTex/shelters/MilSpec/MGPTS.pdf

UNCLASSIFIED 52 52

26 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Currently working to identify a replacement for current Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) coated MIL-PRF 44103 laminate fabric used in the general purpose shelter to reduce environmental impact and personnel hazard exposure.

Benzene

Szczuka, R., Auerbach, P., Ratto Ross, J., McPartlin. M., & Gullett, B. (2019,December). Environmentally Friendly Multifunctional Materials for Army Shelters, [Unpublished Poster]. Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program W19-1051, U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Soldier Center (CCDC SC).

UNCLASSIFIED 53 53

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

The fire resistance of a shelter is determined by the base fabric performance in a swatch level vertical flame test. The swatch level test provides performance data on the fabrics char and after flame performance with criteria that must be met for each to be considered FR. This data does not accurately correlate to the safety or burn performance of a full scale shelter.

More studies need to be conducted on possible decomposition products and what is likely to occur in actual use from synergistic interactions of the flame retardant with other components. example: Cold Cracking in Tents Full Scale Testing

UNCLASSIFIED 54 54

27 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Industry is shifting away from brominated chemicals in response to the EPA’s phase out of PBDE (polybrominated diphenyl ethers) and moving towards OPFRs (Organophosphate flame retardants), such as triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), tris (1,3 dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP) and tris (2-chloroethyl)phosphate (TCEP), there is evidence that inhalation exposure may be greater for OPFRs than for the PBDEs.

OPFRs are organic esters of phosphoric acid-containing either alkyl chains or aryl groups, and they may be halogenated or nonhalogenated

Organophosphorus-based fiber modification in finishing account for the most successful techniques used for polyesters, acetates and blends, but not modacrylic fibers.

Blum,A., Behl, M. Birnbaum, L.S., Diamond, M.L., Phillips, A., Singla V. Sipes N.S., Stapleton, H.M. and Venier, M. (2019). Organophosphate Ester Flame Retardants: Are They a Regrettable Substitution for Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers? Environmental Science & Technology Letters 2019 6 (11), 638-649DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.9b00582

Gomes. G., Ward, P., Lorenzo, A., Hoffman, K., & Stapleton, H.M. (2016, April15). Characterizing Flame Retardant Applications and Potential Human Exposure in Backpacking Tents,, and Heather M. Stapleton, Environmental Science & Technology, 50, 10, 5338-5345. UNCLASSIFIED 55 55

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

routes of human exposure to flame retardants inhalation hand-to-mouth contact dermal absorption

higher vapor pressure of OPFRs compared to that of PBDEs, leading to increased off-gassing of OPFRs from treated products into indoor air

magnitude of exposure via hand-to-mouth and dermal transfer pathways is potentially greater for OPFRs than for PBDEs

28 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Organophosphorus compounds, under certain conditions, such as thermal combustion, exposure to sunlight, weathering, etc. have the potential for degrading into toxic phosphines or phosphides, which are hemolytic agents with toxic properties similar to those of yellow phosphorus.

However, organophosphorus flame retardants are extremely stable and there is no evidence to indicate that these decomposition products occur under natural conditions.

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

In 2019 a study done on commercial camping tents Gena Gnomes et al found:

OPFRs were detected at measurable concentrations in the air inside of treated tents. Active air sampling inside tents indicated inhalation as a likely route of exposure to TDCIPP, TCEP, and TPHP OPFRs transferred from products to users’ hands, leaching from products during normal use

Dermal exposure to OPFRs occurred from handling camping tents

Gomes. G., Ward, P., Lorenzo, A., Hoffman, K., & Stapleton, H.M. (2016, April 15). Characterizing Flame Retardant Applications and Potential Human Exposure in Backpacking Tents,, and Heather M. Stapleton, Environmental Science & Technology, 50, 10, 5338-5345. UNCLASSIFIED 58 58

29 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

In 2015 Mackay et. al. published a risk assessment of thermal and toxicological risks for commercial FR textiles

Purpose : To determine if gaseous and/or particulate combustion products from flame retardant materials pose a health risk to individuals in a flash fire event

ASTM F1930 Test

Mackay, C., Vivanco, S., Reinhardt, T., McClure, S., & Vercellone, J. ( 2015, February 25) “Real-Time Monitoring and assessment of Thermal and Toxicological Risk Associated with Fire Retardant Textiles in a Full-Size Simulation of an Engulfment Flash Fire”, Fire Technology, 51, 1167–1193.

UNCLASSIFIED 59 59

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Test modified ASTM F1930 – 6 x 6 x 8 foot enclosure, open at the base and top Exposure 84 + 5% kW/m2 (2 cal/cm2) for a 3 or 4 + 0.2 s. Temperature and gas sampling 5 s prior to ignition - 45 s post-ignition Breathing rate 20 breaths/ minute or one every 3 s. Exhalation phases two 1.5 s events Average ventilation rate : 1.44 m3/h (construction worker/laborer)

Results were modeled using IDLH (immediately dangerous to life or health) thresholds set by NIOSH.

30 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Testing identified the following emissions:

Chemical * Hydrogen Cyanide Hydrogen Chloride Nitrogen Dioxide Sulfur Dioxide Antimony Oxide**

FR Modacrylic Blends x x x x FR Cotton x x x FR Cotton/Nylon x x x FR Rayon Blends x *Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide could not be tracked because the propane burners were overwhelming sources of these combustion products. **Particulate antimony was detected in concentrations well below anything that could be considered hazardous.

Gases related to the combustion of the flame-retardant textiles were not detected in the breathing zone until 2.5 to 3 s post-ignition with maximum concentrations 0.5 to 1.5 s after the burners were shut down lasting an additional 25 sec (3 sec burn) & 40 sec (4 sec burn)

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY Thermal Injury

For short duration workplace engulfment conditions with flame-retardant textiles the principal hazard remains burns to the exterior and upper airway as the result of the inhalation of superheated gases

In a 4 s burn, third degree injury would reach the larynx, resulting in involuntary apnea, in about 12 s post-ignition

Maximum temperatures in the breathing zone 3s fire exposures - 460 to 485C 275C 8 s after exposure 4s fire exposures - 650C 160C within the first half-second of inhalation over 350C 8 s after exposure

31 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Conclusions from Study None of the gas exposures were found to represent a significant risk to health or impedance to survival or escape to the individual wearing the garment, or other persons that may come to their assistance. “The maximum concentrations of combustion products from the flame- retardant textiles were very high, however the duration of such production was very short.”

Smoke inhalation is of greatest hazard under long fire exposure scenarios and exposure to residual combustion gases for long durations.

Principal hazard remains burns to the exterior and upper airway as the result of the inhalation of superheated gases Mackay, C., Vivanco, S., Reinhardt, T., McClure, S., & Vercellone, J. ( 2015, February 25) “Real-Time Monitoring and assessment of Thermal and Toxicological Risk Associated with Fire Retardant Textiles in a Full-Size Simulation of an Engulfment Flash Fire”, Fire Technology, 51, 1167–1193

UNCLASSIFIED 63 63

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Permethrin 1991 Gulf War - self-application method, commonly employed by the US military personnel gave inconsistent insecticide coverage on the individual uniforms

To minimize these issues and to provide a more standardized concentration of permethrin, the polymer coating method, which binds solubilized permethrin to the surface of the uniform fabric, has been utilized to treat uniforms after they have been manufactured but prior to distribution

Proctor, S.P., Maule, A.L., Heaton, K. J. & Adam, G.E. ( 2014, November). Permethrin exposure from fabric-treated military uniforms under different wear-time scenarios, Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology. 24(6), 572-578; doi: 10.1038/jes.2013.65. Epub 2013 Oct 9. https://www.newser.com/story/261807/to-avoid-ticks-follow-lead-of-us-military.html UNCLASSIFIED https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo/permethrin.html 64 64

32 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Permethrin is an synthetic insecticide (mimics extracts from the chrysanthemum flower) - a contact repellent against mosquitoes, biting flies, ticks, and chigger mites, all of which are potential vectors of arthropod borne diseases such as malaria and Lyme disease. 2013 All Army, regardless of deployment status, military job, or location, will wear the ACU-Permethrin.

3-phenoxyphenyl)methyl 3-(2,2-dichloroethenyl)-2,2-dimethylcyclopropane-1-carboxylate Studies conducted by Protcor et all, suggest that Computed by LexiChem 2.6.6 (PubChem release 2019.06.18 wearing permethrin-treated clothing does increase absorbed, internal dose levels of permethrin above population levels and is significantly related to wear- time, body fat, and laundering. https://www.terminix.com/pest-control/mosquitoes/pictures/

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Animal studies have observed progressive motor dysfunction accompanied by changes similar to the neurodegenerative processes characterizing Parkinson’s Disease.

Permethrin, although considered to be safer than other pesticides currently on the market, may still pose potential health risks.

Proctor, S., Jackson, H. (2020, April 15 ). What’s in Your Uniform? An Investigation of Permethrin-Treated Army Combat Clothing. Retrieved May 16,2020 from https://cdmrp.army.mil/dmrdp/research_highlights/20proctor_highlight

UNCLASSIFIED 66 66

33 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Federal risk assessment reports describe acceptable levels of human carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks associated with this exposure route, based on the observation that symptoms are reversible and, when measured, internal dose levels subside following exposure (in humans, permethrin is metabolized relatively quickly and excreted).

Tests showed elevated levels of permethrin metabolites in urine after just 6 to 10 hours of donning the treated uniform. These elevated levels of permethrin metabolite began to subside 24 hours after removal of the uniforms.

Levels did not appear to reach regulated exposure limits at which adverse health effects might be observed.

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Environmental impacts must be considered over the life cycle of the fabric/item

- textile production and finishing mills

- laundering of flame retarded products

- disposal of the finished materials

UNCLASSIFIED 68 68

34 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Biodeterioration is the breakdown of a material by living organisms

It can occur in three ways: • a colony of microorganisms may feed on detritus which is on the surface the material • rats or other organisms may mechanically gnaw or tear at the material; • biochemical attack by microorganisms may occur

Polymers and plastics are unique among waste materials in that they resist all three forms of biodegradation. They especially resist attack by microbial enzymes, and it is doubtful that a mutant organism will emerge which has an enzyme system capable of degrading synthetic thermoplastic polymers.

UNCLASSIFIED

. FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Operation Enduring Freedom/Operation Iraqi Freedom/Operation New Dawn Djibouti, Africa on or after September 11, 2001 Burn Pits Operations Desert Shield or Desert Storm Southwest Asia theater of operations on or after August 2, 1990

Myers, M. (2019, July 12). Why DoD is still using burn pits, even while now acknowledging their danger. Military Times. Retrieved July 2019, from https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your- Photo: U.S. Department of Defense military/2019/07/12/why-dod-is-still-using-burn-pits-even-while-now-acknowledging-their-danger/. UNCLASSIFIED 70 70

35 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Symptoms or conditions below following burn pit exposure

• Asthma • Lung cancer • Chronic bronchitis • Pulmonary ailments • Constrictive bronchiolitis • Reduced liver or kidney function • Coughing that does not subside • Skin cancer • Difficulty breathing • Skin lesions • Headaches and migraines • Stomach cancer • Heart conditions • Throat infections

https://cck-law.com/veterans-law/what-are-symptoms-of-exposure-to-a-military-burn-pit/ UNCLASSIFIED 71 71

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Agent Orange (and other Vietnam-era herbicides) contained dioxin in the form of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), the most dangerous of all dioxins and has immediate and long-term effects. Dioxin is a highly persistent chemical compound that lasts for many years in the environment, particularly in soil, lake and river sediments and in the food chain. Most human exposure is through foods such as meats, poultry, dairy products, eggs, shellfish and fish.

2.6 million to 4.3 million troops were exposed to these highly toxic chemicals

Studies done on laboratory animals have proven that dioxin is highly toxic even in minute doses. It is universally known to be a carcinogen (a cancer-causing agent).

https://www.fedweek.com/armed-forces-news/hypertension-linked-to-agent-orange/ UNCLASSIFIED 72 72

36 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Short-term exposure to dioxin can cause : darkening of the skin liver problems severe acne-like skin disease called chloracne type 2 diabetes immune system dysfunction nerve disorders- Parkinson’s Disease cancers such as Hodgkin’s Disease muscular dysfunction soft tissue sarcoma hormone disruption prostate cancer heart disease leukemia rashes and other skin irritations respiratory - lung cancer Non-Hodgkin’s Lymphoma ** bladder cancer ** Not officially recognized yet Personal photo: Vietnam, 1970. Steven L. Auerbach, Major (ret). Died April 7, 2017, death related to Agent Orange exposure. U.S. Department of Public Affairs. Exposure to Agent Orange in Vietnam and Veterans' Diseases Associated with Agent Orange. Retrieved May 17, 2020 from https://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/locations/vietnam.asp UNCLASSIFIED 73 73

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

MICROENCAPSULATION OF FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES INTO CORE MATERIALS

• Microcapsules with fire retardant core reduced softness caused by the direct application of fire retardant materials. • Microencapsulated extracts of Andrographis paniculata, when applied on the fabric gives good mosquito repellent activity up to 30 washes • Microcapsules of phase-change materials facilitates the thermoregulation of clothing • Microencapsulated the mono-chromatic dyes that change color at specific temperatures • Microencapsulated anti-microbial finishes can protect fabrics from microbiological decay of fabrics.

Shrimali,K. & Dedhia, E. (2015). Microencapsulation for Textile Finishing. Journal of Polymer and Textile Engineering (JOSR-JPTE), 2 (2), 01-04. UNCLASSIFIED 74 74

37 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Conclusions

The primary goal for using inherently flame resistant (FR) or FR treated materials in protective clothing and equipment is for soldier sustainability

To provide soldiers with protection against specific threats to prevent burn injury provide additional time to escape from a flame/fire

The focus on toxicity testing for clothing apparel is prolonged, direct skin contact not off-gassing or toxic fumes

UNCLASSIFIED 75 75

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

More testing needs to be focused on end items and possible synergistic effects which may result from combining FR and non FR materials, along with multiple finishes and treatments on fabrics throughout the lifecycle of an item

creation -textile production and finishing mills use - laundering or degradation of flame retarded products disposal

The best materials selected for use in protective clothing and equipment may create long term and lasting impacts not only on the health of a soldier but on the sustainability of the environment

UNCLASSIFIED 76 76

38 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED BACK UP SLIDES

UNCLASSIFIED 77 77

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Toxicity. The finished (item) shall not present a health hazard and shall show compatibility with prolonged, direct skin contact when tested as specified in X.XX. If this requirement can be demonstrated with historical use data, toxicity testing may not be required (see X.X- acquisition requirements). Chemicals recognized by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as human carcinogens shall not be used.

Toxicity test. When required (see X.X), an acute dermal irritation study and a skin sensitization study shall be conducted on laboratory animals. When the results of the studies indicate the (item) is not a sensitizer or irritant, a Repeat Insult Patch Test shall be performed in accordance with the Modified Draize Procedure. (See X.XX) References. Other Publications: Principles and Methods of Toxicology (fourth edition), A Wallace Hayes (editor),pp 1057 - 1060, 2001 are available from Taylor and Francis, Philadelphia PA or http://www.taylorandfrancis.co.uk/

UNCLASSIFIED 78 78

39 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED REFERENCES

Auerbach Associates, Inc. (1976, February). A Study of Flame Retardants for Textiles.. Prepared For Environmental Protection Agency, U.S. Department of Commerce. National Technical Information Service,PB-251 441. Auerbach, M., Ramsay, J., D’Angelo, P., Cameron, S.,Proulx, G., Kaplan, J., Grady, M., and Coyne, M. (2019) Next Generation Test Forms for Testing in Fire Simulations ASTM E54 STP1614 Symposium on Homeland Security and Public Safety: Research. presented June 2018, published 2019. Blum,A., Behl, M. Birnbaum, L.S., Diamond, M.L., Phillips, A., Singla V. Sipes N.S., Stapleton, H.M. and Venier, M. (2019). Organophosphate Ester Flame Retardants: Are They a Regrettable Substitution for Polybrominated Diphenyl Ethers? Environmental Science & Technology Letters 2019 6 (11), 638-649DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.9b00582 Retrieved from https://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/acs.estlett.9b00582 Cole, D., The Survey of U.S. Army Uniforms, Weapons and Accoutrements. November 2007. Feldman, C. (2009, August 6). Vietnam-era captain campaigns for soldiers' recognition due for an honor. Houston Chronicle. Department of Veterans Affairs. (n.d.)America’s Wars. Office of Public Affairs Washington, DC 20420 Veterans Affairs Wars. Retrieved May 16, 2020 https://www.va.gov/opa/publications/factsheets/fs_americas_wars.pdf DuPont.(2001, July). Technical Guide for NOMEX® Brand Fiber. H-52720 Revised July, 2001 (Replaces H-52703 April, 1999). Gomes. G., Ward, P., Lorenzo, A., Hoffman, K., & Stapleton, H.M. (2016, April 15). Characterizing Flame Retardant Applications and Potential Human Exposure in Backpacking Tents,, and Heather M. Stapleton, Environmental Science & Technology, 50, 10, 5338-5345. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b00923

UNCLASSIFIED 79 79

UNCLASSIFIED

REFERENCES (CONT.)

Hartzel, G.(Ed). (1992). Advances in Combustion Technology, Volume 3. Technomic Publishing Company. Heus, R. (2020, May 15). Cancer as an occupational disease in the fire services. Instituut Fysieke Veilighei. History.com Editors. (Updated 2019, MAY 16, 2019 ORIGINAL: 2011, August 2). Agent Orange. Retrieved May 17, 2020 from https://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/agent-orange-1 Hody, G.L., “Measurement of Toxic Hazard Due to Firing The Weapons of The UH-1B Armed Helicopter”, USAARL REPORT NO. 70-5 , August 1969. Italiano, B. (2019). New Methodology to Assess Health and Environmental Impact of Flame Resistant Textiles. [Unpublished Student Poster]. Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program, U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command Soldier Center (CCDC SC). Keller, A.S., Raju, N.P., Webster, T.F. and Stapleton, H.K.(2014). Flame Retardant Applications in Camping Tents and Potential Exposure. Environmental Science & Technology Letters 2014 1 (2), 152-155. DOI: 10.1021/ez400185y Kourtides, D.A., Parker, J.A. , Assessment of Relative Flammability and Thermochemical Properties of Some Thermoplastic Materials, National Aeronautics and Space Administration Ames Research Center. Polymer Engineering and Science, 18, (11),1978. Mackay, C., Vivanco, S., Reinhardt, T., McClure, S., & Vercellone, J. ( 2015, February 25) “Real-Time Monitoring and assessment of Thermal and Toxicological Risk Associated with Fire Retardant Textiles in a Full-Size Simulation of an Engulfment Flash Fire”, Fire Technology, 51, 1167–1193. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10694-015-0456-3 McCarry,B.E., Shaw, L., Shaw, D. and Fernando, S., “Exposures of Fire Fighters during Training Exercises”, Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, McMaster University, Ontario Professional Fire Fighters Association, Health & Safety 2013,Delta Chelsea Hotel, Toronto February 7, 2013.

UNCLASSIFIED 80 . 80

40 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED

REFERENCES (CONT.)

McQuade, A.J.,& Waldron, E.T. (1960). The Effect of Thermal Radiation on Textile Materials. Textile, Clothing and Footwear Division Textile Functional Finishes Laboratory Report No. 192, Headquarters Quartermaster Research & Engineering Command. Quartermaster Research & Engineering Center, Natick , MA. Myers, M. (2019, July 12). Why DoD is still using burn pits, even while now acknowledging their danger. Military Times. Retrieved July 2019, from https://www.militarytimes.com/news/your-military/2019/07/12/why-dod-is-still-using-burn- pits-even-while-now-acknowledging-their-danger National Research Council (US) Subcommittee to Review Permethrin Toxicity from Military Uniforms.(1994). Health Effects of Permethrin-Impregnated Army Battle-Dress Uniforms. Washington (DC). National Academies Press (US) Proctor, S.P., Maule, A.L., Heaton, K. J. & Adam, G.E. ( 2014, November). Permethrin exposure from fabric-treated military uniforms under different wear-time scenarios, Journal of Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology. 24(6), 572-578; doi: 10.1038/jes.2013.65. Epub 2013 Oct 9. Proctor, S., Jackson, H. (2020, April 15 ). What’s in Your Uniform? An Investigation of Permethrin-Treated Army Combat Clothing. Retrieved May 16,2020 from https://cdmrp.army.mil/dmrdp/research_highlights/20proctor_highlight Scott, B., Hernandez, V., Goodman, M. (August 8-11, 2011). Initial Composite Material Fire Evaluation. Joint Classified Bombs/Warheads & Ballistics Symposium. Monterey, CA. Shrimali,K. & Dedhia, E. (2015). Microencapsulation for Textile Finishing. Journal of Polymer and Textile Engineering (JOSR-JPTE), 2 (2), 01-04 Szczuka, R., Auerbach, P., Ratto Ross, J., McPartlin. M., & Gullett, B. (2019,December). Environmentally Friendly Multifunctional Materials for Army Shelters, [Unpublished Poster]. Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program W19-1051, U.S. Army Combat Capabilities Development Command - Soldier Center (CCDC SC).

UNCLASSIFIED 81 81

UNCLASSIFIED REFERENCES (CONT.)

Textile Research and Engineering Division. Clothing and Personal Life Support Equipment Laboratory, U. S. Army Natick Laboratories, Natick, MA. (1971) The Behavior Of Protective Uniforms In Large Scale Simulated Fires. Technical Report 71 - 40- CE. Torreon, B.S. (2019, August 27). U.S. Periods of War and Dates of Recent Conflicts. Congressional Research Service. Retrieved May 16, 2020. https://www.everycrsreport.com/files/20190827_RS21405_505ad61506d998d71e369672b09a887411f9e6dc.pdf U.S. Department of Public Affairs. Exposure to Agent Orange in Vietnam and Veterans' Diseases Associated with Agent Orange. Retrieved May 17, 2020 from https://www.publichealth.va.gov/exposures/agentorange/locations/vietnam.asp

UNCLASSIFIED 82 82

41 5/29/2020

. UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY Position Matters: standing manikin - it took 3–4 s for hot gases generated from the lower extremities to rise into the breathing zone sitting manikin - would have been expected to have faster temperature increases, higher temperatures, and faster cooling in the breathing zone prone manikin - , we would have expected lower temperatures because the hot gases would have been rising away from the breathing zone rather than rising through it Rate of Breathing: hold breath - there be no exposure to the thermal flux from the hot gases, or inhalation exposure to any toxicants breathing heavily - rate of heat flux (and burn rate) and gas exposure would increase proportionally

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

Lyocell, is a “non-polluting” alternative to rayon introduced to the U.S. market in the early 1990s, sold under the trademark Tencel. Cellulose in dissolved into the solvent N- methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO). Tencel® reuses up to 99.8 percent of the solvent used in processing and the remaining emissions are broken down in biological water treatment plants. The solvent is not acidic, does not remain in the fiber, and has been proven harmless in dermatological and toxicological tests. N-methylmorpholine-N-oxide (NMMO). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Methylmorpholine_N-oxide#/media/File:NMO.png

https://www.life.ca/naturallife/0908/ecofiber_or_fraud.htm

UNCLASSIFIED 84 84

42 5/29/2020

UNCLASSIFIED FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

U.S. troops used Agent Orange and other herbicides extensively from 1962 to 1971, to eliminate the jungle canopy in Vietnam and expose enemy positions. As a result, anywhere from 2.6 million to 4.3 million troops were exposed to these highly toxic chemicals.

A 2018 article in Armed Forces News states : “ While progress has been made in linking chemical exposure to illness, more work needs to be done. Significant gaps in knowledge remain.”

In 1988, Dr. James Clary, an Air Force researcher associated with Operation Ranch Hand, wrote to Senator Tom Daschle, “When we initiated the herbicide program in the 1960s, we were aware of the potential for damage due to dioxin contamination in the herbicide. However, because the material was to be used on the enemy, none of us were overly concerned. We never considered a scenario in which our own personnel would become contaminated with the herbicide.”

History.com Editors. (Updated 2019, MAY 16, 2019 ORIGINAL: 2011, August 2). Agent Orange. Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/vietnam-war/agent-orange-1 (2018, November 30). Hypertension Linked to Agent Orange. Armed Forces News UNCLASSIFIED 85 85

UNCLASSIFIED

FLAME RESISTANT MATERIALS AND SOLDIER SUSTAINABILITY

PBDEs persistent organic pollutants POPs bio accumulative and have long half-lives (weeks to years) in the human body chlorinated OPFRs persistent mobile organic compounds (PMOCs) rapidly metabolized OPFRs with relatively short half-lives (hours to days) OPFRs were not expected to accumulate in the environment on the basis of their physical and chemical properties, multiple measurements show that the concentrations of many OPFRs have reached values that are orders of magnitude higher in air and water in numerous environments ranging from urban areas to remote Arctic and Antarctic locations, compared to those of PBDEs when they were at peak use - relative abundance of OPFRs in remote locations, which cannot be explained by local releases.