HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE I

Leposavic, 2015.

1

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE

I

Leposavic, 2015.

2 Book: HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN EUROPE I

Editors: Petar D. Pavlovic (Republic of Srpska) Nenad Zivanovic (Serbia) Branislav Antala (Slovakia) Kristina M. Pantelic Babic, (Republic of Srpska)

Publishers: University of Pristina, Faculty of Sport and Physical Education in Leposavic FIEP Europe - History of Physical Education and Sport Section

Authors:

Airikki Poussi (Finland) Daiva Majauskienė (Lithuania) Andi Spahi (Albania) Dario Colella (Italy) Amalia Tinto (Italy) Dario Skegro (Croatia) Arūnas Emeljanovas (Lithuania) Dimitris Hatziharistos (Greece) Claude Scheuer (Luxembourg) Erzsébet Rétsági (Hungary) Dean Qefalia (Albania)

3 Florian Muca (Albania) Petr Vlcek (Czech Republic) Gabriela Štěrbová (Czech Republic) Stefania Cazzoli (Italy) Ilir Dojka (Albania) Tamás Csányi (Hungary) Juel Jarani (Albania) Zrinko Custonja Kata Morvay-Sey (Croatia) (Hungary) Nenad Zivanovic (Serbia)

4 Reviewers: Jela Labudova (Slovakia) Nicolae Ochiana (Romania) Veroljub Stankovic (Serbia) Zoran Milosevic (Serbia)

Prepress: Kristina M. Pantelic Babic

Printed by: ABL PRINT, Mlynarovicova 5, Bratislava, Slovakia

Book-jacket: Anton Lednicky

Circulation: 100 copies

ISBN 978-86-82329-52-7

NOTE: No part of this publication may be reproduced without the prior permission of the authors.

5 TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD - ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS ...... 8

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN ALBANIA ...... 24

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN CROATIA ...... 39

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN CZECH LANDS ...... 58

THE ROOTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AT SCHOOLS IN FINLAND ...... 72

ENACTMENT OF GREEK PHYSICAL EDUCATION - ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM (1835-1907) ...... 82

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUNGARIAN SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION ...... 93

THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN PRIMARY SCHOOL IN ITALY - FROM THE PROGRAMS TO THE NATIONAL GUIDELINES AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING (PETE) ...... 114

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE LITHUANIANS SCHOOL: SINCE ITS ORIGIN TO THE END OF THE XX CENTURY ...... 142

THE HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN LUXEMBOURG ...... 156

6 During one session of FIEP’s Section for history of Physical Education and Sports held in Nis (Serbia) in 2014 originated the idea and initiative for writing of History of Sports and Physical Education in European countries. By exchange of views with present colleagues, the idea was accepted. After consent of FIEP Europe’s President Mr. Branislav Antala (Slovakia) regarding this matter, during the following Section’s session the Commission for leading this idea into realization was formed. Elected members of this Commission were: Nenad Zivanovic, Petar D. Pavlovic, Branislav Antala and Kristina Pantelic Babic. At the same session was decided to start first with writing of History of Physical Education. With the work of stated Commission members, National Delegates and Assistant of National Delegate of FIEP Europe, as also other associates from most European countries, this publication on beginnings of development of Physical Education in European countries’ schools was created. All manuscripts received for this publication successfully passed review process. All FIEP Europe National Delegates were informed about this project, and we received 18 European papers implemented in this publication. Besides, we also received a paper from Colombia about PE in Latin America, which is an indicator of interest for this topic beyond European borders. We hope to include all European countries in following publications, and also to go outside Europe in our close future. Papers are sorted alphabetically by countries which participated in this edition, with Colombian manuscript as a final one. We thank all authors for being a part of this interesting project, and looking forward to work together in the future.

With best regards, EDITORS

7 FOREWORD

ON PHYSICAL EDUCATION AND SPORTS

Nenad Živanović, FIEP Europe, President of History of Physical Education and Sport Section, Serbia.

When everything has its own time (Solomon), and one should believe this to be so, then it is quite understandable that this book on physical education and sport has awaited its time. Without pretending that this is the final story of this beautiful theme, we emphasize that it is only a part of our smart book (history) on physical education and sport. From different sides and from different angles perceived, our smart book on physical education and sport perceives man and his desire to always be the best and excellent among others (Homer) and constantly perceives physical exercise as the beneficial food to man’s, primarily physical being (N. Zivanovic). In different parts of the European continent, and in the other parts of the world as well, man has been crossing the path of developing its natural form of body movement - exercise all the way to the derivative and modified forms. All this man has done in the reverse direction, constantly returning to his natural forms of movement - training. Of course, it has always been adapted and in harmony with the social environment and social circumstances in which he has lived. However, we must point out one fact. Physical exercise, no matter how it is defined, is not a subject that can be made and bought in a store. Physical exercise is actually a man himself and his movement, performed with the corresponding objective, not only to develop or train some of his (motor) properties, but also because of the emotional experiencing of such a movement - training. This fact alone indicates the complex structure of man. His physical and mental structure, consecrated by the Holy Spirit, makes him a complete man, a personality - one, unique and unrepeatable. Therefore, a physical exercise for him is a wholesome food essential to his being.

8 At the heart of physical education is a man with all his needs and desires. This man, as we have noted, has a need for physical exercise, specific food that is essential to his, primarily physical being. In fact, this man has a need for self-motion - exercise. Therefore, when we talk about physical exercise and physical exercising, we actually talk about the man himself. And this man, searching for his identity, moves from the idea that a person is one, unique and unrepeatable, to an individual – an atomized individual who thinks he is self-sufficient. Thus, between these extremes, a man wanders seeking, above all, himself and his increasingly lost person. That is why education and, of course, physical education is so important. Education and physical education as well can be defined in different ways. But it is not superfluous to recall that the term upbringing (education) is an old Slavic word denoting feeding. Of course, physical education as a part of general education ensures that a physical exercise nourishes man. And from this simple fact derives all the philosophy of physical education and sport, and it, among other things claims: everything for a man, a man for nothing. This philosophical idea draws its strength from the simple fact that says life is the highest value obtained from the Creator and noone, especially an educator, has the right to intentionally or unintentionally, incur the collapse of these values. Hence, the establishment of many schools, and in them the subject of physical education, to make man stand up and show him all the values of life. But, in all stages of life on the Earth, there were periods of ups and downs of the human civilization and culture. Therefore, the time in which we live should be considered taking into account this fact, and in accordance with it we should try to find the best solutions. It is not easy, but it is a sublime duty of the (real) experts and teachers. It is interesting to recall the times of two hundred years ago. Then, at the southern edge of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy a Fruskogorskian monk Georgie, translating a V. K. Hufeld book Macrobiotics, used a term physical education in the title of a chapter. The book was translated into the Serbian language and published in Budim in 1807.1 Before that, in these parts of Europe, different terms

1 More on this in: Milosevic, Z. and Berar M. Tracing the Term Physical Education, Physical Education and Sport Through the Centuries, Vol.1, Iss. 1. 44–52.

9 denoting the organized forms of physical exercise, were used. The most common terms used were the body exercises and gymnastics. But this term physical education was exactly in line with the basic meaning of education - and that is feeding. By means of the attribute physical in this syntagm a type of food that is offered to a man, regardless of his age, is highlighted. And that reflects a complete pedagogical idea emanating from the basic philosophical ideas that we have highlighted.

The Humanists

Turning towards man and his needs began in the mid-14th century. The advent of the Humanism and the Renaissance in the northern Italy established a new view of the world and of man in that world. Scholars and leaders of the new movement were called the Humanists. They had directed their learning towards the man (studia humana) and had pointed to the humanity as a worthy decoration of a free man.2 Such a radical shift and a break with the tradition of the Middle Ages, whose role model was found in the legacy of the ancient Greeks and Romans, was felt in relation to the physical exercise, as well. Instead of generating the possibilities of the organized physical exercise only for a selected group of (young) people - knights, various forms of physical exercise were offered and widely recommended to each and everyone. This urbi et orbi had been accepted and a new wave of a tsunami force, had begun to spread throughout Europe. The leading humanists who spoke about education, have always emphasized the importance of physical exercising. It was

2 Education and science that the Humanists took over from the priests and monks ceased to be the "handmaiden of theology" and became a "teacher of life". In that school, as well as in the amended environmental practices, one new man was formed. It was the man of this world who wanted to live out his life to the fullest and improve the gifts with which he was endowed (so he thought) by nature. To this and such a man ecstatic humanists sang the hymns. They tell him about his "excellence" (exelenntia) and his "dignity" (dignitas). They equate him with God (quidem mortalis deus) and encourage him to the comprehensive application of his own strength and quality (virtus), the constant striving to be a "noble" and "free" (nobilitis et liber), and to achieve fame (laus). We should now be able to add the competition, as well. After all, this is the motto of the EU, which is written in its founding documents. This is so because with the neoliberal concept of planning and management and the replacement of capitalism with the bankism (Gerald Selent), a Neohumanist approach is quite possible. And, unfortunately, we are witnessing where it leads.

10 very important in the design of an educational system that included various programs of physical exercise in their concept.3

3 It is appropriate, at least briefly to recall of the basic facts relating to these, for our profession, significant people:  Francisco Petrarch (1304-1374) was the first who was able to show the culture of the ancient Greeks and Romans. With his own money he has funded deciphering the Latin alphabet. His name is linked to the humanistic movement in Italy.  Pietro Paolo Vergerio (1349-1420), in his treatise on the Education of the Master of Padova’s son, stated as a topic of conversation: his character and discipline, free- open minded learning, physical exercise, training in art (the art of) war, recreation. He pointed out three allies: health, physical exercise and recreation, as well as the necessity of the knowledge about health and all this he substantiated with many examples of the vigorous physical exercise and recreational activities.  Vitorino de Feltre (1378-1446), followed the ideas of Greece and Rome on the importance of physical exercise, but he stressed the importance of ball games, jumping and fencing. He was declared the first teacher of the Renaissance as his program has well balanced the physical, intellectual and moral education.  Aeneas Sylvius Picocomini (1405-1464) is one of the most important humanists who later became the Pope. He claimed that the organism is indivisible and that the physical activity helps the development of all human abilities.  Mafeus Vegius (1405-1458) believed that education should develop all of man's physical and spiritual qualities. He especially emphasized the importance of health habits and advocated that physical education should be free education, not to exceed in the extreme, but to be approached as a good recreation activity.  Jakob Sadoleto (1477-1547) was the pope's secretary. But he wanted, following the model of the ancient Greeks, to connect physical exercise and music. This was of great importance because after many centuries this issue was given the proper attention.  Hieronymus Mercurialis (1530-1606) recommended physical activity for health. He was not inclined to asceticism and complete specialization. He made a division of gymnastics into the preventive and therapeutic ones. He believed that physical activities represent an integral part of the free education.  Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536) recommended physical exercise as part of the education of children. He emphasized the importance of generous movements, but of these that will have a positive impact in their lives. That is why he was against the creation of the athletes.  Martin Luther (1483-1546), was an enthusiasts who believed that physical training is of great importance for the education of the youth. He was imbued with the idea of the "muscular Christians" (Muscular Christianity). He recommended that music should be used as a useful and beneficial activity, and fencing and wrestling were considered as beneficial and healthy physical activities.  Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) believed that the games and sport were important for children and youth. He felt that games and sport contained a certain degree of skills and that they were very useful for the organism.  François Rabelais (1483-1553), a writer and doctor, can be called a classical humanist. He is known for his works Gargantua and Pantagruel, in which he outlined his views on education. In his program physical education occupies an important place, which is based on the seven skills: wrestling, running, jumping, shooting, riding, and all types of military skills. Rabelais described the exercises that are suitable for enclosed spaces (training rooms).  Jan Amos Comenius (1592-1670) has by his practical and theoretical works contributed most to the development of physical education. He has in his major works laid a solid foundation of our profession. In the General Didactics (Didactica Magna) he presented his views on education on the basis of the premise that "schools are not torture houses, nor prisons as lunatics think, but places to play in". And then he conveyed another message: "With prowess and not fraud to win". In his second book, The World in Photos (Orbis

11 These programs, encouraged by the new view on life and man's place in society, had gradually diverged and were directed in two independent directions. In the continental Europe the idea of the gymnastic forms of physical exercise prevailed. In contrast to this idea, in England, on the insular part of Europe, sport had won the status of the leading idea in the organization of physical exercising. This, of course, was conditioned by different social circumstances, for which there had been so many different approaches to the forms of physical exercising. The fact is that the utilitarian values of sport and gymnastics, in such circumstances, have come into the limelight. Egocentristic approach to sport and ethnocentric approach to gymnastics were quite in line with the social circumstances. Until the advent of the Reformation and later revivals that took place, there were no substantial and concrete progress in the organized physical exercising and its firmer inclusion in the school system. Only with the appearance of John Amos Comenius and his work (to make it more absurd – a post got as a punishment) in a school in Saros Patok in Hungary, there came a turning point of the immeasurable importance to physical education and sport. He was, thanks to his work as well as the position of the principle of the school, the first in the history of our profession, to award a physical exercise (education) a place in the school curriculum, as well as the time allotted in the teaching timetable. We now, in fact, inherit what was done by Comenius in the mid-17th century. And when it comes to his theoretical and practical work, even today he can serve as an example of the serious and creative efforts to approach education (also) as - feeding. His works, primarily the United didactics and The World in Photos are the examples of the great foresights and meticulousness, and are a good token of the times that are behind us.

Pictus), written in four languages he described all physical exercises and competitions then known in Europe. This is an encyclopedic work, which is very important for the History of physical education and sport. In addition to these important books, Comenius, as the director of a school in Saros Patok, has alloted to the subject of physical education place and time within the school curriculum. Thus, a subject of physical education has for the first time, taken seriously and equalled with all other achool subjects (disciplines) that were taught in school. (According to: Zivanovic, N. Contribution to the epistemology of physical education. Niš, Panopticon, 2000, 147-154). The other notable personalities for our profession, from the time of the Reformation, and later, will be discussed in the framework of the Theory of the development of physical education and sport.

12 Theories of the Physical Education and Sport Development

Different theories of the physical education and sport development4 have based their philosophy of development on the goal (and mission) of the physical exercise. Each for themselves and all together, during the tumultuous centuries that are behind us, they have undergone various stages of development. This was caused by different social circumstances in which they were created and developed. At the end of the 17th and the 18th century there have been many revolutions, among which five of them have exerted a great and decisive influence on the conception of social development.5 Then came the inevitable undermining of the "ancient regime" and its subsequent marginalization.6 "The Ancient Regime" has undergone criticism and change in education, as well. In the period of the enlightment the attitude of the church and its control of education, emphasizing the study of the history of the ancient times, theology, Greek and Latin languages, were sharply criticized. New people, the philosophers, represented the opinion that - modern history, new (live) languages, engagement in science and, within that, in physical activities, should be studied, instead. Prominent figures, important for the development of physical education and sport as well are John Locke7 and Jean Jacques Rousseau8. They were, indeed, by their educational and

4 According to: (1) Zivanovic, N: School sports from the perspective of the theo- anthropocentrism. In. Bokan, B. and Radisavljević Janic (Ed.). International Scientific Conference, Belgrade, "The effects of physical activity on the anthropological status of children, youth and adults". Belgrade, 2012: Faculty of Sport and Physical Education; 112-117; (2) Zivanovic, N: Contribution to the epistemology of physical education. Niš, Panopticon, 2000, 155–165. 5 The revolutions of the crucial influence on the development of social relations and the concept of social life certainly are: scientific, agricultural, commercial or economic, industrial, democratic or socialist ones. 6 The term the "ancient regime" is used by the French to describe religious, legal, socio-cultural and economic institutions that prevailed in the Western Europe in the late 17th and 18th century, because it was inconsistent with the new tendencies of the development. 7 John Locke (1632 - 1704) is one of the largest English philosopher of his time. His works, essays on education, have influenced many teachers and political theorists. He qualified a newborn as a - tabula rasa, who under the influence of education builds up and changes. This has resulted in many teachers to start with a different observation of children. 8 Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1788) was another important person of the "Age of the enlightenment". He sharply attacked the current system, and his thoughts and messages about education he presented in Emil, a work which is half a discussion and half a novel. His ideas on

13 journalistic work guidelines for further development of our profession. Their numerous followers, Pestalozzi, Felenber, Basedow, inspired by their work, have created the operating principles and by their practical work have done much for the development of physical education.

Theory of biocentrism

The theory of biocentrism dated back in the early 18th century, when all the more pronounced were collisions of the old and the new social relationships, old and new traditions, views of the world and of man in this world. It has began to spread the notion that man recognizes the natural impulsive moves and feels the need to play, that he has discovered himself and his world through the experiences, that its value is based in freedom, voluntariness and natural forms of movement and exercising. This certainly is nothing new, and not a new view of the world. But such ideas and thoughts in the works of Locke and Rousseau, appeared to be new. "It is a sad misconception that physical exercise is detrimental to mental activity, as if both these operations could not be carried out simultaneously, and as if one could not manage the other".9 (3) Of course, this idea and the message for this time exuded a new view of the man and his physical exercise. This novelty, to put it plainly, was redolent of freshness of thought and for that social moment, was a bold step taken towards a new era. the new, progressive, education became the basis of many new educational programs in the mid 18th century. He believed that "constant, nature entirely similar exercises strengthen the body and not only do they not dull the spirit but rather create a kind of reason capable of filial age, and that every age is most needed. They teach us to know our strength, our body attitude towards the bodies that surround us and the use of natural tools that are within our grasp and which correspond to our organs." Such an attitude towards education and, of course, physical education stems from his attitude - that all is the good that comes from the hands of the Creator, and by human hands is corrupted. Therefore, he advocates a new approach to education and a return to nature. Because of that his Emil prefers to climb the hills like a goat to jumping in the salon like a monkey following the directions of the gallantry. Z. Z. Rousseau was among the first to raise the issue of the education of girls. However, this education is different and appropriate to the creating of a good housewife and a kind of decoration of the house. In the education of girls there are religious and aesthetic education and skills. The rest of the education complements a husband at his own discretion. Great attention he has devoted to the play. The conditions for play should be created by the elderly and their assistance should be unobtrusive and discreet. Children need to feel free and self-solve tasks in the play. 9 Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Emil or on education. Belgrade, 1925. Bookstore Rajković and Čukić, p.53.

14 These ideas were accepted by the thinkers and educators such as: Basedow,10 Pestalozzi,11 Saltzman, GutsMuths12. In recent

10 Johann Bernhard Basedow (1723-1790) has by its theoretical and practical work contributed to a new approach to the physical education. He opened a school called "Philanthropinum," in Dessau, in 1774. Contemporaries have called this school a "High school for humanity." In it the plan of the daily work schedules looked like this: 7 hours - sleeping; 6 hours - dressing, feeding, rest and recreation; 1 hour - correspondence and neatness; 5 hours - studying and intellectual work; 3 hours - physical exercise, dance and music; 2 hours - handmade works (with physical exertion). Throughout the summer students would spend about a month in the camp, where the nature replaced textbooks, and another month was planned to carry out the practical work with the peasants, craftsmen and merchants. The basics of the physical education in the Philanthropinum, was "Dessaus’s Pentathlon", which consisted of: running, jumping, climbing, cargo carrying and balancing (balance exercises). Great attention was paid to the persistent walking, swimming and rowing. He advocated also for a broad application of games and gave methodological guidelines for their application. He believed that the games developed prowess and provide emotional experience - creating the conditions for a good life. 11 Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) a Swiss educator has built his own position, which is predominantly directing gymnastics towards raising the health and resilience of the body against natural influences that can endanger it. In this context, special attention was devoted to strengthening and training locomotor apparatus. Therefore, with him for the first time, simple - joint exercises appeared. Pestalozzi has coming from town to village, begun to deal with the poor children upbringing. In 1800 he managed to establish the "House of Education", which was later moved to Iferten and became famous throughout the world. His "House of Education" resembles very much the "House of Play" of Vittorino Rambaldoni (1378-1446). Among his many works the most important are the following: Leonard and Gertrude and How Gertrude teaches her children. There he also presented his views on the necessity of the integrated education. Because of this, he believes that physical education should be a means of forming the spirit as well as the moral and aesthetic education. 12Johann Friedrich GutsMuths (1759-1839) is one of the most important theorists and creators of the systematization of physical exercises. He spent some time in Salzmann’s Philanthropinum, where he received a needed experience in gymnastics work. The principles underlying his theory and methodology are current even nowadays, which tells how his work is built into the basics of the later system of gymnastics, and even today's physical education. Here are these principles: • man is a physical and spiritual unity; • weakness of the body leads to the weakness of spirit; • highest intellectual culture, without physical education, provides only an incomplete person, without the joy of life and beauty; • natural practicing of the primitive peoples civilized ones should replace with gymnastics skills; these may be military, athletic and medical, but the only type for all of them should be the - pedagogical gymnastics; • the duty of the most educated countries and all the teachers should be to organize propaganda of the pedagogical gymnastics. That means everyday gymnastics for all ... To create an atmosphere for gymnastics; • there is a need to reinforce the concern about hygiene and one should recommend exercise in the fresh air; • in a teaching method one should count on the age, sex, profession, and the composition of those who practice. GutsMuths has in its systematization of physical exercises singled out: a) real gymnastic exercises - jumping, running, throwing, wrestling, climbing, balancing, dancing, etc.; b) handicrafts; c) social games for the youngsters.

15 years, these ideas were more elaborated by: Laban,13 Dalkroze,14 and Montessori.15 Their programs were oriented towards young people. So Laban had built his expressive gymnastics on a natural desire of a child towards movement and a spontaneous play. There were created special education programs outside of school such as snow school, school camps. Today, this approach is observed in the programs of schools in nature and sports camps.

The theory of ethnocentrism.

The theory of etnocentrism in the center of its development puts ethnos, people. Also, any form of physical exercise was created having this in mind and was adapted to that end. It originated during the turbulent times of the 19th century, when the international conflicts dominated Europe and Napoleonic wars simultaneously represented a conflict between the old and the new. Nations were getting stronger, and the period of the professional armies was passing by. In such a situation there was a growing need for the physical education of citizens, who would be the new troops, if necessary. The representatives of this school are: Franz Nachtegall16, Pehr Ling Henrik17, Friedrich Ludwig Jahn 18, Miroslav Tirs.19

13 Rudolf von Laban (1879-1958) was a dancer and theoretician. In 1936 he emigrated to London (England) and there he has, within his pedagogical work, developed a system of "education by movement". He had claimed four aspects of movement (flow, time, space and path), eight combinations and sixteen ranks. Soon the term "movement" has become the most important term in the representation of Laban’s concepts, and the phrases such as "art of movement", "gymnastics by movement" and "education by movement" became the integral part of the vocabulary of physical education. 14 Émile Jaques-Dalcroze (1865-1950) as a good musician has always helped his disciples to use movements to more easily become good musicians. After the Second World War his ideas were accepted also in the British schools and were known as "music and movement". 15 Maria Montessori (1870–1952) Maria Montessori (1870-1952) has built on the ideas of Rousseau, Pestalozzi and Froebel her own educational system, in which the play and movement were important elements. She said that "what really makes the teacher is his love for a human child; because love is what differentiates the social duty of the educational worker and creates a higher awareness of his mission.” 16 Franz Nachtegall (1777-1847) founded the first gymnastics institute in Europe, which was, in fact, the basis for the further development of physical education in Denmark. When the practical benefits of such work were noticed, daily basis physical exercising was introduced as a compulsory subject in schools (1801). He soon opened in Copenhagen a military gymnastics school for the education of the professional staff. In addition to the practical work Nachtegall wrote gymnastics manuals. 17 Pehr Henrik Ling (1776-1839) spent five years in Nachtegall’s school in Copenhagen, and on his return to Sweden he formed a new system of gymnastics. Sweden as Denmark, was in a delicate international political situation, thus it was necessary to use the Civil Army (citizens) to

16 In the theory and practice of physical education these representatives of ethnocentrism are known as the founders of various gymnastic systems that were aimed at gathering young people doing physical exercise and their development in order that they, so strengthened, could fight for the social goals and ideals. It is through the analysis of the ideas of their systematization of physical exercise that we notice the emergence of the ultimate goal - ethnos, and not an individual, a member of that nation. And even today, in supplement the professional army. Therefore, first of all, they needed special programs of physical exercise. Ling in 1814 founded under the royal patronage the Royal Central Gymnastics Institute in Stockholm. The institute still nowadays exists, but under the other name (since 1967 it is called the Institute for gymnastics and sport). Ling has proclaimed four types of gymnastics: military (for strengthening the body and one’s will to encourage the other people's will); pedagogical (own body to subordinate to one’s own volition); medical (to overcome and eliminate diseases); aesthetic (towards emotions expression). His gymnastics program was characterized by a design-specific directionality, whose main characteristic is anatomical and physiological justification. Gymnastics equipment, which is still famous in the world, has been adapted to the needs of the body. 18 Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852), in 28 as a soldier, survived the German military defeat, and experienced it as a personal tragedy. From then on he devoted himself exclusively to the work on strengthening the German nation. According to him, physical education had to create strong and courageous warriors for the defense of France. Therefore he had devised his own system and founded a turner organization. Since he was against everything that was not German, he would not use the word gymnastics, known and famous throughout the world, but had found a new word - turner. This term was derived from the medieval knight competition and exercises. In his program he included running, jumping, climbing, suspension and exercise on special requisites. In the period from 1819 to 1842 the Austrian Chancellor Metternich prohibited "turner". This restriction had provoked an important change in the character of the turner exercise. In fact, during this period training was performed secretly at homes. So there had been a restructuring of the physical exercises, ones that required a large space were lost, and in the foreground erupted apparatus and small space exercises. They were able to maintain discipline and control. These exercises were later incorporated into the school programs. Jahn’s system of physical exercise, with the help of his students spread out to other countries as well. Soon it lost a national basis and with the systems of Ling and Nachtegall, became an important part of the development of physical education in many countries around the world. 19 Miroslav Tirs (1832-1884) formed the Czech gymnastics society in 1862. When the German students began to stand out and establish turner societies, Tirs organized the workout for the Czech students. Later on his system was named "SOKO", as a symbol of bravery, heroism and nobility. At that time, the living conditions of the national minorities in Austria were very harsh, so, basically, this gymnastics organization was also established for the purpose of awakening the national consciousness. It could be said that the sport has undergone through four stages of development: (1) Patronizing sport (lat. Patronus: protector), (2) A gentleman sport or pedestrianism (lat. Pedes: Foot), (3) School or university sport, (4) Civil sport. The Tirs exercises system was divided into four groups: a) exercises without requisites; b) exercises using the requisites; c) group exercises; d) combat exercises.

17 these troubled times of the 21st century, there is a physical exercise that is organized on the ideas of the ethnocentrism.

The theory of egocentrism.

The theory of egocentrism. This theory’s development is based on man's quest to build his personality by emphasizing his ego, his identity. And he puts in the foreground his ultimate individualism. In sport, as one of the areas of physical education which relies (as opposed to the physical education and recreation) on the agon, fight, competition, man finds the ability to express his individuality. This is why sport (along with other, primarily political and economic reasons) has experienced a great expansion. During the 19th century a specific system of games and sports began to exist in England. This system has been specifically accepted in so-called public schools20. It has spread throughout the British Empire and even beyond its borders. Activities were different, but there stood out - the virtuosity of glory, fair play, dignity, individual effort and courage. A lot of credit for the development of school sport, which is the basis for the so-called civic sport, belongs to Thomas Arnold21, the priest, educator and administrator of the Rugby College, and his followers, above all, Thomas Hughes22. In the continental part of Europe, at that time the ethnocentric approach to physical exercise dominated. However, in the late 19th century (in 1884) Pierre de Coubertin23 visited England,

20 The development of sport is very distinctive. After the English bourgeois revolution, the new social relations resulted in the class compromise of the English aristocracy and bourgeoisie, both at the political and the economic levels. This was reflected in physical education, too and as a product of that compromise a modern sport was created. It was created by merging some forms of physical exercise and games favorite to the nobility (riding, fencing, hunting, swimming) and the folk forms of competition (running, wrestling, pugilism, rowing). 21 Thomas Arnold (1795–1842) as a director of the college in Rugby, while watching children's sporting events, realized and understood their significance for the education of children. Therefore, they were included in the school curriculum. The motto of Thomas Arnold was to educate the Christians - gentlemen. Self-improvement was something that represented a key education, which had resulted in the creation of pedagogical system based on freedom. And in all this sporting competitions had played an important role. 22 Thomas Hughes has as the successor of the ideas of Thomas Arnold, founded the movement "Muscular Christian youth" (1842). Thus, sport helped young people to recognize the act of freedom in the true sense of the word. 23 Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), has by his enthusiasm, work and his own money managed to realize one for a long time present idea of restoring the ancient Olympic Games.

18 there he got familiarized with the sports games and, after returning to France, started propagating sport. It was fruitful and in 1896 in Athens (Greece) the first new Olympic Games were held. Today, sport is experiencing a large and rapid development and is present in all parts of the world.

The theory of anthropocentrism

The theory of anthropocentrism was established on the philosophical worldview believing that man is the center of the world and the ultimate purpose of its development. This theory unifies all the previous theories of development: ethnocentrism, biocentrism and egocentrism. Its main features are: 1. Development of physical abilities and health, 2. Increase in social development (progress) 3. Improving the level of knowledge and skills in sports and games, 4. Development of leading capabilities and increasing opportunities for the cooperation with others, 5. Development of broad-based recreational skills, especially for leisure time during the holidays.

These characteristics of the anthropocentristic approach to physical exercise, although at first glance recognizable, represent a distillate of the new desires and thoughts about the necessity of human health and happiness. In doing so, it is suggested that these two postulates, health and happiness are something that is a necessity and purpose of man and that any form of the physical exercise should comply with it. Of course, there is omitted closer defining not only of health but also of happiness, but is associated with the society in which human rights and freedom are achieved. And accordingly, this philosophy of physical exercise first appeared in Scandinavia and North America. In the second half of the 20th century O. Åstrand24 and K. Cooper25, each in their own way,

24 Per-Olof Åstrand (1922–2015) had his research studies which were basically the interval method, in his later works, in the mid eighties of the 20th century, completely rejected and

19 developed a program of physical exercise having primarily in mind the needs of man. Later Jane Fonda26 has developed special programs for women. Today these ideas are present in the form of (different) fitness programs.

The theory of theo-anthropocentrism.

The theory of theo-anthropocentrism is the youngest among the theories of the physical education development. It is considered to be the youngest not due to the time of its philosophy originating, but because of the time of its presence in our profession, and that is the end of the 20th and the beginning of the 21st century. In this theory of the physical education development (physical education and sport) one starts from the basic assumptions that: a) a man is approached cautiously as if by "pigeon legs", and b) that physical exercise is a wholesome food, primarily for the physical part of his being. This is a theory that provides one more humane agon within the frame of the Orthodox anthropology. This Christ-centrism allows a Godman centric approach, in which God and man are in the center, in the embrace of the eternal love and community. This approach reminds us that school as a place to acquire new knowledge and skills, is not composed of the the walls and classrooms, but of those who are in it: the teachers and students. And they, as the central beings of all created, may only be the personalities in the community with another personality. For without such a community there is no the first nor any other personality, and there is not one thing that goes with the personality which is freedom. Freedom, of course, implies an obligation arising out of it, that everything is done for the well-being of the man himself. Thus, one should take account of the duration of the physical exercise (scope), as well as the load of the physical exercise (intensity).

replaced with the idea that man needed physical activity during the day, for 30 minutes, in the various combinations of time intervals. 25 Kenneth H. Cooper (1931) had by his research established a system of physical exercise which is known as Aerobics. He, like Åstrand, had based his system on 10,000 steps in a day. His ideas are now used in many fitness centers. 26 Jane Fonda (1937) a film actress who aimed her exercise programs at women had made a turning point in relation to the style of exercise and attitude of women towards their physical appearance. She had developed a special program known as Aerobic exercise for women.

20 Knowing that the food (physical exercise) is varied and that it is useful in optimal quantities (volume and intensity of exercise), it is offered to man with love. And to the posed questions of how and, above all, why exercise, the answer is sought in the very being of man and his need for this kind of food as well.27 In doing so, one does not forget that it is necessary to each and all (Urbi et Orbi), which is, in fact, in the very center of this theory. Representatives of this theory are Nenad Zivanovic28 and Zoran Milosevic.29

Current time

Modern civilization resting on the neoliberal concept of organizing the overall social life, with the Darwinist direction, faces a major challenge. During decades long efforts it has managed to incorporate in most people the guiding principles - only present is what is important and what matters. Other time categories, such as past and future are wiped out. In such circumstances one must observe our profession as well. Physical education and sport30 today can be seen not only as an organic whole, but also as the two separate and, unfortunately, absolutely independent units. And this requires careful considerations about our profession. Sport31 has particularly in its professional and elite parts, completely rejected its old attributes (health, education, socialization) and accepted the new ones (result and profit). When talking about sport (elite and professional), one can no longer talk

27 The words of the Apostle Paul addressed at the weaken Corinthians: "I have the right to do anything, but not everything is beneficial. I have the right to do anything—but I will not be mastered by anything." (I Cor. 6, 12). 28 Nenad Zivanovic (1946), University of Nis, Serbia. 29 Zoran Milosevic (1962), University of Novi Sad, Serbia. 30 Terms which combine and contain physical education and sport, were different at different times, and in different social environments. From the Renaissance to the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century were dominated by the terms: the body exercise and gymnastics, and in England sport. Later, the other two terms were crystallized from which the organizational structure of our specialized field drew, as well as theoretical and practical work, namely: physical education and sport 31 We recall of the classification of sport specific to the target sports: School sport - Registered sport – Recreational sport Registration sport is divided into: amateur, top and professional sports. (According to: Nenad Zivanovic, et al., Theory of Physical Education. Nis, Panopticon, 2010, p.

21 about health, education, socialization, but solely in terms of the results and profits, that is, in terms of its political and economic utilitarianism. No longer are the ideas and messages of the Pennsylvanian bishop Etelberto Talbot valid, as he instructed the participants of the Olympics in London in 1908 – It is not important to win, it is important to take part. Now, in accordance with the ideas of the neoglobalistic New Age, there is one rule that is valid and is assuming the level of the legal norms. This rule, established in the mid-80s of the 20th century, says “It is not important to participate, it is important to win”. And to win at any cost32 With this type of a guiding principle it is not difficult to explain and understand the emergence of the new cults: the cult of the body, the cult of sports results and the cult of profit33. Amateur sport34 has, to a lesser extent, accepted the new attributes of sport. It is fully compliant with the New Era, because the athletes involved in the amateur sport inherit the values of the modern civilization. And the higher the level of the amateur sport, the more pronounced this acceptance is. But in its lower segments (sports clubs in small towns and rural areas), it has retained to a greater extent, the old attributes of sport and these should be nurtured and encouraged. School sport35 is the only link between the physical education and sport. This fact is not at all encouraging, but we must accept it and make sure it stays that way. On our work depends whether we manage to keep current title school sport. There are numerous attempts to establish the term sport in school. Such efforts are reflecting not only the desire to come to the terminology changes,

32 After an ominous wave of sports violence of the 80s of the 20th century, we are witnessing new outbursts of violence in all its forms. Fights of the athletes, fights of the fans, murder of fans (Istanbul 2014), provocations at the football stadiums (Belgrade, London, ..., 2014), all of it foretells, as well as the late 20th century, the coming evil times. In doing so, obscene and hypocritical explanations of these events indicate that the present civilization recognizes only - the current time and the Darwinian concept of competition. 33 More on this in: Nenad Zivanovic, Apology of physical exercise. Nis, Panopticon, 2011. 34 Amateur sport, as one of the segments of the registered sport, with excellent and professional, very often is treated as a recreational sport. Between them there is not only a terminological but also the conceptual difference already, and it should be taken into account during each expert analysis. 35 School sport, by its very terminological definition, by its attribute – school puts emphasis on education. And until it does, and while sport in school term does not prevail, there is still hope that the sports competitions in school have a primary goal - education, rather than - (exclusively) sports scores. And that children’s school sports dreams and sports competitions would represent one nice part of their childhood and youth.

22 but also to the conceptual ones. And that would be disastrous for us all. Because if we say - sport in school, this means that in this phrase emphasis is placed on the attribute sport. This inevitably entails cruel clear fact - that we will have in school sport with all of its particularly negative, characteristics. Let us mention only one of them, and it is – to achieve the result at any cost. If we let the result be the primary goal and do everything for its realization, then the school and its role in education of the young people will turn into a service station of the registered sport. This is not just an ominous assumption, but a harsh reality that we face. The cure for this terrible disease are certainly the new humanists and teachers who love man, but the man who has the personality - one, unique and unrepeatable. Physical education and its very name suggests that through physical exercise as the beneficial food, we build up the personality of all our students. In addition, relying on the Orthodox Christian anthropology and ethics derived from it, we know that only through love I am what I am (O. Justin Popovic). Therefore, if we know that, we will not be the teachers who will go in for the idea of this New World and regard our student as an object, commodities to be exploited to achieve our own goals, but we should observe him as a personality, unique and unrepeatable. We know that in this given freedom lies our responsibility. This responsibility makes quite comprehensive the Orthodox Christian understanding of freedom, which is reflected in the self-restrain for the sake of the others (Solzhenitsyn). And in this effort to see others besides himself, the man is realized as a person. Certainly, it is not an easy task at all, not only to understand but also to perform, but we should head on in that direction. Our teacher, educator and expert ( in this very order) loves his students and strives to be the Anatoly - their light and the light of our profession as well. He makes effort because he knows that one educates with love and by setting personal example - role model. This is how we observe physical education, and the book in front of you talks about it.

23 ALBANIA

A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE ORGANIZATION AND FUNCTIONING OF THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION SYSTEM IN ALBANIA

Juel Jarani, Faculty of Movement Sciences, Sports University of Tirana Florian Muca, Tirana International School Ilir Dojka Dean Qefalia Andi Spahi, Faculty of Physical Activity and Recreation, Sports University of Tirana

Correspondence Juel Jarani [email protected] Phone: 00355672120239

Abstract

During the Albanian kingdom period it is hard to come by information on the organization and functioning of the physical education system in schools and organized activities in the leisure time or participation in sport activities. In the beginning of the communist era there was the influence from eastern countries and after the parting from eastern influence it was succeeded from the Chinese influence. Analyzing this period it could be said that the political influence (from the communist party) had a major influence in the primary targets of physical education. In post communist era (democratic period) physical education system during has gone through phases of changes concerning the structure of class distribution, years of study and almost the same division of disciplines of the subject. Academic term of 2014-2015 is the most valuable reform in physical education where in every study cycle physical education is 3 times per week with duration of 45 minutes per each class and taught by physical education teacher.

24

Keywords; physical education, children, communist period, school level

Literature Review

This research is focused on the organization and functioning of physical education in Albania during three different periods taking into account also the establishment of the Albanian government including: the Albanian kingdom period, the communist period and the democratic period (post-communist era). The first period includes 1909-1939 and it is divided in two parts: the first part is 1909-1927 and the second part 1928-1939 (the monarch regime). For the collection of materials it was used the database at the library of Sport University of Tirana especially regarding gathering data for the communist period using as a reference, the newspaper of that time named “Popular Sport”. It was used data from different publication from the Ministry of Education and periodical information from Pedagogical Institutes in Albania.

The first period 1909-1939

The first period includes 1909-1939 and it is divided in two parts: the first part is 1909-1927 and the second part 1928-1939 (the monarch regime)

First part (1909- 1927)

During this period it is hard to come by information on the organization and functioning of the physical education system in schools and organized activities in the leisure time or participation in sport activities. In this period there were only voluntary sporting activities. There were only some sporting clubs, which are considered to be the first organizations (cells) of voluntary sportive activities in Albania (before the 1912 invasion of the Ottoman Empire). Such organization of these activities continues nowadays retaining the same features ever since the declaration of Independence (1912) until the monarch regime (1928). During

25 1909—1927 there was an organized establishment of sport clubs and sporting associations spread across the country which represented the structures for physical education sporting organization in Albania. During 1909 it was established the very first sports team in Shkodra named “Independence” (Indipendenca) as well as the first sport association named “Vllaznia”, and during the same time, in Korça was established “Vllazëria” sport association. Until 1928 many sports clubs were established such as “Sport Club Vlora”,”Sport Club Tirana” which was founded in 1927 thanks to a significant contribution from Selman Stërmasi, also sport clubs “Atdheu” and “Adriatiku” were founded in Durres and Kavaja as well as sport club “Tomorri” in Berat (1).

Second part (1928-1939; the monarchic regime in Albania)

This period was closely linked with the drafting of the Albanian constitution in 1928 which established the monarchic regime in Albania and marks the beginning of the state sporting organization in a well-defined governmental structure. During 1929 (in 2 September) the national sporting body “Djelmnia Shqiptare” was established and officially acknowledged by the government structures. Such entity had as primary aim the physical, moral and paramilitary training culture of Albanian youth (2). This is also the year when for the first time was established a person responsible for sporting activities called “Physical Education Inspector” who was later appointed in all municipalities of Albania (1; 2). A year later (1930) the Ahmet Zogu (King of the Albania) government seeing the ongoing sporting activities in the country, issued a decree in 6 June for the foundation of the Albanian Sports Federation, a structure within the national sporting body “Djelmënia shqiptare” to bring in more sporting youth and regulate the organization of national and international sporting events. In every municipality center were established regional sporting associations which were directly depend from the federation. The sporting activity of the Federation was divided in three main categories: sports games, athletics and other sports (swimming, cycling, boxing and wrestling). On 13 August 1935 in Tirana was founded the Sports and Arts Federation “Vllaznia Shqiptare” serving as chairman the

26 Education minister Dr.Mirash Ivanaj who stressed the importance of physical education in schools (1). It is worth mentioning that in this period in order to help children’s physical education several additional materials (manuals) were produced containing different types of exercises. One of these manuals was composed of seven types of exercises helping children with morning exercises (3). This manual was translated from German (1935) from a gymnastic seminar for primary schools led by Dr. Sippel, a physical education lecturer from university of Berlin. In the following paragraph it will be shown the purpose of this material as well as focusing on body esthetics and body strengthening aiding human health; “……...Every morning when I get up I jump off the bed and go to wash my whole body using cold water and then I rub it off with a towel. Then I open the windows and start my physical exercises. I breathe in. I breathe using my nostrils as if smelling a flower and breathe out from my mouth as if blowing fire …….” This material was also illustrated by means of figures explaining to children the differences between those who exercised during the morning and those who didn’t use this manual; “... Thus is the face of the boy who gets up in the morning 5 minutes early and exercises (Fig 1) and thus is the other boy who slept 5 minutes more and did not do any exercise” (Fig 2)

In order for the demonstration to be as interesting as possible the author, besides the illustrations using figures he uses animal names comparisons for the exercises for example; “ ….we walk like monkeys (exercise 5 in the manual); ...... can you walk

27 using both your feet and hands as the boy in the picture? The boy in the picture couldn’t do these as well. He could not bend over and touch the ground with his fingers. But within 14 days he could do this exercise……. “ (Fig 3 and 4).

Communist period 1940-1990

The ideological-political education of the generations

During the communist era, for the young generation physical education, preparing for work and for defense was a matter of great political and ideological importance. We can quote a paragraph where such ideological and political views are stated quite clearly; ... nowadays the issue of physical education of the working class and in particular the youth presents a great challenge. The aggressive intentions of the American imperialists who are aided by the modern revisionists, their continuous conspiracies against our country call for every town, every boy or girl to strengthen their body to bravely protect the fatherland and the revolutionary cause against every enemy…….. (4). The ASAU (Albanian Sportsmen and Athletes Union) and all sports as well as all other areas in life were linked closely to politics. In the beginning there was the influence from eastern countries and after the parting from eastern influence it

28 was succeeded from the Chinese influence where one of the measures taken was the abolishment of boxing as a sport (1). Improving the ideological and political work of all sportsmen presented a significant task for all AWYU (Albanian Working Youth Unions) associations as well as all physical education departments. The main goal during this period was having young educated and capable sportsmen, able to protect the fatherland (4). During 1969 the existing elementary school programs apart from all visible improvements went through major changes by combining physical education with military exercises (5). Analyzing this period it could be said that the political influence (from the communist party) had a major influence in the primary targets of physical education; ….. the party and the people’s power from the beginning gave a fair assessment to physical education as a structural part of the communist education of workers as well as giving the country what it deserves without holding anything back ………(6). The same logic was used for having a good health and readiness at work as well as for defense; ...... the party has instructed and ordered for all our physical education system and the entire physical-sporting activity to be firmly structured within the party’s ideology and to be developed focusing on the masses (7). During this period it could be said that besides physical education in schools have existed several types of organizations of children’s physical education and sporting activities such as: schools organization of sporting classes system (these will be explained in details further on), sporting activities for children in towns (within an apartment building/Pioneer’s home), organized sporting summer activities as well as sports tournaments (massive and qualitative sports activities which have taken place only after liberation of the country and included several types of sports)

Physical education system

During communist regime the physical education system in primary education schools (grades 1-8) for ages 6-14 and secondary education schools/high schools (grades 1-4) for ages 15-18 took place twice a week with duration of 45 minutes/ class. Teaching of first grade to fourth grade pupils was carried out by one general teacher physical education for grades 4-12 including high school was

29 carried out by a PE specialized teacher. During 1973-1983 there was a national unification of the educational syllabus of physical education in all Albanian education institutions. After 1983 the program comprising different disciplines was carried out according to the conditions of the schools in different towns. Till 1974, the main physical education institution which helped improving PE comprised: the PE committees, educations departments, sports clubs, schools headmasters offices and qualified sportsmen (8). The link between physical education and health has always been a cornerstone of a healthy living from childhood as well as an inseparable part of education during the communist period. In an article of 1989 (9) in “Sporti Popullor” gazette it is mentioned and stressed the significant role of school in pupils and in their physical education preparation which leads to the development of permanent health stability. Regarding the pupil’s activities beyond school or physical education in school we can quote the following article; .... nowadays more than ever before it is required from the pupil, the citizen or the cooperative worker to be educated with regular sporting activities and sports in his present conditions, not only by participating in a single football, basketball or volleyball match but in gymnastics, athletics, marching, walking as well. Everything is based upon in the dynamics of PE teachers, in their abilities to come up with new ways to make sports as massive as possible, to infuse pupils the concept that taking up sports is not a waste of time, it is gained time because in this way health is better, society improves, life is better….. (9). Organizations which dealt with monitoring and organizing activities in schools set up different meetings and conferences where they draw conclusions which in turn were put into practice from regional units such as: .....conclusion from the 5-th National ASAU (Albanian Sportsmen and Athletes Union) Conference “a major change needs to be implemented in our school, to transform the school into a genuine sporting center and a place where school will imbue the youth the education of actively and permanently taking up sports aiming at raising the general physical education level in all schools” ….. (10).

30 Recreational Activity Classes – Sports

During this period in schools were set up sport classes in two study cycles starting from third grade (different sport disciplines organized in activity classes both for the primary education schools system for pupils aged 6-14 and the high-school/secondary education system for pupils aged 15-18 years). Such classes were established according to the geographical location of the schools and represented sport clubs in sport activities such as: in athletics: in Tirana – “Qemal Stafa” high-school represented Tirana’s sport club, “Petro Nini Luarasi” high school Dinamo sports club and “Partizani” high school represented Partizani sport club. Sport clubs carried out further selection of sportsmen and at the same time gave didactical aid and sports materials. Every academic year in primary and high- schools there was a selection of a sport class which was taught as PE subject/sports three times per week with duration of 90 minutes/class (once a week in the morning and twice a week in the afternoon). During 1984-1986 there was a significant reduction of the quality of sport classes in different sporting activities as well as its support with materials and didactical aid. In 1989 throughout the country were functioning 4668 sport classes in 10 types of sports and in which took part 14000 pupils (11) such as: in Tirana there were schools such as “Shkolla E kuqe”, “Emin Duraku” in basketball, “29 Nentori” in volleyball, “Naim Frasheri” in gymnastics (11).

Pioneers home organization

In the framework of the development of sporting activities it is worth mentioning activities organized in towns such as: the Pioneers home organization which organized different sporting activities with children from schools, alleys, streets of the capital during summer vacations where the children from different neighborhoods were enlisted with their respective teams (12). The championship organization involving wide participation was generally carried out from: pioneer sporting centers and physical education committee of the district, which dealt with improving work methods and forms of organization so that a higher number of children (first grade - fourth grade) and pioneers (grades 5-8) would be involved in sporting activities every day and physical education

31 (exercises). These activities were organized between different classes and were based on a drafted calendar from the pioneer home organization and PE committee such activities included: organized activities during 1969 year; .....pioneer home organization in the capital welcomes and sees off every day hundreds of children. In the Pioneer home train regularly twice a week 32 groups in 8 different disciplines-athletics, acrobatics, tourism, basketball, volleyball, football and tennis..... (13).

Sport tournaments

Once every four years sports tournament were held beginning from schools level and furthering into team level in town’s sporting activities (qualitative and quantitative sporting activities were held only after the liberation of the country and it included many disciplines). The goal of sport tournaments was increasing sport participation and discovering and maintaining young athletes with perspective in different types of sports including athletics, gymnastics, volleyball, basketball and football (15). Such sporting organizations were held also in honor of different commemorative occasions such as with the 1964 tournament where (citing);.... in Tirana (the capital of Albania) were held the liberation tournament games (year 1964), which marks the first phase of the sporting activity between schools organized in honor of the great jubilee- the 20 anniversary of the liberation of the country and the 350 anniversary of the establishment of Tirana.... (15). The first tournament for pioneers was held on 20-25 July in 1957, at “Qemal Stafa” pioneers’ residential home in Durres, in 9 types of sports with the participation of 586 pupils (376 boys and 210 girls) from 11 districts. The different disciplines have changed with each year from 9 types in 7, 6 and 5 types of sports these few last years. The biggest attendance was during 11-th Tournament in 1974 with 1384 pioneers participating. The types of sports activities have complied with the respective federation rules. Local and national tournaments are held in two days consecutively. In the preparation of priority sports such as basketball, volleyball etc. there is a chain system used along with sport classes and pioneers organizations whereas for other sports entering the tournament there were no such systems (14).

32

Democratic system period (post-communist era) 1990- 2015

Physical education system during this period has gone through phases of changes concerning the structure of class distribution, years of study and almost the same division of disciplines of the subject. Until 2010 the physical education system hasn’t seen any substantial changes (19) as far as subject matter, school cycle divisions or the duration of physical education classes (Fig 5 and 6). Prior to this period the division has been almost the same with the communist era where physical education was held twice a week with duration of 45 minutes for each class. Later such structure (division of school years and teaching) went through significant changes. The 2010-2011 curriculums went through some changes as far as the distribution of physical education classes in particular the Secondary low cycle where PE subject was divided in two curricula: the core curriculum and the free-choice curriculum.

1. Core curriculum/ obligatory (grade 10- 2 times per week; grade 11- 1 time per week; grade 12-0 times per week) 2. Free-choice curriculum(grade 10-1 time per week;grade11- 1 time per week; grade 12-1 time per week)

During this period it is evident that there is a decrease of classes in the weekly course schedule for physical education as far as secondary education.

33

The content (academic year/terms 1996-2000) of disciplines according to the program as well as the distribution table of classes (16; 17; 18) along the many years has remained almost the same. Below it is displayed the program content disciplines;

1. Knowledge of physical education (during the teaching process) 2. Popular games (during the teaching process) 3. Skills and basic motor activities ( division according to grade)

34 4. Manipulative movement skills (division according to grade) 5. Rhythmic dancing (division according to grade) 6. Sporting motor skills; free-choice depending on the conditions and resources of the schools (basketball, volleyball, handball, athletics, gymnastics, skiing, football)

The content of disciplines according to the program as well as the distribution table of classes (19) for grade VI (academic year 2005-2006). Distribution of classes according to the content was carried out in accordance with the real conditions of sporting grounds, sporting materials as well as geographical location of the school.

PE Disciplines contents; 1. Knowledge of physical education (during the teaching process) 2. Basic motor movements 3. Manipulative movement skills with and without the use of tools 4. Motor skills games 5. Rhythmic dancing 6. Gymnastics 7. Volleyball 8. Athletics 9. Football 10. Basketball 11. Badminton 12. Ping-Pong 13. Handball The 2014 year is a golden period for physical education and is the most valuable reform from the Albanian Ministry of Education and Sports, including 3 times per week obligatory PE classes taught by physical education teacher.

35 Conclusion

During the Albanian kingdom period it is hard to come by information on the organization and functioning of the physical education system in schools and organized activities in the leisure time or participation in sport activities. In this period there were only voluntary sporting activities. During the communist era, for the young generation physical education, preparing for work and for defense was a matter of great political and ideological importance. Analyzing this period it could be said that the political influence (from the communist party) had a major influence in the primary targets of physical education. Physical education system during democratic period (post communist era) has gone through phases of changes concerning the structure of class distribution, years of study and almost the same division of disciplines of the subject. Academic term of 2014-2015 is the most valuable reform in physical education where in every study cycle physical education is 3 times per week with duration of 45 minutes per each class.

36 REFERENCES

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(2) Dizdari, B (2012) Themelimet e mëdha të sportit shqiptar në 100 vjet Gazeta Panorama Sport 28.10.2012 Tiranë http://www.panorama-sport.com/opinion/themelimet-e-medha-te- sportit-shqiptar-ne-100-vjet/#ixzz3NmKdëDLm

(3) Gogo, G (1935) Ushtrohem çdo mëngjez. Ushtrime gjimnastike dhe këshilla (për nxënësit e shkolllave fillore, djem), marrë nga seminari në gjimnastika për shkolla fillore prof.dr Sippel i shkollës së lartë të edukatës fizike dhe të lartë në Berlin. Minerva, Tiranë

(4) Sporti Popullor (1967) Për një zhvillim të mëtejshëm të fiskulturës e sporteve në masat e rinisë. 13.6. 1967; fq 4

(5) Sporti Popullor (1969) Mendime të mësuesve të edukimit fizik. 21.1.1969; fq 3.

(6) Maçi, E (1969). Masave punonjëse dhe rinisë u janë krijuar kushte shumë të mira për edukimin fizik. Sporti Popullor; 18.11.1969, fq 4

(7) Marko, A (1969). Kultura Fizike është kthyer në një lëvizje të gjerë massive në luftë me prapambetjen dhe konceptet e huaja Sporti Popullor; 11.11.1969, fq 4

(8) Sirinxhi, N (1974). Puna me masat e fëmijëve dhe me shkollat sportive është detyrë e përhershme Gazeta “Sporti Popullor:. 29.1.1974, fq 3

(9) Sporti Popullor (1989). Sa e rrënjos shkolla te rinia edukatën fizike për tu marrë përhere me sport; 3.1.1989, fq 2.

(10) Methasani, D (1989). Veprimtaritë sportive me nivel u përgjigjen kërkesave të nxënësve; Dibër. Gazeta “Sporti Popullor:. 9.1.1989, fq 2.

37 (11) Sporti Popullor (1989). Shkolla dhe ushtria qëndra të zhvillimit të kulturës fizike e sporteve; 1.4.1989, fq 2.

(12) Domini, A (1969) Qendër e kalitjes dhe edukimit fizik të fëmijëve; Sporti Popullor 21.1.1969, fq 2

(13) Vasjari, F (1969). Fiskultura dhe sporti në jetën e përditshme të fëmijëve. Sporti Popullor; 7.1.1969, fq 4

(14) Hatibi, B (1989). Si mund të zhvillohen spartakiadat? Mendime, problem. Gazeta “Sporti Popullor; 23.1.1989, fq 2.

(15) Sporti Popullor (1964). Rreth 600 nxënës në aktivitet; 20.10.1964, fq 3

(16) Ministria e Arsimit (1996). Programi i edukimit fizik për klasat V-VIII të shkollës 8 vjeçare

(17) Ministria e Arsimit (1996). Programi i edukimit fizik për shkollat e mesme

(18) Instituti i studimeve pedagogjike (2000). Programet e shkollës 8 vjeçare, klasat V-VIII

(19) Instituti i kurrikulave dhe standarteve (2005). Programe lëndore, shkolla 9 vjeçare, klasa VI.

38 CROATIA

HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN CROATIA

Dario Škegro, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb Zrinko Čustonja, Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb

Correspondence Dario Škegro [email protected] Phone: +38513658666

Introduction

Roots of physical education in Croatia go back in the middle of the 19-th century. Political situation in Croatia at that time was complicated. Croatia was under the Habsburg Empire until 1967 when Austro-Hungarian Empire was founded. The beginnings of physical education as non-compulsory subject are related to Istrian and Dalmatian area, which were under the Austrian ruling. The non- compulsory subject named in various terms begun to conduct in schools of Istria and Dalmatia in 1848. (Čustonja & Jajčević, 2004) Due to the political context this was the year of revolution in Hungary and the beginning of development of Croatia as modern society. In Istrian and Dalmatian schools physical education became obligatory subject in 1868 as in Austria. Three years later, in 1871 physical education becomes obligatory in Croatian Military Border due to the need to educate soldiers in strengthening, fencing and swimming. (Jajčević, 2010). Finally in 1874 Physical education was introduced in Croatian civil (middle-class, lower secondary school or higher elementary school) and plebeian (early) elementary school curricula in the Kingdom of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia. This was how the development of physical education in Croatia started. After more than 20 years of unsuccessful trials physical education classes as obligatory subject was implemented in schools in all of the triune Kingdom of Croatia (Janković, 1954).

39 After introduction of physical education as compulsory subject in school curricula new problem rise up. There were no educated personnel for conducting physical education classes and there was urgent need for organization of courses to resolve this trouble mater. Courses for conducting physical education classes were held in 1875, 1877, 1878 and 1880 in Zagreb and two were held in Velika Gorica in 1878 and Osijek in 1880. One of the most important moments in history of physical education in Croatia is organization of “Course for gymnastic teachers” organized and managed by Franjo Bučar “father of sport in Croatia” in Zagreb from 1894 till 1896. Besides Mr. Bučar there are few more important persons that affected development of physical education in Croatia such as Fridrich (Miroslav) Singer, Andrija Hajdinak and Frantisek Hochman. Great impact on development of physical education in Croatia had Croatian Sokol movement. Due to the fact that Croatian Sokol was founded in 1874, the same year that physical education became obligatory subject in Croatian schools; its role in establishing Croatian physical education system was inevitable. The aim of this paper is to give an overview of events and important activities in development of physical education in Croatia. Roots and beginnings of physical education are correlated with other social and political factors of that time. But at the end, despite the fact that Croatia lived in dynamic and complicated political ambience it is necessary to conclude that system of physical education in Croatia followed trends of development of PE in Europe at that time.

Attempts to introduce Physical Education in Croatia

There are few findings (Čustonja & Jajčević, 2003; Čustonja & Jajčević, 2004; Čustonja & Mavrek, 2004; Bobić & Čustonja, 2005) that point out that phenomenon of physical exercise of school children has been present in Croatia since 1797 when the decision of Zagreb County by which public works were approved to build playgrounds for “recreationi iuventutis scholastiea” (recreation of the school youth) was made. However, there is no evidence or any detailed explanations on the background of this Decision but it can be concluded that this was very progressive attitude on exercise (physical education) at that time in Croatia because there was only

40 few people in Croatia that were involved in physical exercise. At that time the Kingdom of Croatia was under the state-constitutional relationship with the Habsburg Empire (since 1527 till 1867). “Ratio educationis” was document from 1777 that defined educational system of the empire and later there were two more documents in form of decree named “Ratio educationis publicae” from 1806 and “Systema scholarum elementarium” from 1845. These documents did not address physical education in any way. It is important to mention that this period was also time of beginning of development of sport in Croatia. In 1784 and two years later, in 1786 first sport organizations were established The Osijek Civil Shooting Society and The Zagreb Civil Shooting Society. The origins of oldest records on organized physical education classes are from the Croatian Military Border dated from 1828 when Austrian, German and Czech gymnastic teachers educated “strong youngster” in military exercise on German gymnastic system principals.

Picture 1: Ratio Educationis (source: google.com)

The proposal of the law on education, “Basics of Principal Rules for Public Instruction in Croatia and Slavonia” (“Osnove temeljnih pravila javnog obučavanja za Hrvatsku i Slavoniju”) was first serious attempt to organize an advance education in Civil Croatia in 1848. The committee appointed by Croatian Parliament had the task to prepare a proposal of the law which will regulate the schooling system in the Civil Croatia. The result of the committees work is earlier mentioned „Basics“(Cuvaj, 1910). According to the “Basics” physical education was supposed to be compulsory subject in elementary and secondary schools. However, the political

41 developments in 1948 and 1849, the revolution against Magyars and other political and social circumstances implementation of this law was never done. Nevertheless, the “Basics” from 1848 are the first so far known written source on compulsory PE teaching in the schools of the Civil Croatia. The education public criticized the proposed “Basics” severely, but no objection was registered for the concept of the PE (Cuvaj, 1910). It is not possible to recognize from the text of “Basics” how the implementation of physical education is supposed to be carried out. There is hypothesis that this proposal of law on education was made upon the role model of Prussian education law where compulsory physical education classes were introduced in 1842. Austria was the first of Habsburg Monarchy states that introduced physical education as non-compulsory subject in schools in 1848. The “Basics” were the first autonomous legislative attempt to organize schooling in Croatia (Bobić & Čustonja, 2005). Before the Croatian parliament was dissolved in 1861, three separate discussions regarding elementary, grammar and modern schools were recorded. These discussions resulted with proposition of the law where Physical education is compulsory subject in school curricula. Unfortunately, due to political reasons Habsburg emperor Francis Joseph I. decided to dissolve Croatian parliament and in that way introduction of physical education in Croatian schools in 1861 was disabled (Čustonja & Škegro, 2011). Similar attempt occurs in 1865. In October 1865 Franjo Rački, Croatian historian, politician and writer founded the Teachers’ Association in Zagreb, the first society of that kind in Croatia. Their main project was elaboration of the „Constitution of elementary school in the Triune Kingdom“(“Ustav pučke škole u Trojednoj Kraljevini”). Among other things, PE instruction was included in the list of the elementary school subjects. The longest and most detailed description of the planned PE instruction was described in this document. “The purpose of gymnastics in elementary school is strengthening of the body, development of movement agility, training of senses, proper body posture, exact assessment of resistance and strength needed, and skilful group routines. Not a definite number of hours has been allocated to gymnastics, but youngsters should exercise according to the circumstances – one or two hours every week outside the regular schedule. In rural communities gymnastic exercises consist of natural movements: running, jumping, jumping over, and racing in,

42 running, throwing, shooting, and climbing up and down, lifting, wrestling, and so on. Therefore, each school should have spacious playgrounds with trees on it, where children can play alone or under control of teachers. Only in the municipal higher elementary schools, if circumstances allow it, systematic gymnastics will be implemented. Wherever there are opportunities, the young should be instructed in swimming.” (Cuvaj, 1910) Unfortunately, “Constitution” was never adopted as law in Croatian parliament despite the fact that it was document with great support of professional public (Čustonja & Škegro, 2011).

First teachers of physical education in Croatia

Fridrich Singer was Austrian officer who was first teacher of physical education in Croatia. Later he changed his name to Croatian version Miroslav. Singer taught non-compulsory PE at the Lower Modern School in Croatian city Rijeka since May in 1855. His Austrian roots and education in German gymnastic system were good reference for his later advancement (Škegro & Čustonja, 2014). In 1857 Josip Premru, principal of one of the Zagreb High Schools decided to introduce non-obligatory classes of physical education in his school. His correspondence with military authorities, where he asked for physical education teacher recommendation, resulted with arrival of Adalbert Brüll in Zagreb to teach. Unfortunately, Adalbert Brüll stayed in Zagreb only for two months and then left this job probably because of low income and poor interest by students for physical education classes. After certain failure of first attempt to organize non-compulsory classes of physical education in Zagreb, earlier mentioned Josip Premru and Josip Torbar, principals of two Zagreb high schools, are writing to Miroslav Fridrich Singer inviting him to Zagreb to teach physical education (Cuvaj 1910). His arrival to Zagreb in 1859 was the beginning of serious development of physical education and kinesiology in Zagreb. He set first gymnasium for the physical education classes and for physical exercise in Zagreb in the Modern Secondary School. Low income forced him to live in a part of the gymnasium until his death on November 4, 1876. As stated previously work of Miroslav Singer was not important only in development of physical education but in

43 development of sport and exercise movement in Croatia in that time. His involvement in foundation of Croatian Sokol movement was very significant, due to the fact that Sokol movement in Croatia was main organization in gathering Croatian youth interested in physical exercise and sport. Singer’s role in Sokol movement was related to the fact that he was creator of the first rules in Sokol and also he was the first teacher of physical exercise in Sokol. The gymnasium where he teaches physical education was also playground for Sokol members and their activities. After Rijeka and Zagreb physical education as non-obligatory subject is present in schools in Zadar, Karlovac, Split, Varaždin, Rakovac and Samobor.

Introduction of Compulsory Physical Education in Croatia

Under the influence of social and political changes in Croatia at that time all the preconditions were fulfilled for the new stage of development in Croatian society. In 1868 Croatian – Hungarian settlement has been adopted. This document guarantied Croatian people autonomy in certain fields of governing. One of the areas of autonomy was domain of education so the Croatian – Hungarian settlement was sort of prerequisite for the new stage of development of Croatian educational system. Beginnings of education of trained personnel for conducting physical education classes in Croatia, as previously stated, are related to the year 1874. This was the year when the first law on education was adopted by Croatian Parliament. People’s party (Narodna stranka) won the elections in 1873 and its president Ivan Mažuranić (1814-1890) became, from 1973 till 1880 Croatian Ban, key political figure in country. His work was focused on development of Croatian society in cultural, governmental, educational and economical way. During April 1874, a conference was held on the reorganisation of elementary schools in Autonomous Banovina of Croatia, which was summond and presided personally by the Croatian Ban Ivan Mažuranić. On the basis of the proposal of the legislative foundation for establishment of plebeian (elementary) schools, made by the Principal of the Government Office for Religious Affairs and Teaching Pavao Muhić, PhD, and his counsellor Janko Jurković, the "Outline of the Law on Organisation of Plebeian Elementary Schools and Teacher Training Schools in the

44 Kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia" («Osnova zakona ob ustrojstvu pučkih škola i preparandija za pučko učiteljstvo u kraljevinah Hrvatskoj i Slavoniji») was prepared at the Conference. The Ban Ivan Mažuranić submitted the Outline to the Sabor in August 1874 (Cuvaj, 1910). On September 8, 1874, the Croatian Sabor passed, after vivid and substantial discussion, the Law on Organisation of Elementary Schools and Teacher Training Schools in the Kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia, and the Emperor Francis Joseph I. ratified the Law on October 14, 1874. It was the first law which regulated education in Croatia. Among other things, a four-year comprehensive, all-inclusive compulsory education was introduced, elementary schools became general and public, they were exempted from the church control, and the compulsory PE was introduced. The law in its integrity was evaluated as one of the most progressive law on elementary school in the then Europe (Ogrizović, 1989; Dumbović, 1999).

Picture 2: Law on Organisation of Plebeian Elementary Schools and Teacher Training Schools in the Kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia (source: google.com)

There were few problems in realization of adopted law especially in the field of physical education. There were only few

45 teachers of physical education in Croatia that could conduct physical education classes despite the fact that they did not have any education in that way. Other problems were professional literature, professional terminology adapted to Croatian language, lack of playgrounds, gymnasiums and appropriate equipment. Still the first and the biggest problem was chronic lack of educated personnel for conducting physical education classes. Croatian government tried to solve this problem by introducing physical education into curriculum of teacher training colleges so for the next three years students were educated in the field of physical education too. Beside this intervention, the period of three years to wait newly educated personel for physical education was to long for wait so there was another system of training for Physical education. Short training courses for the elementary school teachers that already taught at the schools. The same year when the law is adopted, Croatian Sokol is founded. Sokol was a citizen society for physical exercise. First teacher of exercise in Sokol was earlier mentioned Miroslav Fridrich Singer, the first teacher of physical education in Croatia. Therefore, he organised and was a teacher on two month course to educate next year teachers of physical education to be able to give instructions to children in that subject as well. They were supposed to perform various exercises in walking, running and jumping and also on apparatus like rings, bar, pole and rope. Despite the fact that students had just two months of practising, result were more than satisfactory. Beside physical exercise classes students had theoretical lectures as well. All of these information’s can be found in the Croatian Official Gazette, No. 172, from July 30, 1875 in the article titled “Physical exercise examination” (Radan, 1984). This was the first course for Physical education teachers in Croatia. Apart from Singer, there were several domestic enthusiasts, teachers of other subjects, who took their own initiative to gather pupils in their schools in free time and conduct exercise sessions, the most prominent among them being Andrija Hajdenjak. After the death of Miroslav Singer in 1876, František Hochman, of Czech origins, came to Zagreb to be appointed the Singer's successor as a teacher in the Croatian Falcon and in schools of Zagreb. With his arrival the Bohemian (Czech) gymnastic system replaced in Croatia the previously generally implemented German gymnastic system. F. Hochman, who brought

46 new élan and denoted a strong step forward in PE promotion, continued with PE training courses in order to qualify more persons for PE teaching in schools. So he started with organising a six-week course in winter of 1877 and a month-long course in summer of 1878 and continued with courses in the years to come. A course was held in Velika Gorica in 1877, and in Osijek in 1880 for teachers outside Zagreb. Together with A. Hajdenjak, F. Hochman started the first professional journal "Falcon" in 1878, which was being published for one year. In 1890 the journal "Gimnastika"/Gymnastics" was launched (Janković, 1954; Radan, 1970; Radan, 1984; Čustonja & Jajčević, 2003).

Picture 3: František Hochman (Source: Croatian sports museum)

It can be concluded that there was two parallel systems of physical education teachers training introduced in 1875. Short training courses for the elementary school teachers that already taught at the schools and introduction of Gymnastic as an obligatory course/subject at the teachers training colleges (Škegro & Čustonja, 2014). In the period from 1875 till 1880 six different courses was organized to fulfill the needs for educated personnel for physical education.

47

The two-year course for the secondary schools PE teachers in 1894–1896 – The first high school (college) of PE in Croatia

First training courses, held under the leadership of F./M. Singer and later F. Hochman, were scheduled for teachers with the plebeian (early elementary) and civil/ middle class (late elementary) schools. The act on the introduction of PE as a compulsory subject in secondary schools resulted in the increased needs for PE teachers. The Croatian Falcon took the responsibility to train expert teachers in the beginning and was granted a month lump sum from the Government as remuneration for the organization expenses and care. Yet, it had only short-term and temporary effects. Just a few persons were able, like Vladimir Novak, to participate in courses for PE teachers and to get their qualification abroad. Vladimir Novak was educated in Prague and, in fact, was one the first PE teacher with higher education diploma in Croatia who taught PE in cities of Split and Tuzla. He wrote several professional textbooks, among which "Short instruction on physiology of gymnastics" was published in Split in 1898 (Radan, 1984). Twenty years after the compulsory PE classes had been introduced into the Croatian elementary schools, Franjo Bučar (1866-1946), "a father of Croatian sport", entered the ‘historical arena’. His name was related to almost any significant event in the area of sport and Physical Education in Croatia from the end of the 19th century to the middle of the 20th century. He was the first Croat in the membership of the International Olympic Committee (1920- 1946).

48

Picture 4: Franjo Bučar (Source: Croatian sports museum)

In 1892 Professor Isidor Kršnjavi, Ph.D., the Principal (Minister) of the Department of Religious Affairs and Teaching of the Country Government of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia sent Franjo Bučar to Sweden for his education. The aim was to educate an expert who would be ready to transfer his knowledge to his compatriots. While Bučar was studying in Sweden, Prof. Kršnjavi was preparing the terrain for the introduction of the Swedish gymnastic system in Croatia. Namely, the then Croatian Vice-Roy Khuén Hédérvary considered the Swedish gymnastic system was neutral enough from the aspect of national feelings and it should, hopefully, decrease political influence of the Croatian Falcon and the Bohemian gymnastic system, soaked-through with national feelings, on the Croatian youth. Bučar’s noticeable role in the history of Croatian sport started in 1894 after he had returned from his two- year education at the Royal Central Gymnastic College in Stockholm (Sweden). Upon his return, Franjo Bučar got his first assignment – to organize and manage a two-year Course for Secondary School Gymnastic Teachers (1894-1896). In fact, it was the first high school (college) of PE in Croatia and in this region of Europe (Radan, 1984). The first idea of F. Bučar was a two-year training course for secondary school PE teachers in the form of a permanent university

49 course. The course was planned for those students that "study for teachers of secondary schools, like in Austria, Hungary and Germany, so that they enter such a biannual course, while they're at the university, where they, along with other subjects can listen gymnastics as well" (Bučar, 1896). Eventually it was decided that the first generation of the two-year course for PE teacher would be elementary school teachers who will be granted a permission to work as secondary school teachers of PE after their successful completion of that training course. About 60 elementary school teachers applied for the course and 30 of them were selected. Among them only one female applied and was selected. It was Ivana Hirschmann. All elementary school teachers were treated as full-time students and all of them received a sort of scholarship in a form of full elementary school teacher salary (Bučar, 1896). The curriculum and syllabus, devised by Franjo Bučar, were modern and comparable to any curriculum of the most popular European schools of the time. As role models Bučar used the similar course syllabuses from Stockholm (Sweden), Oslo (Norway), Copenhagen (Denmark), Berlin (Germany), Vienna (Austria) and Prague (Czech). The course started on October 1,, 1894. In the four- semester course thirty attenders took 16 theoretical and practical course subjects: Gymnastics (time allocation per week: 6 hours of exercise + 2 hours of theoretical classes), Sabre (5+1), Foil (3+1), History of Gymnastics (1), Seminar in Gymnastics (1), Practice – exercise with the secondary school students (3), Military Gymnastics (2), Anatomy and Physiology (3), First Aid (1), School Hygiene (1), Games (2), Ice Skating and Skiing (2), Fire-fighting (2), Swimming, Excursions and Dances (Bučar, 1896). In almost ideal conditions, provided by Isidor Kršnjavi, the Principal (Minister) of the Department of Religious Affairs and Teaching of the Government of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia, Bučar managed to incite interest of the Course attenders in many sports and games previously unknown in Croatia. Certain contents were taught and shown for the first time in Croatia, like football, figure skating, ice hockey, field hockey, skiing, sleighing, cricket, and fencing  foil. Simultaneously, the body of knowledge and skills was expanded on swordsmanship, tennis, exercises on apparatuses, cycling, athletics, bocce playing and other sport disciplines. During

50 the course over 80 games for children were demonstrated (Bučar, 1896). School practice was conducted during all semesters in Zagreb's secondary schools. First, student-teachers taught smaller classes and later the whole classes. History of PE was taught according to the Löffler’s book "Gymnastics for teachers and teacher trainees" and some foreign authors like Scheiner and Euler. At gymnastics seminars, the course participants were acquainted with the domestic and foreign literature.

Picture 5: Students and professors of the Course (Source: Croatian sports museum)

As Isidor Kršnjavi soon had to step down as head of the Department of Education and Religious Affairs, the duration of the course from the four planned was shortened to three semesters. The classes were delivered until March 25, 1896. On March 31st final exams were held. All attenders passed the final exam. They were trained in teaching PE in secondary schools. Seven of them were immediately appointed as teachers in secondary schools, while others were promised that they will be appointed later. Before he retired from his position, I. Kršnjavi provided budget funding for salaries of the seven new PE teachers, as well as support for the construction of new gymnastic halls and, for all the schools to which

51 new teachers were assigned, some basic equipment and supplies for games and fencing equipment. The course attenders passed the final examinations and as qualified PE teachers and professionals in sport returned to their hometowns. Although the Swedish gymnastic system was never officially introduced in the Croatian educational system and the Czech Sokol system remained predominant gymnastic system, "some Swedish equipment (ladders, benches) became regular equipment in Croatian schools’ gymnastic halls and also more attention was given to sports and sports games in school curricula" (Radan, 1970). The two-year course for PE teachers is very important in the historical development of PE in Croatia. One of the most important legacies of the Course lies in the fact that F. Bučar and Course attenders managed to increase very quickly the quality of PE and sport in Croatia. Credits goes to them and their efforts in promoting and improving reputation of sport, which resulted in not only inclusion of numerous sports and sporting games in the school curricula, but in the introduction of numerous sports to schools as extracurricular activities and in the establishment of first sport organizations. Unquestionable are credits to Franjo Bučar and contribution of for his contribution to the foundations of modern sport in Croatia. Kršnjavi introduced numerous measures to improve working conditions of PE teachers both in the elementary and secondary schools. He appointed Franjo Bučar the principal adviser on the construction and maintenance of gymnasia and playgrounds in Croatia. No new school could have been built without a gymnasium and playground. It was a legal obligation of financiers to provide construction of gymnasia and playgrounds according to the determined standards (1-2 m2 of the indoor and 4.5 m2 of the outdoor space per pupil) (Croatian Official Gazette, 1892). In several decades that were to come, the course attenders were, together with Franjo Bučar, the most agile participants and organizers of sporting events in Croatia while they were simultaneously performing their routine teaching tasks in schools across Croatia. The true social and historical value of the Course for the development of PE and sport in Croatia of the time can be seen in the fact that Isidor Kršnjavi, due to the political causes, but mostly due to the effects of the Course, was forced to resign from the

52 position of the principal of the Department of Religious Affairs and Teaching of the Country Government of Croatia, Slavonia and Dalmatia. His successor abolished any vocational training of PE teachers. Over 45 years should have passed and four systems of government should have been changed before PE teacher training was re-established in Croatia (Čustonja & Jajčević, 2003).

Physical education in Croatia in 20-th century

Despite the cancellation of the Course for the secondary school gymnastic teachers, its successes and achievements of the trained personnel aroused enormous interest of pedagogues and sport-related persons within and outside of Croatia. So, at the request of the Polish Falcon (Sokol) from Lavov, the Course of Swedish Gymnastics and Modern Sports for their front men was organized in Zagreb in 1902. Seventeen front men of the Polish Falcon (Sokol), under the leadership of the well-known Polish educator and gymnastic teacher Edmund Cenar, participated in an eight-day course. Sixteen attenders from Bulgaria, among which 9 women, participated in the similar course, organized by the Croatian Sokol in Zagreb in 1910. Franjo Bučar was the most prominent lecturer at the Course for Gymnastic Games, organized in Sarajevo in 1908, with more than 40 participants (Radan, 1984). However, these were sporadic, unsystematic and insufficient activities in the area of vocational training of personnel in PE and sport and they could not contribute considerably to stronger development of Croatian sport in the first half of the 20th century. The first trade organization for PE – the association of Gymnastic Teachers of Croatia and Slavonia – was established in Zagreb in 1896, with the purpose to protect interests of PE teachers. Franjo Bučar was the president of the Society Management Board. Two years later, in 1898, the Society for Physical Education was founded. Unfortunately, their activity had a small effect on practice and they made little progress. Yet, nothing could stop the fast growing popularity of modern sport. More and more sport clubs and associations of different sport disciplines were established. The Croatian Sport Association was founded in 1909. The situation did not change considerably after the First World War, breakdown of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy and

53 establishment of a new state – the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes, Later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. Compulsory PE was reintroduced in elementary and secondary schools in 1920 and there was again a shortage of qualified PE and sport personnel – the vocational training became a fundamental issue once more. Until 1941 PE training courses (Youth Games Course and Course for Games and Gymnastics) were being organized only from time to time, whereas most PE teacher training activities in Croatia between the two World Wars were related to regular front men courses in the Croatian Falcon until its abolishment in 1929. From 1927 a PE study was accessible for students enrolled in the University of Zagreb Faculty of Arts (Philosophy) as the Study Group C (Minor C). However, the issue of the high school of PE was perpetually on the agenda. For example, Franjo Bučar actualized the need to establish such an educational institution in 1919: «It is self-understanding that we would be soon forced to initiate immediate foundation of the Central Institute of Gymnastics in the Kingdom the purpose of which would be to assume responsibility to systematically and gradually train future PE teachers … the school should last two years or four semesters with the perspective to improve and expand to four years or 8 semesters … " (Franjo Bučar, Tjelesni odgoj u školi i sokolstvu. Sokolski glasnik, Zagreb, Vol. I/1919, p. 385, according to Radan, 1984.) The issue was also addressed at the I. Congress of the Association of Sport Federations in 1930 and several times later. Eventually, in 1940, a decree was issued on foundation of the High School of PE in Zagreb. The instruction began in March 1941. Unfortunately, winds of the Second World War interrupted work of the School in April of the same year (Radan, 1984). The Higher School of Physculture (physical culture, i.e. PE) was initiated immediately upon the ending of the Second World War in 1945, but was dissolved the next year. Instead of it the Secondary Physculture School was established in Zagreb in 1947. From the year 1948 higher education of personnel in PE and sport (two-year or associate degree) was organized at the Teacher Training College in Zagreb like a two-subject course of study. In 1959 it became a one subject two-year course of pre-professional study of physical education.

54 Physical education in Croatia today

The Institute of Physical Culture was established in Zagreb in 1952 to improve scientific and professional research in the field of PE and sport. But, several unsuccessful initiatives were launched before the Parliament of the Peoples Republic of Croatia passed the Law on the High School of Physical Culture in Zagreb on July 7, 1959. Thus, eighty-five years after the compulsory PE classes had been introduced in elementary schools of Croatia; the educational institution was eventually founded with the purpose to provide quality professional training for personnel in PE and sport. The teaching at the High School of Physical Culture started officially on November 3, 1959. There were 58 men and 16 women in the first generation of students. The part-time study for sports coaches (associate degree) was launched in the academic year 1965/1966. The study operated effectively until the 1998/1999 academic year when was transformed into the Coach Training and Education Department of the Social Sciences Polytechnics in Zagreb. On October 31, 1967, the High School (College) of Physical Culture was incorporated into the University of Zagreb. The postgraduate study programmes (Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy degrees) were launched at the High School in the 1971/1972 academic year. The High School of Physical Culture changed its name to the Faculty of Physical Culture (Education) University of Zagreb. By the decision of the University of Zagreb Senate, reached on January 16, 2001, the Faculty of PE has changed its name once again, this time to the Faculty of Kinesiology University of Zagreb.

55 REFERENCES

Bobić, G., & Čustonja, Z. (2005). Early begginings of Physical Education in Croatia. In D. Milanović & F. Prot (Eds.), Proceedings Book of the 4th International Scientific Conference ”Science and Profession – Challenge for the Future”, Opatija, Croatia, Septemer 7–11, 2005 (pp. 757 – 760). Zagreb: Faculty of Kinesiology. Bučar, F. (1896). Izvještaj tečaja za učitelje gimnastike u Zagrebu od 1. X. 1894. do 1. IV. 1896. [Course for the Secondary School Gymnastic Teachers from October 1st 1894 till April 1st 1896 – A report. In Croatian.] Zagreb: Kraljevska zemaljska vlada Hrvatske i Slavonije.

Čustonja, Z. & Jajčević, Z. (2003). Vocational Training of Personnel for Sport and Physical Education in Croatia – a Historical Overview. In S. Puhak & K. Kristić (Eds.) «Making Sport Attractive for All» Proceedings Book of XVI European Sports Conference, Dubrovnik, Croatia, September, 24- 26, 2003, (pp. 216-224). Zagreb: Ministry of Science, Education and Sports. Čustonja, Z., & Škegro, D. (2011). Attempts to organize and advance education in Civil Croatia in 1861 and 1865 and position of Physical Education. In D. Milanović & G. Sporiš (Eds.), Proceedings Book of the 6th International Scientific Conference on Kinesiology, Opatija, September 2011 (pp. 383-386). Zagreb: Faculty of Kinesiology.

Čustonja, Z., Jajčević, Z. (2004). Donošenje zakona i preustroj osnovnog školstva 1874. godine – uvođenje obavezne nastave tjelesne i zdravstvene kulture u osnovne škole na području Banske Hrvatske. U: V. Findak (ur.) Zbornik radova 13. ljetne škole kineziologa Republike Hrvatske, Rovinj, 19. do 23. lipnja 2004., str. 77-81.

Čustonja, Z., S. Mavrek (2004). Introduction of Obligatory Physical Education Classes into Croatian Primary Schools. IXth

56 International Congress of Sport History, September, 23- 26, 2004, Crotone, Italy,, p.34. Cuvaj, A. (1910). Sources of the history of education in the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonija from the ancient times till nowadays (In Croatian). Vol. I-XI. Zagreb: Kraljevska hrvatska-slavonska-dalmatinska zemaljska vlada, Odjel za bogoštovlje i nastavu. Dumbović, I. (1999). Razvoj pedagoške misli u Hrvatskoj. U: A. Mijatović (ur.) Osnove suvremene pedagogije, str, 81-100. Jajčević, Z. (2010). Povijest športa i tjelovježbe. Zagreb: Društveno veleučilište u Zagrebu I Kineziološki fakulteta Sveučilišta u Zagrebu. Janković, V. (1954). Iz prošlosti fizičkog odgoja u školama Hrvatske. Zagreb: Društvo učitelja, nastavnika i profesora fizičkog odgoja NR Hrvatske. Ogrizović, M. (1989). Prilozi nacionalnoj povijesti pedagogije. Zagreb: Školske novine. Radan, Ž. (1970). Franjo Bučar i gimnastički i sportski pokret u Hrvatskoj. [Franjo Bučar and gymnastic and sport movement in Croatia. In Croatian.] Zagreb: Visoka škola za fizičku kulturu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu. Radan, Ž. (1984). Uvod. [Introduction. In Croatian.] In E. Hofman (Ed.), Faculty of Physical Education University of Zagreb 1959-1984 (pp. 3-8). Zagreb: Fakultet za fizičku kulturu Sveučilišta u Zagrebu. Royal Croatian, Slavonian and Dalmatian Country Government. (1892). The Decree of the Royal Croatian, Slavonian and Dalmatian Country Government, the Department for Religious Affairs and Teaching, No. 5628-1892 from May 13, 1892. Croatian Official Gazette, 24, 11. Škegro, D. & Čustonja, Z. (2014). The beginnings of education and training for delivering physical education classes in Croatia – 140 years of tradition. Kinesiology, 46(Supplement 1), 127-133.

57 CZECH REPUBLIC

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN CZECH LANDS

Gabriela Štěrbová, Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University Olomouc Petr Vlček, Faculty of Education, Masaryk University

Correspondence Gabriela Štěrbová [email protected] Phone: +420 728 920 665

Introduction

In the Czech lands, education has its tradition and deep roots. Although the origins of formal education can be traced back to the period of Samo’s empire (7th century A.D.), with certainty we can speak of schooling in the era of Great Moravia (833–906/907). However, education at that time was dedicated primarily to persons associated with the Church and later on to lords (Kovaříček & Kovaříčková, 1989).

The period of humanism in the Czech lands

It is generally known that in this period the value of human beings was recognized not only in intellectual but also in physical terms. Humanists referred back to Ancient Greece and Rome, including the system of physical culture. There appeared theoretical works from the field of physical education (henceforth P.E.), which as a subject was implemented in several schools, yet in a non- compulsory way. These humanistic ideas penetrated the Czech lands, too. In so called “regiments of health” and school ordinances, which

58 were often translated from Latin and German, the value of physical exercise was explained. These documents recommended staying in the fresh air, healthy diet, hygiene and natural physical education. Relatedly, the works of John Amos Comenius (1592–1670), a prominent representative of late humanism, should be mentioned. In a number of his works he addressed, directly or indirectly, the issues of P.E. For example, Comenius mentioned the importance of games and physical exercise for healthy development of a child, he gave advice on ways of prolonging life, such as physical exercise, healthy diet, alternating work and rest, he mentioned swimming, fencing and other sports (these ideas can be found, for example, in Didactica magna, Orbis sensualium pictus, Leges scholae bene ordinatae). In his work Panorthosie he even suggested restoring the tradition of the Olympic Games. The works of Comenius had a significant impact on European Enlightenment teachers, philanthropists and their followers in the nineteenth century (Grexa & Strachová, 2011; Kössl, Štumbauer, & Waic, 1998).

The era of enlightened absolutism in the Czech lands

The ideas of the Enlightenment and related political, economic and cultural changes gradually spread from Western Europe countries to the Czech lands, in which they created preconditions for a new stage of the development of education and schooling. In 1774, on the initiative of the Enlightenment empress Maria Theresa (reigned between 1740–1780), compulsory schooling for all children aged 6–12 in the Austrian part was implemented. Until then, education for girls was generally neglected (Kádner, 1912). The author of the school reform was Johann Ignaz von Felbiger (1724– 1788), an abbot of the monastery of Sagan. According to the General School Ordinance (Allgemeine Schulordnung), the education of young people was crucial for the development of nations (Kádner, 1929).1 In 1777 a similar reform was implemented on the basis of the

1 Within basic education, this General School Ordinance distinguished rural schools (the language of instruction was Czech, absences from school were tolerated, children were taught to read, write and count), “Main Schools” in towns and “Normal Schools” in the cities of Prague and Brno (these had an extended curriculum of Main Schools and included teacher education courses). In both Main Schools and Normal Schools the language of instruction was German (Kádner, 1929).

59 organization order Ratio Educationis in Hungary (including a part of the present-day Slovakia) (Krátký, 1974). In 1775 the education in grammar schools was also reformed, resulting in the state’s control over grammar schools (Kovaříček & Kovaříčková, 1989). The Thereisan School Reform introduced the possibility of physical exercise (games, natural exercise, etc.) and it recommended that playgrounds and playing areas should be built, one near a school and another close to the town or village. Some teachers, such as Jan Jakub Ryba (1765–1815) or Josef Miloslav Rautenkranc (1776– 1817) supported this initiative. However, P.E. was not included in the curriculum of compulsory education, which was caused mainly by the influence of the Catholic Church (Novotný, 2006).

From “Schulkodex” to “Concordat”

After the death of the Enlightenment emperor Joseph II (the son of Maria Theresa) the influence of the Church on education started to regain strength. In 1805 (by passing so called Schulkodex), the control over education shifted back to the Church. The efforts to implement P.E. as a compulsory school subject was again weakened (Kössl, Štumbauer, & Waic, 1998; Nováček, Mužík, & Kopřivová, 2001). In 1848 the Exner-Bonitz Reform was realized, which resulted in completing the organization of the system of secondary education (for example, eight-year grammar schools emerged). Apart from that, the inclusion of P.E. as a non-compulsory subject was recommended. However, the actual decision depended on the school principals and professors. After the revolutionary year 1848, in the Habsburg Monarchy so called Bach’s absolutism (1851–1859) was introduced. This resulted in slowing down the efforts to strengthen the position of P.E. as a compulsory school subject and generally limited the circulating of P.E.-related ideas in the society, which was confirmed by the Concordat (an agreement between the Catholic Church and the state) from 1855, which assigned the control over education to the Church (Kádner, 1912; Kádner, 1929).

The Hasner reform

After the fall of Bach’s absolutism in the early sixties of the nineteenth century, the tensions in the society eased somewhat.

60 Austria’s losses to Italy (1859) and Prussia (1866) seem to have contributed to implementing P.E. as a compulsory subject in schools. It was uncovered that the population, especially men, was in bad physical condition. Generally, insufficient level of education was reflected on, which resulted in realizing the Hasner reform in the years 1867–1869. The reform wekened the influence of the Church on education and established the Ministry of Education (Kultus Ministerium) while passing the Imperial Basic Schools Act no. 62 from 14th May 1869. Compulsory schooling was extended to 8 years (from 6 to 14 years of age) for both girls and boys, and a new system of basic schooling was established, replacing the Felbiger system. The new system introduced “national schools”, which were divided into a lower (five-year) stage and a higher (three-year) stage. After finishing the lower stage, the learners could go to secondary schools of the grammar school type, which were attended mostly by children of the wealthy, and which were dedicated solely to boys (girls were limited in their choice of state secondary schools, e.g. schools of education, otherwise they had to attend mainly private schools, which did not change until 1918) (Štekr, 1999; Základní škola – Basic school, 2014). P.E. was first implemented as a compulsory school subject in basic schools with the time allocatoin of two lessons per week. In 1870 the school ordinance first defined the aims of P.E. as follows: “the goal of P.E. is for schoolchildren to gain skillfulness, confidence and courage, to enjoy order, to have self-confidence and to be alive both in body and soul” (Reitmayer, 1972, 34). Clearly, the health or aesthetic aspects were not expressed directly, thus we cannot speak of P.E. in the full sense of the term. The curriculum issued between 1874 and 1877, elaborated according to Spiess-Maul, included floor exercise, marching exercise (for all grades), apparatus gymnastics (from the third grade) while putting emphasis on discipline. Only marginally were included games (without an elaborated plan; they usually had a local character, such as folk and simple games). The aim of P.E. was to improve the fitness of prospective recruits.The curriculum soon ceased to be appealing, which contributed to children’s dislike of P.E. In the context of secondary education, P.E. was implemented as a compulsory school subject in Bohemia in 1874 and five years later in Moravia. The first curriculum for these schools was issued in 1875 only for Bohemia,

61 and four years later for all lands belonging to the Austrian part of the Habsburg Monarchy. The curriculum in fact copied the Spiess-Maul system (Reitmayer, 1972; Rychtecký & Fialová, 2004).

From the Taaffe reform to the formation of Czechoslovakia

In 1883, so called Taaffe reform was implemented. Due to this reform the Church regained the control over education. The reform slowed down the development of P.E. and education in general. For girls at basic schools (both the lower and higher stages), P.E. became a non-compulsory subject, which was effective until the end of the First World War. Furthermore, school absence was tolerated for various reasons, which included a reduction of the time allocated to P.E. The standard of hygiene in P.E. school facilities was poor and so was the health condition of the children. In addition, the qualifications of P.E. teachers were not often very satisfactory (Štekr, 1999).

Seven years later the situation improved due to an ordinance by the minister Paul Gautsch, who was a member of Taaffe’s government. Gautsch’s “Spielerlass” recommended implementing non-compulsory games (mainly ball games) and also swimming and skating. It also encouraged all state secondary schools to build sports facilities (playgrounds, pitches, gyms etc.). In the 1890s, P.E. gradually became a compulsory school subject at grammar schools. Nevertheless in secondary schools for girls it was only after 1900 that P.E. became a non-compulsory subject (Kössl, Krátký, & Marek, 1986). In 1911, a new P.E. curriculum for secondary schools was issued. This curriculum was for boys; two years later a curriculum for girls appeared. The curricula included floor exercise, marching, apparatus gymnastics, and also natural athletic exercise and games (performance-oriented). The curricula were inspired by some elements of the Swedish system (P. H. Ling), from the most part by the French system (Hébert, Demény, Racine), rhytmical P.E., the heyday of youth sport movement (Sokol2, Orel3) and also by the

2 Sokol (in English Falcon) is a Czech sports movement and organization founded on 16th February 1862 in Prague by Miroslav Tyrš (1832 – 1884). This organization was

62 popularity of sports, both nationally and internationally (Czech sportsmen and sportswomen took part in the Olympic Games). In this respect, the new curricula seemed progressive as compared to the former Spiess-Maul curriculum. There were some significant changes for girls: the healthy and beautiful body was preferred (including proper posture), emphasis was put on outside exercise, the sense for smooth and elegant movement was developed as well as physical strenght, courage, ability to react, and also the fondness for physical exercise (Rychtecký & Fialová, 2004). During the First World War both education in general and P.E. specifically were dampened (a decrease in the quality of teaching, toleratence of absences from school). Especially concerning boys, military drill was integrated into P.E. Some school buildings served for military purposes (quarters, hospitals). Many teachers were deployed in the war (a number of them were Sokol members or scouts), some of whom were at the birth of the first Czechoslovak Republic and held important offices (Novotný, 2006).

From the First Republic to the Protectorate

After the end of the First World War and after the independent Czechoslovak Republic was established (1918), the resort of schooling was administered by the Ministry of Education. The first minister was Gustav Habrmann. Although the laws from the previous period were still effective, emphasis was put on national and democratic aspects of education (access to education, continuity between the individual school stages). The influence of the Catholic Church was significantly reduced. Two years later, the first Conference of Czechoslovak Teachers and Friends of Education took place. The teachers called for modernization of education and for the teaching of P.E. as a compulsory subject at all schools and with proper time allocation. The Tyrš system became the basis for the curriculum and sports and hygiene facilities were built at schools. A college was to be established for getting the qualifications of P.E. from its beginning also an inseparable part of the national movement (for more information see Grexa & Strachová, 2011; Novotný, 2006; Perútka & Grexa, 1978). 3 Orel (in English Eagle) was a Catholic sports organization founded in 1908. It was led by Jan Šrámek (for more information see Grexa & Strachová, 2011; Novotný, 2006; Perútka & Grexa, 1978).

63 teachers, who were supposed to be equal to other teachers and to be insured. The conference was an important stimulus for the development of education (Reitmayer, 1972; Štekr, 1999). From 1920, the Journal of Physical Education was published and was edited by Josef Klenka. The journal was a methodic tool for teachers. The Small School Act from 1922, which also implemented compulsory eight-year schooling in Slovakia, confirmed compulsory P.E. for girls in primary education at both the lower and higher stages (from the Taaffee reform in 1883 until the end of the First World War, P.E. for girls was not compulsory; it became compulsory in 1919, which was officially confirmed in 1922). The school act stated that the official Czech term for P.E. was “tělesná výchova” (i.e. Physical Education), not “tělocvik”, which can roughly be translated into English as physical exercise. This change reflected the educational value of P.E. Two years later, a new curriculum for P.E. in basic schools was issued. The basis of the curriculum comprised the Tyrš system and the curriculum even went beyond the Sokol practice. The curriculum included floor exercise, marching, apparatus gymnastics, athletics, games, hiking and witner sports. In 1919, compuslory P.E. for girls at secondary schools was again implemented and resumed the curriculum from 1913. The time allocation was two hours per week and this was effective also for girls at teacher training institutes, where they could take an examination in P.E. From the late 1920s there were also school doctors who were responsible for regular check-ups of the pupils and who were responsible for remedial P.E. This medical practice in schools was approved of by the Ministry of Education in 1925. The Ministry also supported the development of sports in secondary education. In 1921 the first Secondary School Games were held in Pardubice (for more information see Perútka, 1973). The participants were also Slovak and German secondary school students. Due to their popularity, the Games were included in the Sokol festivals five years later. In 1928, after-school sports clubs emerged at secondary schools. Various competitions and races were organized among schools. These activities had a positive impact on the relationships among Czechoslovak students, whose ethnic origins were different (Kovaříček & Kovaříčková, 1989; Kössl, Štumbauer, & Waic, 1998; Štekr, 1999).

64 In the early 1930s, the P.E. curricula for primary and secondary education were reformed, which was influenced, apart from other things, by modern trends in P.E. such as the French natural system of teaching (e.g. G. Demény) or so called new Austrian school (K. Gaulhofer, M. Streicher). These trends emphasized natural exercise as well as educational and health aspects of P.E. The new curricula for primary and secondary schools issued in the years 1932 and 1933 were no longer based on the Tyrš system. P.E. in schools was oriented mainly to the pupils’ health, athletic exercise and its effects on the individual’s health; and the development of pupils’ physical skills was preferred. Apart from that, fair play, which is related to the moral and educational aspects of P.E., was considered to be appropriate. In P.E. classes, natural and dynamic exercise was preferred as well as games. In addition, girls did rhytmical gymnastics. As far as assessment is concerned, effort was valued as well as the actual performance. In the late 1930s, the growing power of the Nazis in Germany raised fears of the security in Czechoslovakia, which resulted in the Defence Act in 1937, according to which civil defence education (including P.E.) was implemented in all schools in August 1938. However, it was cancelled in less than two weeks after Hitler proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (15th March 1939) (Kössl, Krátký, & Marek, 1986; Novotný, 2006; Štekr, 1999).

The Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia

From the new school year 1939/1940, the allocation of P.E. increased to 3 or 4 lessons per week, emphasizing the importance of sports and athletics. The model for Czech P.E. was the German one, which was characterized by discipline and by its orientation both to health and to the preparation for fight and war conditions. In November 1939, the Nazis closed all Czech universities in response to protest meetings of Czech citizens in October and November 1939. The Nazis also reduced the number of secondary schools and modified the curricula (Czech, History, etc.) while emphasizing the role of the German language as a compuslory subject from the first school form. In 1942, so called “Kuratorium” for the education of the youth in Bohemia and Moravia was established. This compulsory after-school organization was supposed to re-educate the Czech

65 youth (aged 10–18). The programme of Kuratorium included P.E. and sports as well as civil defense education (for more information see Špringl, 2004). During the war, not only the Sokol, Orel and Scout organizations, but also the professional teacher organizations (including those related to P.E.) were banned. Some teachers, who often belonged to the above-mentioned organizations, joined the resistence movement. At the end of the war, we can observe decline and gradual cancellation of schooling (Grexa & Strachová, 2011; Novotný, 2006; Perútka, 1973; Štekr, 1999).

The beginnings of P.E. teacher education

The Hasner reform established teacher institutes, which were to train teachers for the primary schools Although P.E. was included in the study, it was considered to be a marginal subject for a long time, or it was focused on improving the fitness of the prospective teachers. Moreover, those who taught P.E. at the institutes had themselves insufficient qualifications (Reitmayer, 1972). P.E. teachers were educated in P.E. institutes. The first ones were established abroad (Denmark, Sweden, France). In the Czech lands the first P.E. teachers were trained in private P.E. institutes. It was Jan Malypetr (1815–1899) who was the first Czech qualified P.E. teacher, appointed in 1849 and who founded his own P.E. institute in Prague. This institute created the first Czech P.E.-related terminology, upon which Miroslav Tyrš drew later on (Kössl, Krátký, & Marek, 1986; Kössl, Štumbauer, & Waic, 1998). In 1870, an examination committee for P.E. teachers at secondary schools and teacher training institutes was established in Vienna. A similar committee was established in Prague as late as in 1878. The examination comprised a practical part and a theoretical one. The candidates had to prepare for the examination on their own, which often caused discongruence and problems (Reitmayer, 1972). This is why, under the auspices of the Ministry of Education, there was established a training course for P.E. teachers at secondary schools in Prague in 1891. The course was four semesters long and later on was attached to the Institute of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, which improved the quality of the course. However, there were several problems regarding the staff and facilities: the course did not have its own building, pitch or gym

66 until 1945. Moreover, despite women’s possibility to take the examination (their qualifications applied only to womens’ teacher training institutes), they were not allowed to attend the course. It was not until 1911 that the first one-year courses for women-teachers of P.E. at primary schools were opened. Two years later women started attending two-year courses for teaching P.E. at secondary schools. The lectures were attended together by both men and women, the practical training was separate. It was from 1913 that the examination could be taken only by those who had done the courses and, at the same time, who studied P.E. along with another specialization at the Faculty of Science or Faculty of Arts (Biology, Chemistry, Languages, from 1919 also Mathematics and Geography). During the First World War the courses were closed. They were reopened for women one year before the end of the war and for men one year after the end of the war (Štekr, 1999).

P. E. teacher education from 1918 to 1945

The creation of the new state caused certain changes in the P.E. teacher training courses. In 1919, on the resolution of the Ministry of Education, the regulations and examinations for secondary school teachers in teacher training courses were rearranged. During the entrance examinations, the prospective candidates were expected to produce a secondary-school leaving examination from a grammar school (as well as a medical certificate). Therefore school-leavers from other schools could not be acceped. The students of the Faculty of Medicine could study P.E., provided that they intended to become school doctors. One could become a fully-fledged secondary school teacher only after finishing the studying of P.E. along with another specialization and after passing an examination in philosophy and education. The studying of P.E. as a single subject, according to the secondary-school department at the Ministry of Education, was not considered to be university education. The negative reactions led to the extending of the course from four to six semesters, which improved the quality of the study as well as extended and deepened the theory. In 1922, a course for secondary school P.E. teachers was opened at Masaryk University, Brno, and in the autumn of 1939 another course was opened at Comenius University, Bratislava (at that time the Slovak Republic was a separate state, established on

67 14th March 1939). In the late 1920s and in the 1930s, on the basis of insufficient physical fitness of the prospective teachers in the courses, entrance examinations were adjusted, namely the talent test. In 1936, the courses were extended to eight semesters and the positions of individual subjects in the courses were rearranged. The teaching of theory was extended and deepened and new subjects (such as social sciences, anthropology etc.) were introduced. More emphasis was put on methodology. Two years later the students were compulsorily taught civil defense education. On 1st January 1939 the programme of teaching P.E. was recognized as a fully-fledged university education and teacher education was controlled by the department of tertiary education at the Ministry of Education. Unfortunately, one year later, in response to the protest meetings, all Czech universities were closed, which lasted until 1945 (Grexa & Strachová, 2011; Kössl, Krátký, & Marek, 1986; Štekr, 1999).

1945 – 1989

Significant changes occurred after the end of the Second World War in the year 1945, in which the Research Pedagogical Institute in Prague took responsibility for the creation of a new curriculum. This period was characterized by the effort to unite the school system, P.E. became one of the elements of the comparison with the surrounding world and reached such a level that it never had before. For the first time, stress was put on the need for the integration of upbringing and education. At the same time, the differentiation between sexes was eliminated, and the foundations for standard school were laid. After the year 1946, P.E. became an equal partner to all other subjects, and in the following period the curriculum for individual types of schools was designed (Antala et al., 2001). The events of February 1948 caused the codification in P.E. and the law of comprehensive school was passed. P.E. was influenced by the concept of Russian physical culture, in which physical fitness was supposed to ensure military strength, productivity, and nationalism (Nováček, Mužík, & Kopřivová, 2001). Sports were viewed as a way of achieving international fame. In the year 1954, limits and norms were introduced in the P.E. curricula and thus P.E. became an annoying subject for many pupils, since they got bad marks and were more or less forced into P.E.

68 In 1955 the first worldwide Spartakiad 4 took place and from that time on, Spartakiads became a part of school P.E especially in the year when the Spartakiad took place. Due to the Spartakiads rehearsals, which often filled the content of P.E. classes, the aims of school P.E. were not fully carried out (Kössl, Krátký, & Marek, 1986). During the 1970s, sport activities became dominant in the P.E. curriculum and the emphasis was put on performance and competitiveness. The curriculum for P.E. from the years 1973– 1976 turned out to be very demanding, and due to insufficient time allocation it appeared unrealistic and overloaded. In the 1980s the so called “desportification” of the Czech P.E. emerged. The stress was put especially on the positive attitude toward the physical activity rather than sport.

1989 – present

The “Velvet Revolution“ in 1989 meant a great change for Czechoslovak citizens. The development of events brought radical changes in the state, political, economic and also school life. The fall of communism created some kind of vacuum in school P.E. The instruction of PE often had only a recreational content. Since the mid-1990s, the situation has been improving due to the recent reforming process in the educational system and a more scientific curriculum. According to the newly introduced educational programmes, named the Framework Education Programmes (in Czech Rámcové vzdělávací programy - RVP ZV, 2007), a wide variety of P.E. activities concerning health goals should be used in the P.E. classes. Within the reforms of the Czech education system, the educational field of P.E. was embedded in the educational area related to health promotion (Mužík, 1999). From the research results it is evident (see Vlček & Mužík, 2012) that the current conception of Czech P.E. is not accepted

4 Spartakiad (in Czech Spartakiáda) was a mass gymnastics display, which was held every five years at the Strahov Stadium in Prague, when Czechoslovakia was under the Communist rule.

69 homogenously by the teachers. According to the latest educational programmes mentioned above (RVP ZV, 2007). a wide variety of physical activities concerning especially health goals should be used in the P.E. classes (Mužík, 1999). However, there is a low congruence between the projected and realised curricula (Vlček & Mužík, 2012), which presents a significant problem for the quality evaluation of the subject.

REFERENCES

Antala, B. et al. (2001). Didaktika školskej telesnej výchovy [Didactics of school physical education]. Bratislava: Fakulta telesnej výchovy a športu Univerzity Komenského. Grexa, J., & Strachová, M. (2011). Dějiny sportu: přehled světových a českých dějin tělesné výchovy a sportu [History of sport: an overview of Czech PE and Sport history]. Brno: Masarykova univerzita. Kádner, O. (1912). Stručné dějiny paedagogiky a školství [A short overview of history of education]. Praha: Nákladem Dědictví Komenského. Kádner, O. (1929). Vývoj a dnešní soustava školství [Development and current educational system]. Praha: Sfinx Bohumil Janda. Kössl, J., Krátký, F., & Marek, J. (1986). Dějiny tělesné výchovy II. Od roku 1848 do současnosti [History of PE II. Since 1848 till the present days]. Praha: Olympia. Kössl, J., Štumbauer, J., & Waic, M. (1998). Vybrané kapitoly z dějin tělesné kultury [Chosen chapters in history of physical culture]. Praha: Karolinum. Kovaříček, V., & Kovaříčková, I. (1989). Vývoj školských soustav v českých zemích [Development of the Czech educational system]. Olomouc: Rektorát Univerzity Palackého v Olomouci. Krátký, F. (1974). Dějiny tělesné výchovy I. Od nejstarších dob do roku 1848 [History of PE I. Since the oldest times till 1848]. Praha: Olympia.

70 Mužík, V. (1999). Gesundheitlich vorbeugende Körpererziehung - eine neue Richtung in der tschechischen Schule [Health oriented PE – a new approach in the Czech school]. In: J.C. Bussard & F. Roth (Ed.), Which Physical Education for which School? (pp.91-96). Berne: SVSS. Nováček, V., Mužík, V., & Kopřivová, J. (2001). Vybrané kapitoly z teorie a didaktiky tělesné výchovy [Chosen chapters from PE theory and didactics]. Brno: Masarykova univerzita. Novotný, F. (2006). Stručný přehled dějin tělesné výchovy a sportu [A short overview in history of physical education and sport]. Ústí nad Labem: Univerzita J. E. Purkyně. Perútka, J. (1973). Pokrokové tradície telesnej výchovy v Československu [Progress traditions of PE in Czechoslovakia]. Bratislava: Šport, slovenské telovýchovné vydavateľstvo. Perútka, J., & Grexa, J. (1978). Dejiny telesnej výchovy. II. diel [History of PE II]. Bratislava: Univerzita Komenského. Rámcový vzdělávací program – RVP ZV [Framework Education Programmes] (2007). Výzkumný ústav pedagogický v Praze. Retrieved from http://www.vuppraha.cz/soubory/RVPZV_2007-07.pdf Reitmayer, L. (1972). Dějiny školní tělesné výchovy v českých zemích [History of PE in Czech lands]. Praha: Státní pedagogické nakladatelství. Rychtecký, A., & Fialová, L. (2004). Didaktika školní tělesné výchovy [Didactics of physical education]. Praha: Karolinum. Špringl, J. (2004). Protektorátní vzor mladého člověka [Protectorate petter of a jang man]. Soudobé dějiny, 11(1–2), 154–177. Štekr, V. (1999). Historie školní tělesné výchovy [History of school PE]. Olomouc: Univerzita Palackého. Vlček, P., & Mužík, V. (2012). Soulad mezi projektovaným a realizovaným kurikulem jako faktor kvality vzdělávání v tělesné výchově [Congruence between projected and realidsed curriculum as a factor of quality in PE]. Česká kinantropologie, 16(1), 31–45. Základní škola [Basic school]. Anonymous (2014). Retrieved from http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1kladn%C3%AD_ %C5%A1kola

71 FINLAND

THE ROOTS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AT SCHOOLS IN FINLAND

Airikki Mariitta Pousi, University of Helsinki

Correspondence Airikki Pousi [email protected] Phone: +358 50 5367210

In Finland there has been physical education in schools already 170 years. In this article it has been focused only into early phases. Physical education in Finnish schools has its roots on the other hand in the own folk sports of finish people and on the other hand they were influenced by new ideas, which gradually began to come here to the early 1800's onwards. People's exemplary physical activity, particularly in rural areas were characterized by different running and jumping championships as well as spinning and cue games (Suomela, 1929). Physical education at schools in Finland has gone through the times as a part of Sweden and Russia, as well as in independent Finland very radical development stages. Teaching started first private grammar schools and then municipal educational institutions and educational institution of the state.

School order 1843

In Finland there were spoken about gymnastics in early phases when speaking all the physical education in Finland. And in the beginning it mostly was gymnastics, The term physical education came much later that why I use the term gymnastics as it has been used in my sources. Some kind of gymnastics had been in educational institutions under Swedish period. Officially, the school gymnastics began by Imperial Senate Gracious Declaration in 1843.

72 The former high school, grammar school pedagogues and the district schools were now instead of 1 and 2 -class primary school, 4-class secondary schools, 2 class high schools and 2-class “schools for women.” (1843, on the 6th of November). Hans Keiserliga Majestäts Nådig GYMNAS och Skol-Ordning for Storforstendömet Finland.) At that time, the Education Act decreed that the teaching of gymnastics had to be elementary school age five hours a week for boys and the upper classes as well as the grammar school and high schools they should have four hours a week. The school defines school forms, in the teaching materials and teachers of the requirements. Even in the 1870s the early years of our country was only eight to the University leading the state schools and all alone for boys. Gymnastics came by School Order of 1866 to elementary school and gymnastics for the girls´ schools in the year 1872 (1872. 8 p elokuuta). Keisarillisen Majesteetin Armollinen koulujärjestys Suomen suuriruhtinaanmaalle.) The School Order defined school forms, the subjects to be teached and requirements of the teachers. Requirements to the teacher was the age of 21 years, student certificate , suitable temperament, as well as a certificate of competence. The development of the subject teachers education has been considerable. Official gymnastics teacher training began also for men in 1882, but before that for female students had already organized a gymnastics teacher training in Matilda Asp´s private Gymnastics Institute 1869. Women could get in the Gymnastics Department inform the year 1894, when also Asp´s Institute ceased the operations.

Gymnastics Teacher Education

The efforts of the development of Gymnastic Institute broke down time to time. We had to wait a long time before the way to the highest studies opened for the gymnastics teachers. We had unable to have gymnastics in any place. It required “a Institute”, sufficient space and apparatus and tools. As a prototype of Gymnastic Institute was created on the initiative with Hjalmar Ling´s letter dated 05.05.1813 and confirmed by the Stockholm Royal Gymnastic Central Institute GCI. GCI was repaired at the expense of the state the old factory hall, some tools to it and salary to Ling. Apparatus

73 was imitated partly from Gutsmuts, partly imitated from nature and sailor's life. They included: the climbing wall bars, ladders, rods, chest, arms and a horse, benches. The wall bars were only apparatus that was undeniably Swedish. The goal of GCI was to train instructors in gymnastic institutes. Students, however, were initially diverse range: soldiers, artists, priests, teachers, or students of different subjects (Meinander, 1994).

Gymnastics Department of University of Helsinki is founded in 1834

Proposals were made also in Finland to found gymnastics institute. In Helsinki there were working private Department of gymnastics founded by Gusted Mauriz Paul by the "Ling´s all over approved model". After Paul has moved to St. Petersburg continued his work G. Otta. The new construction of University of Helsinki was underway. When the side building was not yet built, Engel decided to invest fencing and dance hall there after accordance with the wishes of Otta gymnastics. This first university gymnasium was completed in 1834, and now it is considered of gymnastics Department the University to be founded. Department of Gymnastics of University of Helsinki followed faithfully the 1870 Stockholm´s development. Hall and apparatus of GCI's conforming to the model. Gymnastics was old Lingian and focused in such a way medical gymnastics, where Stockholm was in the foreground, Helsinki, gymnastics teacher training began, however, until 1882. Until then, the University Gymnastics Department was solely for hobby gymnastics. Gymnastics Department had from the beginning Gymnastics of women's. The women did not, however, required the student examination and their gymnastics was medical gymnastics alone. In1820s and 30s set up other gymnastic institutes among other Turku, Vaasa and Vyborg. For economic reasons they work for only short periods of time. Scientific education of Physical education teachers begins 1963 in Jyväskylä University in faculty of Physical Education. After that came the term Physical Education also in schools.

74 Grammar Schools

Finnish people had a strong desire to raise the level of general education. It was considered the only way to secure the Finnish own culture. Before 1898 all the country's grammar schools were located in cities. Therefore people of countryside had very difficult to achieve higher education than the elementary school. When Finland's autonomous rights were returned by the November Manifesto, the more liberal conditions quickly began to generate private Finnish grammar schools. When in the year 1902 there were four rural grammar schools in our country, their number had by 1906 already risen by 10 and 1910 entering 20. In this way the in the end of First World War, in Finland there were the 28 private grammar schools working. The work in grammar schools Study was based further on the 1872 school system. Staff gymnastics had been imported and advocated by Heikel in 1860s as a substitute for military training with rifles. Staff gymnastics were practiced predominantly by the two highest classes, and replaces free-standing movements. They followed the same choreography as sabre training and rifle handling in the other Nordic countries; the space between pupis was extended and the movements were carried out collectively (Meinander, 1994). In upper classes of Lyceums Number gymnastics program should to be such that the exercises were able to substantially affect those organs - heart, lungs, digestive organs, and others, the condition of those organs mainly affects to persons health. The army have had the desire to develop school sports to military service reinforcing direction. The proposal of physical education was immediately ready in 1918 after peace. The proposal included the people's bold ideas to increase the condition to defend the country (Meinander, 1992). The number of hours of exercise increased until six hours a week. The first educational records for boys was confirmed in 1917.

75 Elementary schools

Teacher Training Seminar of Jyväskylä

The number of Grammar schools were limited. Jyväskylä Lyceum was established in year 1858. That was solution year was in whole national education. Then the Tsar gave the declarations, which Uno Cygnaeus had been based on the draft guidelines for the presentation of the Senate following "of the foundations of organization of public education." In 1863 was founded the first finish seminar in Jyväskylä and the first director was Uno Cygnaeus himself. The 1866 elementary school order did´n say anything about number of hours of teaching gymnastics, but in 1881 National Board of Education distributed the schools model of time table in which each class was reserved three hours for gymnastics. Most rural elementary schools had, however, to compromise this goal very much. (Primary and secondary schools inspection reports from 1870 to 1884). The reason was normally a lack of space. Even the elementary school teachers were not necessarily interested in gymnastics, even if had received preparatory teaching of physical education in seminars.

170 years Physical Education at Schools in Finland

76

The Regulation of School Districts was born - elementary school to every village

Before The Regulation of School Districts, the establishments of elementary schools was in municipal consideration. Therefore, there were elementary schools only in bigger villages (Halila 1949, III, 19-31, Vihola 1983, 358). The School issue was then discussed in the year 1894 and in the year 1897 in Parliament. Until then on May 24, the day the Regulation of School Districts was given. According to this, the rural area was required to distribute school districts so that each pupil has the opportunity to receive education in their mother language. If in one school district enrolled 30 children to school striving, the school had to be established. When doing the school district there had to be taken into account geographic, and linguistic conditions, so that school transport should not normally be no longer than five kilometers long. (Halila 1949, III, 19-31.) To organize gymnastics teaching was generally the most difficult task in whole elementary school system in Finland in the early days. Many were of the opinion that gymnastics, at least in rural areas be needed. Some of elementary school teachers do not have without any doubt accepted the gymnastics to elementary schools. Lack of space in school rooms and lack of suitable equipment was hampered the education. 1890 's Jyväskylä seminar teaching of gymnastics was formulaic and rigid. We could talk about the mode of abjection of gymnastics. (Vihola, 1983, Vihola, 1986 Old Ruoveden history III: 3, Pousi, 1988, 32). In 1903, became the Jyväskylä Seminar colleague of gymnastics and health education, later Licentiate in Medicine, KA Rikala, the student of Iwar Wilskman. During his time in the seminar teaching of gymnastics soon diversified. Gymnastics and sport equipment was increased to the level among the best of our country (Sakari, 1969). The Finnish conditions was applied the physiological laws of Ling-based system, which was connected to the German gymnastic system with rod movements. This was consisted of Finnish gymnastics system, which involved the Iwar Wilskman´s manual (Wilskman, 1906, Ritokangas, Järviö, 1957, Pousi, 1988, 32.). Thus,

77 for example Riihonen elementary school, which was a rural elementary school in the Jyväskylä Seminar sphere of influence gymnastics teaching was carried out quite versatile. The program involved free gymnastic movements and games. "The special movement what is practiced is explained and displayed, after which the students will do it according to command. Otherwise monitored by general gymnastics order, so that the different exercises follow each other in a specific order. Gymnastics took place in the summer time and in good weather in the school yard. In wintertime the pupils were skating on the frozen lake, and doing cross-country skiing. In thaws snow castles were built and snow war was played, throwing snowballs. (Keuruu municipal archives. The curriculum and the diary 1904-05, National Archives Keuruun Riihosen elementary school in the district's annual reports from 1904 to 1936). A large number of gymnastics in elementary school were made because lack of space (Meinander, 1992, 97). In larger schools where the student population was approaching a hundred, boys and girls were divided into their own groups. Boys and girls had two hours a week gymnastics. Swedish speaking schools used typically Heikel´s manuals, which was mainly intended for secondary school youth. Finnish speaking schools maintained their Göös instructions. The period of independence by the beginning of 1917, these were replaced gradually by Ivar Wilskman´s, Elin Kallio´s and Anni Collan´s manuals. So Riihonen elementary school Wilskman´s manual was used for gymnastics. The lesson was as follows; Instruction is given in such a way that the class is divided into two groups. Departments I and II are in one group and departments III and IV the second group. To the girls selected easier movements. In the beginning free movements are practiced continued to rack movements, and finally was playing. In winter, cross-country skiing trips were made. (KKA Riihosen elementary school curriculum and annual reports.) Athletics Track and field began to be more and more interesting. Examples came from the Finnish sports fields and from the Olympic Games. Successful sportsmen became role models to follow. School children build self tools. Athletics competitions were held outside of school hours (Pousi, 1988). The first boys' educational records was set in 1917.

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Physical education in Finland´s independence time Independence time

School Compulsory Education Law 1921

After the years 1921 School Compulsory Education law each school district had to be a four-year secondary school and two- year primary school with different teaching managing both graduate schools. In the primary school there were two hours of singing and playing and in the secondary school two hours gymnastics and two hours of sports. The Act controls the general compulsory education and a compulsory education school became a elementary school. National Board of Education ordered in the letter of the year1924 that each elementary school had at the first state to acquire the wall bars and other gymnastic apparatus as well as balls, rackets, bats, targets, high jump racks and two balls for boys.

What kind of sports types in Schools

Among types of exercise there were at first fencing, which then became optional subject in 1911. Skiing became common turn of the century in the schools of boys and in the first decade skiing races spread especially in rural areas. Ice skating was common for both boys and girls and the boys also played ice hockey and bandy. In ball games, winter sports and athletics began the systematic teaching, if you only had available some kind of field or terrain. Ball games became a competitor for gymnastics. Ball Games formed their own considerable group already around the turn of the century. There were played: four goals, the long ball, limit the ball, the king of the ball, football, bandy and others. Pesäpallo spread of the bus were by the school and the Civil Guard. In the schools “pesäpallo” became as Finlands national game to the program. In the school program in the time schedule to the pupils there were two terms: gymnastics and sports until 1960s.

79 REFERENCES:

Finlands Författnings Samling/Suomen asetuskokoelma:

Valton arkisto (VA), Helsinki

Kansa-ja oppikoulujen tarkastuskertomukset 1870-1879, 1880-1884.

Keuruun Riihosen piirin kansakoulunvuosikertomukset 1904-1936.

Keuruun kunnan arkisto (KA). Opetussuunnitelma ja päiväkirja 1904-05,

1872. 8 p:nä Elokuuta. Keisarillisen Majesteetin Armollinen Koulujärjestys Suomen Suuriruhtinaanmaalle.

1843. Den 6 November. Hans Keiserliga Majestäts Nådig Gymnasii och Skol-Ordning för Storforstendömet Finland.

Literature:

Halila, Aimo 1949. Suomen kansakoululaitoksen historia II- III. Turku.

Heikkinen, Antero 1992. Voimistelun läpimurto. Teoksessa: Suomi uskoi urheiluun. LTS julkaisu NO 131. Helsinki.

Meinander Henrik 1992. ”Warpaille y-lös, kyykkyyn a-las!” Koululiikunta etsii paikkaansa. Teoksessa: Suomi uskoi urheiluun. LTS julkaisu NO 131. Helsinki.

Meinander Henrik 1994. Towards Bourgeois Manhood, Bous physical Education in Nordic Secondary Schools 1880-1940. Helsinki.

Pousi, Airikki 1988. Keuruun Riihosen koulu vuosina 1903-1936. Keuruu

80 Pousi, Airikki 2003. Nuori Ilmari Vaissi. Helsingin yliopiston kasvatustieteen laitoksen tutkimuksia 188. Helsinki

Ritokangas, Kalle A. - Järviö, Jouko, K. 1957. 50-vuotias Haapamäen yhteiskoulu. Muistojulkaisu koulun vaiheista 1097-1957. Keuruu.

Sakari, Aimo 1959. Keuruun satavuotias kansakoulu. Pieksämäki

Suomela, Klaus U. 1929. Skolungdomens fysiska fostran in Finland på dess nyvarande ståndpunkt. Liikunakasvatuksen työmailta IV. Helsinki.

Vihola 1986, Vanhan Ruoveden historia III:3,

Vihola, Teppo. 1983. Keuruun ja Pihlajaveden historia 1860-1917. Vanhan Ruoveden historia III:3,1. Keuruu

Wilskman, Iwar 1906. Voimistelun käsikirja kansa- ja alkeiskouluja varten. Helsinki.

Wuolio, Eija-Leena – Jääskeläinen, Leena 1993. Kyykkyyn – ylös! 150 vuotta koululiikuntaa. Liikuntatieteellisen Seuran julkaisu nro 136. Helsinki.

81

GREECE ENACTMENT OF GREEK PHYSICAL EDUCATION - ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GERMAN SYSTEM (1835-1907)

Dimitris Hatziharistos , Faculty of Physical Education & Sport Science, National & Kapodistrian University of Athens

Correspondence Katerina Zounhia [email protected] Phone: +30 6976223534

The beginning of the most decisive phase of Modern Greek education coincides with the arrival of Otto in Greece. The main characteristic of this period is complete Bavarocracy, that is the imposition of Bavarian systems in all sectors of the newly founded Greek state. It is noteworthy that when Otto came to Greece, he was accompanied by a large number of specialized Bavarians who were intended to undertake the organization of various sectors of the state. The organization of newly established state was such that it led Greece to complete and final dependence from big forces. Under the circumstances, through education such dependence would be supported and enhanced. For the realization of their goals, the Bavarians had also the entire support of the local privileged who were impatient to make official the structure and operation of education and in accordance with the principles and the intentions of Patriarchate and the Fanariotes. The main educational objectives of the first primary schools, founded in 1834, were the promotion of religious obscurantism, meticulous spirit and pseydoclassicism1. That was consistent with the objectives of the Bavarian and the Greek conservatives. Physical education is not included in the curriculum of primary schools. 62,0% of total number of hours are spent for the teaching of ancient Greek and religious2. In a separate article of law

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it is reported that “physical drills are executed twice a week under the supervision of schoolteachers, during rest hours or leisure time feasts3”. However, this provision was never fulfilled4. In 1836 the organization of secondary education in two circles was completed: The three-grade Greek school in imitation of German Latinische Schule and the four-grade High school, in imitation of German Gymnazium. The same year Higher Education was enacted and organized by the German Mauer. Thus, we can say that the plans of the Bavarians are fulfilled and Bayarocracy in the sector of education is fully established. The religious, scholastic, and pseudoclassistic character of the studies, especially as outlined in the 1836 curriculum, stemming from Bavaria and distorted by the local conservatives, will determine the goals and objectives of education. 71,8% of total number of hours on a weekly basis are spent on the teaching of dead languages and religious and 28,2% on the teaching of the remainder 12 courses5. Physical education is not included in the obligatory courses of the 1836 curriculum. In a separate article it is reported that during free hours, when courses are not taught, students can execute physical exercises (mainly in the afternoons and in the summertime)6. This provision however was never fulfilled due to teaching personnel shortage. Physical education is not included in the 1834 and 1836 curriculum. Despite this exclusion, during the period, we examine, an intense action for its dissemination begins. Main contributors to this dissemination were the German C. L. Corck and G. Ottendorf who came to Greece with Otto to help with the organization of education. The Greek G. Th. Pagon, who studied in Germany and wrote the first Greek book about physical education entitled “Calisthenics in Summary” and published in 1837, participated in this effort. The author says in its preface that this book was written “in line with the books of J. C. GutsMuts and F. L. Jahn”7. At the same time the building of first athletic facilities starts. Sport equipment comes from Germany8. The first physical exercises stem from the German system of gymnastics by F. L. Jahn that contributed to the military education of young people9. This period, therefore, the establishment of extra curriculum physical education in schools begins. Since its establishment, the organization of physical education had been consistent with the goals

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of the German system. To a large extent, physical education conformed to the desires and dreams of a group of Greeks who believed that the establishment of physical education, for the purpose of initiating military education in young people’s life, would contribute to the production of an army capable of fighting against the Turks and, thus, setting free the remainder part of Greece. From 1836 and onwards intense actions are taken for the inclusion of Calisthenics in the compulsory school curriculum of modern Greece. However, only in 1862, 26 years later, Calisthenics is introduced in the field of education. In particular, with the decree of 8th December 1862 Combat Drills are introduced in Secondary education. With the same decree, military exercises are introduced in the university curriculum and university military phalanx is established. Military Calisthenics included dense line up exercises taken from the infantry. Specifically, these exercises include: phalanx marching in groups of threes or fours, changes of direction, rhythmical marching and running, etc. For the teaching of military Calisthenics, that continued to be taught outside the compulsory school curriculum, a non-commissioned officer and a soldier from the Fire Brigade Corps were appointed to each Secondary school due to the lack of specialized physical educators10. According to the decree of 18th February 1871, military exercises are introduced in the curriculum of Greek schools. These exercises were compulsory for those students who had reached the 14th year of their age. However, after 1877 military exercises did not continue to be taught in Greek schools and Secondary schools. This discontinuance was due to the fact that the circumstances in the army did not allow any further detachment of officer or non-commissioned officer from the army11. With the decrees of 1862 and 1871, Calisthenics adopted a strictly military focus in order to promote the sole fulfillment of military and national goals. However, at the same period a group of Calisthenics’ supporters, together with I. Fokianos (1845-1896) in chief, expressed their opposition to the features and content that the conservative circles tried to attach to school Calisthenics. Fokianos was greatly influenced by the gymnastic system of A. Spiess, that he had studied during the period of his collaboration with the German

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professor J. Kebauer12. This great pioneer of Calisthenics tried to establish Calisthenics as a compulsory school subject. At the same time, he endeavored to exclude its military character, so that it could acquire an instructional character, in the context of students’ education. I. Fokianos’ one and only book entitled: “Calisthenics Textbook” was written in accordance with the Belgian Captain’s Docx13 work. Fokianos’ textbook was until 1900 the one and only methodic guide for the implementation of Calisthenics as a school subject. Fokianos’ objective, which was the introduction of Calisthenics as a compulsory subject (equal to the other school subjects), was realized after 20 year of persistent efforts. With a special decree during the year of 1880, Calisthenics became a compulsory subject. Three hours per week were initially scheduled for its teaching for each class. For the implementation of Calisthenics, specially trained instructors were appointed. In particular, one instructor was appointed for every 180 students. The instructors’ training took part at the Central Public Gymnasium and lasted 45 days. However, in 1883 military exercises were brought back and with the curriculum of 1884 they were rescheduled to be implemented in the two upper classes of Secondary schools for three days per week14. According to the school timetable of 1884, Calisthenics represented 10% of the total number of hours of a weekly school programme. In Secondary schools, it represented 9,4% for boys and girls15 (see Table 1 and Figure 1). From the above, it becomes obvious that in the organizational part, the objective of Fokianos was fulfilled for the enactment of Calisthenics was completed. However, his objective for the abolishment of military exercises remained unfulfilled. The government of that time did not make any substantial modification to the decree of 1862 that referred to the content of Calisthenics. At this point it is worth mentioning that not only was the military character of Calisthenics affected, but also it was more reinforced. In the new decrees of 1883 and 1889 it was explicitly stated that military exercises are the only factor that shapes the content of Calisthenics. Furthermore, in the same decrees it was mentioned that the preparation of students for their future military life remains the basic objective of Calisthenics16. Fokianos’ efforts against military

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exercises continued for the next years and up to some point resulted in persuading the Ministry of Education to remove strict military exercises from school programs. However, the main aim and the general notion for the subject of Calisthenics retained stable its military-chauvinist character. It is obvious that the organizers of school Gymnastics did not attach to Calisthenics any educational value. People responsible for the dissemination of Calisthenics treated it as a medium for children’s and youth’s military preparation. For a long time the organizers of school Gymnastics insisted on their choices, despite the fact the need for exercising was evident and urgent, especially in urban cities. In one of his lectures I. Fokianos mentioned that “due to the concentration of people in big cities and the prolonged idling of youths in coffee shops, tuberculosis and lack of physical activity, begin to create problems in their physical development”17. The above pessimistic situation worsened even more after Greece’s defeat in the 1897 war against Turkey. Many and serious problems that came into surface made people criticize the past. Insecurity and pessimism dominated after the defeat and made the majority of Greek citizens develop a conservative attitude towards life. In education, as in the rest domains of public life, there was a generalized turn back. Education and schooling of Greek children are dominated by militarism and chauvinism17. School Calisthenics revives in its primary form taking a military orientation18. It becomes evident that in the final phase of the era under examination, all hopes for any kind of educational reforms were reduced considerably. The status of Calisthenics as part of the curriculum deteriorated. In 1896 the leader of Greek Calisthenics, I. Fokianos, passed away. He was the man who defended its educational goals and its content for a significant amount of time. In the timetables of the 1897 and 1906 national curriculums, the same percentage of time spent on Calisthenics as in the previous ones. Specifically, the amount of time provided for teaching Calisthenics represented 9.2% - 10.1% of the total amount of hours of the weekly curriculum19 (see Table 1 and Figure 15). The expectations for Gymnastics’ revival acquire a new vitality in the beginning of the 20th century. In 1900 the law ΒΧΚΑ’ was published. This law, signed by the Minister of Church Affairs and Public Education A. Eftaxias, constitutes the first remarkable

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effort for coping with the Calisthenics and Sport matters in our country. In the introductory report of the law BXKA’ it is mentioned that “until 1884 the interest for students’ physical exercise was confined to what should be done or to military exercises”. Concerning the development of Calisthenics, it is mentioned that the year 1884 constitutes a historical milestone in the course of evolution of Calisthenics in Modern Greece, because that year the “Calisthenics School” began to operate for the first time. Graduates of Teaching and High School were entitled to attend that two year school. In another part of the report it was stated that the Olympic Games of 1896 created vivid interest and enthusiasm in favor of physical exercises and promoted their value in people’s conscious20. In the first article of the law BXKA’ the purpose of Calisthenics was determined as “the development of physical and mental potential, the development of stamina and the preparation of young people for military life”21. In a separate decree, contained in the above law, an official curriculum of Calisthenics was established for the first time. That curriculum contained all the activities that had to be taught in each class of primary school, of Greek schools and High schools. These activities include regular exercises, games, and the teaching of athletics and gymnastics (in the upper classes of high school only)22. That curriculum is accompanied by detailed instructions on the basic methods of its application. Instructions are supplemented with general preliminary remarks. These remarks explained the significance of each group of exercises and supported theoretically the value of the proposed curriculum23. Apart from the curriculum, in a separate decree of the law BXKA’, students’ examinations in Calisthenics are explained in detail. The same decree also determined the organization of school sport competitions24. Apart from the above contention I must admit that over the period considered, the theoretical and methodical thinking for Calisthenics began to move away from the level of speculations and personal opinions and gradually was placed on scientific bases. Specifically, in 1894 a book entitled “Robust bodies” was published. In that book a series of exercises for developing strength in every muscle group is presented25 and the effects of exercise on physical development are described in an innovative way. It is worth mentioning that the suggestions contained in this book are supported

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with scientific arguments. For the first time in Greek literature anthropometric data are reported. These data, included in a separate appendix resulted from successive measurements of young people of American College, who exercised for a semester for one hour, four times a week26. Around 1900, the "Association of dissemination of useful books" published a remarkable book entitled "Calisthenics". In the first part of this book the author refers to the value of exercise in promoting physical development and human health. In the second part exercises are classified and described27. The period presented in this section, particularly the years between 1862 and 1894, during which I. Fokianos acts, is particularly important to Greek physical education. The official inclusion of Calisthenics in school curricula constituted the foundations, on which the next generations would rely to demand: - further improvement of methods of its application - the creation of a strong scientific base, upon which its future growth will be based - its adaptation to the ever changing needs of our people.

Footnotes

1 R.D./6-2-1834: On Primary schools, article 1. 2 R.D./6-2-1834, article 1 (calculated by the author). Athens: Themelio. 3 Similarly, article 2, 8, and 9. 4 Law BXKA/1990: On Calisthenics, p. 9. 5 R.D./31-12-1836: On Greek schools. Timetable of Greek and Secondary schools, taken from A. Dimaras p. 66 (calculated by the author). 6 Similarly, article 83. 7 Babanasis S., Soulas K: Greece at the periphery of developed countries. Themelio, Athens 1979, pp. 153-198. 8 Pagon, g.th.: Calisthenics in summary. Athens 1837. 9 Giannakis Th. Construction of the first gymnasium in Nafplio. C. L. Cork organizes and directs it. “Physical Education and Sport” p. 144. 10 Yearbook 1929-1930: School for the teaching of Calisthenics, p. 7. 11 Greek State Newspaper (GSN) Issue 19/8-12-1962: Decree for the Phalanx and Greek University, article 1-8.

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12 Calisthenics Instructors’ Union: Ioannis Fokianos (1845-1896), pp. 48-52 13 Docx: Guide pour l’enseignement de la gymnastique des garcons a l’usage des Ecoles. Namur 1878. 14 Pavlinis E.: History of Calisthenics, Publishing house Kiriakidi, Thessaloniki 1977, pp. 398-404. 15 R.D./23-6-1884. Timetable of Greek schools and Secondary schools. 16 Law No/1883, GSN issue 139/1883, articles 1 and 7, GNS 79/1889. 17 Pavlinis E: «Lecture about I. Fokianos» in the commemorative edition of EGE in honor of I. Fokianos, p. 15. 18 Law ΒΤΜT and R.D./11-9-1897. 19 Law ΒΧΚΑ’/1990: On Calisthenics, p. 11. 20 Dimaras A..: see Intro., p. 15, Volume Β’. Decree 11-9-1987: Time table of Greek and Secondary schools. 21 Law BXKA’/1900, see Intro, p. 10. 22 Law BXKA’/1900: About calisthenics and sport competitions, chapter A’, article 1. 23 Law BXKA’/1900, C’ Decree: Curriculum of Primary and Secondary education, pp. 60-72. 24 Law BXKA’/1900: Instructions for teaching Calisthenics in primary and secondary education, pp. 81-92. 25 Law BXKA’/1900, D’ Decree: On examination of school Calisthenics in Primary and Secondary education and school competitions, pp. 73-76. 26 (Unknown author): Robust bodies, 1894 27 Similarly, pp. 257-261. 28 (Unknown author): Calisthenics. Association of dissemination of useful books.

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Table 1 Percentage of hours scheduled for Physical Education in comparison to the total number of hours of weekly programs scheduled for all subjects of all grades according to the Greek curriculums delivered from 1884 until 1985 Year Total Physical Percentage studying Education of Physical hours hours Education according to (male/female hours in weekly students) comparison schedules to total (male/female school hours students) (male/female students) 1884 223/223 21/21 9.4/9.4 1886 224/224 21/21 9.4/9.4 1897 228/228 21/21 9.2/9.2 1906 208/208 21/21 10.1/10.1 1914 242/242 21/21 8.7/8.7 Physical Education was 1931 180/187 (8.7/8.7) distributed during all days 1935 231/206 18/18 8.5/8.7 1939 205/216 18/18 8.8/8.3 1961 218/228 18/18 8.3/7.9 1964 204/216 18/18 8.8/8.3 1966 180/188 15/15 8.3/8.0 1967 221/221 17/15 7.7/6.8 1969 204/210 18/18 8.8/8.6 1973 205/210 18/18 8.8/8.6 1977 172/172 12/12 7.0/7.0 1981 167/167 11/11 6.1/6.1 1985 180/180 14/14 7.8/7.8 Mean percentage between 1884-1985 8.4 Maximum percentage 10.1 Minimum percentage 6.1

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Sources: 1. Dimaras A.: The reform that never happened, Volume Α’ and Β’. 2. Noutsos Ch.: Secondary School Curriculum and social control (1931 – 1973), p. 59. 3. ΥΠΕΠΘ: Εγκύκλιος αριθμ. Φ/210/2/109/99921/12-9-1977. 4. Π.Δ. 831/1977 (GSN 270, V. Α’). 5. Π.Δ. 12861/1981 (GSN 315, V. Α’). 6. Π.Δ. 831/1985 (GSA 158, V. Α’) και Π.Δ. 479/1985 (GSA 170, V. Α’).

Figure 1. Percentage of hour variation provided for Physical Education classes in the curriculums delivered between 1884-1985

Percentage (%) males Percentage (%) females

10,4 10 9,6 9,2 8,8 8,4 8 7,6 7,2 6,8 6,4 6

1884 1886 1897 1906 1914 1931 1935 1939 1961 1964 1966 1967 1969 1973 1977 1981 1985

91

92 HUNGARY

HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE HUNGARIAN SCHOOL PHYSICAL EDUCATION

Erzsébet Rétsági, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pécs Kata Morvay-Sey, Faculty of Sciences, University of Pécs Tamás Csányi, Hungarian School Sport Federation / Faculty of Primary and Pre-School Education, Eötvös Loránd University, Budapest

Correspondence Tamás Csányi [email protected] Phone: +36703181261

Abstract

This chapter presents the history of Hungarian school physi- cal education (P.E.) from the 18th Century until the present. Due to expansion limitations the explanation of content focuses only on the milestones of the evolution of P.E.. Neither will the ever problematic infrastructure be discussed, nor the history of the training of P.E. school-teachers. The structure of the study chronologically follows the history of Hungary starting from the enlightened absolutism through the reform era over the period between the two world wars to the post-world war years of the totalitarian then soft dictatorship concluding with the year 2015 of the democratic Hungary. We strived to provide insight into the socio-political background deter- mining education policies of certain periods in the overall nearly 250 years. The very first curriculum that was credited to Maria Theresia expected schools to train obedient subjects and soldiers who are able to protect the Habsburg Empire. In the Reform Era, multifunctional training was believed to be the token of the progress of the common- ers and the rise of the nation, and P.E. was marked out for having an important role in the process. In the Horthy Era P.E. was a means of

93 covert militarization and military training. In the Rákosi Era the purpose and task of scholastic education was to train young men that were able to build Socialism, disciplined and loyal to the nation and who were endowed with the ethical attributes of a communist per- son. Raising the socialist “genotype” was in force until the 1989 change of the political system – although nobody took this aim seri- ously from the ‘80s. Approaching European practice, democratic Hungary introduced decentralized education direction and its im- print, the core curriculum. Until now four core curricula (1995, 2003, 2007, 2012) were brought to light and despite their conceptual dif- ferences and diverse elaboration, each appoint life-affirming, health valuing personality development as the main goal. In our study based on the works of chronicler predecessors, we relied on the monography of Földes et al. written in 1982, as well as relied on contemporary literature.

Keywords: Physical education history, Hungary, Curriculum development

94 Hungarian P.E. from the 18th Century till World War I

Hungary had been under Turkish submission for more than 150 years (1541-1699). Following the expulsion of the Turks, the Habsburg Empire gradually gained supremacy of the Hungarian territories. It was decided that Hungary’s own, new age development would come off not as an autonomous state but within the confines of national absolutism. Legislation, including education policy was basically determined by the characteristics of the Habsburg legisla- tion.

The 1st Ratio Educationis (1777)

During the Enlightened Absolutism, from the mid-18th Century the state demanded increased supremacy in the aspect of education and cultural policies, trying to decrease the ecclesiastic authority. The primary goal of school education was to train useful, obedient subjects, good soldiers who serve the state apparatus of the Habsburg Empire. The first comprehensive reform act of education was addressed as Ratio Educationis, published in 1777, credited to Maria Theresa. The act covered the questions of youth P.E. in seven chapters. It made preserving health a task of the schools, specified the types of permitted and prohibited games, referred to the configuration of youth playgrounds as well as the purchasing of assistive devices. During this period P.E. engrossed by the versatile training of the Hungarian nation remained at the level of personal ambitions. A progressive thinker, Samuel Tessedik stood out for trying to implement P.E. to practice in the school that he founded (1780, Szarvas). He attributed particular importance – in the spirit of the philanthropists – to regular physical activity, outdoor games and children’s physical education. Around the turn of the 18th and 19th Centuries public educational tendencies were spreading, in which the influence of Locke, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Diesterweg, Guth-Muths was vividly felt, having a significant mark on the national P.E. development. In 1790-91, the National Assembly put the case of P.E. on the agenda. By 1793 the bill was ready and it proposed the necessity of the introduction of physical exercises in schools, with particular regard to military aspects. The introduction of the reforms did not eventuate (Földes et al., 1982).

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The 2nd Ratio Educationis – events of the beginning of the 19th Century

The 2nd Ratio Educationis issued in 1806 did not touch upon P.E. at all. However a separate chapter dealt with the question of military training. From the 1820s onwards, vanguards from the movement for a versatile youth education Miklós Wesselényi, István Széchenyi and Lajos Kossuth urged the creation of the National United Front for P.E. On their initiative the National Fencing Institute (1825), the Pest Body Exercise Institute (1839), as well as baths and stables were founded in Pest. Being maecenas of sport, they used every opportunity to promote and develop sport. By the second decade of the 19th Century a new branch of public body exercise had reached Hungary: gymnastics. The first official P.E. teacher in Hungary was Wilhelm Egger - as a student of Pestalozzi – moving to Pest he opened a gym where he taught gymnastics (Földes et al., 1982).

First attempts to introduce P.E. in schools until the Freedom Fight in 1848-49, effects of the Reform Era

In the Hungarian history we call a whole era – the nearly two decades between 1830-1848, broadly speaking the first half of the 19th century – the Reform Era. Reasonably as the groups of society taking part in politics demanded and gave effect to reforms. From the 1840s onwards in the escalated process of increasing reform movements and the growing middle social class, the great ideas of the 19th Century such as liberalism, conservatism, nationalism played a significant role in the common thinking and political life. One of the important endeavors of this era – from our point of view as well – the issue of introducing P.E. was tried to be put through personal initiations, then consecutively through wide social classes, too. From 1845 onwards, as the headmaster of the Pest Lutheran high school, Lajos Tavasi introduced P.E. in his school, that was initially taught by Egger, then Clair. As a Lutheran school organizer, Lajos Schedius in his school’s organizational regulation - issued in 1837 and 1840 – raised P.E. among the main subjects in public

96 schools. In the Debrecen Calvinist College from 1842 P.E. was among the basic subjects that were taught by senior students. From 1841 in the “Pesti Hírlap” (a newspaper) Lajos Kossuth stood out to introduce P.E. in schools, moreover he stood up for the necessity of physical education for women. In 1846, in the Girls Boarding Institute of Blanka Teleki, physical education was among the subjects. On July 20th 1848, the first Hungarian Educational Congress assembled where the proposals included the introduction of physical education, emphasizing the importance of pre-school education. This was the first time when such a reform plan was developed in which P.E. was listed among the basic subjects from pre-school till upper primary school. However, due to the break out of the freedom fight (1848), the reforms couldn’t realized. In August 1848, József Eötvös, Minister of Religion and Education proposed a bill in which he inaugurated P.E. as one of the main subjects in elementary schools. During the Freedom Fight in 1848, schools and gymnastic trainings were put into service for the army. At the end of 1848, Lajos Kossuth urged the intention to introduce P.E. in schools (Földes et al., 1982).

Post-war ambitions concerning P.E. (1849-1867)

In Spring 1849, after the expulsion of the enemy Hungary proclaimed its autonomy and the dethronement of the Habsburg Monarchy. However, in the beginning of July, the aligned forces of the Imperial and Tsarist armies marched against the revolutionary Hungary. After a devastating defeat sanctions were taken. By the means of the 1867 Compromise Hungary gave up most of its state autonomy, recognized primary importance of the subsistent unified empire. The transformed empire was referred to as Astro-Hungarian Monarchy, which existed until 1918. After putting down the revolution, Haynau eliminated all social organizations and institutes in Hungary. For the representatives and pioneers of P.E. job loss and forced enrollment in the army were waiting. It was only after the fall of Haynau (1850) when institutionalized P.E. became possible. From the academic year of 1850-51, the Organisations Entwurf, developed by Károly Than came into operation, which fitted gymnastics among the special (voluntary) subjects. The Eger Cistercian Secondary School (1856), Győr and Ungvár elementary schools, as well as the

97 collage of Sárospatak (1858) stood out in the introduction of school P.E. (Földes et al., 1982).

Physical education from the Compromise till World War I (1867-1918)

Following the Compromise (1867), the case of education policy had come to a settlement. During the administration of József Eötvös, Minister of Religion and Education, teaching P.E. with regards to simulated fights was made compulsory not in secondary schools, but in junior and senior classes in public elementary schools. This act was based on the 1868. XXXVIII. Act on Public Education and Service. According to the act besides teaching German gymnastics, the teaching of the exercise program, fundaments of methodology also belonged to the scope of the duties of the teacher training institutes. Between 1868-1912 the exercises of the so-called German gymnastics were characteristic regarding the structural construction of gymnastic classes. From 1870 experts were familiar with the Swedish physical exercises, however, these only got into the Hungarian curriculum later, after the turn of the century. Direction for secondary schools issued in 1868 contained physical exercises, military drills, exercises on or with equipments. Curriculum of 1870 specified military drills free and jumping exercises plus gymnastics in the lower grades of elementary school, which were expanded with military field- and simulated fights. The curriculum of elementary schools was basically corresponding to that of the public schools. Track and field exercises were given place in the syllabus in secondary schools. The syllabus materials and teaching books published during this period were assembled in the manner that not only qualified gymnastics teachers but also veteran teachers, sometimes janitors and the Wiener Neustadt NCOs could use them. (Földes et al., 1982). From the 1880s besides the Ministry of Defense and Culture, a growing number of social organizations took a stand for the introduction of physical education. The XXX. Act in 1883 ordained secondary schools to provide weekly 4 times of military exercises in freshmen and sophomore years, and 2 lessons in junior and seniors years with regard to physical education. Due to the resistance of the schools, the execution of these plans was delayed. The proposal of

98 Albert Berzeviczy in 1889 (“The domestication of scholastic physical and training exercises”) was one of the first steps taken in order to transform gymnastics classes into physical education. As a result, the extension of physical education by exercises and games taken from the folk P.E was proposed. The bill of 1899 lowered the number of classes to 2 lessons, but imposed 1 class of outdoor activities per week as well as skating afternoons. It was only in 1905, when the syllabus of elementary schools included the right number of classes in P.E., where the main emphasis was in action games. Under the terms of the bill of 1908, Swedish basic pedagogic exercises were introduced in 15 minutes duration every lesson. Gymnasia were equipped with Swedish banks, wall bars, vault and trampoline. With the purpose of being more intensely time efficient, teamwork gave place to class work. Evolved in the 1910s, a so-called Hungarian Physical Education system was in force until the 1940s and was based on Swedish gymnastics as well as on elements of German gymnastics, games and English outdoor games. P.E. classes had triple structure (warm-up, teaching, calming down the body) (Báthori, 1985).

Hungarian P.E. between the two world wars

During the government of the 1st Hungarian People’s Republic (16th November 1918 – 19th March 1919.) in addition to reorganizing the Hungarian sport life, proposals were made concerning the reform of school P.E., democratization of schools as well as making the training of P.E. teachers up to date. László Nagy had an outstanding role in proposing reforms, and therefore he is known in posterity as “The Hungarian educator of culture”, “the organizer of the Hungarian experimental-psychological-pedagogical laboratory” and “guiding pedagogue”. 21st March 1919 the Hungarian Republic of Council was proclaimed, so the cultural revolution took off. (Republic of Council = social, political and economic revolution. People take over the power). “Life’s most important treasure is the educated mind and the healthy body” – says one of the posters of the Republic of Council. László Nagy continued his professional work. In his assemblage, “The institutes and plans establish by the Comissariat of Education”

99 included “In every scholastic syllabus physical education stands foremost” (Donáth, 2007. 168p.) The Hungarian Republic of Council lasted only for 133 days (1st March 1919 – 1st August 1919). Reforms, measures and plans could not be carried out. In March 1918 new curriculum was developed for secondary schools, elementary schools as well as for boys and girls separately. Remarkable reform proposals were made: break away from the militant-minded German gymnastics and attain a sort of multifunctional P.E. that relies on modern medicine, biology, results and experimental methods of children’s studies. The positive effects of Swedish gymnastics (exercises based on anatomical and physiological knowledge, as well as preventive and posture correction exercises) must be implemented. Radical change was needed in the mentality of teaching physical education, the material and in systematic teaching. The primary goal of P.E. was to raise a hardworking, long living human who is able to create, act and fight, is well trained both mentally and in character. For the first time in the history of Hungarian P.E. it appeared that in addition to physiological effects, P.E. had aesthetic, moral and communal impact on their work as well.

The Horthy Era (1920-1944)

After the defeat of the Hungarian Republic of Council on 1st March 1920 the Parliament elected Miklós Horthy as governor. The new political and social structure tried to recover the positions lost in the field of physical education and sport. Featured task was to fully militarize the Hungarian school system – as military reinforcement. Military exercises were meant to have a dominant role in physical education – regarding pre-school education and all other school types, too. The Ministry of Religion and Education resisted open militarization, instead they thought covert militarization was more effective. In December 1921, the National Assembly adopted the 53th Act of 1921, the Act of Physical Education, which was later called the “Levente” law (Levente = young souldier). Thereafter public school P.E. became pre-school training for the military. The physical education constraint was achieved through legislative level. Regular physical education was made compulsory in state schools for both boys and girls. Extracurricular P.E. was obligatory for boys only

100 until the age of 21. It is only in 1924 when the law took effect. This action tried to hand over more and more influence to the Hungarian Scouts Union regarding P.E., especially in using the time of summer vacation for physical activities. It specified the recording of those obligated to physical education, and their directing to the Levente fellowship. Constraint of Levente was a covert militarization of physical education by securing the dominant role of military training. Count Kunó Klebelsberg, Minister for Education had a decisive role regarding the training of P.E. teachers (he established the Hungarian College of Physical Education, 1925). He was an advocate for covertly militarizing physical culture. On the positive side, in the concept of Levente education, physical education was considered equal with moral and intellectual education by the Minister. Development of the cause of P.E. depended on the proceeding of the Levente movement. Getting used to fighting and being defeated was supported by the theories of English Common Sport Pedagogy. In his opinion the training that was carried out by the army must be substituted by the means of sport. Between 1928-1930 the concept of the Levente movement unambiguously prevailed in the form of school physical education, military drills, simulated fights and military knowledge. In trainings military methods were used. Exercises were focused on strength and endurance training. Girls also had similar exercises. In 1941 militarization was intesified (Földes et al., 1982).

Hungarian physical education between 1945-1956. The Rákosi Era

Rákosi Era covers the Hungarian history between 1945-1956. It was named after the leader, Mátyás Rákosi, who established a Stalinist, totalitarian dictatorship, coming to the top of the power pyramid between 1947-1948. He had a new constitution and state coat of arms made in 1949 based on Soviet pattern. The Establishment of the police state and the era of terror was about to start. In the first period after the liberation (end of 1944 till the end of 1948) movement of sport and the revival of physical education was on the agenda. Teacher’s Union, - whose P.E. department discussed issues such as means, methods, aims of P.E., class lessons (suggestion: 3

101 lessons weekly, 2 lessons of games and sport), physical cultural tasks of schools, proposition of introducing P.E. in higher education - played a great role. The partial reconstruction of buildings, replacement of equipment or damaged items then the preparation of teaching could start at the College of Physical Education. (Földes et al., 1982). The first years of the development of physical education was characterized by building new ground for P.E., sensational successes and failures in sport. The second phase was between 1948- 1963, when based on the contemporary documents and terminology, the foundations of socialist physical culture were laid down. The start of the third phase dates back to 1963, this is the phase of the unfolding of the socialist body culture. In 1949 three sport high schools opened their doors in Esztergom, Kiskunfélegyháza and Pécs. From 1950s, following the Soviet pattern, education policy was subordinated to the interest of politics. The aim and content of education was determined by the system of socialist ideas. In the center of curricular aims was the breeding of the “socialist genotype”. Regulations on school physical education were issued in 1950. Through the curriculum introduced in the 1950s (operated until 1978/79), the administration wished to eliminate the authority and sovereignty of schools and pedagogues. In the academic year of 1962-63, universities and colleges introduced curricular P.E., so as pursuance of teaching-training work of secondary school P.E. was ensured. In December 1954 the Central Directorate of the Hungarian Labour Party was engaged in the issue of physical education and the movement of sport, and stated that besides the achieved results, the most neglected field was the school. In the beginning of August 1956, the Ministry of Education announced the new curriculum for primary schools (Földes et al., 1982).

Hungarian physical education in the Kádár Era (1956- 1988)

János Kádár spent an unprecedented length of time in the 20th Century Hungarian political life. He had been the number one factor of power for 32 years. As the Secretery General of the MSZMP (Hungarian Socialist Labour Party), he was two times Hungarian Prime Minister (1956-58; 1961-88). His personality and his politics

102 is called “kádárism”, or as many called it “goulash communism”. The Kádár system was a totalitarian socialist system. The reform of education system was carried out based on the 3rd Act of 1961. In the 1960-70s pre-school P.E. was developed as well as countervailing the increase of lifestyle diseases public school physical education received more and more emphasis (“Gyógytestnevelési tanterv és utasítás, 1965” - Curriculum of therapeutic exercises 1965). In the ‘70s the political committee pointed out the low quality, outdated content of requirements, and low number of lessons in physical education. Taking all the above mentioned factors into consideration, the works on the curriculum started in the ‘70s. On 1st July 1973, the Independent General Department of Physical Education and Sport went into force within the confines of the Ministry of Culture. It was responsible the primary, secondary and higher educational institutes’ sport programmes. In the first half of the ‘70s more and more data slipped out about the deterioration of youth physical fitness. Regulations were born for the sake of the development of P.E. Developing the pre-school system and physical culture were considered an emphasized task. From the academic year of 1973/74 the Minister of Education ordered 3 lessons of P.E. weekly in primary school. From September 1978, in primary and secondary schools, P.E. teachers were obliged to retain mass-sport classes indicated in the timetable. In the sport of primary schools, the student olimpics played a decisive role. In the academic year of 1977/78 schools were lacking 1000 P.E. teachers. Therefore the number of applicants enrolled in teachers’ training program was increased, so the deficit was reduced by the ‘80s. However the classroom teachers’ effectiveness at primary school’s was questionable. In secondary education 3 lessons of P.E. per week were compulsory from 1973. In 1974, secondary school clubs were acted upon. Concerning secondary school teacher supply, only in few schools did troubles appear, however the situation in vocational schools were far worse. From 1976 on new curricula of P.E. were progressively introduced. The curriculum of therapeutic P.E. was published as well. The health status of students was classified into 4 categories: healthy, those who take full part in P.E., those who have reduced P.E. and the exempts.

103 In 1973 physical education classes with specialized sport curriculum were started. This provision applied to 126 primary school classes and 23 secondary school classes. In the academic year of 1977/78, 22.749 students took part in 764 classes specialized in P.E. In 1st-2nd grade the weekly number of lessons was raised to 6, 3rd-4th grade to 8 lessons a week. Further important regulation was the application of the “performance book”, which was introduced in primary schools in the academic year of 1977/78, and in secondary schools in 1978/79. Its aim was to improve the self directed physical ability development. In 1978/79 new educational curriculums were published.

Educational curriculums of 1978/79. Evolution of the new conceptual framework of school P.E.

These curriculums (both primary and secondary school) are included in the line of centralized and prescriptive curricula. Curricula specialized for P.E. specified the initiation of requirements and tasks necessary to optimal physical development of students. They set the aims to establish and shape health-related sanitary culture and unprompted health defending habits. Furthermore the development of physical/mental capacity and improvement of physical and intellectual fitness. The specialized curricula of 1977/78 in addition to the characteristics of centralized curriculum, proved to be productive, firstly because of implementing eligibility and presence of curricular approach. Although it was within the confines of traditional frames, it tried to emphasize the physical cultural transmitting role of P.E. through the high standards of the subject. It also contained novelty as well: optional outdoor activities and winter sessions. Declared aim of the curriculum was to develop intellectual skills through deriving theoretical knowledge and basic level of curricular integration.

104 Physical education since the change of political system in 1989, the democratic Hungary

From the change of political system till the first National Core Curriculum (NAT) 1995

In Hungary, the efforts to renew the public education system already occurred before the political transition. Public education began to rupture the framework of the party-state and the pedagogical theory and practice became more diverse (alternative pedagogy, strengthening reform pedagogical trends - Rogers - school, Komp - school, Value transmitting and Ability developing School, Waldorf School). The first government (Antall administration) decided on a plan to establish the minimum national core curriculum. However, the adoption took only place during the second government (Horn administration) in 1995. This was the National Core Curriculum (NAT) 1995, which “was made to be a regulatory document to be supreme to all types of schools” (Eszterág, 2010, 85.p.). The NAT 1995 introduced on 1st September 1998, had two substantial consequences: it marked the educational- political intention in the execution of the decentralized, bipolar curricular regulation, and generated a structural debate. The curriculum introduced in the preceding political system, the “socialist” curriculum was still in force in the academic year of 2002/03.

Major characteristics and effects of the first National Core Curriculum (NAT 1995) in regard to P.E.

The National Core Curriculum 1995 (Nemzeti Alaptanterv, 1995) is a tool of an EU compliant, development-oriented curriculum and decentralized education management. Pedagogical programs and local syllabuses are based on the NAT. Requirements of the generated local curriculum were considered as positive development regarding P.E. Implementing the previous curricula was namely compulsory however, institutional and equipment supply made it impossible in most schools. Among its virtues we can list the approach of the curriculum and the expansion of its content. Topics

105 like “Combat exercises and games”, „Self-defense in Martial Arts”, “Prevention, relaxation”, “Rhythmic Gymnastics” and “Prevention” appeared. Downside of it is though that the curriculum constricts the value developing role of P.E. to motor sphere of the personality. Another handicap of the NAT 1995 is that it assigns the number of lessons in percentage among educational areas. Practically the number of P.E. in upper classes and in secondary schools decreased from 3 times a week to 2-2.5 times a week, it was only in lower grades where they could preserve 3 times P.E. classes per week.

“Frame Curricula” 2000

Following the amendment of the Educational Act in 1999 (1999. évi LXVIII. törvény a közoktatásról) the content regulation became three-staged. In the first stage, the National Core Curriculum ensured the uniformity of public education (by its principles, featured developmental tasks). In the second stage it provided (NAT compatible) methodological support, optional frame curricular recommendations and methodological software package resources. In 2000, the only, and therefore binding, frame curricula was introduced by which the bipolar, three-staged education management was materialized. (It should be noted that related to the 2003 and 2007 NAT, 65 frame curricula were created). 19th December 2000 was an important date in the history of P.E.: requirements met the legal conditions for daily physical education in 1-4 grades in public education (2000. évi CXLV. törvény a sportról).

National Core Curriculum (NAT) 2003

The Article 93 of the Public Education Act 2002 (2002. évi XXI. törvény), ordained the supervision of NAT 1995, a correction based on an empirical analysis. The NAT 2003 (Nemzeti Alaptanterv, 2003), the result of the supervision of NAT 1995, preserved its basic features but broke the traditions at several points. One of the most fundamental changes is that it does not contain detailed contents and requirements. Developmental tasks described the desired skills, capabilities and competencies. The essence of the concept of generating curriculum: to provide opportunity for the

106 urgent need to inaugurate the development of Hungarian education in order to make the pedagogical alternatives appear in school practice. Therefore NAT 2003 not directly but indirectly defines requirements for knowledge, skills, and abilities. (Rétsági, 2004, 41.p.)

NAT 2003, Field of Physical Education of Sport

The objectives of the NAT 2003 recognized that physical education not only develops motor skills, but has also mental, emotional and social directions and effects. New feature is that it draws attention to forming an emphasized lifestyle; knowledge to substantiate life and conveying beliefs and virtues. It lists features that need to be developed in order to prepare for social life and develope cultured manners. In addition it implies to the educational effects on selfexpression and selfrealization through physical education and sport. The developing exercises are conducive to acquire independent and conscious physical activity and general physical literacy through laying down the basics in lower grades of primary school (1-4.), then improving the already assimilated knowledge in higher grades (5-8.) and orientating towards age specificities in secondary schools.

National Core Curriculum (NAT) 2007

The objectives of the NAT 2003 recognized that physical education not only develops motor skills, but has also mental, emotional and social directions and effects. New feature is that it draws attention to forming an emphasized lifestyle; knowledge to substantiate life and conveying beliefs and virtues. It lists features that need to be developed in order to prepare for social life and develope cultured manners. In addition it implies to the educational effects on selfexpression and selfrealization through physical education and sport. The developing exercises are conducive to acquire independent and conscious physical activity and general physical literacy through laying down the basics in lower grades of primary school (1-4.), then improving the already assimilated knowledge in higher grades (5-8.) and orientating towards age specificities in secondary schools.

107

National Core Curriculum (NAT) 2012

In December 2011, the Parliament approved the 2011.CXC. Act on national public education. Some of the elements of the new public education law are centralization of public education institutes put into force in January 2013; cutting down schooling age limit from 18 to 16 years of age; local syllabus of school may differ from the NAT in no more than 10% of the content (Nemzeti Alaptanterv, 2012 ; Frame Curricula 2012). NAT 2012 was made in the spirit of the Public Education Act. In NAT 2012, in contrast with NAT 2007, competencies were de-emphasized and the contents of public education received a central role. The change in this educational- political approach had a positive effect on school physical education, first and foremost on introducing daily P.E. In regard to the infrastructural situation of P.E., schools were to choose from two opportunities: 1) five classes of P.E. weekly within the confines of the school timetable, 2) three classes of P.E. within the school time schedule, plus adequate lesson of extracurricular sport activities (3+2 system). Legal specification meant a great leap forward, because many schools had only enrolled two classes per week until then. A frame curricula was made for both variations and all types of schools.

Physical Education and Sport in NAT 2012

With regard to the novelty and vocational quality compared to the previous curricula, we present NAT 2012 in more details. The curriculum assigns its mission in two areas: holistic health promotion in schools and talent management. Its novelty can principally be caught in the act of having holistic prescriptions similarly to the genre of prescriptive curriculum (detailed system of goals and tasks, a full definition of the content). In respect of professionalism it stands out from the other curricula with its coherent set of objectives and contents outlining a type of physical education that has such a new quality, in content and in methodology of school P.E.

108 The definitions representing the most essential virtues of NAT 2012 can be grouped around key expressions such as health orientation, personal and social features. Both traditional and modern contents of physical education that serve the realization of curricular objectives are split into three age periods (1-4th.; 5-8th.; and 9-12th grade), and into two years of content that are closely bound up with each other (motor literacy - culture of movements; knowledge and personality development). The coexistence of these two unities of content express the complexity of motor skills and the tightly connected cognitive, affective and social skill development, which typical for the area of literacy. Linking the two main unities, the essential feature of physical education can be revealed. Firstly, that shaping up motor literacy/culture of movements can only be performed thought knowledge connected to motor content. On the other hand, it is unimaginable to socialize to a long lasting, health- conscious lifestyle without empirical knowledge (Csányi & Révész, 2015). The content unity of knowledge and personality development is one of the elements of recent and innovative curriculum. NAT 2012 is the first to handle the theoretical knowledge, information transmiting role of the area of physical education and sport literacy (Rétsági & Csányi, 2014) according to its significance. Another novelty is the definition of the range of cross- curricular, interdisciplinary knowledge (physiological, hygienic, communicational, historical, ethnographic, recreational knowledge), as well as the appearance of the developing field of “Prevention, life management, health promotion”.

“Frame Curricula” 2012

Serving the developing approach of NAT and Frame Curricula, the process of acquiring the motor content of P.E. and sport is both the aim and the tool. Therefore the thematic units of frame curricula can be grouped according to the aim, means and the nature of the motions. Fundamental movements dominate in the 1-4th grades, then the toolkit of motor literacy is progressively extended by traditional and alternative sport specific motor skills in 5-8th grade. Teaching playfully and through games is a leading methodological principle, moreover communication that serves the shaping up of cooperation, creativity and consciousness is highly

109 emphasized. Physical activities that are based on preliminary knowledge appear as a developmental aim within the confines of units of the mentioned frame curricula. As a consequence educational and developmental objectives of the thematic unit – based on the specific and typical educational and developmental goals and objectives of P.E. – are solved by logically building on each other. It consistently takes age and pedagogical features of the subject and the sensitive periods of development into account. Not only does it have an impact on physical components, but also on the whole personality (mental, emotional, physical and social domains). Motor literacy is attached to the expansion of knowledge and personality development. It also indicates interdisciplinary linking points of each thematic unit. The results expected by the end of every two-year unit determine the most prominently expected elements of knowledge and skills. The Frame Curricula also makes a proposal on the number of lessons devoted to each topic in the upcoming two years. Legally, local school curricula may only differ from the Frame Curricula in 10% of the content, which, in principle, represents a major limitation. However, the creators of Frame Curricula have integrated so many options to choose from that every school, considering local possibilities, can shape the local school curricula to their own image.

The T.E.S.I. Project and the NETFIT® for helping the implementation of the NAT 2012

Making the transition to the new curriculum and estabilishing a new, health-related and criterion referenced physical fitness assessment battery presented a huge challenge for the Hungarian PE system. To ensure a positive outcome, the Hungarian School Sport Federation (HSSF) proposed a training and education program that would directly support the implementation of the new National Core Curriculum. The specific HSSF initiative (Strategic Actions for Health-Enhancing Physical Education or Testnevelés az Egészségfejlesztésben Stratégiai Intézkedések [T.E.S.I.]) was officially launched in 2012 with the financial help of the European Social Fund and the Hungarian government, and it creates the structure for the structured PE development in Hungary. The TESI project focused on three important areas for enhancing P.E.. The first

110 area was the establishment of a formalized strategic plan called Physical Education Strategy 2020. This comprehensive plan includes four main strategic goals that capture the conditions for quality PE (e.g. infrastructure, human resources, professional qualifications and curriculum development). A second priority was the creation of an educational training framework and resources needed for Quality Physical Education. This included preparation of books, creating videos, and the distribution of resources needed to implement the new curriculum. The focus of these resources was on content not traditionally covered in PE Teacher Education (PETE) programs or in-service trainings in Hungary (e.g. a student centered instructional models, tactical games approach in games, stress control and relaxation, health-education materials, fundamental movement education). The third component of the TESI project was the development of a new, national school based fitness assessment system. The health-related physical fitness assessment system was planned to fulfill the long term need for a standardized evaluation system in the Hungarian PE profession (see Csányi et al., 2015). The qualitative and quantitative evaluation of the T.E.S.I. and NETFIT® initiative will be an important work in the near future.

REFERENCES

Báthori, B. (1985): A testnevelés elmélete és módszertana. TF. Budapest. Csányi, T. & Révész, L. (2015). A testnevelés tanításának didaktikai alapjai – Középpontban a tanulás. (1. kiadás). Magyar Diáksport Szövetség, Budapest. Csányi, T., Finn, K.J., Welk, G.J., Zhu, W., Karsai, I., Ihász, F., Vass, Z. and Molnár, L. (2015). Overview of the Hungarian National Youth Fitness Study. Research quarterly for exercise and sport, 86(Sup1) S3-S12 Donáth, P. (2007). Nagy László beszámolója az iskolareform, a gyermekvédelem s a gyermektanulmányozás ügyeiről - 1919. augusztus. Új Pedagógiai Szemle, 57(7-8),164- 178.

111 Eszterág, I. (2010). Tantervi változások 1989 és 2010 között. Új Pedagógiai Szemle 60(5), 84-85. Földes, É., Kun, L., Kutassi, L. (1982). A magyar testnevelés és sport története. Sport kiadó, Budapest. Gyógytestnevelési tanterv és utasítás (1965). Tankönyvkiadó, Budapest. Rétsági, E. & Csányi, T.(2014): Nemzeti alaptanterv 2012, Testnevelés és sport műveltségi terület - az iskolai testnevelés új kihívásai I. Magyar Sporttudományi Szemle, 15(59) 32- 36. Rétsági, E. (2004). A testnevelés tantárgypedagógiája. Dialóg Campus Kiadó, Budapest- Pécs.

Cited laws and regulations

Nemzeti Alaptanterv 1995. Művelődési és Közoktatási minisztérium. Melléklet a 130/ 1995. (X. 26) Korm. rendelethez. Retrieved from: http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/gen/getdoc.cgi?docid=99500130.kor

1999. évi LXVIII. törvény a közoktatásról szóló 1993. évi LXXIX. törvény módosításáról. Retrieved from: http://www.complex.hu/kzldat/t9900068.htm/t9900068.htm

2000. évi CXLV. törvény a sportról. Retrieved from: http://www.complex.hu/kzldat/t0000145.htm/t0000145.htm

2002. évi XXI. törvény a közoktatásról szóló 1993. évi LXXIX. törvény módosításáról. Retrieved from: http://www.complex.hu/kzldat/t0200021.htm/t0200021.htm

Nemzeti Alaptanterv (2003). 243/2003. (XII. 17.) kormányrendelet módosításáról. Magyar Közlöny, 2007. 102. sz. 7640–7795. Retrieved from: http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/gen/hjegy_doc.cgi?docid=A0300243.KOR&cel para=#xcelparam

Nemzeti Alaptanterv (2007). 202/2007. (VII. 31.) Korm. rendelet. a Nemzeti alaptanterv kiadásáról, bevezetéséről és alkalmazásáról

112 szóló 243/2003. (XII. 17.) Korm. rendelet módosításáról. Retrieved from: http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/gen/getdoc.cgi?docid=a0700202.kor

Nemzeti Alaptanterv (2012). 110/2012. (VI. 4.) Kormányrendelet a Nemzeti alaptanterv kiadásáról, bevezetéséről és alkalmazásáról. Retrieved from: http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/gen/hjegy_doc.cgi?docid=A1200110.KOR

20/2012. (VIII. 31.) EMMI rendelet a nevelési-oktatási intézmények működéséről és a köznevelési intézmények névhasználatáról. Retrieved from: http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/gen/hjegy_doc.cgi?docid=A1200020.EMM

2011. évi CXC. törvény a nemzeti köznevelésről. Retrieved from: http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/gen/hjegy_doc.cgi?docid=A1100190.TV#lbj1p aram

51/2012. (XII. 21.) EMMI rendelet a kerettantervek kiadásának és jóváhagyásának rendjéről. Retrieved from: http://net.jogtar.hu/jr/gen/hjegy_doc.cgi?docid=A1200051.EMM&ce lpara=#xcelparam

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank Ms Andrea Ember for the for the valuable comments that help improve the manuscript.

113 ITALY

THE PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN PRIMARY SCHOOL IN ITALY FROM THE PROGRAMS TO THE NATIONAL GUIDELINES AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION TEACHER TRAINING (PETE)

Dario Colella, Degree Course of Motor Activities and Sport Sciences , University of Foggia Amalia Tinto, S.U.I.S.M. - School of Physical and Sports Education - University of Torino Stefania Cazzoli, S.U.I.S.M. - School of Physical and Sports Education - University of Torino

Correspondence Colella Dario [email protected] Mobile: (+39)3476680998 Phone (+39)0881309334 Fax (+39)0881309346

Abstract

The Documents ministerial (Ministry of Education) for the teaching of physical education in primary schools in Italy, in the last thirty years, have shown significant changes in the structure and terminology regarding disciplinary epistemology, aims and objectives, didactics indications. The historical evolution of school regulations has affected the development of the physical education but are not there have been specific measures for the training of teachers. The first evidence regards the name: Moral, civic and physical education (1955); Motor Education (1985); Sports Science and Sports (2004); Body and Movement (2007); Physical Education (2012). The evolution of the philosophical, pedagogical, psychological and educational theories have characterized the programs and the teaching of the physical education in schools. The Documents have expressed some essential

114 themes: the transition from planning for goals to the Programming competences, the personalization of educational intervention, the curricular organization for learning units, the specific learning objectives for education to civil coexistence; the goals for the development of competences and the vertical curriculum.The generalist teacher education in physical education limits the implementation of the teaching process and the various national and regional projects are a partial answer to the problem.

Introduction

In Italy the teaching of physical education in primary school was marked by profound changes: the evolution of the philosophical, pedagogical and didactics theories, laws and organization of school, the need to redefine teaching models, the need to respond to changes in society. The teaching of physical education in primary schools in Italy, from the eighties to the present, has been marked by significant changes resulting from various factors: the evolution of the laws and of the school organization (self-government of school), the need to respond to changes in society, the need to adapt education systems to the latest scientific evidence, about the processes of teaching and learning. The terms used in the programmatic documents are the result of a long process but expressed uncertainty epistemological and methodological and a difficulty in recognizing a real disciplinary autonomy (Fig.1). In the National Guidelines (2012) reappears finally the term Physical Education (used worldwide) and reaffirms clearly of the disciplinary the contribution to the educational process of the person. In fact, are defined the goals for the development of competences at the end of primary school and the learning objectives at the end of the fifth class, for all schools in the Country The implementation of the learning process requires the structure of a vertical curriculum (kindergarten to middle school) and personalized, through the learning units. An open question concerns the generalist teacher education and cooperation with the specialist teacher (Expert) for physical education in the curriculum in the primary school.

115 The various national projects (2010-2014) and regional responses are provisional and partial: concern some classes and for a limited period of the school year.

The programs of primary school. Moral, civic and physical education (1955)

The process of teaching and learning over the years, has been conditioned by the philosophical and pedagogical theories. In Italy in particular, in the programs of primary school the physical education is with the moral and civic education (Moral, civic and physical education). The name indicates a reference to the philosophical dualist theories; the man expresses two ways of living and acting, as body and spirit. According to the dualism in the individual there is no continuity or possible cooperation between the activities sense- perceptual-motor and cognitive functions.The programs contain instructions and guidelines for the physical education activities for the first cycle (first and second class) and the second cycle (third, fourth, fifth grade). The program is a summary of the elaboration time on the pedagogical way of thinking about the values of the physical education in to a training project aimed at children. The aims of the physical education are as follows:  Hygienic-physiological. Health promotion, prevention of paramorphism, the development of respiratory and muscular functions and motor executions correct;  Recreational and expressive. The various physical activities, the exercises and the games are the motivations for children to enable them to express themselves and communicate;  Moral. Physical education is a way to adjust the physical energies and direct them to the child's educational goals ethical, personal and social. The ministerial document expresses a particular attention to the physical and corporeal aspects of the child. Such attention is expressed as part of a vision implicitly dualist: between mind and body, between the cognitive and motor functions are not allowed mutual relations. In teaching the dualism expressed with the physical education has two purposes, opposed to each

116 other: training technicist or the recreational activity spontaneous.

The programs of primary school. Motor Education (1985).

The text of the programs of primary school (DPR 12 February n. 104;1985) of Motor Education [the term used in Italy has expressed the teaching of physical education in primary school] expresses a synthesis of various theories and practices of motor activities for children and adolescents, present in years past. In the Programs the motor education is an autonomous discipline and with a clear identity didactic and pedagogical (Fig.2). The scientific conceptions that have guided the program are, essentially, the phenomenology (Merlea-Ponty,1945), the cognitivism / structuralism (Bruner, 1967) that express the unity of the person and the education and the overcoming of every dualism. Each discipline is a tool of knowledge to learn how to learn.

•Moral, civic and physical education 1955

•Motor Education 1985

• Motor Sciences and Sport 2004

•Body and Movement 2007

•Physical Education 2012

Fig.1 – Physical Education in the primary school in Italy.

117 The innovation disciplinary is determined by the following factors and perspectives: a. the unitary conception of the person, considered in the interdependence of functions and variety of experiences; b. the motor experiences of the child gradually contribute the evolution and development of cognitive, emotional and social-emotional during childhood; c. physical education is not considered a marginal discipline of the school curriculum, because it is characterized by specific content and educational values are realized through multiple interdisciplinary and transversals connections; d. motor activities in the school curriculum are not sports premature nor recreation, to be integrated into the development process of the person. The Programs affirm the value of corporeality that expresses the unity of the person and the levels of development cognitive, motor, emotional, social-affective and mutual relations, in relation with the motor experiences. Corporeality is considered:  expression of the unity of the person;  mode of relating through the gestural expressiveness and postures (language);  learning mode through the motor function. All learning takes place through the body and movement: the movement for all children is one of the languages (expression and communication) through which mediation occurs between the person and all learning (Giugni,1986). The programs show that motor activities promote the development of all aspects of the personality, cognitive, organic-motor, emotional and social and indicate the directions of development curricular:  education through the body and movement;  education of the body and movement;  education to the body and movement These directions will be a constant focus for the curriculum in the subsequents documents (2004,2007,2012). The education through the body and movement highlights the function of mediation of the experience motor for cognitive, emotional, motor and social development of each child and the contribution of the discipline for promote learning in all areas of curriculum (Arnold, 1988; Colella, 2011).

118 The motor activities promote learning of topological concepts (space, time, quantity, quality and their relationships, in relation to the body, the tool, the other, the environment), the resolution of the problems, the development of relations interpersonal. The structured motor activities conducted at school have a key role in the processes of motor learning of the child and the experiences are very related to the physical self-efficacy, at the perception and to awareness of their skills and self-evaluation of the results achieved (Bandura, 1993). Through multiple and varied activities and organizational modalities, it provides an essential contribution to emotional development, particularly in the enjoyment and the learning intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000; Chunlei & Buchanan, 2014). The education of the body and movement expresses the gradual process of learning skills and development of the motor abilities. Motor activities have a fundamental role to enrich the language of the engine and complete the process of literacy of the engine (Gallahue & Cleland., 2003). The motor literacy is a learning process that enables to all children to acquire a linguistic repertoire-motor, used not only in motor activities but also in other areas of the curriculum in close relationship with the learning of reading, writing, mathematics, art and music. The first stage of the process of education of the movement is the development of perceptual motor skills, auditory, visual, tactile, kinesthetic, which through the perception of multiple information relating to the analyzers, allows the child to structure a correct perception and self-awareness, develop many different answers through the fundamental motor skills (crawling, rolling, walking, running, jumping, throwing, grabbing, kicking, etc.). The fundamental motor skills, are the alphabet of movement, the matrices of each subsequent learning of motor skills, through the interaction of variables executive, spatial, temporal, quantitative and qualitative, and mutual relations. The concepts of space, time, quantity, quality, and their relationship, when applied to one or more fundamental motor skills are variants, or ways to perform the motor skill and combine different motor skills (Sotgiu & Pellegrini, 1989; Wrisberg & Schmidt, 2000; Gallahue & Cleland, 2003). The variants of the movement are generalities, rules, concepts, for the evolution of learning, interaction of fundamental motor skills,

119 transferable in different languages and, therefore, transverse to the learning of skills in different areas of the curriculum. Through the execution of motor tasks in which they express the relationships between the fundamental motor skills and the variations of the movement, it realizes the process of learning of motor skills, gradually more specific, in relation to sports and the development of motor abilities coordinative and conditional (Wrisberg & Schmidt,2000). The teaching process will tend to acquire each child "the broadest base motor" of the fundamental motor skills (number and variety), ie, a repertoire of motor skills, essential for motor development and the educational process. The motor experiences motor to school are among the essential determinants of the educational process of each child: their reduction or absence limits the opportunities for growth and development and affects the links between cognitive, motor, emotional and relational. The education in the body and movement indicates a rich and articulated process that completes the curriculum and involves various areas of pedagogical intervention with which motor activities enter into relationship: nutrition education, environmental education, road, citizenship, affectivity, health education, with the broader meaning (Bertagna, 2004). The movement education indicates interventions for understanding the preventive role of motor activities, the promotion of physically active lifestyles and well- being; a path that will accompany the child even in subsequent educational levels. The game-sports is an indication of absolute novelty for programs of primary school (1985); methodological and teaching is an indication for: a. realize the broader repertoire of individual motor skills; b. develop motor experience in a playful, varied, investee; c. assist in the conduct of activities gradually more organized (group games and team, individual sports, dance, expressive activities, activities in different contexts).

120

Physical Education in Ministerial Documents – Italy Moral, civic and Motor Education Motor Sciences Body and Movement Physical Education physical [1985] and Sport [2004] [2007] [2012] education [1955] Finality Finality Objectives Promote the Skills and Hygienic- development of Knowledge The body and perceptual physiological abilities related to the For the first class; functions. sense-perceptual the second and functions. third class (first The body and its Consolidate and two years); fourth relation to space and refine, a concrete and fifth classes The movement of the time. Recreational and level, the (second two years) body and its relation to expressive fundamental motor Specific learning space and time. skills static and objectives: dynamic essential to  Movement ; the control of the  Expression; body and to the  Game and organization of sport; movements.  Education Contribute to the and social The body language as a The body language as a development of life mode of communication- mode of coherents relational expressive. communication- behaviors through expressive. verification, lived in Moral experience of the game and sports, the The game, the sport, the The game, the sport,

121 need for rules and rules and fair play. the rules and fair play. playing by the same rules also developing the abilities of initiative and problem solving. Connect the motricity to the acquisition of skills related to Safety and prevention, Health and wellness., communication and health and wellness. prevention and safety. gestural mimic, dramatization, to the relationship between movement and music, to improve the sensitivity of expression and aesthetics

Fig. 2 - Aims and objectives for Physical Education in the Documents Ministerial (1955; 1985; 2004; 2007; 2012).

122

The game-sport promotes the acquisition of a map of individual knowledge, combining the motivations of the child and the general and specific objectives of the primary school. The game-sports is an opportunity to experiment with new methods of execution, new rules, different ways of solving problems, it is not immediately sport, is not related to the individual and team performances. The transition from playing the sport can be realized when every child will have understood the meanings of participation, rule, role, comparison, competition, results and performance, through educational proposals and teaching styles adapted and proportionate to the individual levels of organic development, psychological, emotional and social (Giugni, 1986; Arnold,1988).

The National Guidelines. Motor sciences and sport (2004)

The National Guidelines (2004) they renew the documents and the discipline is called "Motor Sciences and sport". The change of the term follows the development of standards for the Italian universities and indicates an area of learning and education, from primary school to university. The pedagogical and psychological reference consists of the motor competences teaching. The school autonomy is the background and institutional innovation most important legislation from 1985 to 2004. Each school sets its own plan of training offer and a reference curriculum for all classes. The National Guidelines contain specific learning objectives, broken down by skills and knowledge to be achieved at the end of: first class; second and third class (first two years); classes fourth and fifth (second two years), in order to learn motor competences The specific learning objectives, are prescriptive for all schools in Italy, relate to the motor learning, the development of the motor abilities, perceptual, conditional and coordinative (motor skills, expression, game and sports) and are the basis for the drawing up of educational objectives, peculiar to the curriculum of each school and group of children (Bertagna, 2004). The educational objectives - with an indication of the performance standards for each group-class- are needed to the teacher to prepare the learning units and personalized study plans.

123 In the Indications are confirmed in the directions of the development of the previous curricular program but the teacher of primary school will have to programme (and implement) a curriculum for competences using motor skills and knowledge for each class-group. The Programming for motor competences in the school curriculum indicates a major breakthrough that highlights the cultural and methodological formative values motor activities. Each motor experience accomplished by the child, requires an understanding of what has been done and the results achieved, the mastery of concepts, terms and definitions, the application of skills and knowledge in different contexts (Arnold, 1988; Colella, 2003; Ubaldi, 2005). According to this perspective, the motor learning is a process in which the child has an active role, is aware of the skills performed, revises the information about the task and the context in which it is located, expressed skills and knowledge. The motor learning is influenced by the styles of teaching and learning and the potential of individual development (Mosston & Ashworth, 2002). A process of motor learning, is achieved through the continuous interaction of factors, motor abilities-skills, knowledge, attitudes of the person that evolve according to different rates and vary according to the individual processes of maturation - learning - individual development (Malina, 2004; Gallahue & Cleland, 2003; Colella, 2011). The first stage for the structure of the curriculum in the document is the definition of the objectives, in terms of motor skills and knowledge resulting from specific learning objectives (the same for all schools). The educational objectives confer organic unity and direction of learning, (the temporal sequence of experiences of teaching and learning), respond to specific individual needs and are divided according to their greater or lesser correlation with the motor competences. The teacher identifies the educational goals for the group of children and proposes the learning units, to facilitate the learning of motor skills and knowledge necessary to skills. A motor competence is the practical use of knowledge, is the practical application of one or more knowledge and indicates a close relationship between knowledge, skills, interpersonal skills (Colella, 2003; 2011).

124

The Guidelines for the curriculum. Body and Movement (2007)

The Document of 2007 presents the learning objectives (Fig.2) that the teacher uses for programming of the curriculum; is a document more concise than the previous. Essential characteristics: a. identifies four core themes, each with a different number of educational objectives; b. the targets for skills development are established in two periods: at the end of the third class and fifth class. The structure of the document providing for the establishment of the curriculum starting from the objectives set at the national level (the number is less than the previous document) and gives the teacher a wide range of choice and adaptation the objectives. The core themes for define the objectives: a. the development of perceptual motor skills; b. the development of motor coordination through the execution of fundamental motor skills and variant embodiments; c. learning and skill development of mimic-gestural through activities, body expression and dramatization; d. motor learning through games of pre-sport, individual and team, cooperation, safety and prevention and health promotion (Fig.2). The educational objectives show that motor competence is the capability of the child to express appropriate behaviors to a broad spectrum of areas (disciplinary) and situations (practices), through a repertoire of motor skills, sports and mimic-gestural, knowledge and individual motivations (Colella,2011; Pisot,2011). The result of learning of the child, in the curriculum for competences, is the use of motor skills and knowledge in a given context. A motor competence expresses the integration of knowledge (knowledge), motor skills (the skills) and behaviors. The goals for the development of competences at the end of primary school the child include: a. self-awareness through the performance of fundamental motor skills and variability of the practice; b. skills through experiences mimic-gestural experiences of expressivity and rhythmic music; c. the relationship between physical activity and healthy eating habits and lifestyles physically active according safety and prevention; d. the experimentation of various motor skills. The game remains a learning environment essential because it allows the

125 child to experience motor skills and adapt; is an opportunity to experience relationships with others and develop the primary motivations to move. Subsequently, the implementation of the game requires the introduction of rules, fundamental for the development of the social dimension of human behaviour. The sporting experience is the process of the motor development, emotional and social development of the child and the experience of the game and sport expresses gradual stages of maturation and development of the person until the age of puberty. The motor and sports activities promote also the culture of respect for others and respect for the rules (fair play) and are an area of social inclusion.

The national guidelines for the curriculum. Physical Education (2012)

The National Guidelines (2012) express the return of the name a shared in the various nations, Physical Education, also used in the secondary school degree. The document highlights is the continuation and the revisiting of previous welcoming the recent scientific evidence and good practice more widespread. The national guidelines for the curriculum of the school system are the answer to rapid social change, the role of the school that interacts with other learning contexts (not formal) and recognizes that the loss of the monopoly of education and training (Ministry of Education, 2012). In particular, the document is the educational background and normative for allow each institution to draw up a curriculum adapted to the needs of the different local school communities, while respecting the freedom of teaching. The physical education has a structure similar to the previous document, but with three differences in content (Ministry of Education,2012). The first difference concerns the core themes and learning objectives: they are further reduced (Fig.2) and terminology to indicate the skills and knowledge are precise and concrete, indicates the person. The core themes and learning objectives are integrated and interdependent on each learning unit and motor experience. The second relates to the goals for the development of competences: is it clear what the child should learn and express in various areas (development of the motor abilities, the learning of motor skills and

126 mimic-gestural; the game-sport; promotion health through lifestyle physically active). The third difference is that in physical education (and the disciplines of the non-verbal language) the objectives are achieved at the end of the cycle of primary school (five years) to highlight the motor literacy process. Consequences: the core themes and the corresponding learning objectives allow in each school of decline the objectives for the five classes; highlighting the vertical curriculum, the educational continuity, progression of motor competences and the cyclicity of learning. Finally, the core themes predispose possible aggregations disciplinary necessary to achieve interdisciplinarity and expand the formative values of physical education. The term game sport is present between the learning objectives; is a topic full of interdisciplinary relationships and cross. The process of sports education starts in primary school through the proposal of the variability of content and will continue during preadolescence, through the evolution and consolidation of motor skills, the development of emotions and interpersonal relationships, in relation to learning opportunities proposals. The sports experience at school is an opportunity to experience motor skills through content and activities that mobilize the area psycho-affective and social, for their cyclical nature (vertical curriculum), become occasions for growth of the person (Seclì & Ceciliani, 2014). The core themes and learning objectives provide a complete educational process. The motor activities, the game and sports, are a primary need of the person in childhood and the school is a very rich and privileged context to promote the self-perception, learning of motor competences and to acquire physically active lifestyles for throughout life, through proper disciplinary action. The motor activities and sports promoting, since primary school, the culture of respect for others and respect for the rules, are the vehicle for social inclusion and contrast to issues related to the discomfort childhood. In the various Italian regions have been planned and implemented numerous measures of training and education of teachers to guide the implementation of the national document; in physical education the main problem concerns the generalist teacher education and the ways of cooperation with the specialist teacher.

127 Physical Education Teacher Training (PETE)

The sport, exercise, physical activity and movement educational dimension are general described as Physical education (Borms, 2008). The term and the concept of Physical Education (PE) changed and evolved in the time. In the International document of UNESCO (1978) the PE was became fundamental right of children. In the last MINEPS V (2013) PE was declared part of the sport system as complementary function in the society for educating the students versus the future citizen. In the 2013 Unesco Berlin Declaration glossary has defined the “physical education is understood as an area of the school curriculum concerned with human movement, physical fitness and health. It is focused on developing physical competence so that all children can move efficiently, and safely and understand what they are doing, which is essential for their full development, achievement and for lifelong participation in physical activity” (ICSSPE, 2010). The PE was became a multi-system paradigm by organization based on different levels: A. education by sport, exercise, physical activity, movement.(cultural and value level); B. physical education as school curriculum subject (educational level); C. physical education as science of the family of sport science (scientific level); D. physical education as profession and PE teacher training (Cazzoli, 2014). In the West oriented country was used Physical Education for scholarly physical activity. In the last decade there was orientation to use “Sport pedagogy” and “physical Education” in all educational activity, in different settings, target groups, in all the domain of human movement and sport. The focus was extended from children to the age of all life, from pre-school skills and abilities to all special people (with disabilities, elderly), from the school environment to all the institutions of the community (ICSSPE, 2008). The PE was became the science of sport based on the teaching and coaching (Borms, 2008;Cazzoli 2015) . The PE teacher training needs new paradigm for improve the PE quality in the 3rd millennium. “The high quality teaching has become one of the key objectives of the

128 Strategic Framework for Education and Training (‘ET 2020) (European commission, Eurydice,2013), as contribution to economic recovery, growth and jobs. The high quality of teaching need to provide development of multi-system teacher education in longitudinal/vertical continuity (time continuity, in the long life learning, perspective):  initial teacher education;  continuous professional development for teachers and trainers;  make teaching an attractive career-choice. And in transversal/horizontal continuity (place continuity, in the education multi-agency and stakeholder perspective): University; School; Professional Community; Culture and Society (Cazzoli, 2015). In Italy the PE teachers are generalist, they are certificate for to teach all the school subjects. They attend at the University Master in Science Education for Primary and Pre-primary school. (5 academic years, one cycle, 300 CFU -University Formative Credit). The University curriculum parts are: Basic Discipline 78 CFU ( Pedagogy, Didactics, Psychology, Sociology); Area1 School Knowledge disciplines 135 CFU (Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Music, Literature, Linguistics first language, Mathematics, Physical Education, Geography, History, Art); Area 2 Disciplines for Special Needs and Students with disabilities 31 CFU ( Special Pedagogy, Psychology , Legal disciplines and sanitary). Other activity: apprenticeship in the schools setting 24 CFU; Technology Laboratory 3 CFU; European Language Learning – Level B2 12 CFU; Final work for Master Thesis 9 CFU. The Physical Education university course is 9 CFU (8 for lecture – 56 houres; 1 for Laboratory). The "professional knowledge" as "the set of knowledge and skills that are needed to operate successfully in a particular profession". The knowledge necessary to the teaching profession are many, diverse, composite, heterogeneous. Professional competence is built with the transition from academic knowledge to know act / action in the process of teaching and learning (Cazzoli, 2015) "Teachers' professional knowledge can be of 3 types: Disciplinary Knowledge acquired in university education; Knowledge of

129 professional training in higher education; Knowledge of experience acquired through practice in the school" Knowledge professions are not only the combination / amount of practical knowledge, technical, scientific but the 3 knowledge must be reinterpreted according to the logic of taking account of: purpose, values, inscription in temporal context. The teachers knowledge are reconstructed in the work (working knowledge of M. Kennedy, 1983) (Cazzoli , 2015) The pre-primary; primary and secondary school pre-service PE teacher training was in according with : structure; training level and duration; characteristics and duration of the internship in school; treatment guidelines on training; methods and selection criteria for access to teacher training; alternative track training to teaching. The PETE needs the development across three questions: 1st Task of PE in the school in 3rd millennium; 2nd Competencies of PE teacher for in order to the task; 3rd Consequence for drawn contents and structure of PETE (Cazzoli, 2015).

1st TASK

It is necessary the definition of basic issue of the concept of PE and PETE by three domain:1. PE and the improvement of students fitness training; 2. the PE is a pleasant and recreational in accordance with the learning oriented school day; 3. teaching-learning enterprise for facilitated the students acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes and to develop emancipated, satisfying and lasting participation in the movement culture. It is import emphasise the task of PE teacher is a professional teacher and not fitness educator (fitness trainer, entertainer/recreational guide). The PE task aspects are summarize at three levels: a) Micro tasks: the hearth of the profession by task of planning, realization and evaluation of teaching-learning situation concerning embodiment, exercise, games and sports in the formal lesson dimension, classroom setting in the gym or play/sport ground; b) Meso-tasks: the internal professional relationship by tasks to cooperate and to share with the frame of the school organisation and school community;

130 c) Macro-tasks: the external professional relationship by tasks to cooperate and to share with education agency (local, national, international), professional and social networking with sport clubs, fitness centre and other sport related agency.

The micro tasks contains are:  planning and development plan of lesson (single or coordinated in a series) in according with the frame of the national curriculum and with phases of mental, physical and motivational student grow, development management and organize positive learning climate and atmosphere in according with the theory of communication, motivation and warrants the psychological, social and physical safety for all the students;  planning of clear learning setting goals in each lesson and educative activity  predisposition, adaptation and flexibility arrangement of learning situations (equipment, furniture, space division, organization of the workgroups)  communication to the students, parents, school community of the clear learning setting task  provision of instructional feedback and other support to the students participation at the PE class, programme, curricula;  management of the conflicts between students, by themselves;  evaluation planning and management of the process of students learning, individual progress (qualitative and quantitative);  evaluation planning and management of quality of the teaching process (self-evaluation, external evaluation);

The meso tasks contains are:  participation at the PE department activity/consultation in order at school PE programme, school educative programme;  management the PE equipment, furniture, materials (acquisition, surveillance, take care);

131  planning and management curricular and extracurricular sport activities (in-outside, in-outdoor);  participation at the school staff meeting, commission, bodies, events;  management the parents contacts, communication and relationship;  management the tutoring on the students class.

The macro tasks contains are:  planning and management the contacts, communication and relationship with the local sport authorities;  planning and management the co-operation with local sports clubs and other sport agency;  planning and management the students sport orientation and support the students involving in the local sport club;  management and organization the participation at the extramural sport meeting (Cazzoli, 2015).

2nd COMPETENCE

The European education trend showed the curricula translating from contents to the competencies paradigm. The national education system give the general indications and the final standards. The singular school institution became responsible of planning, decision making and managing of local curricula in order at the national guideline frameworks. The teacher degree freedom is largely implemented (Darling-Hammond, Wise and Pease, 1983). The teacher decision making responsibility is highly for arranging the daily and local teaching with national standard. The teacher profession become based on decision making profession as doctor in medicine, advocate, manager. The teacher training needs new competencies model and paradigm based on the knowledge, understanding for resolution of problem in real and life in situations (WHO, 1993-1997; Cazzoli, 2014). The PE teacher decision making profession needs the development of international and national support by line-guide, textbooks, standardized test, examinations applications, professional evaluation

132 and feedback protocol, deontology code and professional protocol shared by scientific and professional community (Cazzoli, 2015). The PE teacher professional function in the high autonomy degree is generally more complex for the specific teaching environment and setting by knowledge, understanding and competencies about : repertoire of teaching techniques, educational value and goals, self – evaluation and judgment of professional decision making by the function of “reflective professionals”(Shavelson & Stern, 1981). The PE teacher reflective professionals is also oriented at the student learning. The PE is education is focused on: the physical education (education aimed to develop to physical performance) the movement culture (education aimed to develop by/thought the movement; to acquire the movement knowledge, skills, attitude and competence; to emancipate, satisfying and lasting participation at movement culture by social and cultural approach). The PE school and PE teacher work are an intersection of schooling and movement culture in the domain of embodiment, movement, exercise, play, dance, sport (Crum J., 1995). The movement culture is historical situated and social constructed. The exercise and sport practices are oriented by movement-technical issues, embody and reflect the ideological, political and economic context. The students point of view are continuing in change (Tinning & Fitzclarence, 1992).

3rd CONSEQUENCE

The PE teacher is reflective professional in order to movement and youth cultures: The PE teacher needs theoretical support frames for inspection and judge of movement culture, schooling phenomena. The pedagogical knowledge is special amalgam of contents for foundation of PE professional knowledge (Shulman L. 1987). It is the theoretical base for understanding the transformations from sport, performance skills, movement learning in the PE values and attitude in according with the young age and the schooling context (Feiman-Nemser S., 1990). The PE or Sport pedagogy became the teaching and coaching science of the family of Sport Sciences (ICSSPE, 2008;Cazzoli 2014).

133 The PETE program needs the curricula based on: sport sociology, sport pedagogy, teaching methodology, teaching supervision/tutoring, sport skills grounded in the social PE social construction and students learning needs, cooperative teaching and learning strategy in the educational departments (Academic and school setting). The biomechanics, exercise physiology, physical activity psychology, sociology, pedagogical, sport skills courses needs focus on the relevance of contents and organization in order at the teaching and coaching context (Cazzoli, 2015). In all international documents the teacher and qualified training is fundamental element for to develop the Quality of PE (QPE) (ICSSPE, 2010). The recommendations asked to improve the academic levels for enter teaching and the quality education programs from early 1980s (US National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983). The revolution was initiated gradually and in the time become the evolution and it is stills ongoing. The reform changes shaped contents and conduct of Physical Education Teacher Training (PETE). The new structures of PETE programs: the initial certification passed from 4 years to 5-years programs path/curriculum. It is award of a Master’s degree. The standard- based teacher education and accreditation defined the specific content standards for preparing new teachers. The National Association for Sport and Physical Education (NASPE) wrote standards for PE teacher in 1995. They were the base for development of National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE).The PETE programs are under NCAPE accrediting process every five years. The university officials and faculty prepare the NCATE standards review (Cazzoli, 2015). The Pete license and program contents are oriented at the Curricula area based on: University Core curriculum; Professional core; Sport Science and movement content; Curriculum and pedagogical methods; Practica and students teaching. The debate is open on “profession versus discipline”: advocates of professional education and advocates for disciplinary study. The debate influences the distribution of university credit hours in teacher education programs. (Metzler M., 2003). The European model become the similar after the Process of Bologna (1999) The criteria maybe it is balance between the sport

134 science discipline (power of scientific core) and the teaching science (professional core, movement contents, curriculum, pedagogy, field- experience) (Cazzoli, 2015). The PETE conducts are based on students engagement strategies to learn knowledge contents (sport science scientific core) and pedagogical contents (sport pedagogy and teaching core) . The evolution need shift model from traditional lectures methods (students passive learner: attending at lectures, taking note, studying on the text and preparing predictable types of examination) versus active model students involvements (using interactive engagement strategies, cooperative learning, sport education principles and rules, authentic learning building with theory addressed at the practice application in the teacher professional work-competence orientation; self-assessments of personal learning process and understanding (Cazzoli, 2015). The students pedagogical knowledge engagement in PETE courses for teaching was oriented at traditional methods with approaches: historical (studying the history of the sport pedagogy); peer teaching in the university location (adults aged). The new method is Field- Based: pre-service teacher are instructed school aged children before the formal student teaching experience. The field basing PETE in based on: pre-service teacher learns curriculum and instructional methods by teaching in PE classes of children, in the regular PE school setting. The Field Based concept is the development of the Professional Development School started in 1990s. The Field Based became also university credit hours in the PETE curriculum and it allowed more efficiently and efficacy pedagogy knowledge and teaching science and competences development. The regulation the teacher education was government developed by fixing: entry qualifications for teacher education programs; background check on students; require for teacher pass standardized examinations; require test for approval certification; criteria for teacher educator qualifications; teacher education programs scrutiny by regular reports (Cazzoli, 2015). The PETE needs researches for improve the efficiently and efficacy. The government teacher education studying is in the general about workforce teachers, demographics and qualifications trend data. The teacher education researches are generally generated from departmental, college and university support, but it wasn’t so

135 diffused the research on PETE. From 1980s the PETE scholarship received impulse by: educational journal became included the publication of PETE research; proliferation of association and conferences focused on issue related PETE (NASPE, AIESEP); body PETE knowledge was developed by perspectives based in constructivism, post-modernism, critical and comparative pedagogy (Metzler M., 2003; Cazzoli, 2015). In the Italian primary school from 2010 were on-going national projects for implementation of Physical Education. The projects were based on the cooperation between the MIUR (Minister of Instruction, University and Research) the CONI (Committee Olympic National Italy) and Presidency of the Council of Ministers of the Italian Republic. The project were focused on the participating of generalist primary school teacher and specialist teacher of Physical education and Sport Science (teacher training and certification in the Faculty/department of Physical Education and Sport). The project characteristics were: Alfabetizzazione Motoria (Motor Literacy) 2010-2013,.on 2013 it involved 3500 schools, 25,000 classes, 500,000 students; Progetto Primaria (Primary Project ) on 2014 (the data will be available on 2015): The project 2015 Sport di classe (Class Sport) is on-going and the data will be available on 2016.

CONCLUSION

The analysis presented has traced the evolution of discipline in the curriculum of the Italian school, to identify the constants and the elements of innovation and the process of teacher education The teaching quality of physical education in primary schools is a much discussed topic among experts of the sciences of human movement, the primary school teachers, school administrators, parents of children, the world of sports associations territorial. In recent years the scope of public health has demonstrated particular attention to the teaching of physical education and to the interdisciplinary relationships. The time is ripe for a quality education in physical education; the discipline has its own identity and a specific repertoire of pedagogical content and organizational methods.

136 The current National Guidelines are a fundamental reference for designing physical education at school and to propose interventions related extracurricular physical activities and sports childhood and youth and the necessary interactions and additions [school- community]. Numerous and recent scientific evidence and claim that the curriculum of physical education properly conducted, allows you to to obtain benefits for motor development of the child (Lonsdale et al., 2013). The most effective measures to prevent and combat the sedentary habits, in fact, they start at school, privileged setting for health promotion through lifestyle physically active (Chunlei & Buchanan, 2014; Cripple & Faith, 2014; Colella, 2014). Also is well demonstrated the contribution of physical activity curriculum for the cross-cutting objectives, eg., cognitive development and school performance, emotional-affective development, motivation, self-efficacy and physical enjoyment, basic constructs for the direction of life skills education (Bryan & Solmon, 2007; Goudas, 2007; Hillman et al., 2014). The game and sport are content and organizational modalities peculiar of physical education that, through the fair play, accompanies the maturation of the interpersonal relationships of the child and that the rules for civil coexistence. The Indications to favor interdisciplinary relationships and planning between school, sports and health, no longer put off.

137 REFERENCES

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141 LITHUANIA

PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE LITHUANIANS SCHOOL: SINCE ITS ORIGIN TO THE END OF THE XX CENTURY

Arūnas Emeljanovas, Faculty of Sport Education; Lithuanian Sports University Daiva Majauskienė, Faculty of Sport Education; Lithuanian Sports University

Correspondence Arūnas Emeljanovas [email protected] Phone: +37061540405

The Lithuanian state was established in the XIII century. After the christening of Lithuania in the XIV century, schools were established. The embryos of physical education in schools appeared already after establishing the first school under Vilnius Chapter in 13871. It may be the beginning of organized physical education of children although physical education as a separate subject did not exist in schools for a long time. The attention of the state to physical education in schools only grew in the period of the Enlightenment. The physical activity of pupils became higher in 1773 when the Educational Commission established by one of the first world ministries of education in Europe introduced physical education as a separate discipline in schools2. It is said in the document issued in 1774: „It is said in the instructions of the Educational Commission of the state of the Polish Kingdom and Great Duchy of Lithuania that „... children should not be pampered; children must adapt to cold, discomfort and troubles so

1 Šapoka, A. (1989). Lietuvos istorija. Vilnius: Mokslas. 2 Ten pat.

142 that they become strong, mobile and enduring“3.Thus, according to the decision of the Educational Committee, physical education of children, especially in secondary schools, was legitimized as an optional subject and it was mandatory in some schools. It was the first case in Europe when the state started taking systematic care of physical education of young people in schools. In 1792 the children of Kraziai school exercised with sticks (fenced), performed military duels and learned to use weapons. In the period of the Education Commission, visitors took care of the hygienic condition of schools and physical preparation of children. Visitor J.Chodzka wrote in his report about Ukmerge school: “The most popular games are games with a ball (maybe the games of the type of battledore and square) because Lithuanian children like them most and play by running. There are no exercises (...), little attention is paid to physical education“4. It is obvious from the reports of the Educational Commission that exercising is mentioned among other forms of physical education at the end of the XVIII century. In 1795 there was the first division of Poland-Lithuania and Lithuania got into the composition of the Russian Empire. In 1803 the Tsarist Government following the political intentions did not include physical education as a subject in the plans of schools. After the rebellion of 1831, the regulations of schools compiled according to the Russian model were introduced to Lithuania. The Tsarist officials and officers, who worked in Lithuania, took care of physical preparation of their children. They invited different foreign specialists of physical education (especially from France) – these were fencing, riding, shooting, lawn tennis or swimming “professors” who organized small circles for lovers of these branches of sport. Some Lithuanians also belonged to them. There were some ads in the local press, especially in the magazine “Dziennik Wilenski”, inviting to learn fencing, shooting, riding or art of dancing.5 Bishop Motiejus Valancius preached a sermon in 1834 and expressed a new attitude towards games and entertainments in

3 Lietuvos kūno kultūros ir sporto istorija (1996). Vilnius: Margi raštai. 4 Lukšienė, M. (1970). Lietuvos švietimo istorijos bruožai. Vilnius. 5 Lietuvos kūno kultūros ir sporto istorija. (1996). Vilnius: Margi raštai.

143 schools. M.Valancius recognized the significance of games and physical exercises as means of relaxation after hard mental or physical work. The situation was better in the Small Lithuania which had come to Prussia after the third division of Poland-Lithuania. H.Cymus, who was a teacher in Klaipėda, started cultivating swimming in the Dane river in 1831 and Vydunas, who was a teacher in Kintai, taught physical education beside other subjects6. After the Russian revolution of 1905-1907, the influence of the empire was lower in Lithuania. The number of secondary and semi-secondary schools and pupils was gradually growing in Lithuanian gubernatorial places. However, there were no physical education lessons in the learning plans of gymnasiums at the beginning of the XX century7; there were exercising lessons as an optional subject beside music, singing, dancing and handicraft lessons. The specialists with special preparation taught in gymnasiums, special secondary schools and cadet corps. 2-3 hours per week were mostly intended for physical education. Physical education in Lithuanian schools was based on Sakalai exercising and the Swedish and German exercising systems were less popular. During the World War I, Lithuania was occupied by the German army and schools almost disappeared – most teachers and pupils of secondary schools were evacuated to Russia. Then, the German Government allowed organizing schools in the local languages, but poor material conditions did not allow paying any attention to physical education. After the World War I ended, the Lithuanian state regained its independence. According to the experience of other countries, the physical education and sport system was started. A few physical education programmes were developed. The first programme of physical education for primary schools was called ,,Gymnastics and games“ and issued in 19198. It is quite simple but also difficult, because it was divided not into periods according to children‘s age but according to months (month I

6 Ten pat. 7 Žukauskas, K. (1960). Iš Lietuvos mokyklos istorijos. 1905-1907 metai. Vilnius. 8 Dineika, K. (1935). Kūno kultūros raida mūsų pradžios mokykloje. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 1, 42-44.

144 – Swedish and Norwegian gymnastics, month II. – German gymnastics, month IV – high jumps, long jumps, jumps over the goat, climbing a rope, climbing a pole, months VII-X – football, crocket, relay-race, swimming, principles of fence and so on. The defect of this programme was the fact the material was chosen without considering a child‘s age and it was not divided into periods of age and forms. In 1925 the second programme of physical education of primary schools ,,Exercising, programs of games“ was passed9. Its base was made of the system of pedagogical gymnastics by P. Ling, however, the creators of the programme hesitated between a Swedish method and a French method. This programme was already adjusted to children‘s age and sex. The children whose health was weak had to do exercises in separate groups, pull-ups, inter-struggle, climbing were involved for upper forms. The programme of physical education of 1935 was much more perfect. It conformed with the purpose of the practice of physical education for pupils - ,,to keep normal development of pupils‘ body, to train their capability, to motivate for hygienic living and implant habits of sociality“10. The material taught in the programme was divided following its purposes: I. Subjects of hygienic habits had to give the necessary knowledge; besides, the task of all kinds of gymnastics is to motivate for hygienic living. II. The gymnastics of capability had to train an employable body and train to keep one‘s ear open, to discipline and regulate. III. The gymnastics of alignment had to eliminate and correct corporeal defects. The forming gymnastics had to help to elaborate a good set and a move form for gymnastics and work. IV. The part of jokes and artistic moves had to train to use a move for a luxurious and artistic play. The tasks above had to be implemented in lessons of physical education and while organizing free time (games, camps, travelling). In the programme the material was divided following the periods of age: 7-9., 9-12, 12-15 years old, because the base of physical education is a child‘s natural physical and psychical development.

9 Ten pat. 10 Ten pat.

145 This programme of physical education is quite concrete: it defines both the content and the volume. Thus, after the World War I, the physical education lesson was included in the programmes of primary schools, however, it was practically absent because there was a lack of teachers who were able to teach these lessons, there were no rooms suitable for gymnastics and other exercises. The teachers of physical education were the people who had a bad understanding about this area. In 1923 there were just a few diplomate teachers of physical education. Their work was also aggravated by the fact a unit system of physical education had not existed for a long time. Teachers of physical education had to prepare and plan everything. Everything depended on teacher’s capability and ingenuity. There were no squares and rooms for gymnastics near many schools. Because of a lack of rooms, in winter physical education totally slept in schools. In 1924 R.J. who learned at the third form of Marijampole gymnasium remembers a lesson of physical education: „We usually ranked in the yard of the gymnasium after ringing the bell. The teacher came and greeted us: “Hello, fellows!” We answered: „Hello, Monsieur“ and went to the square of the gymnasium accross the road almost in front of our gymnasium. The square was small, there were very few devices for gymnastics. We sometimes did some exercises: arms forward, back, upward, downward (...). All these moves were performed with the tensed muscles of our arms, legs, waist. This gymnastics did not make our moves more flexible and beautiful. These artificial tough moves were performed with the compacted, tensed muscles in our lessons and they helped little to improve moves by the youth. The pupils who had had stiff bodies and moves remained like these.“11 While we were going or running during lessons, nobody took care whether we waddled like ducks or lowered our heads as if we were looking for lost money or the toes of one foot were turned outwards and those of the other inwards – the teacher did not use to correct those mistakes (...). We practised very few games except square played by everybody or battledore. Besides, we tried to play basketball, but we failed because we hardly observed any rules (...).

11 Narbutas, J. (1978). Sportas nepriklausomoje Lietuvoje. Čikaga.

146 The working conditions of our teacher were poor, especially in winter, because there was no sport-hall. So, we used to have our exercising lessons outside: after falling into line, we used to march a little or run a kilometre and came back. While it was raining, we used to spend our physical education lessons in the classroom, but our teacher did not use them and did not provide the pupils with theoretical knowledge about a certain branch of sport although they were so necessary.“12 On 17 June 1923 the championship of track and field athletics for Kaunas pupils was organized, a pupil of Kaunas „Ausra“ national gymnasium D. Toliusis especially shone there by doing a high jump 1,55 m, a long jump - 5,68 m, a high jump with a pole - 2,315 m. The most sporty gymnasia were Kaunas „Ausra“ gymnasium for boys and Marijampole Rygiskiu Jono gymnasium (A. Akelaitis, V. Razaitis, S. Sackus, A. Tamulynas and other good sportsmen learned there). In 1923 in the latter one the first Lithuanian sport clubs were established: a club for boys ,,Vaidotas“ and a club for girls ,,Mirga“. According to K. Dineika, in 1932 a new epoch of school life began13: In 1932 the law of physical education was passed, in 1932 the House of Physical Education (HPE) began to take care of physical education. The activity of the HPE involves two areas: a) physical education in schools b) physical education and sport by the organized youth. The development of physical education in schools, summer squares, kindergartens was arranged by the HPE in three ways: a) material conditions suitable for physical training were created and were stimulated to create; b) directly (attending schools, courses) and indirectly (programmes, VKKZ) leading the school work of physical training c) consequences of work were observed (health examination, holidays, championships and so on). According to A. Vokietaitis, in a primary school the subject of physical education was still supposed to be as a secondary matter

12 Ten pat. 13 Dineika, K. (1938). Fizinis lavinimas mūsų mokyklose. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 8.

147 in 193314. In many primary schools, especially in the country, physical education was not taught at all. The content and teaching methodology of lessons of physical education changed slowly. In 1933 V. Augustaitis- Augustauskas wrote: ”In our primary school the subject of physical education still is a completely technological subject, its lessons are isolated. It‘s time to relate lessons of physical education to social pedagogy, to artistic, hygienic and cultural factors of national politics.“15 After starting to implement the national system of physical education ,,Sporuta“, under the law by the minister of education K. Sakenis on 8 February 1933, two additional afternoon lessons by „Sporuta“ were introduced in gymnasia, in teachers‘ seminaries and secondary schools, all pupils were able to participate there after turning 1416. In 1933 V. Augustaitis-Augustauskas stated “in schools, the spiritual balance must be made; exercising corporeal forces by the youth must equally help to mature a personality, give it real joy, so that it becomes a man and dedicates for the nation‘s creation; training a body cannot become “sportsmanship”, it must remain a wide life for the youth where there is some place for expressing sociality. (…) It is necessary to refuse of vain sport rivalry, it is necessary to create new forms of physical education which are related to the principles of social education. Then it is possible to easily reach values of education by the House of Physical Education: health, resistance, discipline, working capacity, love of fatherland.“17 At the end of the 3rd decade sport holidays were prepared for primary schools, since 1930, they were also prepared for pupils of districts and parishes. In 1934-1935 33345 children participated in holidays of primary schools; 1935-1936 - 58189 children, 29110 participated in holidays, 29079 – in picnics; In 1936-1937 46949

14 Vokietaitis, A. (1933). Kūno kultūra kasdieniniam mokyklos darbe. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 190. 15 Augustauskas, V. (1933). Tautiškas valstybiškas pedagogijos sąjūdis. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 175. 16 Narbutas, J. (1978). Sportas nepriklausomoje Lietuvoje. Čikaga. 17 Augustauskas, V. (1933). Tautiškas valstybiškas pedagogijos sąjūdis. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 175.

148 children participated in holidays, 78827 – in picnics, 498 – in camps, in total there were 126 274 children18. These numbers show physical education was improving in primary schools, its forms tended to become more various by leaving the new programme of physical education for a reformed primary school. By the beginning of 1933, the holiday programmes of primary schools consisted of exercises (mostly of a geometric form), roundels, various games of running and with a ball, plastic exercises and simple dances by girls. Somewhere songs were included. In 1927-1930 the primary schools of Kaunas city prepared even 2-3 holidays according to this programme, 500 - 1000 people participated there. The purpose of these holidays is more demonstrative– walking, parade, gymnastics, races. After 1933 school holidays became more various, teachers showed their creation there. There were holiday programmes of separate schools, schools of country districts, children‘s camps, districts and parishes: 1. The programme of a school holiday consisted of these elements: hymn, explanatory word for parents, songs, declamation; outside gymnastics, roundels, relay-races, comic things, end; 2. The programme of a school holiday with a picnic: roundels and dances for young people; short demonstrative lesson; relay-races, dances and games for young people; fire, talking, performance, songs, final word. 3. The programme of a country school holiday: worship; walking in the village, putting a crown by the monument in honour of casualties; speech; hoisting a flag; lively word (initials of Lithuania or by the President); common gymnastics; songs; team games by boys among schools; gymnastics by girls; merry performances by separate schools; end of the holiday. 4. The programme of a district or parish school holiday: the first day: registration; accommodation in the places assigned; gymnastics repetition; lunch; song repetition; free time; supper; sleep; the second day: breakfast; repetition; worship; lunch; parade; hoisting a flag, speech, hymn; initials by the President; songs; performances by separate towns-villages; interschool relay-race; end. The development of school holidays show the primary school becomes more active: it gives children both the knowledge

18 Dineika, K. (1938). Fizinis lavinimas mūsų mokyklose. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 9.

149 and teaches to tidily communicate at holidays, picnics, camps. The primary school entered a new kind of life. Physical education as a factor of education gave a lot of various communication forms, they just needed to be able to use them and create the material conditions suitable for its development. By 1937 the pupils who wanted to go in for sports participated in the activity by sport organizations or clubs and in championships. The government of the Ministry of Education disagreed with it – it meant pupils ,,turned aside from the line of pedagogical education“, but they tolerated it for a long time. On 22.01.1937 the minister of education forbid pupils to participate in the activity of sport organizations and clubs. It was ordered to move all events only to schools, pupils were just able to represent their school at sport championships19. In spring of 1937 gymnasia started establishing sport companies (circles). In 1938 41% of the boys and 37% of the girls of state and private gymnasia to have these rights participated in sport companies20. Beside trainings and championships, these companies organized trips, lessons, evenings of physical education. Companies were divided into 2 groups - junior (by the IV form) and senior (from the IV form) ones. In mixed gymnasia there were separate sport companies for girls and boys. At the end of the 4 decade physical education became almost on an equality with other subjects in gymnasia. M. Baronaitė, A. Jurgelionis, S. Sackus, A. Vokietaitis and the others contributed to it much. In the 4 decade in the gymnasia that taught in Lithuanian, there were four lessons of physical education and military preparation for the boys of all forms, there were three lessons for the girls of I-III, VII forms and two lessons for the girls of IV-VI forms. Since 1935, pupils‘ Olympiads were organized, their programmes consisted of basketball, volleyball, track and field athletics and dancing (on 11-14.06.1935 about 1500 pupils participated in the Olympiad). After establishing the State Mark of Physical Education in 1936, schools paid much attention to the preparation and following

19 Lietuvos kūno kultūros ir sporto istorija. (1996). Vilnius: Margi raštai. 20 Diržius, K. (1938). Gimnazijų fizinio lavinimo kuopos. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 12, 36.

150 its norms. In the schoolyear of 1937/1938 the norms of this mark were passed by 522 pupils of 881 or 62,6% in gymnasia.21 In 1938 school-leavers of gymnasia had to obtain the State Mark of Physical Education instead of the final examinations of physical education. Some pupils achieved good sport results at the National Olympiad in 1938. In 1940 the Soviet Union occupied Lithuania and started the sovietization of the country. According to the programme of comprehensive schools of the USSR, a new physical education and military preparation programme was introduced to Lithuanian schools in 1940-194122. Since 1941, the pupils had to pass the standards of BRWD (Be Ready for Work and Defence) and RWD (Ready for Work and Defence). In 1941 the Lithuanian territory was occupied by Nazis and the sport movement was organized in the same principles as in the independent Republic of Lithuania. Championships of town pupils and students of different branches of sport as well as friendly intertown competitions were organized. In 1942 about 5500 young people participated in different competitions23. After the World War II, Lithuania was occupied by the Soviet Union again. The soviet physical education and sport system, which had started in 1940-1941, was restored and strengthened in Lithuania. In 1947 the Ministry of Education issued the physical education programmes for primary schools, progymnasiums and gymnasiums. In 1954 the head of the division of physical education of the Ministry of Education, A. Starovolskis took an initiative and introduced new physical education programmes for primary, seven- year and secondary schools which were mot adapted to Lithuanian conditions. They were based on the requirements of the RWD complex and sport classification, but they also had peculiar features. 2 hours per week were given for compulsory physical education in schools. Every pupil leaving from the 8-year school had to pass standards of BRWD and that leaving from the secondary school – first-grade standards of RWD. Pupils improved their sport excellence

21 Dėka. (1939). Valstybinis kūno kultūros ženklas. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 12. 22 Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F.933. Ap.1. B.1044. L.34. 23 Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 976, Ap. 1 B.2. L.58.

151 in sport schools of children under the system of the Ministry of Education and sport communities. Republican competitions of pupils were organized every year since 1946 and every two years since 1964. Since 1954 the Lithuanian selection of pupils participated in competitions of pupils of the Union. The first sport school was established in 1946. In 1958-1959 there were 6 profiled sport schools in Lithuania (Kaunas 23rd school: swimming, diving; Marijampole J. Jablonskis school: track-and-field athletics, swimming; Kaunas S. Neries: basketball; Kaunas 6th school: track-and-field athletics, swimming; Kaunas A. Mickeviciaus school: football, volleyball; Panevezys 5th school: sport games). In 1959 comprehensive schools started lessons from exercising every day. Mobile games were organized during pauses if possible; subject lessons involved physical education pauses and there were physical education lessons twice per week. There were physical education practices in day-boarder groups. In 1962-1963 the implementation of universal eight-year teaching was completed and the physical education system involved all 7-15-year-old children. As compulsory secondary learning was implemented in 1971, almost all young people until 18 obtained the elements of physical education and sport. At the end of 1970s, the schools applied morning gymnastics for pupils and recommended mobile pauses. In 1982, the physical culture credit was introduced for pupils of the final classes. It was the first time after the war that physical culture got among the final examinations of subjects. In 1984 the physical education programmes were specified in order to make physical education in schools a harmonious, scientifically based and consistent system. Attention should be paid that most pupils had an indifferent attitude towards sport, especially physical education, in the years of stagnation. Pupils of comprehensive schools exercised in two physical education lessons per week. However, it was too little. Besides, pupils often came to lessons unprepared and sat on the bench. According to the data, the young generation was weaker and weaker and fell ill more often every year. The research performed in 1989 showed especial worsening of physical condition of girls24.

24Stakionienė, V., Mieželytė, A. (1989). Mielos mergaitės, susirūpinkite ir savo išvaizda ir sveikata. Sportas, vasario 14., 3.

152 Taking into account of it, a group of Lithuanian physical education teachers applied to the Council of Ministers and Ministry of Education and asked to increase the number of physical education lessons in schools, provide them with sport facilities in the priority, move the preparative groups of sport schools to schools and include the checking of physical preparation in all matriculation examinations25. However, the above-mentioned suggestions were not accepted although certain measures were taken: morning exercising before lessons was introduced to schools and pauses became more mobile. Unfortunately, these measures did not catch on. Schools only consolidated the physical education credit. Little attention was paid to physical education of pupils in the years of reorganization. Although the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Higher and Special Secondary Education aimed to prepare physically strong conscripts for the Soviet Army, RWD badges and rank holders and the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Lithuanian controlled this work and adopted a decision for the improvement of this work every year, it helped little. In the reports submitted by these organizations, 99-100 per cent of young people had badges of RWD and were rank holders of different branches of sport, but it emerged after checking that fewer than one half of these young people passed the compulsory standards. In 1988 the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Lithuania decided to introduce the national checking of young people26 and compiled the Republican Commission for the determination of physical preparation of young people.27 It was decided to reorganize the sport management of pupils. The Ministry of Education and the Sport Committee adopted the decision „On the management of physical education and sport activity of pupils and its“28. On this basis, the division of physical education and sport of the Ministry had to manage the physical education process in comprehensive schools and the sport community “Work Reserves” had to manage post- school and out-school activities. Pupils were able to do sports in

25 Tūpienė, J. Ir kt. (1989). Kreipimasis į Lietuvos TSR Ministrų Tarybą, Lietuvos TSR Liaudies švietimo ministeriją. Sportas, rugpjūčio 24, 2. 26 Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 370. Ap. 1. B.14.L. 41. 27 Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 370. Ap. 1. B.7.L. 385. 28 Kas vadovaus moksleivių sportui. (1989). Sportas, Vasario 2, 6.

153 sport clubs of children. However, the material condition of most clubs was very bad. In 1988 the Sport Committee adopted the decision “On the tasks of the Republican sport organizations in the support of children’s homes and boarding schools” in order to obligate sport organizations to “turn around” to children’s homes and boarding schools. At the end of 1988 the conception of the national school was declared29 and the forces of Lithuanian pedagogues, scientists and artists were recruited in order to develop new educational programmes based on the education of the own nation, textbooks and means of teaching; the theoretical elements of the educational reform (conceptions of types of schools and educational contents) and juridical reform documents (Law on Education, regulations of schools etc.) were prepared. In 1990, the independence of our country was declared and the attitude towards physical culture also changed. Physical culture was treated as a holistic trend of physical education emphasizing the pupil’s physical nature, health, physical endurance considering his/her age, gender, way of life and right of a free choice, not only recording the results of physical preparation30. Mandatory physical culture practices are organized in schools according to the teaching plans and programmes set for those institutions. To sum up, it can be stated that physical culture has deep traditions in the Lithuanian school. However, it only became equal to other school subjects in the XX century. The national experience of physical culture and politics of adjacent countries in respect of Lithuania as well as educational models had a big influence on the total educational system of the country and physical culture in schools.

29 Lietuvos švietimo koncepcija. (1992). Vilnius: Leidybos centras. 30Išsilavinimo standartai. (1999). Vilnius Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija.

154 REFERENCES

Augustauskas, V. (1933). Tautiškas valstybiškas pedagogijos sąjūdis. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 175. Dėka. (1939). Valstybinis kūno kultūros ženklas. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 12. Dineika, K. (1935). Kūno kultūros raida mūsų pradžios mokykloje. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 1, 42-44. Dineika, K. (1938). Fizinis lavinimas mūsų mokyklose. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 8. Diržius, K. (1938). Gimnazijų fizinio lavinimo kuopos. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 12, 36. Išsilavinimo standartai. (1999). Vilnius Lietuvos Respublikos švietimo ir mokslo ministerija. Kas vadovaus moksleivių sportui. (1989). Sportas, Vasario 2, 6. Lietuvos kūno kultūros ir sporto istorija (1996). Vilnius: Margi raštai. Lietuvos švietimo koncepcija. (1992). Vilnius: Leidybos centras. Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 370. Ap. 1. B.7.L. 385. Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 370. Ap. 1. B.14.L. 41. Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F. 976, Ap. 1 B.2. L.58. Lietuvos valstybinis archyvas. F.933. Ap.1. B.1044. L.34. Lukšienė, M. (1970). Lietuvos švietimo istorijos bruožai. Vilnius. Narbutas, J. (1978). Sportas nepriklausomoje Lietuvoje. Čikaga Stakionienė, V., Mieželytė, A. (1989). Mielos mergaitės, susirūpinkite ir savo išvaizda ir sveikata. Sportas, vasario 14., 3. Šapoka, A. (1989). Lietuvos istorija. Vilnius: Mokslas. Tūpienė, J. Ir kt. (1989). Kreipimasis į Lietuvos TSR Ministrų Tarybą, Lietuvos TSR Liaudies švietimo ministeriją. Sportas, rugpjūčio 24, 2. Vokietaitis, A. (1933). Kūno kultūra kasdieniniam mokyklos darbe. Fiziškas auklėjimas, 3, 190. Žukauskas, K. (1960). Iš Lietuvos mokyklos istorijos. 1905-1907 metai. Vilnius.

155 LUXEMBOURG

THE HISTORY OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN LUXEMBOURG

Claude Scheuer, Faculty of Language and Literature, Humanities, Arts and Education; University of Luxembourg

Correspondence Claude Scheuer [email protected] Phone: +352/466644-9233

Abstract

Physical education was established in Luxembourg in the 19th century by the Germans Euler and Stammer, based on the ideas and conceptions of Spieß. At that time, lessons in gymnastics were first held on an optional basis (1848), then compulsory for preparatory classes (1860), and finally compulsory for classes of lower secondary school (1892). Back then, Gymnastics were recognized as a subject mainly because of their recreative quality compared to intellectual activities. In 1908/1909, physical education became compulsory in all school grades at all levels. Objectives, content, and methods were inspired by the Belgian example and postulated the rational method of the Swede Per Hendrik Ling. This concept did not experience significant changes until the beginning of the 1970s, when the Ministry of Education defined two major strands in the physical education curriculum: basic activities and sport- oriented activities. This curriculum had different parts for boys and girls, with a focus on traditional cooperative games for boys and rhythm and dance activities for girls. It was only in 1980 that the dualistic, utilitarian, and rational conceptions of the 19th century were replaced by a new curriculum based on actual scientific and pedagogical findings. This process led to a sport-oriented concept – similar to the concepts in place in German-speaking countries at that time – which was implemented in 1985 and remained in place until 2009, considering physical activities with educating, competitive,

156 exhilarant, and prophylactic aims. A new and very innovative curriculum concept was finally implemented in 2009.

Keywords: physical education, Luxembourg, curriculum, international relations

This chapter highlights the foundation and the development of physical education in Luxembourg over the two last centuries. Established in the beginning of the 19th century by a German teacher, physical education has known in Luxembourg – known well as one of the smallest countries in Europe – a quite slow development for several years, with more or less important influences coming from the neighbour countries. It was only in the end of the 20th century that major changes, based on scientific evidence, were implemented by the means of the curriculums for physical education. This development finished – for the moment – with the implementation of a very innovative and well-received curriculum by both the physical education teachers in Luxembourg and the German-speaking scientific community. This development over the years will be described in the following, closing by a short section on the relation between FIEP and physical education in Luxembourg.

THE BEGINNINGS OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION AT THE ATHENAEUM1 (1817-1970)

“Deutsches Turnen” (German gymnastics) is taught at the Athenaeum in 1818

A year after its conversion in 1817, the Royal Athenaeum already had physical activities in its programs. Indeed, in 1818, a German teacher, Heinrich Stammer (1785-1859), recruited through advertisements in major European newspapers of that time, introduced games sessions and “Turnen” (gymnastics) at the Athenaeum, during breaks and free afternoons for volunteer students. However, these actions were not to the liking of everyone, as evidenced by excerpts from a letter sent to The Hague by the

1 The Athenaeum is the oldest secondary school in Luxembourg and was founded in 1603 as a Jesuit college.

157 governor of Luxembourg at that time, mentioning, that the gymnastic games that Stammer gave first on the “glacis”, a field close to the city, were to take different attitudes of the body and make more or less difficult jumps. These innovations initially displeased friends of true education of youth, who could easily see the modesty of this age in danger of being sacrificed to false assurance. These oppositions, especially from the clergy of the nearby cathedral, were aimed primarily against Stammer. But they did not prevent him to open on its own, in 1837, a gymnastics school. It is interesting to see that a few years after the publication in 1814 of “Turnkunst” (gymnastic art) of the German “Turnvater” (father of gymnastics) Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852), gymnastics and popular games were already applied, on an optional and voluntary basis, with the sons of the high bourgeoisie in Luxembourg attending the new Athenaeum. At that time, there was no compulsory education (Decker, 2010a). The official program of the Royal Athenaeum in Luxembourg provided from 1836 to 1837 optional gymnastics courses for all classes. Decker (2010a) mentions contents like  articulation exercises; walking and running; jumping through a hoop, over ropes, sticks, students, a 4-12 feet wide ditch;  impulse exercises on the horizontally laid tree and on the through horse; bar exercises;  climb the greasy pole, the perpendicular and oblique pole and to the hanging rope.; climb a rope, using or without using the feet; climb the rope ladder;  fighting drills;  different cooperative games in the fresh air; short excursions. In the following years were added swimming and fencing. This program carries the signature of Professor Stammer and reflects completely the influence of Jahn, as well as that of Johann Christoph Friedrich GutsMuths (1759-1839) and his “Gymnastik für die Jugend” (gymnastics for the youth). The goals of this gymnastics did not follow purely hygienic purposes, as it was the case a few decades later, yet we do not know if Stammer taught it in the same rebellious, liberating and revolutionary spirit, that was rigor in the first gymnastics clubs created in 1849 in the capital of Luyembourg: “La Gym”, “La Fraternelle”, “La Libre” (Decker, 2010a).

158 In 1859, following Decker (2010a), gymnastics still appears as a mandatory subject for two hours per week at the Athenaeum’s program. As early as 1860-1861, gymnastic classes are mandatory in preparatory classes. The program includes “preparatory exercises, balance exercises and jumping exercises on the scale, parallel bars, on the easel, the frame and the trapeze”. These exercise classes were taught by gymnastics teachers, actually former non-commissioned officers or gendarmes that have been formed hastily by the German Charles Euler, born in Trier in 1809, and called for Luxembourg in 1847 to reorganize the gymnastics classes at the Athenaeum. Although gymnastics becomes mandatory from 1892 on for students of the two lower classes and optional for all other students, and becomes compulsory in all secondary classes from the academic year 1908-1909 on, its practical realization is disturbed by the lack of both qualified teachers, adequate facilities and materials. Until the 1937-1938 years, gymnastics masters had neither the title nor the rank of professor or tutor and were appointed by the government member in charge of education, on the proposal of the conference of teachers and paid by the body of the domestic service of the Athenaeum using some of the money collected as tuition fees. They were traditionally chosen among military or among other interested teachers. It was not until a decree in the end of 1935 that the conditions of appointment for master of gymnastics allowed the arrival of young teachers holding the qualifications of maturity, justified by a special preparation at foreign schools that have a one- year internship and, at the end of the course, a practical test. The first well trained teachers were Norbert Bourcy and René Bauler. They added, since the 1945-1946 years, an extra year of advanced training at the regional institute of physical education from the University of Nancy, to become the first “real” gymnastics teachers of the Athenaeum after the war. As for the sports facilities of the Athenaeum, the situation has improved with the New Athenaeum opening in 1964, with his two gyms, a swimming pool and a stadium with athletics track (Decker, 2010a).

The reign of the Swedish rational gymnastics (until 1970)

As for the offered content or, better, imposed on students throughout the first half of the last century as drills, it was primarily

159 rational Swedish gymnastics based on physiological and anatomical knowledge of the human body and recommended by a committee established by royal decree in 1906 for middle school reform of higher degree. In a ministerial statement of 1907 on the gymnastic and sporting exercises, it can be read that in schools, physical exercises serve a dual purpose: first, they tend to develop the forces of the body. On the other hand, they are called to oppose a welcome counterweight to intellectual effort to be observed by the students. The scientific or Swedish gymnastics – which Ling is the initiator of – was specifically designed for this purpose. It only includes exercises with helpful action on the body. These dualistic conceptions reserving physical education only extrinsic functions, countervailing and sanitary formed the theoretical basis until the 1970s (Decker, 2010a). These ramblings have still been uttered 40 years later by the Minister of Education, Nic. Margue, who writes in the foreword to the second edition of the “Practical Guide to Physical Education” published by Victor Decker in 1946: “In our advanced civilization era, where the joy that gives life is replaced by the enjoyments who brutalize, the faith that animates by the superstition that diverts, the outdoor movement by sedentary occupations and natural and healthy diet by the use of drugs and poisons, those became the benefactors of humanity who drew their attention to the need for physical education and the practice of muscular games. By bringing back the man to nature, referring to the inescapable demands of his body, they told him a way that should never have been neglected and allow him to be and act in the real world.” (Decker, 2010a, p. 23)

And Decker (2010a) continues, that “a primary school physical education will not be a branch of the program, called gymnastics and taught for some hours a week. Its purpose is not to teach a child the knowledge which he will use later in life or to teach him the tricks that would be of use for him. He does not run to get faster and when he climbs it is not to avoid the use of a ladder. Even swimming is

160 not primarily intended to save from death those that fall into water.” (Decker, 2010a, p. 24)

These abstruse views are far removed from current designs, with the unity of man with the “learn to move and move to learn”, with the acquirement of action competence in sports.2

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION CURRICULUMS IN LUXEMBOURG (1970- 2009)

Modern physical education and sports and current trends in curriculum development

Physical education lived, in recent decades, unprecedented changes in its history. In schools nowadays, providing physical education is not (only) to play sports. Although a large part of the population confuses the one and the other: to have physical education classes is not only to recreate and to have fun, even if the students are in need of this. Today, physical education has its own identity from kindergarten to university. It is a fundamental school discipline for the holistic development of the individual. Reading, writing, arithmetic do not help to learn to move. Just as there are reading rules and principles, spelling or math, there are rules and principles of motor action that students should know and use. The school shapes fundamental ways of thinking and it has to help building basic modes of action as well. Besides literacy and numeracy, it is physical literacy that should be developed as well (Decker, 2010a).

2 Indeed, in recent official documents from 1989 for primary education, the general objectives of physical education are formulated as follows: “Physical education is a fundamental discipline focused on the development of the person acting as a whole. She leads the child into a world where it increases the knowledge of its capacity to act and channels all his motor, cognitive and emotional resources needed to master the gesture. By allowing children to learn to move while moving to learn, it helps to achieve common goals in all education, namely, integration with the personality of different knowledge as disciplines, sometimes artificially separated, proposing to acquire, each achieving the objectives of its own.” (Decker, 2010a, p. 24)

161 With regard to a classification of the different stages the curriculum development in Luxembourg passed through, a first look across the borders into other countries, especially to Germany, where the redesign of curriculums has a certain really diversified tradition because of the federalism of the states, is undertaken. Overall, the curriculum development in Europe is heavily dependent on the current discussion on educational concepts in physical education and sports pedagogy. Nowadays, there are four main influences in the conceptual development of curricula, based on the current dominating concepts of physical education in Europe: physical education in the traditional sense, sports education, movement education and health education. The boundaries between the concepts in recent years become increasingly diffuse and lose selectivity (Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).

Appearance of sports content in curriculums: “Education Physique” (Physical Education) (1970 - 1985)

In 1970, the Ministry of Education issued a curriculum for the seventh grade still dividing the content into two large blocks (Decker, 2010a; Scheuer 2010):  Basic activities; analytical and rhythmic exercises exercises adapting to the natural environment and professional practice;  Sports Orientation: Learn the essential motor practices (traditional sports) and performing the basic activities outdoor (like e.g. athletics: run fast, regularly, jump high, away, throw away, precisely; apparatus: familiarization with the equipment, first aid training and parades; swimming: floating, breathing; propulsion; games: learning a range of small games of increasing difficulty; preparatory to the great games; learning the basic rules; outdoor activities: physical activities based in nature: introduction to folk dance and rhythm only for girls). As can be seen in the curriculum for the secondary level “Horaires et Programmes” (Schedules and Programmes) from 1972/1973 (Ministère de l’Education Nationale, 1972; Decker, 2010a; Scheuer, 2010), there were two different programs for boys and girls from the 10th grade on. It is to be emphasized that the

162 traditional team sports were reserved for the boys, whilst rhythmically dancing activities were designed exclusively for girls. Thus can be identified on one side an insistence on the dualistic, utilitarian and rational conceptions of the 19th century as well as a certain eclecticism in the formulation, but on the other side especially a more tense orientation on sports with games progressions and exercises ranging from simple to more complicated, with so-control criteria exercises for student assessment. Only in 1980 it came to a serious attempt at formulating, testing and implementing a curriculum which leaned on one hand on the latest scientific and pedagogical knowledge, but on the other hand, took into account the characteristic of Luxembourgish circumstances and resources.

“Education Sportive” (Sports Education) (1985 - 2009)

The result of this lengthy development and drafting process, which began with the creation of a first document in 1977, was the secondary school curriculum entitled “Education Sportive” (Sports Education), which was published in March 1985 (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985; Scheuer, 2010). A modern interpretation of the term “sport” as a wide range of possible physical activities with educational, competitive, exhilarating and prophylactic purposes came to the foreground. This detailed new curriculum, which from that moment on dominated extensively physical education at the secondary level for nearly three decades. Common among physical education teachers under the name “Blo Bibel” (blue bible), the curriculum was divided into five main chapters, which are summarized below. Chapter 1 made general considerations to a specialist curriculum for physical education at the secondary level. In a first part, the global objectives of physical education were described (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985, p. I/4):  Contribute to the development and maintenance of the necessary skills to well-being, as well as body awareness, coordination and perception  Contribute to the improvement of physical skills such as communication and expression

163  Contribute to provide information on body-related and sports activities, their rules, structure and effects, as well as its possibilities and limitations

Another point dealt with the specific objectives of the subject physical education (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985, p. I/6):  Contribute to the physical development of the individual  General motor education, resp. physical education  Specific motor education, resp. physical education  Education of psychological and sociological behavioral factors  Theoretical knowledge and understanding of the phenomenon “Sports”  Developing an awareness of the need for sporting activities

In the next section, first considerations to contents were made in a selection of subject contents at three levels (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985, p. I/7ff):  On the first level the subject content was divided for practical reasons in the three blocks “collective sports games”, “other sports” and “classic individual sports”.  A second level merged these sports activities in a mandatory and an optional set of sport activities.  In the third and final level, these sports were operationalized and the various levels of training and objectives were defined, representing thus the actual curriculum itself. Chapter 2 represented the curriculum for the induction and orientation phase in physical education (grade 7 to grade 10). This comprehensive 121-page chapter began with some preceding remarks which described this first of two phases characterizing physical education with its main objective of the introduction, observation and orientation of the students in their sports practice (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985, II/6ff). In the following, important remarks were made with regard to the provision of quality physical education: adequate sports facilities and

164 sports equipment, realistic class sizes, as well as consistent three- hours of sports in all grade levels. Furthermore, the creation of a school-based curriculum in the various schools was advised. In the fourth subsection, the largest part of the overall curriculum with 99 pages, the sports activities to be treated were shown and described, with each giving teaching goals, methodological recommendations, and instructions for the grading and recommended reading in detail. Chapter 3 represented the curriculum for the decision phase in physical education (grade 11 to grade 13). In this third part of the curriculum, foregoing remarks followed a subchapter enumerating the objectives of this phase (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985, p. III/3):  Increased motivation for physical activity, taking into account the individual prerequisites of the students  Ensure the acquirement of knowledge about sport  Allow a progressive descolarization in practicing sports  Preventive counteract of the phenomenon of drop-outs in sports For these higher-level teaching goals, practical and educational consequences revealed and were illuminated in a third subchapter. Finally, the option system has been described in detail as recommended educational organization form of instructional design at this stage in the fourth subsection. Chapter 4 made reflections on the evaluation and calculation of the grades in physical education, whilst Chapter 5, a comprehensive 67-page appendix, listed performance tables for swimming and athletics to be used to calculate the sport note grades in physical education (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse, 1985).

“Standards and competences for physical education” (from 2009 on)

In 2006, a working group of the national program commissions for the subject physical education received by the National Ministry of Education the mission to develop a curriculum based on competences. In the following are described the most relevant features of the new curriculum framework (Ministère de

165 l’Education Nationale et de la Formation professionelle, 2009; Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).

Educational accentuation and profiling

In the first chapter on the mission of the new curriculum, the educational profile of the educational concept in the form of a double mandate is clear. On the one hand is represented “Education through movement, games and sports”, on the other hand, the “Education for mature participation in the movement, games and sports culture” is focused on. Accordingly, it is on the one hand to promote development of individuals through the provision of comprehensive and attitudes. On the other hand, students should develop through the mediation of sports-related abilities, skills and knowledge, a participation and judgment against the broad field of action sports. For the successful design of a respective accentuated physical education, three principles of educational physical education are essential: multiple perspectives, reflection and self-directed autonomy (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Formation professionelle, 2009; Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).

Standard and competence orientation

According to the guidelines of the Ministry of Education, the new curriculum defines, just like in other subjects in the school curriculum, mandatory minimum standards, which specify the skills that students need to have at the end of a particular learning cycle. These subject-specific competency requirements are assigned to six overarching areas of expertise in the new curriculum, which highlight the options of multiple perspectives of physical education (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Formation professionelle, 2009; Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).

166 Table 1 Subject-specific areas of competence Area nbr Competence area Area 1 Health and perception-oriented movement actions Area 2 Social and integrative movement actions Area 3 Ability and achievement-oriented movement actions Area 4 Game-oriented movement actions Area 5 Shape and performing movement activities Area 6 Adventure and risk-oriented movement actions

Consequently, competence-based physical education should help the students to build skills that serve them to cope with problem-oriented situations in the field of “movement, play and sports”. So it is no longer considered to plan lessons in sports, but these subject-specific competence expectations should be illustrated with a selected content based on physical activities in general (Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).

Opening up and variety of content

As a result, the sports and physical activities are no longer the starting point for the content structure of the curriculum. The seven content areas of the new curriculum are characterized by open and enlarged “movement fields”, which represent the diversity and the broadness of the movement, games and sports culture (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Formation professionelle, 2009; Scheuer, 2010; Scheuer, 2014).

Table 2 Movement fields in physical education Area nbr Competence area Area 1 Health and perception-oriented movement actions Area 2 Social and integrative movement actions Area 3 Ability and achievement-oriented movement actions Area 4 Game-oriented movement actions Area 5 Shape and performing movement activities Area 6 Adventure and risk-oriented movement actions

167 Arrangements for individual schools

Another major change in the concept of the new curriculum is that the schools are granted scope for individual development for the purpose of its own movement- and sports-related profiling. The reduction of provisions and liabilities in the so-called “core curriculum” is left to the schools in order to take decisions about the content, the learning progression and the general organization, which are recorded as a part of the school's curriculum work. These school- based curriculums are designed in the professional community of physical education teachers in a school in their own responsibility. The following aspects should be described in the school's curriculum of each school (Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Formation professionelle, 2009; Scheuer, 2010):  Agreement on the minimum competencies to be achieved at the end of a year cycle  Allocation of minimum competencies to be achieved to grading years  Allocation of minimum competencies to be achieved to content areas  Planning of teaching periods  Principles of assessment and development of specific grading criteria

Subject-related appreciation of the current curriculum

In the frame of an empirical study on the acceptance and reception of the new curriculum concept, Stibbe, and Ingelmann (2009) agree on the following didactic appreciation of this innovative concept in German-speaking countries and beyond. Core Curriculum. The rough guide frame of the core curriculum is made concrete in the school curriculum of the respective professional community according to the specific conditions of the individual school. In this way the schools are to provide their own school-specific profile. Minimum standards. The subject-related competences and standards are, as required by the Ministry of Education, established in the form of mandatory minimum requirements, unlike in many

168 standard based curricula in Germany, which are determined by general standards. General-independent standards and competencies. The standards are not related to movement fields that are linked to a specific content, but they are formulated as general-independent standards and competencies. What movement-related content the respective standards and competencies are implemented with in physical education is decided by the professional communities in the schools. Development of a subject-specific competence model. The objectives contained in the pedagogical perspectives are formulated as competence expectations, and thus justify the development of a subject-related competence model, even if this model remains a pragmatic one and is not validated empirically. This linkage of competence expectations and pedagogical perspectives guarantees the essentials for the educational principle of multiple perspectives in physical education. Education theoretically-grounded educational “physical education-parent”. The shift from a traditional “skill-oriented sports program” to an education-theoretical justified “educating physical education” reveals the new curriculum as innovative, contemporary and educationally challenging. Instruction schemes. The starting point for planning lessons are not sports activities, but instruction schemes or teaching projects as fixed points of a standard and competence-based curriculum development, in which motion fields and areas of competence are linked to each other.

Relations between APEP (Luxembourgish physical education teacher association) and FIEP

FIEP was founded in 1923 in Brussels, Belgium, under the name Fédération Internationale de la Gymnastique Ling (FIGL) by a group of mostly European leaders from countries in which was taught the formative-educational Gymnastics derived of the fundamental principles of the Swedish Per Hendrik Ling. In 1953, officials of the International Federation decided at the World Congress in Istanbul, Turkey, to change their name and take the name of Fédération Internationale d’Education Physique (FIEP).

169 This to mark on the one hand their international character and, secondly, to emphasize their competence in all forms and content of physical education lessons practiced in the world (Decker, 2010b). The first contacts documented by Decker (2010b) between physical education in Luxembourg and FIEP started in 1958, when Robert Decker, as a young physical education teacher just sworn and, on the private level, young married, and very interested in physical education, participated in the World Congress of Physical Education organized in Brussels on the occasion of the World Exhibition by the Belgian Federation of Physical Education, specifically under the auspices of FIEP. It was on this occasion that Robert Decker was able to establish a first contact for Luxembourg with this international organization bringing together national delegates from most European national agencies of physical education, and even worldwide. These contacts were reinforced during the Physical Education World Congress organized on the occasion of the Olympic Games in Rome by the Italian Federation of Physical Education affiliated to FIEP, conferences which Robert Decker had the privilege of representing the APEP. It was at this conference that Robert Decker got to know the French Pierre Seurin, director of CREPS Bordeaux- Talence, Secretary General of the French Federation of Physical Education and of FIEP, as well as editor of the Physical education journal “Healthy Man”. Noticing that Robert Decker also spokes English, he asked him, if he wanted to summarize English publications for the readers of “Human Healthy”, as well as of the “FIEP Bulletin”, which he agreed to do (Decker, 2010b). Robert Decker had over the time some successive functions in FIEP: delegate for Luxembourg from 1960 to 1996, President of the School Section of FIEP from 1960 to 1994, Secretary General of FIEP from 1995 to 1997, Vice-President for Europe of FIEP from 1997 to 2008 and, since then, Honorary Vice-President of FIEP. His successor as delegate of FIEP Luxembourg was, from 1997 to 2009, his colleague and friend Gaston Malané, named Honorary Delegate of FIEP in 2009. The current FIEP Delegate for Luxembourg is Claude Schumacher, President of APEP, with Claude Scheuer, also APEP and current President of the European Physical Education Association (EUPEA), alliance partner of FIEP-Europe, as Vice- Delegate for Luxembourg.

170 For completeness, it can be said that FIEP Luxembourg has a total of three institutional members, namely the association of physical education teachers (APEP), the Olympic and Sports Committee Luxembourg (COSL) and the Faculty of Literature, Humanities, Arts and Sciences of Education of the University of Luxembourg.

Conclusion

What is typical for Luxembourg, but also holds true in the development of physical education over time, is that there were significant influences both from French and German concepts of physical education. Considering the developments of the last decades, it seems that the actual conceptions are more likely nearby concepts grown in German-speaking countries. From a special interest is also the close relation between Luxembourg and FIEP, especially by the person of Robert Decker. As described before, Robert Decker had several important position in this world-wide organization, highlighting the importance that has physical education for a holistic development of the children and the adolescents and thus advocating for the place of physical education in the school systems and beyond. In the light of this close links between FIEP and physical education in Luxembourg, the upcoming FIEP European congress to be hosted by the University of Luxembourg in Luxembourg in September 2017 will certainly be a highlight.

REFERENCES

Decker, R. (2010a). Stammer, Jahn et al. Du “Turnen” aux débuts de l’éducation sportive à l’Athenée (1817-1970). [Stammer, Jahn et al. From “Turnen” to the beginnings of sports education at the Athenaeum (1817-1970)]. In A.P.E.P. (Ed.) Rapport d’exercices. APEP(EP) 1959-2009. 50 Joër Sportsproffen-Associatioun [Report of exercise. APEP(EP) 1959-2009. 50 Years PE Teacher Association] (pp. 21-25). Luxembourg: APEP. Decker, R. (2010b). Affaires étrangères. L’APEPEP et la FIEP [Foreign affairs. APEPEP and FIEP]. In A.P.E.P. (Ed.)

171 Rapport d’exercices. APEP(EP) 1959-2009. 50 Joër Sportsproffen-Associatioun [Report of exercise. APEP(EP) 1959-2009. 50 Years PE Teacher Association] (pp. 107- 108). Luxembourg: APEP. Ministère de l’Education Nationale (1972). Enseignement secondaire - Horaires et Programmes 1972-1973. Luxembourg. Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Formation professionelle (2009). Education physique et sportive. Standards und Kompetenzen für den Sportunterricht. Luxembourg : Service de l’Innovation et de la Recherche Pédagogiques. Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la Jeunesse (1985). Education Sportive. Programme pour l’Enseignement Secondaire et de l’Enseignement Secondaire Technique. Luxembourg: Service de l’Innovation et de la Recherche Pédagogiques. Scheuer, C. (2010). Tendenzen, Kompetenzen, Diskrepanzen. Lehrpläne im Sportunterricht in Luxemburg [Tendencies, Competencies, Discrepancies. Curriculums in Physical Education in Luxembourg]. In A.P.E.P. (Ed.) Rapport d’exercices. APEP(EP) 1959-2009. 50 Joër Sportsproffen- Associatioun [Report of exercise. APEP(EP) 1959-2009. 50 Years PE Teacher Association] (pp. 75-80). Luxembourg: APEP. Scheuer. C. (2014). Innovative concepts in Physical Education in Luxembourg. In M.-K. Chin & C. R. Edginton (Ed.) Physical Education and Health. Global Perspectives and Best Practice (pp. 281-296). Sagamore Publishing: Urbana, IL. Stibbe, G., & Ingelmann, C. (2011). Akzeptanz und Rezeption des standardorientierten Lehrplankonzepts Sport für die Sekundarstufe in Luxemburg. Ergebnisse einer empirischen Studie [Acceptance and reception of the standard-orientated curriculum concept Physical Education for secondary school in Luxembourg. Results of an empirical study]. In G. Stibbe (Ed.), Standards, Competencies and Curriculums [Standards, Competencies and Curriculums] (pp. 140-227). Schorndorf: Hofmann.

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