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From production to destruction? Pagan and mythological statuary in late antique Asia Minor

Citation for published version: Jacobs, I 2010, 'From production to destruction? Pagan and mythological statuary in late antique Asia Minor', American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 114, no. 2, pp. 267-303. https://doi.org/10.3764/aja.114.2.267

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Publisher Rights Statement: © Jacobs, I. (2010). From production to destruction? Pagan and mythological statuary in late antique Asia Minor. American Journal of Archaeology, 114(2), 267-303. 10.3764/aja.114.2.267

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Production to Destruction? Pagan and Mythological Statuary in Asia Minor Author(s): INE JACOBS Source: American Journal of Archaeology, Vol. 114, No. 2 (April 2010), pp. 267-303 Published by: Archaeological Institute of America Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/25684275 . Accessed: 26/03/2014 06:55

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Pagan and Mythological Statuary inAsia Minor INEJACOBS

Abstract and social class and from individual to individual and still functioned in were on exact nature Pagan and mythological statuary also verymuch dependent the of the Late Roman Studies on this kind of all texts city. imagery the statue.1 Nevertheless, ancient and depictions too often focus on one or one of only aspect type action, that such statues were an essential and was the imply integral frequently assuming that destruction preferred part of the cityscape, which, ifdeprived of thisdecora way of dealing with conflicted images. To understand the would be sensed as The status of statues in an age when the Christian faith was tion, incomplete.2 integration an steadily conquering the Roman world, overview based of sculpted images into the cityscape may have been on various kinds of evidence from and so for most ancient viewers ranging production complete that, the part, conscious to violent destruction is preservation necessary. were not aware consciously of their presence, noticing This article brings this data together for the cities of Asia foremost on or had them special occasions when they Minor to enhance the general picture.* to an been subjected abnormal treatment.3 With the rise of Christianity, however, attention was PAGAN AND MYTHOLOGICAL STATUARY IN A to As a again drawn pagan and mythological statuary. CHANGING WORLD constant reminder of the conquered pagan religions, it became a more and at times Throughout the Greek and Roman period, pagan questionable problem and residences temples, baths, agoras, streets, private atic element of the cityscape.4 Literary and epigraphic were are source of embellished with statues, statuettes, and other sources?which still the predominant in a information on the that the transi sculptural decoration. Having been produced subject?suggest world where had almost as tion to religion penetrated every from paganism Christianity involved divergent one were pect of life,many of these decorations depicted either processes. On the hand, Christians given or or at least referred to to statues pagan mythological subjects, the opportunity physically harm believed theworld of gods, half-gods, and heroes. Inhabitants of to have been inhabited by a deity, or, inChristianized Roman cities came into contact with these and a demon. Discourses demand pagan discourse, threatening mythological statues on a daily basis, and their opin ing destruction became significant in the fourth and ions the nature and function of these stat In regarding fifth centuries.5 particular, the Lives of theSaints ues were diverse. varied to in They according time, place, tells rousing tales which the Christian community

* I carried out this research as researcher of postdoctoral the statuary population around them. the Research Foundation-Flanders under the of supervision 4E.g., already in the first half of the third century C.E., Ter Marc Waelkens. Iwish to thank all Luke colleagues, especially tullian (De Sped 8) lamented the omnipresence of "Satan who read and commented on the as well as the Lavan, text, and his angels" in the city. In the third quarter of the fourth reviewers for the for their useful wrote a to anonymous AJA suggestions. century, Ambrose (Ep. 18) in letter Valentinian II, All errors are my own. "Because [the of Rome] out of num 1 they pagans get pleasure There is abundant literature on this Stewart over subject. bers, they perform sacrifices all the place." A few decen is vital for the of in the ancient a a (2003) functioning statuary nia later, Augustine (Ep. 16.1) received letter from certain world in Also in the Roman these a general. world, opinions Maximus, pagan grammarian, with the remark that "there led to diverse treatments such as before stat is no sure physical bowing evidence for the Greek fable that Mount Olympus ues and food in front of them we placing (Belting 1994, 49-50; is the dwelling place of the gods, but see and feel sure that Brown 1999, 24-5; Stewart 2003, 263-64). the market of our town is a crown of benefi 2 place occupied by It was, e.g., not uncommon to associate statues with lo cent deities." 5 calities. one of the of Side derived itsname on sources Thus, city quarters Based literary from the second to fourth cen from a statue of a Stewart quadriga (Nolle 1993, 403). (2003, turies C.E., Caseau (2007) shows that violence toward pagan other instances of as an and 121-22) provides statuary important objects statuary increased through the centuries. Man part of the urban environment. and both concise but useful 3 go (1963) James (1996) provide Stewart ch. 4 examines to what extent on 2003,118, 148-49; overviews of Christian thought pagan statues from the fifth and in which instances ancient viewers noticed on consciously century onward, focusing later centuries.

267 AmericanJournal ofArchaeology 114 (2010) 267-303

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under the of the saint in culture after was leadership question violently literary the fourth century C.E. not tears down and statues.6 On the restricted to the court or to courts suc threatening suspicious imperial the of other with the cessor to hand, gradual dilution of the cult func kingdoms but remained also relevant and tions and connotations of other val for religious statuary, important municipal upper classes.11 Asia Minor ues such as was a was historical, political, symbolic, and aesthetic region where traditional urban culture espe could become more In as a amount important.7 Italy and North cially long-lived, and, consequence, the for Africa, example, the relocation and reevaluation of preserved statuary is generally high. This has made of statues of ancient deities has been recorded in the itpossible not only to compare findspots within a spe record.8 Due to their uncover epigraphic apparent cultural, cific citybut also to wider trends applicable historic, and aesthetic value, collections became more to the whole of Asia Minor and maybe also to other numerous the Roman of the Roman The to throughout empire, especially regions empire. sites referred in contexts.9 These two attitudes in are private opposing this article diverse in size and history.Most of were not in time or which the material evidence comes from necessarily separated space, Aphrodisias and was not to even for contem a always easy understand, Ephesos. Although not very large city,Aphrodisias For in the fifth was one of the most centers of poraries. example, early century C.E., important production was Socrates faced with the problem of explaining statuary in the empire; in addition, until the late fifth why Theophilus, patriarch ofAlexandria, had ordered or early sixth century C.E., Aphrodisias had a strong a a the erection of pagan statue in public place in 392 pagan presence and was the location of a philosophi after commanded that all others cal school centered around In con C.E., having already Asklepiodotos.12 be should destroyed.10 trast,Ephesos, the cosmopolitan capital of the Asian was an center at diocese, important Christian least INTERPRETING STATUARY REMAINS from the late second or the early third century C.E. In of tensions and transforma com spite the religious onward.13 Other cities mentioned in this article tions characterizing late antiquity, it is clear thatpagan prise larger provincial capitals, such as Perge and Side, and statues and reliefs were never com as well as smaller such as or mythological towns, Sagalassos Nyssa, all of them with a more or statu prehensively removed from the cityscape. Otherwise, less comprehensive we would not find so statues in excavations. In many Ap ary record. addition, informative examples from there were reasons to as Minor are a parently good retain statuary outside Asia sometimes mentioned, but part of the city fabric. Therefore, the intention of this full-fledged comparison with other regions lies beyond to an article is present overview of the diverse attitudes the scope of this article. toward pagan and mythological statues in late antiquity Although the interpretation of archaeological evi on statues in monu dence is not when examined with based primarily the found public straightforward, ments and civic to a lesser those care it does shed on how statues were viewed and spaces and, extent, light discovered within which are treated their For the private houses, already during lifespan. example, statuary those in remains themselves to an uncharacteristic better understood than posted public spaces. may testify set treatment off of noses or These material remains will be against literaryand (e.g., chopping genitals). sources to In the exact circumstances in which epigraphic illuminate the factors thatmight addition, they save one statue to are can be Some statues but lead the destruction of another. found especially revealing. The main focus lies in the eastern Roman remained whereas others were geographical virtually unharmed, more shattered into hundreds of Some statues empire, exactly in Asia Minor (fig. 1), where, fragments. were in contrast to theWest, the tradition of high secular discovered underneath collapsed structures,

6 8 was one Infra n. 30. Statue smashing only expression of the struggle the resis between the upcoming Christian community and 9Hannestad (1994,117-44; 2007a; 2007b) and Bergmann faith treat most of the known collections. Bassett tant pagan population. The advance of the Christian (1999) (2004) was on and on discusses the collections of Mundell supported by physical attacks temples pagans Constantinople. Mango more manners and Bassett n. both cite literature on the themselves but also by peaceful of conversion (1995) (2004,14 38) as as and definitions of such the increasing role of Christian clergy patrons and purposes collecting. 10 intercessors (Gaddis 2005, 115-17; Salzman 2006, 265-67). Socrates Hist. eccl. 5.16. Hahn (2004) discusses the well-documented conversion pro nLiebeschuetz 1995-1996,195, 208. cesses in such cities as Antioch, Alexandria, and Gaza. 12Smith 1991,157-58; Trombley 1994, 52-73. 13 Ladstatter and Piilz 7Saradi-Mendelovici 1990; Lepelley 1994, (forthcoming); Harreither 2002, 78-80; 2007, 408-16. James 1996; Saradi 1997; Salzman 1999, 131-32; Schmidt 2003,215; Stewart 2003,154-55.

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^ ^ ""^^^ ^^^-^^ Consta^itir^

V 'Aizanoi C"^j\

-Sardis ^iV^ \^ & .Nyssa .Hierapolis ^SEph6S0S ^ Aphrodisias C^^'et0S ^^alassos^ 0 ?

s~>~ ~"~p^ ^ Perge

0 50 100km _/

Fig. 1. Map of Asia Minor, showing locations of sites mentioned in the text.

others were built into walls or foundations, and some registration of both archaeological context and the were in themselves was less and buried the ground. Finally, theiroriginal physi sculpted fragments regular cal context in were meticulous than it is Even surroundings and the which they today. present-day publica relation with the placed?their surrounding architec tions often report only the best preserved and most other statues in their and finds. In ture, vicinity, accompanying spectacular addition, excavation trenches also some inscriptions?can illuminate the functions and may simplymiss evidence.16 Clearly, only part of meanings theypossessed during and especially at the the original corpus of statues from any given cityhas end of their lifespan. survived and other statues have disappeared without There of a number of a trace. are, course, shortcomings leaving to In the main con related the archaeological record, especially when following sections, the attitudes it comes to secure dating of the remains. Produc cerning pagan and mythological statuary?roughly tion dates have often been established on stylistic divided into positive, (seemingly) neutral, and nega grounds,14 and it is seldom possible to say anything tive?are outlined in broad strokes and substantiated definite about after moment of erec are con statuary its initial with examples. These attitudes then put into tion.15 In in and reasons addition, especially older excavations, text, particular for production, preserva

14 Hannestad an as on (2007a) gives overview of the "discovery" such the Late Antique reliance and revival of old styles of a Late and redates to as as a Antique chronology many sculptures and types well the lack of truly cosmopolitan style. Kiile late based on criteria of antiquity style, technique, typology, rich (1993,189-95) describes the problems of style and chro last but not context. a and, least, Stirling (2005, 91-110) is nology of the Theodosian period. recent example of stylistic dating starting from fixed chron 15Sauer2003,32-3. as ological points such the Sidon statuettes. There remain, 16Croxford2003,90-1. however, grave problems with stylistic dating in this period,

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or destruction are discussed. I end two that were tion, by reviewing statues, including satyrs in the process more factors general that influenced the treatment of being reworked when the building was destroyed, statues assess of and the role of statuary in the Late unfinished depictions of Dionysos and a satyr,part of a second and a Poseidon. Antique city. satyr, These pieces pro an vide overview of what was still in demand during POSITIVE ATTITUDES the late fourth century C.E. when the workshop was Two of attitudes in late examples positive antiquity destroyed.22 toward and are pagan mythological statuary produc Most of the Late Antique statuary found in excava tion and active active I tions are small-scale of a nature. preservation. By preservation, pieces mythological mean that the statues have alterations or were or undergone Virtually all of them discovered in near newly or repairs. built renovated aristocratic residences in Asia Mi in nor, other regions around the Mediterranean, and Production as far as Britain.23 there is a away Although large variety with were in the Images pagan and mythological motifs subject, scale, number, medium, and dates of until the late seventh were some trends can be produced century. They collections, general distinguished. on present mosaic pavements and silver objects, both For example, themost popular themes in late antiq to belonging the private sphere and elite culture.17Ac uity were Dionysos and his circle, a hunting Artemis, to a cording complaint made by Theodoret, bishop of Aphrodite (oftenwith marine attributes), and, specifi a Cyrrhus, large variety of pagan religious and mytho cally in the eastern provinces, Asklepios in company was logical statues and reliefs stillbeing produced and with Hygeia. These statuetteswere displayed in rooms in ca. CE.18 used for and such as displayed public 420 Nevertheless, the reception self-display, vestibules, and of such in and baths. were production significant reworking items triclinia, gardens, They accompanied seem Asia Minor to have already slowed down in this by older portraits and the by-then popular shield por and there are no remains that can be traits of period, statuary important magistrates, emperors, and phi dated after the later fifthcentury CE.19 losophers, as well as bymythological heirlooms.24 Just Most Late Antique statuaryproduction has been as like the table silver and the lavish floormosaics, these to or in one statuettes or were signed sculptors workshops Asia Minor,20 statuary groups eagerly purchased ofwhich, the so-called Sculptor's Workshop, has actu and displayed by both pagans and Christians (orJews) been excavated in the center of either for aesthetic as moral ally city Aphrodisias.21 alike, reasons, exempla, The finds or as of and intellectual state within the workshop included four small expressions status, rank, scale works depicting Europa and the bull, Artemis, ment. They do not, however, provide straightforward Asklepios with the legs of a small, naked female (pos information on the religious lifeof the owner.25 Even siblyAphrodite), and a philosopher's bust and larger a devout Christian such asMelania theYounger could

17Liebeschuetz treats 21 (1995-1996, 193-200) mythological Rockwell 1991; Van Voorhis 1999, (forthcoming). themes in decoration in Weiss and 22 general. Talgam (2002, Van Voorhis (1999, 44-61) dates the destruction in the collected scenes on mosaics. Recent esp. 80-3) mythological late fourth century. on silver include and Kaufmann publications Guggisberg 23Hannestad (2007a, 292, 299; 2007b, 197) makes the con Heinimann and 2004. Muth (2003) Leader-Newby (2001, nection between late statuary production and the many Late discusses the between Christian 113-15) compatibility piety Antique villas in the Mediterranean. Both publications give and of classical art. Eisner an statues appreciation (2004, 271-84) gives overview of Late Antique displayed in villas. Stir a more overview of Late art on a general Antique production. Uyt ling (2005), though focusing Gaul, is fundamental work terhoeven an overview of statu (forthcoming) provides up-to-date for Late Antique pagan and mythological small-scale and motifs of all sorts in Late over pagan mythological appearing ary discovered in private houses all the Mediterranean. elite houses. Antique (2007) evidence from Gaul and and 18 Stirling compares Spain, Ellenikon Pathematon 3.79-84. See Gazda on Therapeutike Stirling (2008, 132-36) focuses domestic statuary found (1981,167) for a translation of the relevant passage. in Greece. 19 Hannestad 2007a. the latest items to be 24 Among produced Stirling 2005,89-90,219. were flat of amid animals. 25 was for the very statuary groups Orpheus They Classical education (paideia) reserved "hap were from as far as Sabratha so probably exported Aphrodisias py few," that, especially from the fourth century onward, in the late fifth CE. a to century (Hannestad 2007b, 200-1). it provided social identity the upper classes and became 20Gazda and Han status (1981, 160-63), Stirling (2005, 56-8), a symbol of elite (Gazda 1981, 168-70, 177; Stirling of Late nestad (2007a, 294-96) provide examples Antique 2005,26-7,153-55; Hannestad 2007a, 273-74). Liebeschuetz small-scale statuettes that could be to a "School of assigned (1995-1996) argues for a continuation and assimilation of pa looks into other in Aphrodisias." Stirling (2005, 125-29) possi gan myths in Christian visual and literary culture general. ble of Asia Minor and the East abroad. on and workshops working Maguire (2001, 243-47) provides overview of pagan

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live in the House of theValerii in amid a were Rome, col the statues leftuntouched and in their original lection statues a of that included herms and statuary locations, indicating that they still had a role to ful group of Cupid and Psyche.26 fill. Relocation was no doubt the most radical means I know of one instance of still of as the statue was not only sculpted images preservation, only separated for a monument. being produced public The foun from its original surroundings but might also be en tain near at at complex the stadium Ephesos, built dowed with new meaning through its insertion into a the end of the fourth or in the firsthalf of the fifth new environment. Statues and reliefs were relatively and one of century located along the city's principal easy to take down and to move. In Italy and North streets, the latest assem these actions were commemorated in represents primary statuary Africa, inscrip blage made specifically for the civic setting inwhich tions,most of them dated between themid third and was it displayed. The traditional aediculated facade of the second quarter of the fifthcentury C.E. In these the fountain was ornamented with at least three late texts, the statue was said to have been taken ex abditis statuettes and a sa fourth-century depicting Dionysos locisand moved ad celebritatem.When the reason for the a and a tyr, sleeping Eros, Harpokrates with crocodile transfer is given, it is invariably ad ornatumpublicum, and theater mask which water flowed.27 The or through ad faciem publicam, pro beatitudine temporum,sowhich builders of the fountain ordered statuettes these and does not exclude, however, the possibility that the had the balustrade of thewater basin im statues adorned with might be put to other uses. These inscriptions of a kantharos and Christian crosses.28 almost never mention the exact of ages Although subjects the statues, the ca. 400 CE. was not nor their period yet religiously homog original locations. Some of these relocated and it could be that the statues must have come from enous,29 argued iconography temples,31 others from of this fountain to sought appease all inhabitants of decaying buildings or deserted streets, and yet others it ismore that the as in from Ephesos, likely statuettes, just statuary depots.32 were not contemporary private contexts, intended The majority of relocated as well as repaired and as were considered statues religious statements; rather, they protected has been found in bath buildings of the cultural as we and but some are part general heritage. Moreover, nymphaea, examples also known will see the addition of crosses from streets later, signified that the and squares and other urban locations. monument was "Christianized" and thus as presented Since, I argue below, the architectural context of no danger for pious Christians. That inhabitants of the statues appears to have been a decisive factor in the them as such is corroborated their or I them city interpreted by preservation removal, group according the fact that the statuettes were never as of to the architectural or urban in regarded surroundings which fensive to be later were enough removed, notwithstanding they discovered. interventions the installation of Bath (undated ) including Buildings. In antiquity, bath buildings were a an cross-decorated in of extra, trough front the origi preferred location for statuarydisplay, which often in nal water basin. were found intact cluded of deities Indeed, they largely representations and heroes, aquatic amid the debris of the fountain and curative building. figures, mythological scenes, and honor ific statues of emperors or local benefactors and ath Active Preservation letes.33 Numerous bath buildings have been excavated even Indeed, though production waned in late with much of their statuaryadornment still in situ (see related to the Graeco-Roman Most of these baths continued in use antiquity, depictions appx.). through were often Such out the pantheon safeguarded. safeguard Late Roman period, although perhaps on a could include or more modest were ing repairing recutting, relocating, scale; many repaired, renovated, and the architectural or adapting surroundings whereby completely rebuilt. Renovations could involve both

motifs 29 mythological reflecting general ideas of plenty and Gregory 1986;Harl 1990;Trombley 1993, 10-35; 1994, fortune in the good Late Antique house. 52-133. 26Brenk 30 1999; Stirling2005,166-67. Brandenburg 1989; Curran 1994; Lepelley 1994, 2001, mentions an additional reference to 27Jobst (1986, 50) (forthcoming); Witschel 2007. 31 Graeco-Roman in the form of a of a naked Curran mentions a mythology graffito E.g., (1994, 49) further unspecified warrior a an allusion to the statue taken from climbing ramp?probably myth the Capitolium in Verona and moved to of Zeus-Amphitryron and Alkmene?located on a column on the forum. the other side of the courtyard, fronting the fountain. 32Lepelley1994,11; (forthcoming).Smith (2007, 213-14) 1986; Aurenhammer 1990, nos. The late the of 28Jobst 46, 74,82. suggests presence depots for Aphrodisias, Witschel of the fountain is based on the of dating style its architectural (2007,122,157) forSabratha. 33 decoration, both the of the facade and the capitals parapets Manderscheid (1981, 21-3, 28-45) gives an overview of of the basin. depicted subjects and examples of statuary programs.

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the architecture and the decorative statuary inside of the forum in theHadrianic period. It is likely that the bath, as in the case of many of theMuses found not only this block but most of the statues found in in the Faustina Baths at Miletos.34 There might also the tepidarium were taken from the forum and the be a of a most often achieved were rejuvenation collection, adjacent basilica, which located just to the north by assembling older statues from other regions of the of the bath building.38 town and relocating them inside the larger halls of Creating this collection of statues for the bath oc the baths. One of the earliest of such an curred at one and was a examples time well-organized operation, assemblage is found in the tepidarium of the bath at evidenced by the fact that all statue bases, with the Cremna in Pisidia.35 Although the actual relocation exception of the Chrysippos base, had their original predates late antiquity?it could be assigned to the inscriptions erased and replaced by letters that date second quarter of the third century?it is exemplary to the second quarter of the third century CE. and of later such as the of statues and are all rather the forum the trends, recycling carelessly cut.39 Both and as as statue bases well combining pagan images with basilica are known to have been substantially repaired, honorific texts. possibly after an earthquake, ca. 225 CE.40 This event At Cremna, upon its discovery, the large hall con may have provided a suitable occasion for removing tained a statue of Herakles, two of Athena, a Nemesis, statues that formed part of the original decoration most of the bath and new on Leto, Aphrodite, Apollo, Asklepios, and Hygeia, introducing statues?placed cen Hadrianic to Severan bases?into It is of them created around themiddle of the second the complex. were tury C.E. In addition, there 12 statue bases dated also noteworthy that three bases in the tepidarium between the Hadrianic and Severan periods (fig. 2). were dedicated tomembers of the gens Ulpia, a lo on and M. The molding these bases demonstrate that the cal family of importance substantial wealth.41 bases were no longer in their original position; for ex Ulpius Tertullianus Aquila is known to have been ample, the base forNemesis that now stands in front proconsul of Macedonia in 212 C.E.; a fourth statue of the northeast pier carriesmoldings only on itsfront base, in a later phase built into the north wall of the and right sides and somust originally have stood in a hall, but contemporary with the other three statue corner. the a Similarly, the base carrying larger Athena bases, mentioned that member of the gens Ulpia do possessed moldings on four sides but is now located nated 12,000 denarii for the renovation of Cremna's wall. the in The reason for this collection in against the north Furthermore, original basilica.42 creating on once a seems to scription this base indicates that it stood in the tepidarium thus have been connected of Artemis and that its bronze statue to was sanctuary original this particular family.Most likely it intended the a certain as a in for the efforts invested depicted shrine's benefactor, Chrysippos, tribute, gratitude they to a inhabitant of in the reconstruction of the who appears have been well-known city.43 and author. Once the statue of This mid collection underwent fur Cremna prolific Chry third-century new ther in later centuries. The bases that were sippos disappeared, the combination of thisbase changes with a statue ofAthena as the goddess of wisdom and intended forDemos and Ulpia Rutilia Longilla during arts An their second of use were later reused to the may have seemed appropriate.36 inscription phase carry on statue statues of Leto and These the base supporting the of Leto identified it Aphrodite. replacements as one of a group of agalmata erected by a high priest; likely only took place in or after the late fourth cen must come from a statue thus it, too, have temple,37 perhaps turyCE. Since the of Leto had originally been a in sanc even from the same sanctuary of Artemis (who is Leto's dedicated by priest, and since dedications once tuaries were considered the of the the daughter, after all) that housed the Chrysippos property deity, statue. One of the blocks reused in the base of the statue could not have been removed from the sanc was also Hygeia statue carried a Latin inscription put up by tuarywhile it still in use.44 The removal and members of the family that paid for the construction destruction of cult statues and other depictions that

34 Schneider 1999,8-12. 39Mitchell 1995a, 156. 40 35Horsley(1987) andHorsley andMitchell (2000,nos. 32 Mitchell 1995a, 67, 156-58; Horsley and Mitchell 2000, statues. 76. 44) describe the bases and findspots of the Mitchell 41 nos. and Mitchell (1995a, 152-58) discusses the history of the bath building. Horsley 1987, 6, 11, 12; Horsley 2000, 36 nos. Horsley 1987, 53. 38,43,44. 37 no. and Mitchell no. 45. Horsley 1987, 72-3. Stewart (2003, 25-7) explains the 42Horsley 1987, 15; Horsley 2000, 43 Mitchell 157. meaning of the word agalma. 1995a, 38Mitchell 1995a, 157. 44Talloen 2003,159.

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Athena Herakles ^^^^B I Chrysippos Herakles I

Apollo Nemesis ^h|^H Nemesis^^^^^H ^^^^B Apollo BB^^B

clothedwoman (?) ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B Asklepios unknown ^^ IIII^^MHB^^^^^^^B Askle^ios ^^^M Ulpia Eumeliana Caesiana ^Hl

Ihhh Hygeia Leto HUH Hygeia Demos^H^^H

^^^HHAthena Aphrodite UlpiaRutilia Lonqilla ^HH ^^^^HAthena

HM. Ulpius ^^^M TertullianusAquJIa

Statues positioned on top of bases (reconstructed) Statues mentioned in third-century inscriptions Statues mentioned in older inscriptions

Fig. 2. Plan of bath building at Cremna with find locations of statues (drawing by E. Thompson; modified from Horsley 1987, 50, fig. 1; courtesy G.H.R. Horsley).

received worship in temples was ordered by law from is thus not unlikely that restorations to the bath build end the fourth ac ca. the of century onward.45 Secondly, ing 400 C.E. entailed the replacement of part of cording to the excavators of the bath building, itwas the decoration. rebuilt at some later in Late act or partially time, "perhaps Just the of repair renovation would have Antiquity."46These renovations very likelybelonged to drawn attention to the statues inside the buildings, the ca. 400 as entailed the since that would have period C.E., they incorpo material been temporarily tak ration of the base the of en or commemorating renovation down somehow protected during repairs. This the basilica into the north wall of the tepidarium. We would have provided an opportunity to reconfigure can assume that the inscription originally had been the decoration or to decide to remove the statues on display in the basilica itselfand that itwas removed permanently. A decision to discard all depictions of was a only when this turned into church sometime gods and mythological figures,however, would involve or during after the late fourth-early fifthcentury.47 It stripping the building of a large part of itsdecoration.

45Cod. Theod. 16.10.18 (399 C.E.), 16.10.19 (407/8C.E.). 47Mitchell (1995b, 220-22) describes the conversion of the ^Horsley 1987,79. basilica.

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Replacing the decoration and paying for entirely new to a total of 10 statues, eight of which were retrieved was most out the in various states were adornment likely of question, since of preservation. Included two a a torso a including statuary significantly increased the overall life-sized groups of Dionysos and satyr, of costs It on naked a a statue of a lower of bath buildings.48 is possible that these youth, Nemesis, Koronis, Late removed the statues arm a to a occasions, Antique patrons with snake coiled around itbelonging statue thatwere regarded as particularly offensive, perhaps of Hygeia, and an Asklepios and a plinth bearing the in more neutral scenes or hon a bringing mythological feet of male statue, both inscribed with the name orific statues from to elsewhere adorn the buildings. of the sculptor Glykon. Only the groups of Dionysos neither the contexts them and a in corner to the However, archaeological satyr the aediculae belonged nor are ensemble. selves thewritten evidence sufficientlydetailed original Given that also the architectural to took of the several determine whether such selections place, how decoration nymphaeum showed Dio much and what was removed, nor what motivated deci nysiac traitsand, in addition, that the statue group in sions to discard or the statues. We can assume the eastern aedicula on a coin of the it preserve appears city, in situ from contexts was that statuary excavated exhibiting is likely that the nymphaeum originally dedicated of late renovations or indicate both to evidence repairs Dionysos.50 that a conscious decision was made to preserve at least The rest of the statuary found in the nymphaeum statues at was in use. most of these statues part of the original collection of and that the secondary Although statues were still intact. were on time of the repairs, these depicted pagan subjects, they positioned bases The or of Nymphaea. great public fountains, nym honoring important citizens Sagalassos, which prob of the were decorative. were taken from the and erected in the phaea, Imperial age highly ably agora nym water to This second ensemble of They supplied the city and simultaneously phaeum. statues, however, symbolized both the glory of individual benefactors displays some thematic coherence, since Asklepios, his and the magnificence of the city as a whole.49 Their mother (Koronis), Hygeia, and the plinth for a male theaterlike facades were enhanced as share lavish, invariably statue?which may be identified Apollo?all of statues. decora curative Since and the second male by extravagant displays Statuary powers. Asklepios was as statue next to the tion thus important for traditional nymphaea were, moreover, positioned centrally as itwas for bath buildings. In the Late Antique city, main waterspout, it can be said that the iconography were as of the statues was considered relevant when were moreover, nymphaea increasingly prominent they new structures were structures under reused in the built and earlier nymphaeum.51 went or transformations. Even a late cult within the fountain?a repairs, major renovations, so, Asklepios un Although some, like the fountain near the stadium hypothesis recently suggested byMagele?is very at were adorned with statu her on the of bronze Ephesos, newly produced likely.52She bases theory presence were or were ary, most decorated redecorated with statuary votive body parts that inserted into the plinths and reliefs taken from elsewhere in the city.Many of of the statues ofAsklepios, Koronis, and the supposed these depicted mythological or even explicitly pagan Apollo (fig. 4). Since an inscription identified the as a must subjects (see appx.). Koronis votive statue, these body parts have The most noteworthy example is the Antonine been added after the statue functioned in thisway, that at is to after she was removed from her sanc nymphaeum to the north of the Upper Agora Sa say, original in these after the galassos (fig. 3). At the time of its construction the tuary.53 Moreover, inserting body parts and niches statues were into the Antonine is later second century C.E., the aediculae placed nymphaeum offered room for six statues. Somewhere between its highly unlikely, as thatwould have involved climbing over water in construction and the firsthalf of the sixth century, it the balustrade of the basin, crossing the an the on the inside. It collapsed, probably as the result of earthquake. side, and ascending high podium not sur ismore that the statues were moved to new Presumably, part of itsoriginal decoration did plausible more once. were vive this event, forwhen itwas rebuilt, the ensemble locations than The votive body parts statues was and the number was added after their first for exam of replaced enlarged probably move, into,

estimates the costs of as often as were from baths the 48Duncan-Jones (1982,75-9,124-27) they (Manderscheid 1981,28), of water and associated attributed statuary in Africa and Italy. proximity healing powers 49 to have been the incentive to the statues Richard (forthcoming). springs may gather and theater masks (Waelkens etal. 1997, on this location (Magele 2005, 303-5). 50E.g., thyrsosstaffs 52 142-44). Magele 2005, 302-3. 51 were not retrieved Even though Asklepios and his circle 53Magele 2005,302. Richard from nymphaea (Kapossy 1969, 73; [forthcoming])

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0 1 2m

at Fig. 3. Antonine nymphaeum Sagalassos (Magele 2005, fig. 11; courtesy S. Magele).

pie, a domestic context, inwhich the statues were still with blatant evidence of a cult still present on them, were not considered to revered; it is likely that theirmeaning and functions universally offensive enough were altered once more when they entered the foun be banned from public locations. as Colonnaded Streets. Within the classical colon tain. This is corroborated by the fact that,just with city, the fountain near the stadium at the naded streets were areas. While Ephesos, Sagalas much-frequented were seen as sos nymphaeum was Christianized by inserting into its they already enhancing urban life in decoration small slabs decorated with crosses inside Hellenistic and Roman times, by late antiquity, they circles and a Christian inscription in red paint, which became symbolic of the city,were a source of pride for was written at an unknown moment on the archivolt its citizens, and were praised in the writings of many of central authors.57 The desire to adorn such zones the niche.54 high-profile nor caused a of decorative elements to Neither the original location of the statues surely migration the exact statues were to as in baths and date when the moved the them, just nymphaea. Nevertheless, is certain. Nemesis is to in were nymphaeum thought have examples of pagan statuary Asia Minor that been taken from the theater of Sagalassos, which was constructed in the last quarter of the second centu CE.?the same to ry date assigned the statue?and as a location of venationesand munera which, gladiatoria, may have been a suitable place for it.55The Koronis was dated to the Severan period, which is the only solid terminus post quern in the entire collection of statues from the nymphaeum. Together with the Asklepios and the supposed Apollo, she probably came from a sanctuary, possibly the temple devoted toApollo situ ated on a terrace to the west of the Lower of Agora the city.The first transfer from the temple to a new, unknown, location may coincide with the many late fourth- and early fifth-centurylaws on this subject.56 statues was as Whenever this particular collection of sembled in the itsmere existence in on nymphaeum, Fig. 4. Application of bronzes the plinth of the Asklepios that structure shows that statues even statue at of pagan gods, Sagalassos.

54Waelkens et al. 1997, 161-62. Whether the slabs with 56Infrann. 119,120. 57 crosses were reconstructed as in the parapets aediculae them E.g., Chorikios, Oratio 7.52 (Gaza); Joshua the Styl or were selves instead late replacements for the cassette blocks ite 29 (Edessa); Lib. Oratio 11.201, 11.215-16 (Antioch); remains to be solved. Malalas Chronographia 15.11 (Antioch); Procop. Aed. 3.4.18 55Saral 2001, 79-80. (Melitene).

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to streets or certainly relocated squares appear only in Ephesos and Aizanoi. In Aizanoi, in the late fourth or early fifthcentury, some honorific bases and a collection of statues were moved from locations and were their original reused to decorate a colonnaded street.58 One of these bases carried a statue of a satyr (fig. 5) and possibly a pun in its inscription. This inscription?and the original, but no longer extant, early third-century statue?hon ored a certain Markia Tateis, mother of two Asiarchs, one of whom was named Claudius Pardalas, a name in which the Greek word pardalis (panther) can be recognized. This may have been associated with the panther skin draped around the shoulders of the satyr and could have been the reason the designers of the street combined this particular base with this particu lar Whatever the exact reasons for statue.59 reusing this pagan statue, in itsnew location itwas located in full view of themain Christian sanctuary of the town, the converted Zeus temple at the end of the street, and thus in an area that must have a received large number of visitors, the equivalent of the celeberrima loca in theWest. That Christians in this period were indeed not troubled by such relocations, and in some statue Fig. 5. Satyr erected in the Late Antique colonnaded instances even participated in them, is confirmed at street of Aizanoi (von Mosch 1995, 743, 1; DAI in where a certain Theodu fig. courtesy Aquileia Italy, Septimius Istanbul). lus, who was identified as a Christian in one of the a inscriptions, introduced large number of statues, including depictions of pagan gods, into the forum of the city ca. 360 CE.60 (379-386 C.E.) only because in theirnew position they the were combined with a statue of the The in Although epigraphic evidence concerning the empress.62 statues on streets no re-erection of and squares from the scriptions give clue of an original setting; thus, it West is far more on the we have at to a impressive whole,61 generally isdifficult determine if relocation took least some indication that the same was to phenomenon place and, if itdid, date that operation. in eastern When a statue was moved with its the present the part of the empire. The smaller together base, amount of evidence from the East may be due both to nature of the original statue can be deduced, even if the nature of the epigraphic record there and to the it is no longer extant.What is particularly interesting attitudes of its inhabitants toward pagan and mytho is how often a base is recombined with a new statue logical statuary.Although the statue bases relocated in the public spaces of the Late Antique city to create to new new connections and alternate identities. the baths of Cremna still received inscriptions emphasize For a base a man in the second quarter of the third century C.E., such example, honoring of letters received rededications were not in late a statue of a customary antiquity Athena; base honoring Pardalas may in the eastern In some statues were as a empire. cases, have served trigger for combining that base with moved together with their bases. This happened, for a statue of a satyrwearing a panther skin; at Aquileia, to were re a statue was instance, the 12 bases carrying Nikes that of Hercules relocated to the forum and at re-erected on of a base a man located along the Embolos Ephesos (fig. 6). They top honoring whose sig could be recognized as being part of a larger phase of num was Hercules.63 Whatever the reason for such a new if statue was embellishment in honor of the empress Aelia Flacilla combination, the moved again, the

62 58von Mosch 1995. This enterprise also included the re-erection of the Her row 59von Mosch 1995,751-53. akles Gate just to the north of the of statues (Roueche ^Witschel 2007,130. 2002,527-41). 61 n. Supra 30. 63Witschel 2007,130.

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chances of demonstrating that ithad been present in this second iteration are very small. This is true of all architectural contexts, but more so for the nature of the streets, given archaeologi cal In contrast to record. baths, nymphaea, theaters, and the like, agoras and streets did not consist of an elaborate?and often multistoried?architecture; be cause are out they open spaces. When they go of use, no to there is monumental superstructure collapse and preserve material underneath. Moreover, if habi tation on the site continued or was revived at a later time, statues lying in open air are likely to have been recovered for further use (see below, under "Secular the at Violence"). For instance, although satyr Aiza noi was protected and preserved by the columns and row Fig. 6. Statuary along the upper Embolos at Ephesos. entablature of the street facade that had collapsed on a was top of it, second statue re-erected to its west not so "fortunate" and is now missing.64 Consequently, not only are finds of pagan and mythological statues generally scarce, but?with the exception ofAphrodi of statues sias?smaller quantities honorific have been found on streets and squares. CityWalls. The North-West Gate of Sagalassos offers a how mean clear example of relocation modified the ing of statuary in the Late Antique city (fig. 7) ,65The gate was one of themain passages through the fortifi cation wall thatwas erected sometime during the late fourth or early fifthcentury. Itwas built between the North-West Heroon and theDoric temple, which had already lost itsreligious function and had been turned a was into watchtower. The passageway an arch whose central keystone depicted an unfinished relief of an eagle holding a snake. Several reliefs ofweapons were found in the debris next to the gate, alongside busts of thewarrior Ares and Athena, all of which at gods origi Fig. 7. North-West Gate Sagalassos. nated from the facade of the nearby bouleuterion (fig. 8). While the reliefs of weapons must have adorned the outer face of the fortificationwalls to either side of the gate, the findspot of the reliefs of the gods indicate and Pisidia were reconstructed in late antiquity, their were in friezes with and shields were that they reused the gate itself.66 original armor, helmets, Itwas not unusual to integrate reliefs into the city reused in the same locations.69 near walls the gates.67 Indeed, the apotropaic use of fig Similarly, the reuse ofmythological iconography was a was a not unknown. can be found at the West Gate ural friezeswith military connotation geographi Examples cally widespread and long-established practice that and South-East Gate ofAphrodisias and theNorth Gate discouraged the opponent before the actual fighting of Hierapolis, all of which used a more or less neutral began.68When the old Hellenistic gates of Pamphylia iconography.70Moreover, the gate of Hierapolis was

^Rheidt^S, 706, fig. 8. eluded depictions of Nike and hunting cupids, those of the a 65Loots etal. 2000,615-20. South-East Gate incorporated depictions of sphinxes, baby a a 66Waelkens et al. 2000,231. Herakles, Gorgoneion, and satyr head (De Staebler 2008, 67Jacobs 2009,202-4. 298-301). The iconography displayed at the North Gate of was with reliefs of heads of a head of ^von Hesberg2005,74. Hierapolis similar, lions, a a 69Mansel 1968. panther, and of Gorgon (D'Andria 2003,112-14). 70 near The reliefs reused theWest Gate of Aphrodisias in

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^^^^ ^^^^ ^^J^^8. Details from the North-West Gate at Fig. Sagalassos: left, integrated weaponry reliefs; center, bust of Athena; right, bust of Ares.

"Christianized" by the addition of a cross-like symbol were updated underwent physical changes in order on on to make one the relieving arch and chrismons the twomarble forget their provocative pagan character ensure brackets that support the architrave (fig.9). Most gates and their ability to function in Late Antique built from 400 C.E. onward relied solely on such crosses society.Most examples cited below are well known but for theirprotection.71 This suggests that the reasons for are almost always viewed in a negative light.And yet, more or these cannot as integrating explicitly pagan depictions in the changes be categorized "mutilation," less North-West Gate of were were not so contemporary Sagalassos since they drastic that they damaged the very specific. The inclusion of Athena and Ares, two "identity"of the statue or prevented itsfurther display. warrior gods, fits nicely with the ancient reputation The recuttings discussed in this section illustrate how of the Sagalassians as a warlike people,72 which in the inventively the past was adjusted to altered circum of late was stances of the it seems Sagalassos antiquity still evidenced by the present. Moreover, although that are to many locallyproduced figurines of rider saintswho had many adaptations that considered be anti replaced the old warrior gods, as well as by the venera pagan did suit the sensibilities of the Christian times, tion of St. Michael, the archistrategosof the heavenly not all were religiously motivated. army.73Keeping inmind that pagan statuarywas typi In the lastdecade, Hannestad has brought together as cally regarded possessing power?often negative, but examples from bath buildings of statues with sexual with the connotations that were as inherent possibility of being harnessed74?it regarded offensive.75 Most seems that the builders of thewall intended to put the often, thismeans that the offending parts of the statues reliefs to were In the case of the were use, discouraging possible opponents rather damaged. men, genitals than desiring to repress or drive the power ofAres and partially or completely hammered away; forwomen, Athena out of their city. this led to the scratching or cutting away of the pu Acculturation. Acculturation or can so was updating also be denda, that the marble surface hollowed out. considered a form of active statues were never preservation: that Breasts could be damaged but entirely

71 As crosses Jacobs 2009, 204-5. with figurative reliefs, also the Sassanians until the second half of the third century (Tal a to conveyed specific message visitors and attackers; the in loen 2003,90-100,119). In the fifth century, there was still an habitants adhered to the Christian faith and were under the elaborate production of figurines depicting Christian priests direct of the Christian At the same or on protection god. time, they saints and warrior figures horseback, the last also ap have called His the use of cross on can may upon protection. Finally, pearing the locally produced decorated pottery. They es also have served an in to seen as may apotropaic purpose, seeking be the descendants of the indigenous warrior deities ward off demons from the Christian city (Gardner 1987,202; on horseback (Talloen 2003,185-86,195). Crow 2001,98). 74James 1996,16. 75 72Arr.Anab. 1.28. Hannestad 2001 (also available online at 73 http://www. Mitchell was 1995b, 26-8; Talloen 2003, 192. Sagalassos archaeologie-sachbuch.de/Fleischer/indexl .htm). involved in the military campaigns against the Parthians and

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Fig. 9. The northern Byzantine gate of Hierapolis, reconstructed elevation (D'Andria 2003,114, fig. 94; courtesy F. D'Andria).

to as a act removed. This applied only nude statues; clothed negative of vicious mutilation. Early Christian statues were not touched. The of muti sources crosses were on larger corpus literary mention that placed lated statues inAsia Minor has been attributed to the the body and forehead for several purposes: it could long lifeof most bathing complexes there and to the be part of a ceremony of exorcism performed during number of statues in this Al large preserved region.76 temple deconsecrations, it could be part of the rite though Hannestad largely restricts himself to pagan of baptism,80 or it could be drawn on the forehead to and mythological statues in baths, this kind of muti ward off evil.81 In the case of the extant statues, the was even more lation pervasive: it affected statuary subjects depicted and the energy put into the carving in as statues posted other public buildings such nymphaea process make exorcism unlikely. Almost all as well. Recent research has shown all that virtually bearing such marks did not depict pagan subjects but nude statues in the fountains at were were instead often of renowned historical Ephesos similarly portraits, honorific statues and even decora are two modified; indeed, persons. There only examples known?a head use era tive herms that remained in in the Christian of a goddess found in Sparta and a similar head from had their genitals cut away (see appx.).77 Athens?where a distinctly pagan subject was marked Herms underwent further in the a cross. "adjustments" with In both cases, additional carvings testifyto form of crosses carved on their foreheads.78 Likewise, the hostilitywith which these two statues were treated. a well-known collection of heads? crosses over "adjusted" portrait The firstgoddess had additional cut the including items fromEgypt, Greece, and Asia Minor? eyes and chin. The second had a huge cross roughly received a cross on the forehead or on another over nose body chiseled the entire forehead, its and part of part.79The cutting of such crosses can hardly be viewed the right lower cheek and lip were knocked off, and

76 were to an Outside Asia Minor, such "mutilations" limited tral iconography, losing previous connections with the god at Aprodite and Ganymede in the baths Agnano in Campania Hermes (Wrede 1986,83; 1987,129-30,139-41). an a and sixmale statues, Apollo, and possibly dressed Aphro 78Wrede 1986,83. at on most dite in the baths Salamis Cyprus (Hannestad 2001). 79Marinescu (1996) provides the elaborate overview. 77 statue at A of Lucius Verus from the bouleuterion Ephe 80Hjort 1993,106, 111;Trombley 1993,244-45. sos cut had its genitals away (Auinger and Rathmayr 2007, 81BothHjort (1993,100,106,108-9) andMarinescu (1996, were on use cross 257). Late Antique herms produced into the early fifth 291) cite Early Christian authors the of the for a more neu century CE. In general, they evolved toward these purposes.

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the eyes and chin were mutilated.82 Whereas these connection between the cross on their foreheads and can a the destruction very likelybe connected with process intended of these portraits. to them to destruction or If on incapacitate prior disposal, such portraits remained display, then, the in the of crosses does not seem of the cross was not to enact an exor general application purpose simply to have been an If the was a sort antipagan practice. applica cism but of positive updating and conscious of crosses was as more tion intended solely exorcism, assimilation of the presence within the portrait into on examples pagan gods would be expected. Addi Christianized society.87Portraits placed in an official in contrast to the context such as those at were most con tionally, examples just mentioned, Ephesos likely all crosses to heads were carved care an applied portrait verted to the Christian faith in official ceremony, fully, although not always skillfully. It is unlikely one which may very well have resonated with the real would go through so much trouble if the itemwas to practice of baptism within the eastern church.88 The be seems cross were destroyed immediately afterward. Instead, it carved signaled that these portraits from that the application of the cross enabled the statue to that moment onward devoted to Christ and thus served remain on as a or The Suda an display. seal, sphragis. records interesting A few were smashed even com portraits, however, though example of this practice; it relates that Julian a cross had been carved into their foreheads. In manded the Tyche of Constantinople to be buried to three had a cross Ephesos, fragments belonging portraits?a because Constantine ordered engraved and two colossal on This sense if one portrait of Augustus portraits from its forehead.89 anecdote makes seated statues of Augustus and Livia (fig. 10)?were understands that the cross did not merely render the discovered underneath the of statue to sixth-century pavement powerless but marked instead its allegiance a new that was constructed on of the statue to peristylium top Christ and therebymade itpossible for the to remain where itwas. crosses were also former basilica the north of the State Agora.83 The Finally, applied to most at entrances Augustus portrait may have originally been housed architecture, often the of temples, in the temenos of the nearby Temple of Caesar and civic public buildings, private residences, and church Dea Roma. The original setting of the colossal statues es.90 The appearance of crosses on the architectural of the at inside the chalcidicum at the eastern end of the ba decoration fountains Ephesos and Sagalas silica that once a cult function. sos at has implies they possessed and the North Gate of Hierapolis already It isnot impossible, therefore, that theywere targeted been mentioned. All these buildings were intended to was remain sometimes with a new func by zealous Christians. Since the basilica itself de standing?albeit ca. 500 the were in crosses it clear that stroyed CE.,84 however, portraits tion?while the made perfectly all likelihood only accidentally smashed at this time theybelonged to the Christian community. as There are also of statues a and their remains used building material in the examples undergoing construction of the later for the of as peristyle.85 Indeed, here, too, very specific recutting, again purpose was them to a new social consciousness. the carving executed carefully, although obviously similating Thus, not a stone it the in the of C. Laecanius Bassus by professional carver, making unlikely satyrs Nymphaeum statues were intended to be im at not but that the destroyed Ephesos only had their genitals removed another head that had also their tails. This is not attested in the other mediately. Moreover, portrait practice a cross was in the of the nor are there from carved into its forehead found col nymphaea city, examples one lapse of the so-called Fontane to the east of the city elsewhere. The statue of Claudia Antonia Tatiana, on of the honorific statues excavated at center of Ephesos, indicating it remained display many Aphrodisias, centuries.86 there need not be a also have throughout the Thus, may been updated by recutting. Originally,

82 were created remained Marinescu 1996, 289. A basalt portrait of Germanicus Ephesos by rubbing, indicating they some their from (London, British Museum, inv. no. GR 1872.6-5.1, active for quite time before burial. Egypt 86 a treatment: a cross was and 254. Sculpture 1883) underwent similar Auinger Rathmayr 2007, on his throat also bears neatiy carved his forehead, whereas 87Hjort (1993,107),Marinescu (1996),andRothaus (2000, as a to and his nose consider it an of assimilation. Con marks, probably reference decapitation, 112-14) primarily attempt some Brown and stress the was cut away. Since all actions took quite effort, especial versely, (1999, 31) Bayliss (2004,59-60) of the the was that the cross marked the items lybecause of the hardness stone, cross-carving negative aspects by claiming to the while in a later it as and warded off the demons inside. probably done preserve statue, period pagan court. 88Marinescu 291. became unacceptable tout 1996, 287, 89 s.v. "Milion" 66 n. Donderer 83Alzinger 1972-1975,262; Langmann 1985. Suda, (Langmann 1985, 12; 84Foss 1979,82. 1991-1992,213 n. 84). 90 the of the cross 85Rothaus (2000, 112-14) suggests that a discoloration of The cleansing of temples by application at was in Cod. Theod. the crosses on the foreheads of Augustus and Livia found ordered 16.10.25 (435 C.E.).

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and Livia with crosses carved on their foreheads. Fig. 10. Statues from Ephesos of Augustus (left) (right)

on a the statue emphasized her role as priestess of Aphro throne, Zeus receiving sacrifice, and Aphrodite were dite, an identity thatwas made clear by her clothing in various guises thoroughly defaced (fig. II).93 and, especially, by the presence of a young child, most The main reason seems to have been out of fear, since were likelyEros.91 Only the feet of the child remain. It isvery mainly gods and goddesses thoroughlymutilated. were an scene likely that the removal of that figure was intentional, These images either part of offering as a have been ac or were statues their frontal and, with the carving of cross, may freestanding that, given an statues. that companied by a ceremony.92 The statue depicted ityand isolation, resembled cult Gods honored and well-known local inhabitant; once the appeared in other kinds of scenes?such as Apollo a Muse or child statue was stripped of Eros, her most obvious link to playing the lyre accompanied by the at a reared and undam the cult of Aphrodite, it could remain standing Dionysos by nymphs satyrs?were as were scenes such as prominent place in Aphrodisias, at the entrance of aged, images inmythological the bouleuterion/odeion. That must have been the Leda and the swan or Bellerophon and Pegasus. As a was un goal of the recutting. consequence, the total ensemble left largely some the line between and remained on Finally, in instances, updat touched display. a statues ing and outright violence becomes very thin,with the In conclusion, number of ancient bear the or mutilated to exact designation depending upon perspective. For clear marks of having been adapted instance, only some of the reliefs belonging to the suitChristian sensibilities. This process affected much more nature some Sebasteion at Aphrodisias were attacked in the Chris than the explicitly pagan of of these statues. tian period, even thoughmany more of them featured Rather than being motivated by antipagan of nude statues was often mo mythological heroes, gods, and goddesses. Thus, the feelings, the mutilation crosses on reliefs depicting a solitaryAthena or Asklepios, Zeus tivated bymodesty, and the carving of por

of the 91Erim 1967, fig. 7; Smith 1998,66-7. primary symbols Dionysiac mysteries (Talgam 2005, 92 oc Assimilation through the omission of attributes also 1133). the 93Smith nos. curs in mosaics. Dionysos can, e.g., be depicted without 1987,97-8; Brody 2007, 11,12.

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number of people entered, passed by, or viewed this decoration on a daily basis and were apparently not bothered by it.We cannot know the exact feelings of the Late Antique inhabitants toward these individual statues or but we can at least infer statuary displays, were not to that these sentiments strong enough pro voke a violent reaction and either alter or make this material disappear. Therefore, I classify thismaterial under "Neutral Attitudes" (see appx.).

NEGATIVE ATTITUDES

Some statues and reliefs were damaged and/or not to be dis removed from their original location, played elsewhere but tomake them disappear totally. Violence toward statuary has dominated the popu to a lesser extent of lar?and the scholarly?opinion people's responses to pagan and mythological statuary in late antiquity. Exorcism of threatening demons by brutal attacks on their dwelling places certainly offers a more outlook than does spectacular contemporary violence toward has al preservation. Assessing statuary a on the ways involved heavy reliance literary sources, interpretation ofwhich isnot straightforward.Hagiog Fig. 11. Mutilated relief of Aphrodite from the Sebasteion raphies like thosementioned in the introduction were at R.R.R. Aphrodisias (courtesy Smith). written own above all to convince with their agenda, readers of the holiness of their subject. In the litera ture,we hear of statues being pulled from their bases, traits was seen as a form of into Christian or the integration decapitated, melted down, dragged through not all these stories were necessar society. Conversely, the examples fromAphrodisias in streets.94 Although particular show that Christians could be offended by ilytruthful, there can be littledoubt thatbrutal attacks on statues did occur the Roman certain pagan elements of sculptural decoration and throughout empire, measures to in Asia Minor.95 Material remains howev would take guarantee that these images including are, Violence has sometimes been could continue to function within the changed reality er, scanty and complex. too as a label for actions toward of the Late Antique city. readily used statuary, that I here as "accultura including material classify NEUTRAL ATTITUDES tion" and material that could have been accidentally were a few forms of violent behavior can ac All the statues thathave already been discussed broken.96 Only "handled" at particular moments; theywere physically tually be attested in the archaeological record. or or were drasti context moved altered their surroundings The careful consideration of both the in statue was found sec cally changed. But the acts of cutting away genitals which the and, especially, any or adding a statue to an existing display provided an ondary cutting on ithelp distinguish between tolera other statues in the same tion and violence or acculturation and violence. To occasion for noticing the on display or elsewhere in the monument or the same explain the damage to reliefs the theater facades room. statues were in at and scholars have that Many of these left untouched; Nyssa elsewhere, suggested deed, many buildings thatwere provided with statu the faces of the gods suffered deliberate defacing.97 seem not to at seems on at ary decoration have been altered all However, it that the heads the panels the at any time after the fourth century, although they front of the scaenae frons were in worse condition in use. In an on worse state of remained this instance, too, unspecified than those the sides (fig. 12). The

94 an on statue at at Stewart (1999) gives overview of violence inflicted 96E.g., the of Hermes found the theater Scythop statues olis was said to have been broken and buried" in late antiquity. "deliberately 95 Gaddis (2005) makes the link between violence and ho (Tsafrir and Foerster 1997,129). a liness and argues for cautious interpretation of hagiogra 97Idil 1999; Rothaus 2000,114. phies (Gaddis2005,13-14,153-58).

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scaenae at scaenae Fig. 12. Theater frieze at Nyssa: left,relief at the side of the frons; right, relief the front of the frons.

the reliefs on the front could simply be because of Just as with the carving of crosses, portraits again the of the scaenae frons. research on collapse Indeed, provide the best evidence for the mistreatment of the lowest frieze of the stage building at Perge, which thismaterial. Probably during the fifth century, the was Portraits?a of also still in situ and badly damaged, has shown so-called Philosopher collection tondi to stones of renowned and heroes from the that all damage could be attributed falling philosophers pres on ent at as from higher levels, since those the lateral walls and the past?were produced Aphrodisias are in the for was a virtually intact.98 Moreover, many theaters, decoration the Atrium House, which philo co school.101 were with tolerant Christian attitude isdemonstrated by the sophical They discovered, together of in an inaccessible existence of Christian symbols and/or buildings (see unguentaria sixth-century type, if a statue or was left appx.). Further, statuary group alley behind themain apse of the house beneath dis on display, chances are thatphysical changes were not carded roof tiles. Upon their discovery, most of the mir were one conducted malevolently. Moreover, attacks that heads detached from the busts, and of the ror hostile feelings such as anger and, especially, fear portraits was shattered into 16 pieces. Although de for malefic power were far more drastic overall than capitation may have held symbolic meaning, in the those described above. They aimed at trulydefacing or case of these shield portraits, it is hardly surprising even the statue and often bear resemblance one were "killing" that removed the head, either when they to the corporal punishments cited in literary sources, still hanging on the wall or just after they had been such as out off noses or and to picking eyes, cutting ears, taken down, make these clumsy objects both lighter even decapitation. This loss of the distinctive features inweight and easier to handle. There was little reason of the face was the most familiar feature of damnatio to keep them intact since theywere not going to be intended to erase the from further. One of howev memoriae,99 subject memory displayed portrait Alexander, or to indicate that he or she was not worthy of being er, was found in an especially appalling state.When As the two remembered.100 noted above, goddesses compared with the condition of the other heads, this at does not seem to have been the result of the found Sparta and Athens differed from portraits damage a cross had such a marked with because they undergone final blow but rather of deliberate defacing: groove extreme was to cut recarving. carved halfway around the neck, probably it

98Inan etal. 2000,299-300. ors who suffered damnatio and the statuary that underwent are some sort of violence have received the most atten "Especially emperors but also other individuals known scholarly to have suffered damnatio (Donderer 1991-1992, 221-22; Ei tion and are thus very well known to us. 101 com sner 1998,54-5; Stewart 2003,267-81). Smith 1990,153-55. Stirling (2005, 215-16, 226) 100 the sites with other schools. Vainer 2000,14-16. Ironically, though, both the emper pares possible philosophical

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symbolically and not to facilitate removing it from its the number of headless bodies is so great that there the final blow did cause must have been a reason backing, although eventually particular for this. The inten to the head break off at the base of the neck. In ad tionalityof this feature is confirmed by the fact that in severe was dition, damage done to the face: the right the temple complexes at Narona and Eretria?both most were eyebrow, nose, and of the mouth removed known to have been violentiy destroyed?all the heads first,after which the lower part of the head was sliced (and at Eretria also the hands) had been removed off, splintering the entire chin and part of the neck.102 before the buildings were destroyed (see appx.).107 These actions resemble the is not to an again strongly damnatio, but Moreover, phenomenon unique late isno as to there further information why thisparticular tiquity:Donderer points out that already in the early portrait was targeted. Although the defacing probably fifth century B.C.E., the Athenians buried without occurred when the portrait was still in situ,1031do not heads all architectural and votive statues thathad been think that the portrait was attacked long before the damaged by the invading Persian army.108Most heads on a others and then lefthanging thewall.104 Such sce thathad been detached in antiquity have not been lo users nario would suggest that the of the philosophi cated; many were moved in antiquity, often quite far some cal school inflicted the damage themselves, but it is from their bodies.109 In cases, heads may have already difficult to imagine why Alexander would have been collected and put on display. This is strongly been especially targeted by Christians who were emp suggested by the statuary collection found inWell P tyingthe building. Maybe they inflictedmore damage of House C at Athens, which, next to a portrait of a on Alexander because he was known to have received bearded man, also contained a marble head of Helios Or the inten one religious veneration.105 perhaps original and ofNike.110 Why and who would assemble such was a more tion widespread defacing; the perpetrator collections is stillunknown, and a detailed analysis of enthusiastically startedwith thisparticular portrait but thisphenomenon lies beyond the scope of this article. quickly got bored and decided to simply take all the What can already be suggested, however, is thatheads tondi down, cut them into manageable pieces, and may have been endowed with a special meaning and carry them out, to be dumped out of sight with the may have been able to function without the body, or, rest of the rubbish. conversely, that the removal of the head may have al There are only a few parallels to the groove around tered or even erased the identity of the statue. Alexander's neck;106 nonetheless, it is possible that a Regarding the state of preservation of the Philoso much number of statues have been intention at cannot larger pher Portraits Aphrodisias, it be certain that in to these were smashed. There are some archae ally and effectivelydecapitated attempts render violently harmless. statues that once them Many had been dis ologically attested outbreaks of religious smashing of played in either public buildings or private houses statuaryoutside Asia Minor,111 but in the region under were found buried or discarded without their heads investigation, the evidence ismeager and largely limit (see appx.). Although the loss of the head can happen ed to defaced reliefs. Violent destruction of a freestand when itwas statue strewn accidentally, especially worked separately, ing resulted in small fragments being

102 Smith 1990,136,155. these statues should be taken down. 103 106 n. Smith 1990,155. Supra 82. 104 some on an em In cases, damnatiowas left display. When 107Marin2001 (Narona); Schmid 2001 (Eretria). peror or individual had suffered damnatio, the statuary bases 108Donderer 1991-1992,202-3. this were sometimes left in situ, although the statues themselves 109Tsafrir and Foerster (1997, 129-30) suggested for some of the statues at but do not disappeared (Stewart 2003, 275, 279-80). Similarly, the top Scythopolis, they give a statue at was in pling of of Artemis Ephesos commemorated examples. an Thur Fi also to the of cer inscription (Benndorf 1906,103; 1989,129-31). 110Croxford (2003) points predominance as in also tain in the of nally, stated above, the defaced reliefs the Sebasteion body parts surviving corpus statuary fragments on meant in heads. He the existence of a real remained display, but removing them would have Britain, especially suggests a ritual use for them. For damaging the building itself. preference and, further, possible 105 to of other of the Roman studies do Stewart (2003,192-93) points religious veneration regions empire, comparable not exist. noncultic statues. In late antiquity, Cod. Theod. 16.10.12.1 (392 (yet) 111 in out Caseau of iconoclastic behav CE.) refers to sacrifices taking place front of images (2001, 34) gives examples deals with destructions inmithraea. Sauer side the temple context. Also, Marc the Deacon (Vita Porphyrii ior. Sauer (1996) a on to iconoclastic behavior. Also on 59-62) relates how marble statue of Aphrodite the agora (2003) is completely devoted was women as a of until his of Asia Minor is a blank of Gaza worshiped by symbol fertility map statuary destruction, (Sauer at cen Bishop Porphyry had itdestroyed the end of the fourth 2003,20-1, fig. 5). tury. Cod. Theod. 16.10.20.3 (415 CE.) already ordered that

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over the floor of the space where it originally stood. more of the following: the location and orientation In deposits that have been deliberately sealed after of the deposition, the presence of a "bed" of sand or as at Narona another of soil the a differen destruction, such the temple complexes type underneath statue, and Eretria (see appx.), we can still find thematerial tiation between the fill of the trench and the surround remains. Also when sites?such as deserted mithraea ing soil, the presence of cover of some kind on top of known from the west of the statue in a especially empire112?were the burial, the deposition of the "sleeping" not for or are and the state statue reused other purposes, when buildings position, well-preserved of the (see kind Such started before late in their lastphase of use, religious violence of this appx.). depostion long antiq can often In I be archaeologically attested. Asia Minor, uity and continued into the Byzantine period.116 It is know of only one such example of statue smashing: at hard to believe that themotives would have suddenly an were with even Aphrodisias, 21 fragments of Aphrodite found changed Christianization, less so, because of hall burial was of in both in fills the north apsidial hall and the triconch proper paramount importance as as the and or of the Triconch House well inside the adjacent pagan Christian worlds, and its prevention It has been that the statue was a is bouleuterion.113 suggested disturbance considered crime.117 Therefore, it was part of the decoration of the house and fell prey probable thatpagans and Christians from pre-Roman to measures sometime in late how to to antipagan antiquity; Byzantine times sought appease the daimon in ever, it is not yet clear how the fragments could have question and protect themselves from its power by ended in rooms that were and even re a statue its "last as as up reoccupied paying respects." Indeed, late the furbished between the ninth and the 12th centuries eighth century C.E., the Parastaseis SyntomoiChronikai C.E.114 Indeed, the complete lack of material remains (8, 28) relates how the burial of statues was believed even were to elsewhere indicates that if statues toppled neutralize their powers. or smashed, the spaces afterward remained in use, and A large part of the corpus consists of damaged was statues and in the all evidence removed, probably for the very simple statuary fragments. But, especially reason were in that they the way. fourth and beginning of the fifthcentury C.E., statues are often confronted with were Archaeologists statuary that had received cult deposited entirely intact. statues fragments and complete that have been built With the religious turnover going on, loyal servants intowalls, laid underneath floors, stacked inwells and of the god or goddess in question must have thought or pits, strewn amid other rubbish (see appx.).115 As thatburial would safeguard his or her epiphany from the Philosopher Portraits already indicated, some of attack by hostile Christians. Evidence from deserted them must have been sanctuaries has them For in deliberately removed. Others proven right. instance, may have been discarded after sufferingdamage in the the sanctuaries in Rome mentioned above, all statues of their that remained on were most collapse architectural setting. Still others may display smashed, but the have been protected (even hidden) to prevent them important images were not damaged but simply bur from falling into the hands of Christians. Although ied,118 to await the time when Christianity had been there not be a consistent to dis once may way categorize conquered and they could again be displayed in carded and buried remains, a careful consideration their rightful place. In the firsthalf of the fifthcen of find circumstances and exact authors such as appearance, ideally tury, Quodvultdeus, Augustine, and combined with an identification of the depicted sub Socrates Scholasticus testified thatpagans were indeed and its are recon ject original display, valuable when still hoping that the true gods would return and an the motives for structing particular depositions. cient cults would be restored.119 It seems essential to between those stat Outside the context of statues distinguish temples, and statu ues and that were bur ettes?those that were and those statuary fragments symbolically (virtually) complete ied and those thatwere not. burial that were broken into in Symbolic implies fragments?were deposited a can one or careful deposition and be recognized by pits or holes dug especially for this purpose into the

names of de 112Coates-Stephens (2007,173-74) examples 116Donderer (1991-1992) cites, besides the example of the serted sanctuaries at Rome where smashed was left Athenian cited statuary Acropolis above, many similar examples from "on display." Roman and pre-Roman times. no. 117 113Brody 2007, 2; Berenfeld 2009,219-20. Stewart (2003, 276) discusses the burial of 114 symbolic The house was then taken into use as a residence for the statues.

bishop (Berenfeld2009, 214). 118Supran. 112. 119 115Donderer has the most De civ. D. (1991-1992) compiled compre August. 18.53; Quodvultdeus Depromissionibus hensive collection of buried statues. Sauer (2003, 55-9) gives etpraedictionibus Dei 3.38; Socrates Hist. eccl. 3.15 (collected in some additional examples from theWest. Le Blantl890).

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fourth century C.E. This, again, suggests that theyhad roles its physical location and iconographic context held a special position during their lifetime?maybe played in itsdestruction or survival. because they had received veneration. Because such background information is hardly ever available, this Nature and SubjectMatter of theStatue is not known. In the late fourth and early fifthcenturies C.E., pa Most statues and were not care became a concern statuary fragments gan statuary obviously pressing of fully buried, but were instead laid in foundation lay the imperial government, evidenced in themultitude thrown into or or into on ers, channels wells, integrated of laws issued the subject. A decree in 399 stressed seem foundations. In this stage of their existence, they that the status of every individual statue needed to be to and were consid have been treated quite carelessly investigated and "idols" taken down.121 This is likely ered to be littledifferent than other statuary remains. to have affected primarily statues in a temple context, the rich evidence in has re Coates-Stephens, using Rome, especially cult statues,which without exception had statues ceived sacrifices and been in the In recently addressed the question of why pagan worshiped past.122 were Since as well as the cult statues that have survived to us were integrated into walls.120 pagan fact, only honorific images?mostly fragments but occasionally those that had been buried in a (successful) attempt also statues?were found reused in this to In complete way, safeguard them from destruction. addition, the were in founda at and since such images also reused the government legislated strongly against sacrifice all tions of houses that continued to possess a rich and locations and applied the term "idol" to any image that was of location. varied display of statues, it could be concluded that worshiped, regardless its Statues that these particular images were reused purely as build received worship had to be removed from the baths no in and "the favorite haunts of the to fur ing material and longer held meaning these public" prevent contexts. statues ther veneration.123 In this it is understandable Likewise, the (some complete, oth context, a ers fragmentary) that had been thrown into channels why certain Demeas in the early fifth century felt on or wells depicted a wide range of subjects. I therefore compelled to overthrow the statue of Artemis the suggest that the act of discarding in itselfwas not nega small square behind the Gate of Hadrian at Ephesos a and to itwith a cross.124 tive, but that itdoes demonstrate certain indifference replace toward the original subject of the statues?that statues In the case of Ephesos, the presence of Artemis, as had been rendered who had themost venerated in that regarded dangerous already been goddess city before the discard itself. This was for more than a must have been viewed powerless "sanitizing" millennium, or as As a not were her achieved by recutting, decapitating, breaking into extremely menacing. result, only when statues or statues attacked but her name was also erased from pieces. Conversely, statuary fragments were to a certain esteem for on in front of the buried, this action points inscriptions the portico prytaneion the identityand possible powers of the statue. and the Harbor Baths?although this complex did a amount of contain large pagan statuary.125 Similarly, THE DECISION-MAKING PROCESS was bound to suffer damna in Aphrodisias, Aphrodite a tio. Next to her statue and defaced reliefs Clearly during late antiquity, multitude of attitudes broken-up statues and at the mentioned busts of the toward pagan and mythological prevailed Sebasteion above, city statues were treated. did were from the determined how those Why goddess removed tetrapylon (fig. 13) of some and even and from the near Gaudin's production mythological, pagan, nymphaeum Gymnasi statues were de other deities in the reliefs of statuary continue while other being um,126although figured were some statues left others the basin. someone tried to obscure that stroyed? Why untouched, Moreover, once a updated, and yet others smashed to pieces? Additional Claudia Tatiana had been priestess of Aphro now are nature the Eros at her feet.127The name factors to consider how the and subject dite by eliminating even matter of the statue influenced its treatment and what of the goddess herself, and even that of the city,

120 104. Coates-Stephens 2007. 124Supran. 121 as 125Foss 45. Cod. Theod. 16.10.18 (399 C.E.). Nearly all the laws 1979,32,69n. 126Smith 24. sembled in Codex Theodosianus 16.10 react against sacrifice but 1996,11,25; Brody 2007, 127 were statues or as to older of not primarily directed toward temples. Figures putti, referring popular depictions 122 Also at the See also Cod. Theod. 16.10.19. (408 C.E.) and Constitu Eros, still appeared everywhere. Aphrodisias itself, back wall of the later fourth- or street that tiones Sirmondianae 12 (407 C.E.), which state that images in fifth-century passed had to be "torn the temples and shrines that received worship by tetrapylon possessed pilaster capitals depicting putti from their foundations." carrying out several activities (Dillon 1997, 744-69). 123 Cod. Theod. 16.10.20.3 (415 C.E.); see also supra n. 105.

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tuallybecame intolerable, leading to their erasure in inscriptions. Examples include those integrated into the so-called archive wall in the theater128 and the re placement of Aphrodisias by Stauropolis (City of the Cross) on theNorth-East Gate of the citywall, probably or during after the late sixth century C.E.129 Consider ing the strong, prolonged pagan presence at Aphro disias, the violent attacks on the statues of Aphrodite probably did not occur until the late fifth century, much like the conversion of her temple to a church, an action that postdated the construction of the early churches of Ephesos by several decennia.130 Conversely, mythological beings or personifications, such as and Tritons, Gorgons, Muses, Eros, Nike, possi also were and bly satyrs131 remained omnipresent in the 13. Defaced relief of on the at cityscape theChristians inherited. They were not only Fig. Aphrodite tetrapylon Aphrodisias. activelypreserved inbaths and nymphaea but were also on reused in city gates, streets, and even (in singular cases) in church decoration. Obviously, these subjects were considered less dangerous than most Olympic Muses in the baths of Miletos may indicate that the some even gods and goddesses, and of them could be god himself could also be reinterpreted in the man absorbed into Christian imagery. Their originally pa ner of his female companions. Likewise, Dionysos and now gan connotations referred to the idyllic,bucolic, Dionysiac imagery came to be used more widely as sym or or were a cultured life, they transformed into rather bols of hospitality and conviviality.136For instance, at neutral value. or are to were symbolic Erotes, putti, likely the cityof Sagalassos, where statues of Dionysos have been as re-erected after the renovation of on regarded mainly idyllicdecorations, and the nymphaeum as on such they also figure widely catacomb paintings theUpper Agora, representations of the god and his and decoration of Christian sarcophagi. Personified circle dominated the decoration on locally produced and semidivine entities, especially female personifica tableware throughout the fourth and the firsthalf of tions,132apparently had theirheydays only between the the fifth century.137Reinterpretation of both Apollo fourth and the sixth centuries. Nike remained a widely and Dionysos may have been an additional factor in distributed symbol for victory, often accompanying the preservation of their depictions at the Sebasteion Late and and muses at at was a recur Antique emperors empresses,133 Aphrodisias. Finally, Artemis the hunt were no longer primarily the companions of Apollo, rent theme in the decoration of elite houses, referring but had instead become symbols of education.134 to the favorite upper class activityof hunting. were not or not In these last the elaborate Late Olympian gods all, invariably, contexts, Antique shunned.135 Thus, the relocation of both Apollo and collections of pagan and mythological statuarywere

128 docs. Reynolds 1982, xv-xvii, 3, 4, 8,9,11-13, 20; Brody Olympian gods. as 2007,24. 134They appear such in governor's epigrams (Sevcenko no. 129Roueche 1989, 42. 1968). Muses, among other pagan statuary, stood in front of 130 nn. Supra 12,13 for references. the Senate at (Bauer 1996,164). The same 131 Constantinople a frieze with theater masks on the outside was Remarkably, group possibly posted in the palace in the early fourth and a frieze of on the inside was dancing satyrs only integrat century, where they could reflect the imperial virtues and ed into the walls of a at or church Sagalassos in the late fifth moral authority (Bassett 2004,74,91). 135 sixth The reasons behind this were as early century. very well-planned Also, Zeus and Athena reinterpreted symbols of building operation remain unknown (Vandeput 1993; 1997, wisdom (Bassett 2004,91). 207-9). 136Bowersock (1990, 41-53) explains the popularity of 132Herrin note (2000,10-12) andMaguire (2001,244-45) Dionysos in late antiquity. Eisner (1998, 218-21) and Stewart the occurrence of female in to large personifications private (2004,130-31) give examples where Dionysos is depicted houses. gether with Christian imagery. Parrish (1995, esp. 332; 2004) 133Roueche discusses the connota and (2002, 541-45) pagan Stirling (2005, 87) discuss Dionysiac images in private and of Nike. She a houses. on tion, offensiveness, adaptation proposes Talgam (2005,1133-34) focuses Dionysos in Late for the partial explanation general appearance of personifi Antique mosaics. as cations filling the space left by the disappearance of the old 137Talloen and Poblome 2005,69-73.

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re ens ca. even supplemented by portraits of philosophers, which 530 C.E. In the sixth century, well-liked ferred to an intellectual upbringing, and portraits of depictions of Nike were gradually replaced by more were con as emperors.138 Also, imperial portraits strongly Christian imagery, just Dionysiac iconography had nected with the pagan past: the imperial cult, although already been replaced during the second half of the far from identical, was inmany respects similar to that fifthcentury.144 This pronounced drawing away from were not of the traditional deities.139 Imperial portraits the "secular" did necessarily induce emotional vio as same as statues regarded manifestations of the ruler himself, and, lence in the way that which caused cult more significantly,rituals had been performed in front to disappear, but itcertainly hindered production and was no con active of of them.140 Although there problem with preservation traditional iconography. as of or temporary rulers, portraits of former emperors such Nude statues, regardless their subject function, at were were deemed offensive and were to suit Chris those found Ephesos therefore explicitly inte adapted more grated into the Christian community bymarking them tian notions of nudity and, generally, the human a cross. a on with Alternatively, the presence within could body. This tapped into wider discussion bodily be regarded as not worth saving; these were violently impropriety inEarly Christian times.Thus, Early Chris destroyed. This apparently happened at Narona and tian authors were opposed tomixed bathing, and they Eretria, but solid evidence for such actions within Asia propagated sexual shame and avoidance of temptation Minor is still meager. in general.145Although it is clear thatnot all naked stat were also of a dubious sort. Contem ues were in manner it is Philosophers adjusted the described above, porary philosophers, still prominent figures in the not unlikely that others that survived intact had their with of pagan society of the fourth and fifthcenturies, vividly genitals concealed pieces cloth.146 In contexts defended the ancient faith.141 private elite such as the Atrium House of Aphrodisias, their por Context a or was not on traitsmay have survived for quite long time, either Survival destruction dependent only protected by the context of a philosophical school or, the depicted subject and how itwas represented but more as of their classical in on context was generally, representatives also the inwhich the depiction locat tellectual heritage. Nevertheless, with the developing ed.147First, the physical location of a statue should be on taken into account. in the town was vul hold of Christianity all fields of society, tolerance Statuary very a was to random and emotive mu for such elements of secular culture shared between nerable and exposed Christians and pagans dwindled.142 The Philosopher tilation from passers-by, such as the cutting or hitting a or Portraits at Aphrodisias were discarded probably off of a nose, which would only take minute two. same a cross could be done within an even if around the time that the last surviving philo Carving hour, schools were closed under This the execution needed to be meticulous. if sophical Justinian.143 Therefore, to a or evolution, which appears have occurred simultane statue caused feelings of hostility disrespect, there the entire eastern Roman was to Late dwellers from harm ously throughout empire, little stop Antique city much more than The it.Yet statues of the were affected philosophers' portraits. ing somehow, Olympic gods in numbers in "secular" imperial portraits of the basilica of Ephesos ended up still preserved large spaces, as in a foundation ca. 500 C.E., while the imperial and such in the facades of theaters and nymphaea and were in the baths. while sanctuaries pagan statues of the East Baths at Scythopolis also public Conversely, ca. next to cult statues must have an abundant disposed of 515 CE. Privately owned collections, possessed of "less harmless" an including portraits and mythological statuettes, al supply statuary?with iconogra was to the ones though previously displayed in the relative safety of phy that probably identical displayed or elsewhere in the none of this material private villas, found theirway intowalls foundations city148?almost the or were thrown into pits or wells, as happened inAth has been recovered. To my knowledge, only speci

of no for the "secular." 138Stirling2005,89. aspects life, leaving space 143 of 139Talloen 2003,103-6. Cod. lust. 1.11.9-10. Source (2004) places the closing 140 at its and social context. 1994, 102-3; Stewart 2006, esp. 245-46. Cod. the school Athens into political Belting 144 nn. for references. Theod. 15.4.1, issued in 425 C.E., ordered provincial gover Supra 130,133 145 for Brown andMarkus 59-61, nors to prevent displays of religious enthusiasm imperial (1988, esp. 315-21) (1990, to deal with on the human between the images. However, there is little evidence say that the impe 81-2) thoughts body ever to of traditional deities. first and the fifth centuries. rial cult became comparable that early (1978, 215-320), Bowersock (1982), and Gradel 146Zeider 1999,191-92. Hopkins 147 statues in 85. (2002, 73-108) discuss imperial cult and imperial Gregory 1994, 148 Stewart notes there are no aesthetic differ late antiquity. (2003,191) 141 Smith 1990,153. ences between cult and other statues. on 142Markus (1990) notes how Christianity set itsmark all

This content downloaded from 129.215.19.193 on Wed, 26 Mar 2014 06:55:57 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 2010] PAGAN AND MYTHOLOGICAL STATUARY IN ASIA MINOR 289 mens that are relocated from a to was the at was securely "religious" of Aphrodisias defaced, and relief Side a "secular" location are those in the baths of Cremna left alone well into the sixth centuryCE. because it at the last and the Antonine nymphaeum Sagalassos, depicted the birth of the cityand the foundation myths not even their fate was so to sense and probably directly.149 Apparently, and added the of identity,pride, pa defined not only by the question of whether they re triotism of the inhabitants.153 ceived worship but also by theirmere presence within context. DECORATION AND PURIFICATION the temple the of a statue with oth as Secondly, relationship Statuary Decoration ers a in around it is key element understanding why Even though the triumph of Christianity required some not. statue survived and others did A standing the destruction of some pagan statues, I argue that rea alone the Artemis statue on the near the sons of a more nature (e.g., square secular guaranteed the survival Gate in or a in relief Hadrian Ephesos) figure (e.g., of many others for a very long time. Just as with the the in the Sebasteion in was gods Aphrodisias) appar architecture that framed it, statuary had for centuries considered far more than in an ently dangerous figures been essential component for the beautification narrative scenes. For even scenes example, though of the city.Even in the Christianized city,pagan and from the Amazonomachy, the Centauromachy, and mythological statues initially still functioned as deco the featured the entire Graeco-Roman Gigantomachy ration, took on allegorical meanings, and symbolized were never removed from theater fa fortune and rank. were eas pantheon, they good They therefore also or In such and cades nymphaeum parapets. cases, gods ily combined with crosses or Christian iconography, were more to goddesses easily reduced the mythologi both in elite houses and at public locations such as cal creatures in tales and and figuring legends sprung fountains, theaters, and city gates. from than "the imagination of poets,"150 rather being The combination of pagan statuaryplaced in a sec considered a real we can also presence. Thus, explain ondary position on a reused honorific base is the clear and creatures still est indication of its further use as a why pagan mythological appeared decorative, though on Late and on silver not element. Even Antique mosaics, paintings, meaningless, though the evidence were involved in an a scene. from the West is more was ware;151 they action, robust, the phenomenon Inmost it is not to determine which cases, possible also clearly present in the East. Bath buildings from of the factorswas decisive in the previous preservation all over the empire provide the strongest evidence to or destruction of the in A combina subject question. support this.Already from the beginning, they pos tion of all these considerations often have been sessed an elaborate collection as may statuary depicting at If for wish to sacri play. we, example, explain why sorted subjects, which might be displayed next to one ficial scenes still on the reliefs of another without con appeared nymphaea necessarily being connected qua at sac Ephesos and Side in spite of the abhorrence of tent.154 Over the centuries, baths seem to have become rifice it can be said that were not (see appx.),152 they an ideal location for assembling statuary from other statues but instead to ancient freestanding belonged locations and displaying them side by side without an decoration. This means that were obvious correlation. The most famous was sculptural they part example of a scene that them and that larger "protected" they the Baths of Zeuxippos in Constantinople, which in were in the decorative were displayed particularly setting the 460s decorated with new statuary. But many of a For the isolated de nymphaeum. example, only bath complexes mentioned here and in the appendix of a sacrifice in the reliefs at the Sebasteion piction apparently underwent similar treatments.155

149 Even in the West or in North where the of Hadrian at in Africa, epi Temple Ephesos only the Theodosian period graphic record is less meager, explicit mention of relocation (Bauer 1996, 284-85 n. 86; Feissel 1999, 28 n. 12 [both with rare from temples is (Curran 1994, 49). The statuary decora further references]). tion of to be a to Constantinople appears major exception 154Marvin 1983, 379-80. Manderscheid (1981, 38-42) this which can no doubt be connected with notes the rule, imperial importance of the "art-aspect" in the decoration of interference. bath buildings. 155 150Theodoret Ellenikon TherapeutikePathematon 3.79. Older included the Baths of Caracalla 151 examples (Marvin in the sixth of in E.g., century, Procopius Gaza, his Ekph 1983) and the Baths of Diocletian at Rome (Museo Nazionale rasis Eikonos, still describes a ensemble with Romano a new recently painted 2002,13-17). Another example of completely taken subjects from classical mythology. Late collection was found in the late fourth or 152 Antique early n. 121. Supra fifth-century baths of Ptolemais. This included, among oth 153Lanckororiski a statues of Aeschines and of I as (1890,1:141, fig. 103) provides drawing ers, Cleopatra Tyche of Egypt of the scene at see Side; also Liebeschuetz 1995-1996, 200-1; or Alexandria, Herakles, the three Graces, and an Eros, all on 234-37. Some friezes the 2001, depicting, among others, city reused pedestals (Brinkerhoff 1962,183,188-98). founder, Androklos, and several deities were added to the

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Literary and epigraphic sources oftenmention that such motives very likelywere influenced by financial was in to considerations.162 The erection of a statue statuary relocated late antiquity beautify the had always city.156By selectively altering the context of a statue been a costly undertaking. As the resources available and it into another its ico to were transporting environment, the reformed civic government limited, reloca a more must have an nography could be adapted into generalized tion been attractive, since inexpensive, cultural reference. it could be turned to new form of civic Thus, benefaction. Nevertheless, relocating ob uses by the Christian population, who still possessed jects with finished details was still a time-consuming a for This is vis strong desire self-representation.157 and delicate operation, during which fragile features ible foremost in the private collections of the period, could easily be damaged and which involved heavy relocation must have but it trickled into the public domain. Already before duty equipment.163 Eventually, themid third century, statues of gods were collected been the only option, especially when the presence of in the baths at Cremna as tribute to a leading fam sculptors in the citywaned. The only alternative would ily of the city. Some 150 years later, statues of Nike have been to leave the spaces in countless niches and were on to aediculae "much locations" brought together the Embolos of Ephesos along frequented empty, to and that was honor the empress Aelia Flacilla in particular and apparently unacceptable. Moreover, serve the glorification of the imperial house in gen pagan depictions such as busts of gods in Triton's at were so much a of the eral. Although imperial interference complicated the nymphaeum Hierapolis part situation in Constantinople when compared with the architecture that removal would have been considered were at madness. As a the life of and rest of Asia Minor, similarmotives play when pure result, pagan mytho that citywas decorated with statues in the fourth cen logical statues could be prolonged by a reassessment were decorative value. survived as a traditional tury.Pagan and mythological images imported of their They from all eastern and re-erected in the of art were over the wide provinces158 form and employed range new imperial city for a multitude of reasons: because of artistic uses: for ornament, entertainment, or in they added prestige as well as historical, artistic, and struction.164 If, as discussed above, the inhabitants of religious authority; because theydemonstrated riches a Roman town took littlenotice of the statues in their aware and represented beauty;159and simplybecause the city surroundings most of the time, how would the without statuarywould not have been complete. They Christianized population have been of the pagan gods were collected so that could be de creatures them? These not, however, they and themythological around as to next to met to in rided, Eusebius of Caesarea tries persuade us.160 Christians grew up them and chat were Although pagans were definitely confronted with the front of them?they stillpart of their day-to-day as material aspect of their idols when theywere pulled surroundings. Thus, it is very possible that, in the was to from their bases, and were maybe even broken up for past, unless their attention explicitly pointed locations such as be transport and re-erected in "secular" ward them, theywould hardly noticed.165 the streets or the hippodrome or the baths, claiming were the main Violence that ridicule and denigration purposes Religious In the evidence for re of the emperor and his officials is an underestimation comparison with planned statu and the of the complex role thatpagan and mythological location, updating, widespread preservation, of violence toward or ary could still fulfill.Even Eusebius himself expresses examples pagan mythological a for the statues when to be random outbursts. certain admiration imported imagery appear unorganized, notes There were differences between citieswithin he their "exquisite workmanship."161 certainly a that was in ur the same it ishard to in some bath In Constantinople, fast-growing city regions; explain why for its the sexual connotations of naked statues gent need of statuary collections self-representa buildings were as but not in others. tion, and especially in the smaller cities ofAsia Minor, regarded offensive, Likewise,

156 nn. references. but also at Rome Supra 7,31 for stantinople (Bassett 2004,45) (Curran 1994, Stewart To add one motive for the 157Lepelley 2001;Jacobs (forthcoming). 55; 2003,139-40). possible 158 some must Bassett 2004,37-9. relocation of pagan statuary: in cases, though they could have been 159Bassett 2004,46-9; Brown 2006,316. be extremely rare, explicitly pagan statuary collected and as of war 160Euseb. Vit. Const. 3.54. Lepelley (1994, 10) first pin displayed spoils (Coates-Stephens it a of Edwards Bassett the absurdity of this claim and considered sign 2003, 344-49; 2003; 2004,115). pointed 163 Rockwell Bassett Eusebius' embarrassment with the large quantities of pagan Wurch-Kozelj 1988; 1993, 193; 2004, new 44. statuary adorning the capital. 161Euseb. Vit. Const. 3.54. 164Liebeschuetz 1995-1996,196 n. 23. 162 Financial considerations were not only at play at Con 165Zanker 2000,219.

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sources and edicts are contradicto was more was literary imperial itself also cracked in two, it is likely that it there was no on was ry.166 Indeed, unambiguous empire-wide hit the head by falling debris than that the head on to treat statues. on policy how Imperial legislation detached deliberately before the collapse. Only when the to for even a whole appears argue preservation; there is evidence of consistent, repetitive handling idols were to be removed from their temple contexts of the statuary or when clear chisel marks are visible in an orderly manner by the proper authorities. The can mutilation be definitively identified.171 buildings, when theywere no longer used for cult ob As explained above, cult statuesmost likely "disap were for but jectives, preferably left intact and ideally given peared" religious reasons, this explanation another were does not account for function. Christian militants, however, what happened, for instance, with running ahead of imperial law.Their fear of idols and the pagan decoration of the southern nymphaeum at their strong desire to remove the physical obstacles Perge, which isnow missing but which probably would for the conversion of pagans ensured that the fourth have been acceptable in theChristianized world. Statu centurywas already marked by the destruction of and arypreservation isnot only dependent on iconography violence toward temples and statues.167 but is also strongly linked to the "afterlife"of the build of of all sorts its or Accounts pagan-Christian violence ing, either after collapse after abandonment of can be connected with situations. its came to very particular original function. Eventually, statuary be it is better to assume there was a valued as a source of raw or Therefore, specific ready material?marble cause and initiator for each case of rather not for its or destruction, bronze?and intrinsic, symbolic, aesthetic as a All was than considering them part of widespread phe value. statuary and other marble decoration that nomenon. For the famous demoli not covered was example, Serapis by architectural fragments available tion?which is attested in literary sources that give for burning in lime kilns; similarly, themetal statues of us the events preceding and following the attacks on Nike that had been relocated to the Embolos at Ephe the cult statue?was the outcome of a series of esca sos must have been melted down and so have not come events.168 tension between us. lating Although pagans down to The need for rawmaterials may indeed be and Christians in Alexandria had been building up themain reason why on thewhole we have recovered over several decades, the final outbreak of violence so little statuary from the streets and squares of the was connected Late cities of the eastern Streets and strongly with Bishop Theophilus, who, Antique empire. with some took are together loyal magistrates, advantage squares less likely to be covered by the debris from a of revolt of the pagan community to destroy the collapsed buildings around them, so statues therewere infrastructure under the of to pagan pretence stopping far easier reach than those in, say, bath buildings. the sources civilian unrest.169 Early Christian tell many As Stewart noted, "the kind of statue-destruction that men similar tales of how holy and monks refused to prevailed from this point on represented a genuine compromise for the sake of public order and caused break from the iconoclastic tradition. For the firsttime civic unrests with their extremist ideas that for statues were without order or were, destroyed meaning,"172 most the part, strongly condemned by secular and of without any relationship to their subject matter, their ten also authorities.170 nature or religious location, but only for the intrinsic value of their material. A of sculpture Poseidon, therefore, be Secular Violence came to an statue equal honorific of the major bene In the dislocation or absence factor in a town. In the in archaeological record, West, Cassiodorus the early of stone can or statuary fragments in be accidental the sixth century pleaded for the preservation of the statu result of a deliberate act. The difference is often hard ary adornment in Rome, no doubt because he saw it to tell. For the head of the Nemesis at the in instance, disappearing furnaces and lime kilns.173 The East Antonine of was detached and sources nymphaeum Sagalassos possesses many archaeological for systematic underneath the in the basin. Since the destruction from lying body body statuary the seventh century onward.

166Imperial edicts such as Cod. Theod. 16.10.8 (382 CE.) 169Hahn 2004,91. and 15 (399 CE.) argued for preservation of statues as works 170Hahn 2004,276-80; Gaddis 2005,191,210-12. Salzman of art, but Cod. Theod. 16.10.18 (399 CE.) and 16.10.19.1 (407 (2006, 272-73) gives examples of bishops disapproving of CE.) clearly stated that idols had to be taken down. such extremism. 171 167Gaddis 2005, 115-17,189; see also 92-117, where Gad Sauer 2003, 72. dis 172 describes expressions of pagan-Christian violence in the Stewart 1999,182-83. fourth century. 173Cassiod. Var. 7.13, 7.15 (translated and discussed 168 by Haas 1997,192-93. Hahn (2004, 78-92) attempts to re Fauvinet-Ranson 2006,163-72). construct the course of events.

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For at the of the lime instance, bath-gymnasium Sardis, in the later fifthand the firsthalf of the sixth century. rose 616 C.E. were kilns that up after actually excavated The final demise of pagan and mythological statuary and a number of partlyburned statuaryfragments were can primarily be attributed to itsgrowing irrelevance as to discovered within. Lime was needed here for the con secular adornment, rather than religious violence. struction of a kastronon the acropolis but especially for Indeed, the large number of statues discovered amid to their architectural context demonstrates that the new road laid out by Cons tans II just the south passive the Also at other sites where habi and therefore also continued of bath complex.174 preservation, toleration, or were in later cen into the later sixth and seventh centuries.176 tation continued that reoccupied must been turies, the statuary record have consistently CONCLUSION out. For both and architec thinned example, statuary to street of This overview of remains in Asia Minor has tural elements belonging the colonnaded statuary and Aizanoi were burned to lime only with the appearance examined various attitudes toward pagan mytho so of the modern town of Qavdarhisar.175 logical statuary in late antiquity. As in many aspects, served as a frontier between the late antiquity period Chronology classical world of pagan civilization and the Christian reasons the survival of the world. and Even though secular guaranteed culture Byzantine Pagan especially was an of pagan and mythological statuaryfor a very long time, mythological statuary still considered appro of means of communication and decoration. At by the end of the sixth century ithad lostmuch its priate to Based on the ar to classical artistic into relevance contemporary life. only tempts integrate the heritage an evolution in attitudes the Christian cultural milieu were and var chaeological record, through widespread out the centuries ishard to sketch, since dating ispoor ied. As a result, inhabitants of the sixth centurywould seen or lacking. In any case, this range of positive and nega stillhave themselves surrounded by personifica statues and even tive attitudes toward pagan and mythological tions, mythological creatures, Olympian was This remained on present throughout late antiquity.Only production gods. iconography present luxury seem to have after the and in statuettes in the mansions of the elite and reworking stopped early items fifthcentury, when the official attitude toward pagan until the second quarter of the sixth century. Statues ism had hardened, but also when statuaryproduction displayed in public buildings, along main streets, and out use on thewhole became a rarity.Religiously inspired at on public squares often went of only when the on statues were architecture was tacks pagan and mythological already surrounding destroyed. numerous the late fourth as seen The amount of waned late an by century, but, above, statuary throughout ceased the situation differed strongly from city to city, from tiquity;production slowed down and eventually to from statue to statue. to deliver new items the location location, and possibly altogether. Inevitably, existing was out the three We can hardly expect to find archaeological evidence record being thinned during long Statues were in use. for this, since the remains of the toppled and smashed centuries of the period. objects for a Some of them have a more or less statues would not have been left lying around may possessed per were relocated long time. The edicts issued between 382 and 407 that manent location in the cityscape; others more once. course of such statu demanded preservation of the historical and cultural than In the operations, ran of sometimes heritage no doubt also reflected an existing practice, ary the risk being damaged, beyond no doubt one that isvisible in the archaeological record. There repair. Religiously motivated iconoclasm that of cult statues and is littledirect dating evidence for the instances of ac depleted the corpus, especially carv once stood within culturation, as theymostly only involve additional other gods who temple precincts, crosses it is the numbers of which are low. Also in ing. For the heads with found in Ephesos, surviving very were this we are confronted with the limitations of the possible to say that the incisions applied before case, a new evidence. If such "idols" were 500 C.E., when theyended up in foundation fill. archaeological destroyed the late sixth it is Indeed, as stated above, Christianity increasingly en between the fourth and centuries, we ever find traces of this. when the croached on the space for allegorical interpretations unlikely will Only to a irrelevance structure inwhich were situated was at and secular activities. This led growing they destroyed remains were of classical motifs and the end of active preservation the same moment and when the statuary

175 174Hanfmann and 1978,81; Yegul 1986,15-16,49, Rheidtl995, 712-13. Ramage 176 where urban life the 82-3, 89-91, 145 n. 39. Similar evidence for the burning of At Constantinople, continued, pro of mar of and statues can be fol statues is known from the City Bath, where collections longed presence pagan mythological were and the Public Build lowed until the sack of the the Fourth Crusade in ble chips ready for burning found, up capital by 1204 ing at Ptolemais (Kraeling 1962,148,163,168,170). (Vryonis1991, 33-4).

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thus sealed from further interference can the statues Reference: Mango 1991. themselves be recovered. When this is not the case, are to a Number: 3. they likely have been disposed of in thorough Catalogue within the Late Location: manner, either immediately, Antique Ephesos, Varius/Scholasticia baths. or later. We can how statues Statuette of statue of a river period, only guess many Description: Dionysos, god, disappeared in lime kilns at the end of antiquity and satyr, Herakles. in later times. Treatment: restoration of Actively preserved during We also base our conclusions on architectural negative evidence surroundings. we that the was Date: Fourth when claim remaining statuary viewed century. in a mostly positive manner and that after a religious Reference: Aurenhammer 1990, nos. 38, 49, 83, 94. "filtering" and "updating," theywere fitted into the new culture and thus remained in the Number: omnipresent Catalogue 4. The more Location: Harbor Baths. Late Antique city. nuanced view presented Ephesos, here maintains that was still to vari Two statues of a statue a statuary employed Description: Dionysos, of satyr, ous ends: to scare the enemy, to provide linkswith a Aphrodite, an unidentified goddess, statuette of Dio to to indicate a two glorious past, express prestige, general nysos, philosopher, Daedalus and Icarus, groups cultural or or to adorn. with a learning wealth, simply sphinx. Treatment: Actively preserved during restoration of architectural surroundings. DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY Date: 337-350 CE.

CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF LEUVEN References: Manderscheid 1981, 86-8; Aurenhammer INKOMSTSTRAAT 2 1 nos. BLIJDE 1991, 7, 33, 36, 50, 148; Auinger and Rathmayr 3OOO LEUVEN 2007, 238-40. BELGIUM

[email protected] Catalogue Number: 5.

Location: Ephesos, Vedius gymnasium.

Description: a, the original statuary decoration, includ Appendix: ing threenaked statuesof Aphrodite, and lateradditions Overview of Pagan and Mythological Statuary including two rivergods, Asklepios, Hygeia, Aphrodite, Remains in Late Antiquity Hercules (?),Hermes, Athena, an unidentified goddess, statue of a at Androklos, sophist, least five herms. Treatment: was a, the original statuary decoration STATUARY PRESERVED INSIDE BATH BUILDINGS partly removed and fragmentswere reused as building IN ASIA MINOR material; b, the later additions were partly relocated Catalogue Number: 1. and partly actively preserved during renovations; c, the Location: Baths of two some Constantinople, Zeuxippos. Androklos, river gods, and herms had their Three statues cut Description: of Apollo and theMuses, genitals away. a statue a of Hermaphroditos, Herakles with nymph, Date: a, probably early fifthcentury; b, early fifthcen Poseidon with two The Amymone, figures from the tury; c, unknown. ban myth cycle, and 29 figures from the Trojan myth References: Manderscheid 1981,88-91; Aurenhammer cycle. 1991, nos. 23, 37,66,86,87,105,135; Hannestad 2001; Treatment: relocated to the new a, baths; b, actively Auinger and Rathmayr 2007, 245-48. preserved during restorations and dedication of new

statuary. Catalogue Number: 6. Date: a, 467 C.E. Location: East Constantinian; b, Ephesos, Gymnasium. References: Bassett Kaldellis 2004, 51-8; 2007. Description: Statue of Asklepios, an imperial priest, Muses, Aphrodite, Dionysos, Hygeia, Pan. Catalogue Number: 2. Treatment: Tolerated and probably relocated to the Location: Baths of Constantinople, Marina. Kaisersaal and the propylon, even though a church was Statues of Description: Herakles, rivergods, reliefswith established in the courtyard of the baths. scenes from the Gigantomachy. Date: Unknown, maybe contemporary with the church Treatment: a, tolerated. construction in relocated; b, the fifth century. Date: a, fifth at least into the 10th References: Aurenhammer nos. early century; b, 1991, 44,60,95; Yegul century. 1992, 279-82; Auinger and Rathmayr 2007, 242.

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Number: 7. scenes Catalogue Description: Reliefs depicting of the Ama Location: Faustina Baths. the and the Milet, zonomachy, Centauromachy, Giganto statues Description: Hall of theMuses: six of Muses, machy. two statues of a statue of Treatment: Relocated. Aphrodite, Apollo, Dionysos with a satyr,an athlete leaning on a herm ofHerakles; Date: Late fifthcentury. are a river and elsewhere god Hygeia. Reference: Linant de Bellefonds 1996. Treatment: relocation and to the a, repairs statues; b, actively preserved during restoration works; c, theAph Catalogue Number: 12. rodite, Apollo, Dionysos and the satyr,and the athlete Location: Aphrodisias, nymphaeum at Gaudin's cut and the herm had their genitals away. Gymnasium. scenes Date: a, second half of the fourth century; b, continuous Description: Reliefs depicting of the Ama lyuntil the firsthalf of the sixth century; c,unknown. zonomachy, the Centauromachy, and the Giganto References: Manderscheid 1981,93-6; Schneider 1999, machy. 8-12, 47-54; Hannestad 2001. Treatment: a, relocated; b, bust of Aphrodite defaced. Date: a, late fifth century; b, unknown. 8. Catalogue Number: References: Smith 1996,11, 23-7; Brody 2007, 24. Location: Baths of Hadrian. Aphrodisias, statues a statue Number: 13. Description: Two ofAphrodite, ofApol Catalogue a a Location: fountain near the stadium. lo (?), satyr,Eros, group ofAchilles and Penthesileia, Ephesos, Statuettes of and a a Menelaos and Patroklos. Description: Dionysos satyr, sleep new was added and Treatment: Tolerated when statuary ing Eros, Harpokrates. to the baths. Treatment: a, produced; b,all statuetteshad their geni cut Date: Into the sixth century. tals away.

References: Manderscheid 1981, 96-9; Smith 2007. Date: a, early fifth century; b, unknown. References: Jobst 1986; Aurenhammer 1990, nos. 46, Number: 9. and Catalogue 74, 82; Auinger Rathmayr 2007, 249.

Location: Sagalassos. Statues of several statuettes Number: 14. Description: Eros, including Catalogue one two statues Location: Celsus of Apollo and of Aphrodite, imperial Ephesos, Library. of Hadrian, Marcus Aurelius, Faustina. Description: Reliefs of theMonuments of the Parthians Treatment: Actively preserved during restoration of with depictions of Olympic gods, emperors, and sacri animal sacrifice scenes. architectural surroundings. fice, including on one of the Date: Until the early sixth century. Treatment: a, relocated; b, Ganymede cut Reference: Magele 2009, 558-76, nos. 142-62. reliefs had his genitals away. Date: a, early fifthcentury; b, possibly also early fifth Number: 10. Catalogue century. n. Hueber et al. Location: Perge, South Baths. References: Bauer 1996, 281 64; 1997, Description: Gallery ofKlaudios Peison, withMeleager, 77-83; Auinger and Rathmayr 2007, 250. Apollo, Marsyas, a sittingMuse, Aphrodite, Hygeia, Number: 15. Nemesis, Muse group with Apollo, Horus; elsewhere Catalogue are the three a Location: Traiani. Harpokrates, Graces, Aphrodite, priest Ephesos, Nymphaeum Two statues of a statue of a sa ess of Artemis, Hermes. Description: Dionysos, with herms of Treatment: a, actively preserved during restoration of tyr,Aphrodite, Androklos, balustrade the two unidentified female a helmeted architectural surroundings; b, Meleager, Marsyas, deities, warrior, Horus, and the three Graces had their genitals cut a philosopher. tolerated addition of away. Treatment: a, during balustrade; had their Date: a, fourth or fifth century; b, unknown. b, the satyrand the naked Dionysos genitals References: Ozgur 1987; Hannestad 2001. cut away. un Date: a, second half of the fourth century; b, STATUARY PRESERVED IN NYMPHAEA IN ASIA known. MINOR References: Miltner 1959, 326-46; Aurenhammer 11. nos. and Catalogue Number: 1991, 31,41,51,104; Auinger Rathmayr 2007, Gate 250-51. Location: Aphrodisias, Agora nymphaeum.

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Catalogue Number: 16. Treatment: Tolerated. Date: Location: Ephesos, Pollio fountain. Continuously. Description: Polyphemos group. References: Bejor 1991, no. 31; De Bernardi Ferrero Treatment: All naked statues had their genitals cut 1999; D'Andria 2003, 132-35; Campagna 2006, 393. away. Date: Unknown. Catalogue Number: 22. References: Miltner 1960, 28-41; Aurenhammer 1991, Location: Milet. no. and Statues of a naked a Di 147; Auinger Rathmayr 2007, 252. Description: nymphs, Silen, satyr, onysos (?) Athena, (?),Artemis, Aphrodite (?),Asklepios, two statues of Leda or a Posei Catalogue Number: 17. Herakles, Nike, nymph, Bassus Location: Ephesos, Laecanius nymphaeum. don^), Paris(?), Selene, Atlas. Description: Two statues of fluvial gods, five statues of Treatment: Tolerated. two statues a Date: Tritons, (possibly three) of Aphrodite, Continuously. satyr, reliefs of Nereids. Reference: Hiilsen 1919, 55-72. Treatment: All rivergods, Tritons, and satyrshad their cut genitals away. Catalogue Number: 23. Date: Unknown. Location: Hadrianic Sagalassos, nymphaeum. References: Fleischer 1972-1975; Aurenhammer 1991, Description: A colossal seated Apollo, a standingApollo, nos. and a two statues or 84-5, 88-92,122,124,153-56; Auinger Rath Poseidon, satyr, of Aphrodite, Dionysos a reliefs of a mayr 2007, 252-53. satyr, Muses, Tritons, Nereids, fluvial god, a Medusa head.

Catalogue Number: 18. Treatment: Tolerated. Location: "Fontane." Date: Ephesos, Continuously. Description: Nike, kore(?), satyr(?), river god. Reference: Magele et al. 2007, 476, 481-92. Treatment: Tolerated during dedication of statues of Constantius II and Constans. Catalogue Number: 24. Date: C.E. Location: 337-350 Sagalassos, Severan nymphaeum. References: Heberdey 1912,173-77; Auinger and Rath Description: A statue of Hera, Tyche, three statues of mayr 2007, 253. Nikes. Treatment: Tolerated. Number: 19. Date: Catalogue Continuously. Location: "StraBenbrunnen." Reference: Ephesos, Unpublished. statue. Description: Dionysos, female portrait Treatment: the had its cut a, Dionysos genitals away; b, Catalogue Number: 25. the had a cross inscribed on the forehead. Location: North portrait Perge, Nymphaeum. Date: a, unknown; b, unknown. Description: A statue of a fluvial god, Zeus, Artemis, Reference: Auinger and Rathmayr 2007, 254. Apollo and Isis, reliefs of Dionysiac elements, heads or masks of maenads and satyrs, Tritons. Catalogue Number: 20. Treatment: Tolerated. Location: Triton's Date: Hierapolis, Nymphaeum. Continuously. an Description: Reliefs, including Amazonomachy, Reference: Mansel 1975, 369-72. busts Tritons, Erotes, of Apollo, and busts of other deities. Catalogue Number: 26. Treatment: Tolerated. Location: South Perge, Nymphaeum. Date: Continuously. Description: Reliefs of Artemis Pergaia, three naked References: De Bernardi Ferrero 1999, 698; D'Andria Charites, a bathing Aphrodite, an Eros and a female 2003,117-26; Campagna 2006, 388-90. priestess, busts of Selene, Helios, and Tritons. Treatment: Tolerated. Number: 21. Date: Catalogue Continuously. Location: Hierapolis, Temple ofApollo nymphaeum. Reference: Mansel 1975, 367-69. Description: Statue ofAphrodite; a nymph or Poseidon; reliefs of including depictions Leto, Apollo, Artemis, Catalogue Number: 27. and an Hera, Jupiter, Selene; Amazonomachy; Tritons Location: Side, gate nymphaeum. and Erotes on an dolphins, possibly offering scene. Description: Statues of least fiveNikes; reliefs on the

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love encounters Severus as crowned a parapets showing between gods and/ Septimius portrayed Zeus, by or mythological figures, including depictions of Aph winged Nike and in the presence of various gods and Poseidon and rodite, Ares, Eros, Demeter, Hermes, the personifications. Treatment: nymph Amymone, Artemis and Endymion; the punish a, actively preserved during restorations ment to scaenae of Ixion, mythical founder of Side; relief of the the frons; b, tolerated when Christian sym arrival ofAthena at Side, including the goddess arriving bols were inscribed in the blocks of the proscenium; c, at the city in a boat and making an offering on a small possibly the statuary decoration was mutilated in the in of after the of the scaenae frons. No fur altar the company of theTyche the city. period collapse Treatment: Tolerated. ther details. Date: Date: Continuously. a, 352 C.E.; b, unknown; c, seventh century(?). References: Mansel 1963, 55-63; inan 1975, nos. 9, 53, References: Ozren 1996, 127-28; D'Andria 2003, 64, 65, 70,129,130. 152-80.

Number: Catalogue 28. Catalogue Number: 32. aediculated Location: Side, nymphaeum. Location: Perge. Statues of Athena. scenes Description: Apollo, Hermes, Description: Reliefs with from the life of Dio Treatment: tolerated. an a

between figures of the lowest frieze. STATUARY PRESERVED IN THEATRES IN ASIA Date: Unknown. MINOR Reference: Inan et al. 2000. Catalogue Number: 29. Number: 33. Location: Aphrodisias. Catalogue Description: Statues ofApollo flanked by twoMuses, a Location: Side. statue of a goddess wearing a peplos, several Nikes, a Description: Statues of Apollo, Tyche, a hermaphro head ofAphrodite, head ofApollo. dite, a sphinx, the three Graces, reliefs with mainly Treatment: a, a marble reliefof Aphrodite was chipped mythological subjects, probably sagas connected to the of were away; b, tolerated when frescoes archangels history of Side. a room on Treatment: Tolerated when two were added to added to the stage, possibly in the firsthalf chapels cavea. suffered and de of the sixth century. the The reliefs damage many Date: a, unknown; b, unknown. pictions are incomplete. Ithas been suggested thiswas References: Cormack 1991; Erim and Smith 1991; 6z the result of an intentional mutilation. ren 1996,123-24; Brody 2007, cat. no. 13. Date: Fifth century C.E.(?). References: inan 1975, nos. 5, 45, 56, 63, 85; Mansel 30. 134-41. Catalogue Number: 1963, Location: Ephesos. Number: 34. Description: Statuettes of Athena, Aphrodite, and Catalogue statues of two of a Location: Miletos. Poseidon, three Apollo, Dionysos, Reliefs Erotes and satyr, Hermes, Serapis, Herakles, Aphrodite, Athena, Description: featuring hunting Nemesis. scenes; three Apollos, including the cult statue of Treatment: Tolerated. Didyma. Treatment: Tolerated. Date: Continuously. nos. References: Aurenhammer 1991, 5,12,15, 32, 34, Date: Continuously. 53, 79, 98; Ozren 1996,126-27. References: Kleiner 1968, 70-2; Sear 2006, 343-44.

STATUES AND RELIEFS THAT WERE DISCARDED Number: 31. Catalogue Number: 35. Location: Hierapolis. Catalogue Narona of the Description: A statuette of Asklepios; two statues of Location: (Croatia), temple imperial Apollo; Serapis; twoTritons; Artemis; Leto; Hades-Sera cult. At least 17 statues and pis; two sphinxes; reliefs depicting the life and deeds Description: represent emperors of the patron god of the town; Apollo and Artemis; members of the imperial family. bro reliefswith Dionysiac iconography and themes linked Condition at Discovery: All heads missing, bodies The to the local Plutonion, such as the rape of Proserpine; ken, and fragments scattered. temple building

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was deliberately destroyed, the statues buried under Date of Treatment: By the mid fourth century, the debris. was temple abandoned. Treatment: Smashed. Suggested References: Foss 1976, 48-50; Hanfmann and Ramage Date of Treatment: Ca. 400 C.E.(?). 1978, 90, no. 62. Reference: Marin 2001.

Catalogue Number: 40. Number: 36. near Catalogue Location: Abu Mina, pottery kiln the Great Location: Eretria (Greece), temple of the imperial Basilica. cult. a Description: Statuette of Dionysos and satyr. Seven male. at on Description: statues, mainly Condition Discovery: Deposited horizontally top Condition at Discovery: Hundreds of fragments found of a bed of sand, covered with sand. The head of Dio in a destruction most in naos. was west. layer, of them the With nysos pointing the of two were exception torsos, the fragments very Suggested Treatment: Symbolically buried. small. Heads and were not retrieved. hands Date of Treatment: Ninth century CE. Treatment: Smashed. Reference: Suggested Engemann 1998. Date of Treatment: Fourth century C.E. Reference: Schmid 2001. Catalogue Number: 41. Location: Scythopolis, theater. Number: Catalogue 37. Description: Hermes (?), who stood in the niche of the Location: scaenae Ephesos, prytaneion. frons. Description: Three copies of the cult statue ofArtemis Condition at Discovery: Found in pieces in a pit near Ephesia. the stage, buried just above the level of the pavement Condition at statues were Discovery: The almost intact in the clay fill supporting a tile floor. a laid facing upward in black layerjust above the pave Suggested Treatment: Symbolically buried (?) after the ment of the scaenae frons and its decoration were building. damaged during Suggested Treatment: Symbolically buried. an earthquake (?). Date of Treatment: Probably after the building had Date of Treatment: In the second quarter of the fourth been destroyed by the earthquakes between 358 and century CE. 368 C.E. References: Applebaum 1978, 85 n. 11; Tsafrir and References: Donderer 1991-1992, 244-50; Scherrer Foerster 1997, 129, 132. 2000, 86.

Catalogue Number: 42. Catalogue Number: 38. Location: Aphrodisias, outside the west aisle of the Location: Hierapolis, basilica. Atrium House. Statue of Attis. a a man Description: Description: Statue of Muse, headless, and in Condition at Laid on Discovery: completely intact its military dress, also headless. corner back in the southwest of the basilica. Condition at Discovery: Deposited "unceremoniously Treatment: a Suggested Symbolically buried. by wall."177 Date ofTreatment: Before the was (?) basilica destroyed Suggested Treatment: Discarded. an in the later fourth and there Date of In or by earthquake century Treatment: after the fifth century. after dismantled. References: Erim 1983, 233; Smith 1990, 129. Reference: D'Andria 2003, 94-5, figs. 71-3.

Catalogue Number: 43. Number: 39. Location: Catalogue Aphrodisias, to the east of the bouleu Location: Sardis, Temple of Artemis. terion. Torso of a of Artemis. a Description: priestess Description: Statues of strategos,a priest ofAphrodite, Condition at Underneath the floor of the a and a Discovery: young man, boy. in front of the cella between the an tea of temple, the Condition at Discovery: Deposited mostly intact but west cella. without heads a foundation wall. Some alongside frag Treatment: buried. also of the were more Suggested Symbolically ments, heads, widely scattered.

177 Smith 1990,129.

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Treatment: Number: 48. Suggested Discarded and buried, maybe Catalogue in order to reuse their bases in the construction of the Location: Athens, wells in Houses C and B.

city wall. Description: In House C, Well Q, portrait busts of An toninus a an a Date of Treatment: Mid fourth century. Pius, young woman, elderly woman, and Reference: Hallett 1998. small statue of Herakles; inHouse C, Well P, a marble head ofHelios, one of Nike, and a portrait of a beard 44. ed in a statuette a Catalogue Number: man; House B, of Hermes, head of Location: north of the bouleuterion. and a statuette of a Aphrodisias, Nemesis, philosopher. Description: Diskophoros. Condition at Discovery: Found insidewells. Well Qwas Condition at Used facedown as cover for a wa a to Discovery: sealed offwith marble slab, according Frantz, when ter channel near the north side of the bouleuterion. the first owners deserted the house. It was more likely Treatment: Reused. sealed when a new bath was laid out on Suggested complex top. Treatment: Discarded. Date of Treatment: After the late fourth century. Suggested Reference: Rockwell 1991, 134. Date of Treatment: Ca. 530 CE. Reference: Frantz 1988, 41, 87. Number: 45. Catalogue Location: Ephesos, basilica. Description: Portraits ofAugustus and Livia. Works Cited Condition at Discovery: Buried underneath the floor of a house. Alzinger, W. 1972-1975. "Das Regierungsviertel." OJhBeibl 50:229-300. Treatment: Discarded. Suggested Applebaum, S. 1978. "The Roman Theatre of Scythopolis." Date of Treatment: Ca. 500 C.E. Scripta Classica Israelica 4:77-105. Reference: 260-63. E. "Zur Stat Alzinger 1972-1975, Auinger, J., and Rathmayr. 2007. spatantiken in uenausstattung der Thermen und Nymphaen Ephe Number: 46. sos." In Statuen in der Akten des internationalen Catalogue Spdtantike: inMiinchen am 11. und edited Location: East Baths. Workshops 12.Juni 2004, Scythopolis, Kunst im ersten by F.A. Bauer and C. Witschel, 237-69. Statue of an a Description: emperor, nymph, Aph Jahrtausend. Reihe B: Studien und Perspektiven 23. Wies rodite, and Dionysos, found together with another baden: Reichert. von Ideal substantial number of large and small fragments of Aurenhammer, M. 1990. Die Skulpturen Ephesos: I. Akad marble statues. plastik Ephesos 10(1). Vienna: Osterreichische emie der Wissenschaften. Condition at Discovery: Aphrodite and nymph, both Bassett, S. 2004. The Urban Late Constanti were in the was Image of Antique headless, thrown hypocaust. Aphrodite Press. nople. Cambridge: Cambridge University found the The of facedown, nymph faceup. Dionysos, Bauer, F.A. 1996. Stadt, Platz undDenkmalin der Spdtantike: nose are zur des Raums in which the mouth, eyes, and said to have been Untersuchungen Ausstattung offentlichen den Stadten und mutilated, was buried under the floor level of a new spatantiken Rom, Konstantinopel Ephesos. Mainz: von Zabern. was reused in a wall. The statue Philipp building. The emperor R. 2004. ProvincialCilicia and theArchaeology of Temple was and on the cuirass are Bayliss, headless. The eagle griffins Conversion. BAR-IS 1281. Oxford: Archaeopress. said to have been defaced. statue. e 3. Bejor, G. 1991. Le Hierapolis: Scavi Ricerche Suggested Treatment: Discarded and used as building Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider. Presence: A the material. Belting, H. 1994. Likeness and History of Image theEra Art. and London: The Univer Date of Treatment: Ca. 515/16 C.E., when the baths Before of Chicago of Press. went out of use and the sitewas overbuilt. sity Chicago partially Benndorf, 0.1906. "ZurOrtskundeundStadtgeschichte." References: Tsafrir and Foerster Tsafrir In Holder. 1997, 129-31; Ephesos 1, 9-110. Vienna: Pre 2003, pis. 110, 111. Berenfeld, M.L. 2009. "The Triconch House and the at 113 decessors of the Bishop's Palace Aphrodisias." AJA Number: 47. (2):203-29. Catalogue M. 1999. Bergmann, Chiragan, Aphrodisias, Konstantinopel: Location: Side, various wells. Zur mythologischenSkulptur der Spdtantike. Palilia 7.Wies Description: Lower part of an unidentified group with baden: Reichert. Cult: two figures,a virtually intactmetal statuette ofArtemis Bowersock, G.W. 1982. "The Imperial Perceptions and Christian Vol. a wreath. and Persistence."/^ms/i Self-Definition. holding 3, in theGraeco-Roman World, edited B.F. Condition at Unknown. Self-Definition by Discovery: London: SCM Meyer and E.P. Sanders, 171-82,238-41. Treatment: Discarded. Suggested Press. Date of Treatment: Unknown. -. 1990. Hellenism inLate Antiquity. Cambridge: Cam Reference: inan 1975, nos. 62, 66, 173. bridge University Press.

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