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Rap and Islam in : Arabic Religious Language Contact with Vernacular French Benjamin Hebblethwaite [email protected]

1. Context 2. Data & methods 3. Results 4. Analysis

Kamelancien My research orientation:

The intersection of Language, Religion and Linguistics French-Arabic • Interdisciplinary (language contact • Multilingual & sociolinguistics) • Multicultural • Multi-sensorial Ethnomusicology • Contemporary (rap lyrics)

Religion This is a dynamic approach that links (Islam) language, culture and religion.

These are core aspects of our humanity.

Much of my work focuses on Haitian Vodou music. --La fin du monde by N.A.P. (1998) and Mauvais Oeil by (2000) are considered breakthrough for lyrics that draw from the Arabic-Islamic lexical field. Since (2001) many artists have drawn from the Islamic lexical field in their raps.

Kaotik, , 2011, photo by Ben H. --One of the main causes for borrowing: the internationalization of the language setting in urban areas due to immigration (Calvet 1995:38).

This project began with questions about the Arabic Islamic words and expressions used on recordings by French rappers from cities like Paris, , Le Havre, Lille, Strasbourg, and others.

At first I was surprised by these borrowings and I wanted to find out how extensive this lexicon --North Africans are the main sources of Arabic inwas urban in rap France. and how well-known --Sub-Saharan Africans are also involved in disseminatingit is outside the of religiousrap. lexical field that is my focus. The Polemical Republic

2 recent polemics have attacked rap music • Cardet (2013) accuses rap of being a black and Arab hedonism that substitutes for political radicalism. • Cardet calls Muslim-influenced rap “islamo-racaille” (hoodlum Islam) • Right-winger, Alain Soral, is the publisher.

• Breddan (2014) argues that rap is a vehicle for “indoctrination” and “brain washing” • “The accelerated Islamization of the movement reflects the spirit of conquest and conversion from the early days of Islam” (29, my trans.). Snapshots of Rap and Islam in France L’Institut du monde arabe

Construction permit for a new mosque in Nanterre Advertisements for Ramadan food products in the Paris metro Halal fast food joint in Saint-Denis. Notice the large AVS logo in the window. AVS is an organization that certifies halal meat in France. http://www.halal-avs.com/ Muslim-themed advertisement for a phone card for the Maghreb in the Paris metro.

http://rue89.nouvelobs.com/2014/07/08/peux-gassar-sans- Ethnic marketing in Paris 2014 compter-marketing-ethnique-banalise-253506 Advertisements for hip hop albums or concerts are posted all over Paris. Hip hop advertising on kiosques. Advertising in the metro.

Both Frenchmen, Hayce Lemsi (of Algerian descent) and (of Moroccan descent) draw from the Islamic lexicon Hayce LM is the “ humaine” Lacrim was formly a bank-robber.

Hip hop in the mainstream: Hip hop workshops for children aged 5-12. Hip hop workshop in led by Charles Norton. Using English-language hip hop to get kids excited about studying English at Café Culturel Saint-Denis Hip hop culture includes graffiti and Paris is dotted with stylized vehicles and structures Paris is home to ’s glossy graffiti magazine Paris Tonkar (est. in 1991) The Ghetto Fabulous Gang perform at La Bellevilloise in Belleville. Cultural note: Very little alcohol was purchased by the audience and no alcohol use was observed on stage. Friends and family of the Ghetto Fabulous Gang celebrate on stage at the end of the concert. Apparently it was one of the few times these kids had ever left their ghetto to visit downtown Paris. From Saint-Denis, Shaolyn Gen Zu plays at Paris Hip Hop 2014. This Muslim crew blends the imagery of Samurai and Islamic culture.

S.pri Noir opens for Scred Connexion at Le Hangar (Ivry-sur-Seine) Scred Connexion performs at Le Hangar in Ivry-sur-Seine. Note Mokless wearing the Palestinian keffiyeh. XV BARBAR performs at the . Many hip hop crews are Black and Arab in France. Hayce Lemsi appears on stage with a Sheikh head piece. The audience was Black, Blanc, Beur… Volts Face at the Bataclan. Notice he is holding the Algerian flag during this tense World Cup period in France. Hip Hop Culture in France

Every year the Paris Hip Hop festival offers 2 weeks of non-stop hip hop culture to Parisians.

• Rap concerts • Graffiti workshops • Dance shows • Skateboarding competitions • Academic conferences

Sponsored by the Paris government

Workshop with the creators of Shtar Academy. The first hip hop recorded inside of French prisons. A Venezuelan hip hop activist who works with inmates. Hip hop takes to the streets during La fête de la musique. Here a crew from Saint-Denis raps in front of L’Église Saint-Ambroise (completed in 1869). A crew raps on Boulevard Voltaire in Paris during La fête de la musique. Notice the Palestinian keffiyeh on the right. Street DJ set-up on Boulevard Voltaire LANGUAGE PRACTICES IN THE MOSQUES OF PARIS

1. Mosquée Okba Ibnou Nafaa in Nanterre, east of Paris • Language practices: Friday sermon was exclusively in Arabic. • The mosque was packed for Juma’a. 2. Mosquée - Kardeslik Vakfi, Montreuil

• Language practices: Friday sermon was exclusively in Arabic. • The mosque was packed for Juma’a. 3. L'Institut des Cultures d'Islam: 18th arrondissement, Goutte d’Or neighborhood • A government-funded cultural center that also serves as a mosque for Friday Juma’a. • Language practices: Friday sermon was entirely bilingual in Arabic and French with the imam and interpreter going back-and-forth. • A Salafist and a Sufi imam preached on the same day. • The mosque was packed for Juma’a. 5. Grande Mosquée de Paris Contrasts • Largest mosque in France. • Built with financial support from the French 4. Mosquée Abou Bakr As Saddiq in Belleville government in memory of the Muslims who died A tiny mosque in the 11th arrondissement fighting in WWI. • Sermons are exclusively in Arabic. • The Imam is Algerian.

Sermons are now uploaded weekly via Soundclound http://www.mosqueedeparis.net/

Union des organisations islamiques de France: • Their website offers a debate on whether music is haram in Islam. • Music is controversial in Islam. UOIF argues that music is allowed in Islam. • The Muslim rapper Médine. Studying lexical borrowing in urban French in the Age of Rap • the lexicon of religion is one of the most influential lexical fields in language contact situations (Holm 2000:114). • Haitian Vodou’s African lexicon is an example of a religious lexical field’s triumph against a colonial power. • Arabic borrowings among youth symbolize an “identity culture” distinct from both the dominant French culture and from the parental Arabic-based culture (Calvet 1995:39). • Arabic Islamic culture within French reflects a “bicultural hybridization” in which traditional values converge with occidental ones (Fasla 2008:68). Basic facts about rap & Islam in France

• Rap is “Islam-friendly” (Lanaspeze in Valnet 2013:6) • Muslim rappers present a perspective on layperson Islam that blends the religion’s culture and worldview into the rappers’ personal life-narratives. • Rap is a synchronic record of a representation of urban vernacular French. The great Mosque of Paris courtesy of Flickr Basic facts about rap & Islam in France

--Rap is a planned, stylized and marketed representation of the urban vernacular --Rap is not naturalistic or spontaneous; it is poetry. --Rap is an impactful form of art in terms of the diffusion of language, culture and economic effects (Perrier 2010:13).

Médine: France’s ‘Arabian Panther’ Copies sold between 2004-2012 (from Le Figaro) 1. Guy de Maupassant: 3.790.000 exemplaires 2. Molière: 3.400.000 exemplaires “Classic” literature 3. Émile Zola: 2.900.000 exemplaires 4. Albert Camus: 2.810.000 exemplaires versus Rap in units sold 5. Victor Hugo: 2.710.000 exemplaires 6. Agatha Christie: 2.650.000 exemplaires Les 10 albums les plus vendus : 7. Stefan Zweig: 2.510.000 exemplaires 8. Antoine de Saint-Exupéry: 2.310.000 exemplaires 1. MANAU - Panique Celtique : 1 650 000 9. Voltaire: 2.200.000 exemplaires 10. Honoré de Balzac: 2.020.000 exemplaires 2. IAM - L'école du micro d'argent : 1 080 000 11. William Shakespeare: 1.510.000 exemplaires 3. MC SOLAAR - : 880 000 … 4. DIAMS - Dans Ma Bulle : 860 000 15. Charles Baudelaire: 1.280.000 5. NTM - Supreme Ntm : 805 000 Les 10 artistes ayant vendus le plus d'albums depuis le 6. MC SOLAAR - 5e As : 805 000 commencement 7. DOC GYNECO - 1ere Consultation : 730 000 1. MC SOLAAR : 2 700 000 8. - Gravé dans la roche : 430 000 2. IAM : 1 800 000 9. MC SOLAAR - : 415 000 3. MANAU : 1 650 000 4. NTM : 1 400 000 10. BENNY B - L'album: 415 000 5. DIAMS : 1 100 000 (Convert) From (www.2kmusic.com/fr) 6. DOC GYNECO : 1 050 000 7. SNIPER : 850 000 Recent rap hits: L’apogée, Sexion d’Assaut, 556 000 (#3 in 2012) 8. : 700 000 9. : 650 000 10. 113 : 600 000 Basic facts about the history of Arabic borrowings in French

Periods of borrowing from Arabic in the history of Maghreb and urban French:

• Middle ages/Renaissance – abricot, alambic, alguazil, coton, hasard, matelas, alcool, alcali, azimuth, luth, nadir, ramadan, salamalec and zénith • Modern (19th century, colonial period) – baraka, derbouka, fatiha, kleb, makroud, rebab, souk, tajine and youyou • Contemporary period – ayatollah, chahid, djihad, hizb, intifada, moutahadjiba, oukht, tchi-tchi (all examples from Fasla 2008:64) “The Rap Period” – Nonreligious Arabic borrowings

• la hagra (misery)/le kheye (brother) – “Avec tes fausses histoires de gangster tu me fais mal au veau-cer. La hagra c’est gratuit kheye, le respect ça vaut cher” (, Imposture). • le hèbs [xɛbs] (prison) – “Tu viens de sortir du hebs, tu retrouves ton équipe” (Rohff, Zlatana). • le seume (hate) – “Ils ont le seum ces enfoirés, parce que j'm'auto produit!” (Mister You, Paré pou décoller). • Sbeul (mess up) – “il a foutu le sbeul” (Tengour, Dictionnaire de la zone). • Bézèf (a lot) – “Pousse toi d'la route, fais de la place, on est bézèf” (Niro, Pikasso). • Bled (country of origin) – “Le poids du bled sur les épaules” (, Tallac).

Rap citations courtesy of www.rapgenius.com Examples of Arabic Islamic lexical items in rap texts: Bakar raps about haram (Bakar, Come bak, Come bak)

Yeah ! Tu pars à la mosquée, le coffre plein, ça c'est haram. Tu te poudres le zen avant la salat, ça c'est haram. Y'a ceux qui mettent tout dans le message et d'autres tout dans la bicrave. Rien dans les poches, tout dans le cash, tous les braquent pour qu'ils lèvent les bras. Tu parles mal à tes rent-pa, c'est haram yeah. Tu frappes ton père pour la yassca, c'est haram yeah. C'est pour les blocs et les tier-quar, ça c'est pas du rap pour les tocards. Il fait trop noir il serait peut-être temps que la vérité mette ses pleins phares. Je sais qui je suis, j'ai rien volé. tout ce que j'ai, je l'ai mérité. Ratatatata je n'ai jamais chômé j'ai fait que charbonner Arrachage de sac à main sur une bécane c'est haram. On croyait tous que le KFC c'était halal c'est haram yeah. Mon flow est une fusée belek il se pointe capuché Qu'est-ce que tu fais petit frère, retire ce joint de tes lèvres il peut te coucher. T'as les deux pieds dans le mensonge tu jures c'est haram. Pendant qu'il sombre à l'ombre tu pointes sa femme c'est haram. C'est un-un pour la banlieue deux-deux pour la banlieue Trois-trois je veux te voir ta-ta-taper des mains si tu trouves le morceau dangereux To-to-toc préviens les blocs qu'on est de retour Wa salam Walikoum Médine (feat. Aboubakr), 11 Septembre, Ni violeur ni terroriste

La tempête provient de l'Islam et des banlieues Des marginaux installés sur la terre du milieu Cachés sous leurs voiles sur les lignes de transport Leurs barbes sont trop longues interdites d'aéroport C'est légitime si l'on cède à la psychose Un immigré trop studieux ça couvre quelque chose Dans leurs trousses, couteaux, cutters et canifs Des manuels de pilotage dans un cartable explosif Des lobotomes de la télévision Les médias sont les juges des procès d'intention Fournisseurs d'intox au kilogramme De l'amalgame terrorisme et Islam Dans mon ghetto, on a peur de l'avion Et les femmes impressionnent beaucoup plus que Cendrillon Et c'est juste par manque de culture Qu'Oussama Ben Laden est écrit sur les murs 11 septembre, voilà une date à retenir Comme celle qui secoua une partie de notre avenir Et quand la violence gratuite est un commerce « Ni violeur ni terroriste » un slogan qui bouleverse Aboubakr et Medine… Ni violeur ni terroriste, ni macho, ni proxo, ni terro, ni rigolo, ni bourreau, ni gigolo Ni violeur ni terroriste, ni violent, ni racailleux, ni vilain, ni orgueilleux, ni violeur, ni crapuleux Ni violeur ni terroriste, c'est pour les ghettos qui montrent l'exemple, les banlieues qui s'accrochent à la rampe Ni violeur ni terroriste, c'est pour les Hommes et les djinns, les hijabs et les jeans, Aboubakr et Médine K Rhyme Le Roi, Black Tape (2013), Qibla Je reviens de là où le soleil se couche sur les mosaïques là A pic j’réplique la réplique authentique mon poétique de là De l’ombre où née la lumières sous le choc des vents De l’orient du couchant héroïque mektoub alikla

Par Celui qui dépasse les mesures et ne Se laisse mesurer Le temps archaïque, dirigé Par une arabesque dessinée dans tous les sens et avance En cadence comme la rose des sables désertiques, dirigé, Et laisse derrière elle un tableau chaotique antique, mystique Par sa légende dirigée Où seuls les nomades, experts expérimentés, espère vivre Survivre sur les toits du Sahara tout guider Au faite qui nous sommes sans trônes ni couronne Nous sommes que l’homme fait d’eau et de boue, l’être fière De pierre de poussière on retourne à la poussière, tous guidés Où jaillit le Nil le rive le kif de griffe du chiffre zéro Créé par mes ancêtres Baraquette, tous guidés, Nos phrases se nourrissent de lettre maître de l’alphabet Qui me coule que de plume sur lettre sur les tablettes D’Allah aux paroles du prophète orienter La croyance pense à un sens sous l’offense transperce Les pensées au coeur noir Pour l’amour de la pierre noire la clé spirituelle la Qibla M’oriente vers la Kaaba, orienter Tous fils de la Qibla… A l’horizon sous les galops des destriers dirigés vers la Qibla Chevauché de la main droite Mon étendard sous les tambours flotte Quand la rose des vents sur mes Violons jouent des notes salées pour mon courage (2013), Dernier MC, Dernier MC

…J'ai brisé mes chaînes et je ne cherche pas à être assisté I broke my chains and I’m not looking to be helped Je ne fais qu'évoquer l'histoire mais je ne vis pas dans le passé I do nothing but evoke history but I don’t live in the past En parlant du passé, puisque les colonies c'est fini ; Speaking of the past, since the colonies are finished; Expliquez-moi ce que les soldats français faisaient en Libye, huh? Explain to me what these French soldiers were doing in Libya, huh?

Vous apportiez la Démocratie You brought Democracy C'est ce que croient les incultes que vos médias ont abrutis That’s what the uneducated that your media stupefied believe. Qui ? Who? Qui travaille pour qui ? Qui domine ? Who works for who? Who dominates? Qui est Bernard-Henry Lévy, qui le nomine ? Who is Bernard-Henry Lévy, who nominates him? Qui ? Who? Qui répand toutes ces salades ? Who spreads all this nonsense? Qui veut faire de Damas le nouveau Bagdad ? Who wants to turn Damascus into the new Bagdad? Qui détruit les tombes des Saints sur le sol libyen ? Who destroys the tombs of the Saints on the Libyan soil? Qui prend en otage le peuple malien ? Who takes the people of Mali hostage? Qui sont ces mercenaires ? Qui les finance ? Who are these mercenaries, who finances them? Qui profite de ces guerres ? Quelles sont leurs conséquences ? Who profits from these wars? What are their consequences? Qui distribue les rôles ? Qui décide ? Who distributes the parts? Who decides? Pourquoi l'OTAN ne se déplace que pour certains génocides? Why doesn’t the UN only respond to certain genocides? Que se passe-t-il en Birmanie ? What is taking place in Myanmar? Pourquoi les médias font un déni ? Why does the media create a denial? Qui veut enflammer le Monde Musulman ? Who wants to enflame the Muslim world? Qui veut répandre le sang par la provocation ? Who wants to spill blood via provocation? Qui manipule les masses, qui déstabilise ? Who manipulates the masses, who destabilizes? Qui brandit le voile islamique pour cacher la crise ? Who brandishes the Islamic veil in order to hide the crisis? Eh ! L'heure est grave (grave) Huh! The hour is grave (grave) Le Monde a pris un tournant, les vrais le savent (savent) The world has turned a corner, the real know it (know it) Pour le reste du troupeau brutal sera le réveil For the rest of the flock the wake up will be brutal La France c'est mieux sans Nico, mais au final ça sera pareil France is better without Nico, but in the end it’ll be the same Te fais pas d'illusion va falloir passer à la caisse Don’t kid yourself, you’ll have to go by the cashier Tu vas t'endormir en France et te réveiller en Grèce You’ll fall asleep in France and wake up in Greece S'il y a eu un Printemps Arabe, il se peut que demain If there was an Arab Spring, it may be tomorrow La prochaine révolution soit un Printemps Européen. The next revolution is the European Spring Allah u akbar (God is the greatest)

La vie elle est dure, dahwa, donc normal qu'on s'entraide a Adams-sang Yahia, tout les mecs du six-bull Nique la double peine, dahwa, j'rappe pour les frères qu'ils expulsent Ces fils de putes du gouvernement, nique leurs mamans ahhh Eh ouais Palestine ta terre tu finira par l'avoir Allah u Akbar L a vérité ils finiront par la voir Ahhh WOOGATAMOUAAAAAAAAAAH -- Mister You, Présumé coupable, La Vie C'est Dur Marsha’allah (God has willed it) le droit chemin (Qur’an 1:6); convertir « Y a pas mieux que le droit chemin, regardes ceux qui se convertissent, impossible que tu les pervertissent, certains d'entre eux été accros à la thise, tellement bourés qu'tu pouvais pas leurs faire la bise, le droit ch'min les a sauvés, leurs visages à changés, tu peux voir en eux la lumière réyonné *MASHA ALLAH*, impossible de les détourner, ils ont trouvé le mode d'emploi, ils ont trouvé la paix *MASHA ALLAH*, la vrai richesse qui t'fait oublier le matériel, qui te fait revenir vers l'essentiel… » (-- Kamelancien, Le Deuxième frisson de la vérité, Le Poème du droit chemin)

There is nothing better than the straight path, look at those who convert, it’s impossible for you to pervert them, some of them were hooked on booze, so drunk that you couldn’t give them a kiss, the straight path saved them, their faces changed, you can see in them light radiating *MASHA’ALLAH*, impossible to turn them around, they have found the user manual, they have found peace *MASHA’ALLAH*, the true wealth that made you forget the material, which brings you back to the essential… The fieldwork I completed in Paris, 2014, with 73 participants:

• The judgment task with 55 French rap citations that include Arabic Islamic words provides a synchronic view of judgments about this lexical field. • Among the 73 participants, averaging the results for each word and expression demonstrates its status of assimilation in urban Parisian French. • The Likert-scale judgment task provides evidence of the range of impacts that the members of this lexical field have on contemporary Parisian French.

• Sociolinguistic and demographic questions: a) What is the aggregate knowledge of the items in this lexical field? b) How does knowledge of Arabic impact the results? c) How does gender impact the results? d) How does age impact the results? • Below is the first part of the 55-item Likert-scale task that I asked participants to complete. • 73 participants were asked to judge Arabic Islamic borrowings in French on a scale of 1 (i.e. an unknown word or expression ) to 5 (i.e. a known word or expression). Translation of instructions:

• I want to know if you are The familiar with the words Likert- underlined in bold-face scale • I want to know if these Task with words exist in French 55 spoken in the streets items • Do not judge according to “Standard French” but according to non-formal and urban French • Circle the number that reflects your level of knowledge Comparing Participants:

First: The linguistic knowledge of the participants

Number of languages known Number of participants

French-only 6 (8.2%)

French + 1 language 23 (31.5%)

French + 2 languages 29 (39.7%)

French + 3 languages 10 (13.6%)

French + 4 languages 2 (2.7%)

Unreported 3 (4.1%)

Total number of participants 73 (100%) The languages known among my 73 participants in addition to French

1. English 54 10. Dutch 1 2. Spanish 24 11. Malgache 1 3. Arabic 14 (19% of sample) 12. Kabyle 1 4. German 8 13. Bambara 1 5. Creole 3 14. Myènè (Gabon) 1 6. Italian 3 15. Peul 1 7. Hebrew 2 16. Finish 1 8. Lingala 2 17. Portuguese 1 9. Polish 1 Population demographics for France selon www.wikipedia.org Arabic Islamic words found in French rap texts: Average score out of 5 points on Likert-scale task with 73 participants from Paris, France. 55 words and expressions in order of familiarity.

T o p

T e n

Male djellabas as sold in the NL Salat

Kaaba

Кааба, акрил на грунтовом картоне http://zharlen.ru/?page_id=9 Jilbab

There are three tiers of assimilation among the items in my word set. Score Number of Percentage between 1 items and 5 4-5 17 30.9% 3-4 16 29.9% 2-3 22 40% Total 55 100% Haram and Halal in French rap Muslim rappers commonly situate introspection about their own lifestyles in a morality framework defined by haram (impermissible) versus halal (permissible) behavior and things. “Moi, je sais comment j'veux finir, dans l’Din, j'veux préparer mon av'nir, j'ai trop été déçu, dans l'haram j'ai rien gagné…” [Me, I know how I want to end, in the Deen (Religion), I want to prepare my future, I was too disappointed, in the haram I gained nothing…”-- Kamelancien – À force d'être (150,000 copies sold) Comparing participants who speak Arabic with speakers of other languages Other Arabic Arabic words Other Arabic Arabic words 59/73 14/73 59/73 14/73 Part. Part. Part. Part. Other Arabic Arabic words Other Arabic Arabic words 59/73 14/73 59/73 14/73 Part. Part. Part. Part.

8/55 words had higher averages among speakers of other languages (but the differences are insignificant)

All 8 high-scoring words among non-Arabic speakers were in the top 15 best-known words among the 73 participants.

Speakers of Arabic had a much higher averages than speakers of other languages in 47/55 of the lexical items or expressions

In numerous cases, Arabic speakers had a significantly higher average score than speakers of other languages. Examples: Allah y selmek; Allah y chefiha; din; dounia; jouma’a; mektoub; salat; sunna Comparing male participants with female participants = 44 males & 29 females It is noteworthy Females Males that men’s and women’s knowledge about this lexical field was similar.

Not a single item stands out as gendered Comparing male participants with female participants = 44 males & 29 females

Females Males Participants under the age of Under 30 Over 30 30 compared with those over the age of 30

Note: Only 11 participants were over 30, so these findings are less reliable

--12/55 items are known better by older participants

--43/55 are known better by younger participants Under 30 Over 30

--Generally, the differences between the over and under 30 groups are not that great. Preliminary findings • There are three tiers of assimilation among the items in my word set. Score between 1 Number of items Percentage and 5 4-5 17 30.9% 3-4 16 29.9% 2-3 22 40% Total 55 100% • From the aggregate point of view, the lexical items display degrees of assimilation into the receiving language. • Sociological variables: • I did not find gender to be a significant factor in knowledge about this lexicon. • I did find age to be somewhat significant with younger participants showing more knowledge about this lexicon; the young are likely leaders in the adoption of this lexical field. But, I only had 11 participants over 30 years of age. • Participants with knowledge of Arabic scored higher than other participants. • Their high scores confirm that the Arabic borrowings in rap texts reflect language practices in the broader Arabic-French bilingual community. • Mosques are clearly sources for Arabic maintenance in France and for the diffusion of the Islamic lexical field. • The high awareness of non-Arabic speakers about 8 items suggests that the Islamic religious lexicon is having an impact on contemporary French Qu’Allah bénisse la France! May Allah bless France!

• Lexical borrowing provides a window into understanding social, political, cultural and ideological influences in a society (Ngom 2000:160). • Borrowings in vernacular French—like other linguistic variables in phonology (Fagyal 2010), the lexicon (Béthune 2004; Debov 2012), and syntax and morphology (Lodge 2004)—construct boundaries between classes and communities. • Islam is growing in the banlieues of France; • Of the many features of urban French that rappers disseminate, borrowings from Arabic language are significant. • The Arabic Islamic lexical field in rap music is an exciting development where musical culture, language and religion intersect and create meaning for people (Kepel 1987:384; al Malik 2004). Rap lyrics are an accelerant in the dissemination and acculturation of Arabic religious lexical borrowings and they point to what Ramadan (2010:41) calls the arrival of European Islam.

Post-script: The dimensions of rap in Europe

Rap lyrics have already proven to be the main source for one of the most popular websites for investigating urban French. (Le Dictionnaire de la zone) and dictionary by Abdelkarim Tengour Coda: Rap and Islam in Europe: Holland and Nederlands Grootste Nachtmerrie (2007) Salah Edin’s Arabic-language album, Horr (2009), produced in Europe; WOII (Wereld Oorlog II, 2011) Appa & Sjaak

2007 Onbegrepen, 2013 2013 Germany’s Massiv, Blut gegen blut (2006); Ein Mann, Ein Wort (2008), Eine Kugel reicht nicht (2011) Hip hop and urban fashion have gone hand-in-hand and the Muslim hip hop community also builds its business on that model

To the right: Dutch rapper Salah Edin’s urban Islamic gear From the “Islamic Style” web shop based in the Netherlands Select references

• Ali, Haja Mohideen Bin Mohamed. 2007. Islamic terms in contemporary English. English Today 90, 23.2.32-38. • Calvet, Louis-Jean. 1995. Le Français dans le monde: Gauls and Babtous. Français dans le monde. 35.277.38-39. • Debov, Valéry. 2012. Diko des rimes en Verlan dans le rap français. Paris: La maison du dictionnaire. • Fasla, Dalila. 2008. Contribución al estudio de los arabismos en francés magrebí: identidad versus modernidad. Sociolinguistic studies. 2.1.61-95. • Hebblethwaite, Wiechman and Patten. 2011. The UF Rap Corpus. • Holm, John A. 2000. An introduction to pidgin and creoles. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. • Ramadan, Tariq. 2010. What I Believe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. • Tengour, Abdelkarim. 2013. Tout l’argot des banlieues. Paris: L’opportun. History, criticism and polemic about rap in France

• US-rap groups like Wu-Tang and Capone-N-Noreaga peppered their lyrics with Islamic expressions alongside worldly images; their example inspired French rappers to break the taboo of using Islamic terms (Cardet 2013:154). • Anti Islamic-rap polemic in France: • To mix rap and Islam produces ‘Islamo-scum’ (islamo-racaille) or ‘falsified Islam’ (muslimerie) that ‘demonizes’ (sheitanise) Islam and plays into the shock of civilizations “so dear to our masters.” • Rap participates in the deformation and perversion of the religion of the majority of listeners: Islam (182). Arabic religious borrowings in liner notes : Allah, Dieu

“Al Hamdoulillah, on remercie Dieu d’être en vie [...] grands-mère (Allah ya rhamhom), nos familles au bled...” -- Kaotik, Mixtape Vol. 1

“ALLAH (MA PLUS GRANDE FIERTÉ C’EST D’ÊTRE MUSULMAN)” -- Kamelanc, Coupé du monde

“À DIEU AVANT TOUT” -- Niro, Paraplégique Orientations on Rap and Islam

• Historically, the economic integration of immigrants in France gave way to social assimilation and the weakening of ethnic and cultural ties (Kepel 1987:382). • For many migrants from former French colonies , however, the assimilatory culture of the “one and indivisible” French Republic is reminiscent of colonialism’s hegemony and violence (Kepel 1987:384). • The obstacles to economic and social assimilation, combined with France’s secularist and sometimes Islamophobic culture, lead many young Muslims to reactively accentuate religious values, a tendency which rap lyrics tend to reflect (Béthune 2004:122; Boniface and Médine 2012:64, 103). Allah (3/232,276) versus Dieu (128/232,276) occurrences and corpus

“Allah à Toi seul l'homme doit toute son adoration.” -- Booba, , Strass et Paillettes

“Il croit en Dieu, sa philosophie est dans l'dîne, aucune vulgarité pour ne pas salir l'image muslim.” -- Soprano, La colombe et le corbeau, La Colombe Fixed expressions that include the word Allah

• Bismillah (in the name of God) (Lunatic, Mauvais Oeil, Le Silence n’est pas un Oubli): J’ai le fou rire quand j'mens, pourtant j’dis Bismillah quand j'mange • Inch’Allah (God willing) (Niro, Rééducation, Les mains sales): Inch'Allah au sommet : qui vivra, verra • Allah y chefiha (may God heal you) (Kamelancien, Le frisson de la vérité, “La joie de survivre”) • Allah y Rahmek (God’s mercy). ( feat. Kamelancien, Vécu) • Allah y rahmou (Peace be upon [the deceased]) (Sexion d’Assaut, L’école des points vitaux, Mon gars sur) • Wallah – (by God) (Mister You, Présumé coupable, La Vie C'est Dur) Ouallah ne vous foutez pas d'ma gueule (ouhh) (by God don’t fuck around with me) (Sexion d’Assaut, Les chronique du 75, Cramponnez vous) Orientations on Rap and Islam • The emergence of the Islamic lexical field in contemporary French rap provides evidence of a community and culture with immigrant origins that is asserting a French identity that includes Islamic religious culture. • My research shows that Arabic Islamic lexical borrowings in French rap have a diverse range of assimilation, but no item falls under 2/5. • At least a third of the items are familiar to the majority of the participants. • Islamic borrowings are unfolding in Europe and North America; the influence of the Arabic Islamic lexical field on rap lyrics and various vernaculars forms a dynamic case study of language contact in the context of globalization.