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Review of Space Activities in South America
Bruno Victorino Sarli, Space Generation Advisory Council, Brazil Marco Antonio Cabero Zabalaga, Space Generation Advisory Council, Bolivia Alejandro Lopez Telgie, Universidad de Concepción, Facultad de Ingeniería, Departamento de Ingeniería Mecánica, Chile Josué Cardoso dos Santos, São Paulo State University (FEG-UNESP), Brazil Brehme Dnapoli Reis de Mesquita, Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Maranhão, Açailândia Campus, Brazil Avid Roman-Gonzalez, Space Generation Advisory Council, Peru Oscar Ojeda, Space Generation Advisory Council, Colombia Natalia Indira Vargas Cuentas, Space Generation Advisory Council, Bolivia Andrés Aguilar, Universidad Tecnológica Nacional Facultad Regional Delta, Argentina
ABSTRACT
This paper addresses the past and current efforts of the South American region in space. Space activities in the region date back to 1961; since then, South American countries have achieved a relatively modest capability through their national programs, and some international collaboration, with space activities in the region led primarily by the Brazilian and Argentinian space programs. In an era where missions explore the solar system and beyond, this paper focus on the participation of a region that is still in the early stages of its space technology development, yet has a considerable amount to offer in terms of material, specialized personnel, launch sites, and energy.
In summary, this work presents a historical review of the main achievements in the South American region, and through analysis of past and present efforts, aims to project a trend for the future of space in South America. The paper also sets out current efforts of regional integration such as the South American Space Agency proposal.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Since the late 1950s, space has become another dramatic arena for countries to prove their technological superiority, military firepower and, by extension their political-economical system. Argentina and Brazil started the first space activities in 1961 and 1967, respectively, with the launch of Alfa-Centauro and Sonda I rockets. Since then, individual South American countries have been developing space capacity to provide basic space-based services and small autonomy in this area. As the countries in the South American region develop their activities, the most significant steps have been initiated by such countries as Brazil, Argentina, Peru and Bolivia. Brazil currently has a well-established institute of space research, has sent one astronaut to the ISS, and continues efforts to develop its own launch capability. Argentina is currently working in
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Journal of Aeronautical History Revised 11 September 2018 Paper 2018/08 the construction of Tronador II, a light payload satellite injector, based on previous models (Tronador Ia and Ib) successfully launched from Punta Indio naval base. In Peru, the national Aerospace Research and Development Commission (CONIDA) launched Paulet-1, the first Peruvian space probe, in 2006 from Punta Lobos air force base. Bolivia is also making its mark in the sector with its first telecommunications satellite (2013) and recent efforts to develop a remote sensing satellite. In 2011, Chile put its Earth Observation satellite SSOT/FASAT-Charlie into orbit, providing the best resolution in South American region.
Space programs in South America not only address a technological gap; they also offer a chance to inspire people and bring to their attention the potential and benefits of the space sector. This paper provides a historical review of the evolution of the space activities in South America and its relation with historical and political aspects, as well as important steps. In addition, this paper directly addresses the outcomes of the 2011 Defense Ministers meeting of the Union of South American Nations (UNASUR), where the representatives collectively decided to prioritize the creation of a South American Space Agency and its collaboration through UNASUR.
Figure 1 This figure shows the national space agencies of Latin American countries, including previous institutional incarnations where applicable. Data compiled by author, image by MRoy Cartography.
Following this introduction, section 2 discusses the proposed South American Space Agency and the UNASUR. Sections 3 to 9 present, respectively, a historical review of the main accomplishments of each country. Section 10 analyses past achievements and approaches as these relate to projecting future trends and collaboration
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2.0 THE SOUTH AMERICAN SPACE AGENCY
The UNASUR treaty (1), signed in Brasilia, Brazil, on 23rd May 2008, is a legal instrument integrating the former countries of the Andean Community of Nations (Comunidad Andina de Naciones, CAN), the Southern Common Market (Mercado Común del Sur, MERCOSUR) and Chile, together with Guyana and Suriname. The enrollment of the entire region gave the union full legality with the Constitutive Treaty reaching force on 11th March 2011, thus making UNASUR a legal entity. As an entity with international legal identity, UNASUR aims at prioritizing political dialog, social policies, education, energy, infrastructure, financing and the environment, with a view to eliminating socioeconomic inequality in South America. The UNASUR bodies as well as its objectives mirror the European Union organization. Early negotiations about UNASUR considered the adoption of the communitarian European model and the enhancement of the existing legislation of CAN and MERCOSUR.
The Sixth Space Conference of the Americas (CEA), held in Pachuca Mexico, in November 2010, approved the Pachuca Declaration, in which the creation of a Space Technical Consulting Group brought together representatives of the national agencies or government bodies in charge of space affairs. This working group aimed to support the CEA and its executive secretariat. In November 2011 the defense ministers of Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Paraguay, Peru, Surinam, Venezuela and the deputy-minister of Uruguay agreed on the creation of a South American Space Agency during a meeting of the Defense Council of UNASUR. Goals for this agency will be to focus efforts placing satellites into orbit using a regional launch vehicle in order to reduce costs and increase technological capabilities. In accordance with the United Nations Outer Space Treaty (2), all the activities will be for peaceful uses.
Within the framework of the South America Space Agency, Argentina proposes the development of a satellite launch vehicle, which aligns to the national Tronador project; however, some of the South American countries resisted the proposal. Nevertheless, the goal of technological cooperation in the satellites area seems to attract more attention of the Member States. During the November 2011 meeting, the Argentine Defense Ministry indicated its interest in developing a space agency project with UNASUR. Brazil has positioned against the proposal, based on the costs involved in creating new structures. Moreover, this objective does not align with the non- military characteristics of the Brazilian space program. The Brazilian argument is that disparity on the South American space capabilities would reduce Brazil’s advantages; however, the development of the Alcantara Launch Center in Brazil is a strong motivation, which would allow development of a regional center for satellite final assembly, testing, launch, control, and tracking.
Nowadays, there are still factions supporting the creation of a regional space agency, but governments still cannot agree about whether to support and fund the creation of such an entity. The South American Space Agency remains a goal that is being pursued in the region.
3.0 ARGENTINA
Argentina’s history of space-related activities dates back to the mid-20th century, when following the practice of both the US and the USSR the government recruited scientists from Germany and other European countries to help develop the earliest Argentine rockets and aircraft. Argentina’s
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Journal of Aeronautical History Revised 11 September 2018 Paper 2018/08 first activities in the space field date back to 1960, when the National Commission for Space Research (Comisión Nacional de Investigaciones Espaciales, CNIE) was first established. The CNIE, working with local and international partners, carried out the first South American scientific atmospheric measurements using rockets and stratospheric balloons. In 1961, the government created the Center for Experimentation and Launching of Self-propelled Projectiles in the city of Chamical under the acronym CELPA. A second launch center, CELPA Atántico, was created near the coastal town of Mar Chiquita. Together with the Argentine Institute of Aeronautics and Space Research (Instituto de Investigaciones Aeronáuticas y Espaciales IIAE, a center depending from the Argentina Air Force), CNIE designed and constructed, and launched a family of one and two-stage sounding rockets. The first single stage rockets, Alfa-Centauro and Beta-Centauro, were launched in 1961. Later the IIAE developed a family of two stage sounding- rockets, with the first named Gamma-Centauro (launched in 1963), and latter creating others: Rigel, Orion, Canopus, Castor and Tauro. With this experiment, Argentina became the third nation to measure cosmic radiation, providing early evidence of the ozone hole.
The first Latin American course on space survey matters was organized by CNIE at the Bariloche Atomic Center. NASA scientists and experts from Harvard, Iowa, and Rice Universities lectured as part of the course, which was amply attended by Argentine professionals as well as by Brazilian, Chilean, and Colombian researchers (3). INVAP S.E., another player of major importance in the Argentine space-related sector, was founded in 1979 as a state owned enterprise, aimed at transferring academic knowledge to the industrial sector addressing national needs. Initially developing nuclear technologies, it diversified and came to be the main contractor for many of Argentina’s space projects as well as a NASA collaborator (4, 5). Since the late 1970’s throughout the next decade Argentina developed the project codenamed CÓNDOR which sought to produce a missile larger than any other produced in the country. The project involved collaboration from European providers and alleged funding from Iraq. This together with the evident military capabilities of rocket technology involved led to international pressure to put an end to the project and the deactivation and destruction of related facilities (6). Similar international pressure resulted in the cancelation of the Argentina’s CNIE, that had always operated under the Argentine Air Force, and so in 1991, the Argentine government established CONAE, the National Commission of Space Activities (Commission Nacional de Actividades Espaciales), as a civil entity reporting directly to the President. Since 1996, this specialized agency has been transferred between different Ministries (7). CONAE’s progress continues through today with the development of new satellite technologies as well as a project of light satellite payload injector.
Argentina’s commitment to space activities has been further demonstrated in the 2010’s with the creation of a state owned enterprise ARSAT devoted to designing and operating telecommunic- ations satellites among other related activities, and recently building CEATSA, a center for high technology test facilities strategically built next to INVAP, that allows Argentine satellites to be tested in a national facility. Even though in recent years the new administration changed national priorities and CONAE’s representatives have shown concerns on this regard, particularly in the budgetary aspect (8), Argentina has demonstrated to be an actor in the space sector, and reinforcing the importance of bringing new players and dedicated individuals to collaborate and develop new ties with the international space community.
Table 1 shows the chronology of the major events of the Argentinean Space Program.
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Table 1 Main space related events in Argentina
Year Event Year Event Test of first Argentinan liquid 1949 1991 Creation of CONAE rocket engine Tábano 1960 Creation of CNIE 1996 Launch of the µSAT-1 Víctor satellite Launch of first Argentinan rocket 1961 1996 Launch of the SAC-B satellite using solid fuel Alfa Centauro 1961 Launch of Beta Centauro 1998 Launch of the SACA satellite 1963 Launch of Gamma Centauro 2000 Launch of the SAC-C satellite PADE is flown to space aboard Endeavour on 1963 Launch of Prosón rocket 2001 mission STS-108 1966 Launch of Orion II rocket 2007 Launch of the Pehuensat-1 satellite 1966 Launch of Canopus II rocket 2010 Creation of CEATSA 1967 Launch of Rigel rocket 2011 Launch of the SAC-D satellite 1969 Launch of Castor rocket 2014 Launch of the ARSAT-1 communications satellite Creation of INVAP Start of the 1979 2014 Launch of Tronador prototype VEx-1b Cóndor launcher program 1990 Launch of LUSAT-1 satellite 2015 Launch of the ARSAT-2 communications satellite
4.0 BOLIVIA
10th February 2010 marked the day Bolivia officially began its journey into the space era, initiated by the promulgation of Supreme Decree 0423. With the issuance of this Decree, the Bolivian Space Agency (Agencia Boliviana Espacial, ABE) became a Strategic National Public Enterprise with legal identity of an indefinite duration, entitled to its own assets; administrative autonomy; and financial, legal, and technical management under the custody of the Ministry of Public Works, Services and Housing.
Being a strategic Bolivian governmental agency, ABE has the following specific functions (9):
• Promote the development of new satellites and space projects.
• Promote technology transfer and training of human resources in space technology.
• Promote the implementation of the satellite applications for use in social programs, productive programs, defense programs, environment programs and others.
On 23rd December 2010, the Bolivian government and the Development Bank of China signed a contract to build the Bolivian satellite. The ABE managed and implemented the satellite project, named Tupac Katari and after three years, on Friday 20th December 2013, the first Bolivian Telecommunication Satellite was successfully launched reaching an altitude of approximately 36,000 kilometers above the Earth to enter its first orbit. In Bolivia, technicians of Amachuma, the Earth station in the city of El Alto, reported that the first satellite signals were received, stating that “Bolivia enters at the space age”. Bolivia had officially entered the small privileged
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Journal of Aeronautical History Revised 11 September 2018 Paper 2018/08 group of nations with its own satellite. Thanks to the media, the general public could appreciate this historic launch. As of March 2014, the satellite began operations to provide services to Bolivian and foreign companies. The internet and telephone signals are transmitted by the VSAT (Very Small Aperture Terminal) antennas, and the television is only transmitted through DTH (Direct to Home) antennas.
The Tupac Katari space program has three fundamental building blocks that are interconnected: 1. Geostationary satellite, 2. Two ground stations of control and operation in Amachuma (city of La Paz) and La Guardia (city of Santa Cruz), and 3. Thousands of tele-centers at the national territory.
Among its main uses and benefits the satellite provides basic tele-education - higher level (video conferencing) and educational channel (TV) - as well as telemedicine services. By the end of 2014 Bolivia had the goal of installing 2,500 tele-centers in small rural towns across the country, where there was no means of communication infrastructure. Each tele-center consists of a VSAT antenna of 1.8 meters of diameter, five computers, a television and a telephone.
Table 2 presents a historical summary of Bolivia’s main space achievements. Table 2 Main space related events in Bolivia Year Event 2010 The Bolivian Space Agency is created Contract with the satellite designer is signed 2012 A group of 64 young professionals are sent to China for training in the design and operation of the satellite 2013 Tupac Katari communication satellite is launched 2014 Tupac Katari starts operations
5.0 BRAZIL
“My earnest desire is to see true Aviation Schools in Brazil. See the airplane - today powerful weapon of war, tomorrow through great transport - covering our vast regions, populating our sky, where, first, looked up...” (10) This quote, translated from Santos-Dumont in the beginning of the 20th century, shows one of the first initiatives of starting activities related to the aviation sector, later leading to the development of space activities in Brazil. This statement was written in the State of São Paulo, which later developed important schools, institutes of research and industries. Today this region corresponds to the main center for aerospace activity in the country. Among some of them are the National Institute for Space Research (Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais, INPE), Embraer, and several other industries of the aeronautical and aerospace sector such as the Technological Institute of Aeronautics (Instituto Tecnológico de Aeronáutica, ITA), and the Institute of Aeronautics and Space (Instituto de Aeronáutica e Espaço, IAE).
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The space sector started to obtain more interest from the Brazilian government during the period of military government, which began in 1964 and continued for 20 years. In this period, the Brazilian space activity was in its preliminary stages, and like many other activities in the country, was under military supervision (11). After the end of this period, the expansion of space activities in Brazil were evidenced by the increase in undertakings at INPE(11) (now attached to the Ministry of Science, Technology and Development); the creation of undergraduate and postgraduate studies in non-military institutions; and the creation of the Brazilian Space Agency (Agência Espacial Brasileira, AEB), the Brazilian Aerospace Association (Associação Aeroespacial Brasileira, AAB), and the Brazilian Association of Aeronautical and Space Law (Associação Brasileira de Direito Aeronáutico e Espacial, ABDAE). Today, there is greater freedom within this sector than in the period of military supervision, allowing its greater expansion and technological development due to more interactions and contribution from academia and industrial sector.
More recently, Brazil developed two launch sites, Alcântara Launch Center and Barreira do Inferno Launch Center, the latter of which manufactures, assembles, and tests sounding rockets, satellites, and rocket engines. Currently, Brazil is also developing its own launch vehicle and was collaborating with the Ukraine government on a second launcher family – this project has recently been cancelled. With support from IAE and the aerospace industry, Brazil has designed and produced a successful set of sounding rockets. These developments have provided numerous scientific and technological outcomes. The sounding rockets are used for suborbital space exploration missions and are capable of launching payloads composed of scientific and technological experiments. The rockets have a successful launch record, and are adequate for the current national research needs. These projects began in 1967, when SONDA I, Brazil’s first national rocket, performed its inaugural flight Barreira do Inferno Launch Center. Over a period of 12 years, more than 200 rocket experiments of this type have been performed. The incentives to involve and research centers in the space program have resulted in an increased demand for these vehicles, which has led to the continuation of its production. The field of sounding rockets technology formed the basis for the development of a Satellite Launch Vehicle, (Veículo Lançador de Satélites, VLS), a four stages launcher, with about 50 tonnes at take-off, capable of launching satellites from 100 kg to 350 kg to altitudes of 200 km to 1000 km (12).
Satellites developed under this program were the SCD-1 and 2 (the Data Collection Satellite), launched in 1993 and 1998(13), respectively. Moreover, in 1988 China and Brazil signed a cooperation agreement for the development project known as Satellite China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellite (CBERS) (14). The CBERS satellites monitor climate change, water resources management, and images for licensing, among other applications. Their images are used in Brazil by private companies, institutions, and government agencies (15). Three satellites are being developed by INPE, responsible for implementing the projects “Amazonia-1”, which will be used for imaging of the Amazon region, “Sabia-Mar” developed in cooperation with Argentina for ocean studies, and “GPM-Brasil”, for meteorological studies(16). The operations of SCD and CBERS satellites also are performed by INPE. Table 3 shows the chronology of the major events of the Brazilian Space Program through July, 2015.
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Table 3 Main space related events in Brazil
Year Event Year Event 1961 Creation of Organizing Group of the 1997 First test flight on VLS-1 at CLA. National Commission on Space Activities (GOCNAE). 1963 The GOCNAE becomes the National 1998 Launched of SCD-2 satellite. Commission on Space Activities (CNAE). 1965 Inauguration of the Launch Center of 1999 CBERS-1 satellite is launched. Barreira do Inferno (CLBI). Flight of the second prototype of the VLS-1. Launched of scientific microsatellites SACI 1 and SACI 2. 1967 Launch of the rocket Sonda I at CLBI. 2003 Accident with the third VLS-1 prototype at CLA. Launch of CBERS-2 satellite. 1969 Launch of the rocket Sonda II at CLBI. 2006 Realization of Centenary Mission in honor of the centenary of the first flight of the 14-BIS by Santos-Dumont – first Brazilian astronaut mission to the International Space Station. 1971 Extinction of CNAE and establishment of 2007 Launched of CBERS-2B satellite. the Institute for Space Research, today INPE. Creation of the Institute for Space Activities’ Center, today DCTA. 1983 Inauguration of Alcântara Launch Center 2013 Launched of CBERS-3 satellite. (CLA). 1988 Brazil and China sign cooperation 2014 Launched of the first Brazilian nanosatellite, agreement for the development of Chinese- NanosatC-Br1. Launched of CBERS-4. Brazilian Earth Resources Satellite (CBERS). 1993 Launched the first Brazilian satellite, the 2015 Launched the first cubesat fully developed in Data Collection Satellite (SCD-1) with a Brazil, AESP-14 mission to collect environmental data. 1994 Creation of AEB.
It is important to include four additional innovative activities being performed in the Brazilian space sector: 1. ASTER (17, 18), Brazils first deep space mission, intends to send a spacecraft to explore the triple asteroid 2001 SN263. The program also seeks cooperation with the Space Research Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (IKI), and is budgeted to be approximately 40 millions of dollars, but it is yet to be funded. If this mission is successful, Brazil will become the fifth space power to send a spacecraft to an asteroid, after the United States, European Union, Japan and China, and the first to send a spacecraft to a triple asteroid system. 2. The work of IAE and the Brazilian industry producing a set of suborbital vehicles (19, 20), including the SONDA series and the VS series. The main characteristics that distinguish sounding rockets from other vehicles used to access space is low development costs, ease of launch, speed in accomplishing the mission, reusability of rocket experiments, recovery, and
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flexibility of the launch site. For these reason, these vehicles serve a wide variety of applications, including providing a microgravity environment for several minutes, which presents research opportunities in a wide range of disciplines such as materials science, fluid physics, biology, astronomy, geophysics, and atmospheric sciences. 3. The Inertial Systems for Space Applications (SIA) project, jointly developed between DCTA and INPE, aims to develop inertial navigation technology in Brazil for orbital platforms and satellite launch vehicles with funding from the Brazilian Innovation Agency (FINEP). The field of inertial systems allows the Brazilian technology to be competitive in different sectors, not only in space applications but, for example, in submarines and offshore platform stabilizers. This technological development and national capacity building focuses on orbital platform control systems and guidance and control of satellite launch vehicles. These include the development laboratories; various subsystems, such as on-board computers, star sensors, and optical fiber gyros. 4. The Garatéa-L mission, a lunar nanosatellite scheduled to be launched by the Five stage Indian Launcher PSLV-XL (Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle, model XL) in 2021 on behalf of Surrey Satellite Technology Ltd. The mission is being developed by the Brazilian private company Airvantis in partnership with some Brazilian public and private institutions and the USRA (Universities and Space Research Association, USA) (21).
According to the National Program of Space Activities, the development of space research in a strategic scenario for the next decade includes the following topics (22): the program for the development of critical technologies; the actions of technological absorption in the development of the Geostationary Satellite Defense and Strategic Communications (SGDC), launched in 2017 by the Ariane 5 ECA launcher; new directions for the Sectoral Funds; the National Defense Strategy (END); actions of the Sectoral Technological Schedule (ATS) in the context of “Plano Brasil Maior”; the special role of the Science Without Borders program for space research; legislative initiatives for funding the sector, among other government actions.
6.0 CHILE
Since the late 1950’s, Chile has played a role in the space activities of other major countries by providing ground support. There is not much published information about the developments of activities in Chile, hence the authors’ have used what was available and benchmarked it with knowledge from working at the Chilean Space Agency during 2010. The developments are provided in a chronological manner, and the main milestones are summarized in Table 4.
In 1957 before the creation of NASA, two ground stations where installed. One in Salar del Carmen (near Antofagasta) and the other one north of Santiago in Peldehue. Both were part of the US Army’s Minitrack Network (25) and are considered to be the first milestones for Chilean involvement in space activities. With the launch of Sputnik-I in the same year(26), the station capabilities were verified. With the creation of NASA in 1958, these ground stations were passed to civilian operators (in this case, to the University of Chile). Following technological developments in 1963, the station at the Salar del Carmen was closed; however, the Peldehue station reached a peak of around 200 employees during the 1970’s. After being sold to the Swedish
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Space Corporation in 2009 it remains open, with far less personnel (27). In 1968, the national telecommunications company ENTEL started to operate its Longovilo ground station for telephone and data via satellite. This was the first of its kind in South America and allowed Chile to broadcast the Moon landing in 1969 (28).
Table 4 Main space related events in Chile Year Event 1957 First ground support stations installed in Chile as part of the Mini-track Network. 1968 National telecommunications company started operations of its ground station for telephone and data via satellite (first of its king in South America). 1973 Joined COPUOS. 1980 Creation of committee for space matters. 1985 Mataveri agreement for use of Eastern Island runway as backup for Space Shuttle polar mission emergency landings. 1995 Launch of first Chilean satellites FASAT-ALFA, built at University of Surrey (Unsuccessful deployment). 1998 Successful launch of FASAT-BRAVO. 2011 Launch of SSOT/FASAT-CHARLIE. 2015 Discussion on the replacement of SSOT.
In 1973 Chile joined COPUOS, with its space affairs personnel always members of the Foreign Affairs Ministry. Chile has participated in all of the COPUOS sessions and has signed and ratified all 5 space treaties (29). In 1980 the Committee for Space Matters (Comité de Asuntos Espaciales) was created under the Defense Ministry with the objective of proposing a text for the National Space Policy, as well as text for the law to create a space agency. This committee evolved over the years with different names, becoming the Presidential Advisory Commission, known as the Chilean Space Agency in 2001(30). It remained under Defense until 2009 (31) when it was moved to the Under Secretariat of Economy - a civilian ministry with the idea of fulfilling Chile’s obligations under the COPUOS). In December 2011, the agency disappeared, as no budget was allocated for its functioning.
In 1985 and following the developments of the US Space Shuttle Program, the Mataveri agreement was signed. Under this agreement, NASA enlarged the Eastern Island airport runway to be used as backup for emergency Shuttle landings from near Polar missions/orbits. During the 1990s an agreement with DLR was signed to support the operations of their antenna located in Antarctica 30 metres from the O’Higgins Chilean Army’s base. Under this agreement, the radar images from ERS-1 and ERS-2 were downloaded at the station (25).
On 31st August 1995 FASAT-ALFA, the first Chilean satellite developed by the Air force at the University of Surrey, was launched into orbit. Unfortunately, issues with the separation mechanism did not allow it to deploy. After this failure, and using the insurance, the development of FASAT- BRAVO was immediately started. This was successfully launched on 10th July 1998, and fulfilled its mission successfully, contributing to the scientific development of the country (32). After this attempt in the 1990s, satellite developments in Chile took a long break until 2007, when the
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Journal of Aeronautical History Revised 11 September 2018 Paper 2018/08 process for procuring the 3rd Chilean Satellite SSOT began. On 25th July 2008 the contract for the construction of SSOT, also known as FASAT-Charlie, was signed with EADS. The satellite was finally launched on 16th December 2011. With its resolution of 1.45 metres in panchromatic and 5.8 metres in multi spectral, it is the highest resolution optical satellite in South America. After a period without a space agency, a high level Ministerial Council was created in 2014 to promote and develop space activities (33).
The Chilean Defense Minister, as well as the Ministerial Council, has announced the process for replacing the Earth observation satellite, which is coming to an end of its orbital lifetime towards the end of 2016. Also, a new space agency is in the making with its creation started in 2016 under the “new” Science and Technology Ministry (34, 35). There are also discussions regarding a communications satellite, which are fueled by the loss of communications experienced during the 2010 Earthquake.
7.0 COLOMBIA
Historically Colombia has suffered of several internal armed conflicts which date back to the 1940s, with a period known as “The Violence” (La Violencia), which continues until today, with armed groups in several political areas. This phenomenon has affected the social development level and the economy of the nation, and has also resulted in little resources in terms of budget (0.5% GDP) allocated to the development of Science and Technology, as the country is mainly a consumer of high technology products. Avianca is the second oldest airline in the world, and, more recently, the following efforts have been made to development the space sector with the main milestones summarized in Table 5. Table 5 Main space related events in Colombia Year Event 1971 Signing of the Outer Space Treaty 1998 Medellin in Space Program is created 2006 Creation of Colombian Space Committee 2007 Foundation of Sequoia Space 2007 Launch of first Colombian nanosatellite Libertad I 2013 Creation of Presidential Program for Space Development 2013 Establishment of GIDA-UN. Aerospace Research and Development Group of the National University of Colombia 2014 Cancellation of the Presidential Program for Space Development and the Colombian Remote Sensing satellite 2014 Launch of the 2 high altitude balloons carrying 4 scientific payloads
In November 1971, Colombia signed the United Nations Treaty on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space, which was recognized by the Colombian Supreme Court in November, 2013. Colombia also signed the Registration Convention (agreement to register satellites in orbit) in November, 1974 which was approved by the Colombian Supreme Court in April, 2013 (36). In 2006, the Colombian Government created the Colombian Space Commission (Comisión Colombiana del
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Espacio, CCE) whose main goal is to provide access to space technologies in telecommunication, remote sensing, and navigation. The CCE has seven work groups to achieve its objectives, amongst which are satellite navigation, remote sensing, astronautics and astronomy, knowledge management, telecommunications, space policy, and a geospatial database (37). Unfortunately, the CCE lacks a formal budget or a physical location, and this situation does not allow it to function properly towards its goals.
In October of 2007, Sequoia Space was founded, a Colombian based company aiming to develop small satellite and space subsystems equipment for missions in the region. The company has successfully participated in the development of missions in Peru, Colombia, Ecuador, and Chile, with the design and preparation of nano-satellites (38). Also in 2007, the Sergio Arboleda University launched the “Libertad I”, the first Colombian satellite in orbit. The “Libertad I” is a picosatellite of approximately 1kg and its main goal was to perform technological demonstrations of the Colombian capabilities in space systems (39). The mission successfully deployed in orbit and remains, to this day, the only Colombian satellite in orbit (40).
The Colombian government created the Presidential Program for Space Development in November 2013, for the purpose of leading projects to promote universities and companies to engage in developing the Colombian space sector (41). This program continued working towards the acquisition of a remote sensing satellite (42) until the government canceled the program in 2014, arguing that it was cheaper to buy remote sensing data from third parties instead of buying and operating its own satellite (43). In January 2013 GIDA-UN, the Aerospace Research and Development Group of the National University of Colombia, was established as an academic initiative to promote and develop the aerospace field within the university, but also in Bogota and other parts of Colombia. The group has organized several outreach activities and is currently developing the Prometeo I mission, consisting of a series of sounding rocket launches, aiming to a 2 km altitude, with the objective of acquiring expertise in the execution of launch events, vehicle design, and construction (44).
In December 2014 Colombia launched two high altitude balloons with four scientific experiments on board, three of which were conducted by the University of Antioquia and one by a group of primary school students from a public school from Medellín (45). This mission was designed and executed by the local Colombian company, Ideatech (46). The University Sergio Arboleda is currently leading its second nanosatellite design and development called “Libertad II” (47) and it projects further developments in the near future. At the same time, other universities around Colombia are considering devoting part of their budget and working hours to develop their own nanosatellites (48). In 2015, Ruta N (Medellín’s Science, Technology and Innovation Foundation) launched the program “Medellín in Space” (Medellín Espacial), which will support startups and university research projects working on business ideas in Medellin’s aerospace industry (49).
Colombia is still at a very early stage in its space development projects, currently the country has no large operational satellite like the other Latin-American countries. This fact shows the urgent need to transform the Colombian Space Commission into a formal Space Agency that promotes the development of equipment and acquisition of space technologies. On the other hand, the academic and private sectors have been the actors who have focused on the development of space technologies in Colombia, which highlights the need to have the Colombian Government more actively involved managing and financially supporting this type of initiatives.
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8.0 PERU
Peru officially started its space activities in 1974 when the government creates the National Commission for Aerospace Research and Development (Comisión Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo Aeroespacial, CONIDA). The principal objective of CONIDA is to promote research and development of space technology for the national interests, which takes the role of the Peruvian Aerospace Agency. The primary activities of CONIDA are related to the following fields: • Astrophysics • Geomatics • Launch vehicles • Scientific instrumentation • Space studies
On 12th June 2013 Peru successfully launched its first rocket with the capacity to reach the stratosphere. The manufacturing of Paulet 1-B was a milestone in Peru’s aerospace industry, because it was the first time that a device built solely with Peruvian technology was launched into space (50). On 4th July 2015, Peruvian defense minister Jakke Valakivi announced the construction of the National Satellite Imagery Operations Center (Centro Nacional de Operaciones de Imágenes Satelitales, CONIS). 24th April 2014 was an important day for Peru, as the contract for the acquisition of an Earth observation satellite system was signed. In the terms of this contract, the French company Airbus Defence and Space is responsible for providing this system to Peru (51).
Peru has developed four small satellites: three nanosatellites and one femtosatellite. The Peruvian Institute of Radioastronomy of Pontifical Catholic University of Peru (Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, PUCP) developed two satellites (one pico and one nano) for academic, research, and engineering purposes. The PUCP-Sat 1 and Pocket-PUCP were launched into orbit from the Russian Baikonur Yasny center, with its construction done by teachers and students of Physics, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Telecommunication Engineering (52). During the 181st spacewalk for assembly and maintenance of the International Space Station (ISS) in February 2014, Russian cosmonauts Alexander Skvortsov and Oleg Artemyev hand- released Chasqui, a 1-kg Peruvian nanosatellite. Students at the National University of Engineering in Peru built the satellite to gain experience in satellite manufacturing, and information and communication technology. The satellite was designed for Earth observation and will deliver pictures of Earth to a designated ground station (53).
NASA launched a cube-shaped satellite developed by students and professionals from Universidad Alas Peruanas. The satellite, called UAP SAT-1, was sent into space in January 2014, inside Orbital Sciences’ Antares rocket from NASA’s Wallops Flight Facility. The UAP SAT-1 weighs less than a kilogram and is programmed to return data regarding its status and the environment using amateur radio broadcasts. The project represented an investment of over US$500,000 (54).
Through individual initiatives, Peru has also participated in simulated missions about Mars exploration. Peruvian students and researchers have been involved in experiments at the Mars Desert Research Station of The Mars Society. These Peruvian students and professionals joined
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Journal of Aeronautical History Revised 11 September 2018 Paper 2018/08 crews 126, 138, 140, 141, 150, and 169 (55). Table 6 presents a historical summary of Peru’s main space achievements. Table 6 Main space related events in Peru Year Event 1974 Foundation of the National Commission of Investigation and Aerospace Development of Peru 2013 Launching of CONIDA - PAULET 1-B Rocket Launching of PUCP-SAT satellite, built at Pontifical Catholic University of Peru Simulation of Mars Exploration Crew 126 2014 Launching of UAPSAT-I satellite, built at Universidad Alas Peruanas Launching of satellite Chasqui-I, built at Universidad Nacional de Ingenieria Signature of an agreement to purchase a remote sensing satellite Simulation of Mars Exploration Crew 138, Crew 140, and Crew 141 2015 Construction of National Satellite Imagery Operations Centre (CNOIS) Simulation of Mars Exploration Crew 150 2016 Simulation of Mars Exploration Crew 169
9.0 VENEZUELA
Venezuela’s initial interest in space matters was confined to becoming a party to the Test Ban Treaty, the Outer Space Treaty and the Agreement on the Rescue of Astronauts. At the end of the 1990s, however, more consistent actions were established, and since then the country has shown an increasing interest in developing indigenous space capabilities (56).
As other countries in South America, Venezuela, has recognized the importance of supporting space activities in its territory and the benefits that it can bring to the nation. Venezuela is looking to become a more influential country in the space sector, and has already launched two satellites in collaboration with the Chinese. It has shown an increasing interest in developing local space capabilities for peaceful purposes. Since 1999, Venezuela has worked to provide development and support to keys areas, as well as collaboration on regional integration, provide development and support to keys areas, as well as collaboration on regional integration by establishing a set of correlated actions intended to develop local resources in space science and technology, promoting technological independence and sovereignty (57). In November 2005, under the scope of the new Constitution of 1999, a legal decree Number 4.114 was enacted that established the Venezuelan Space Center (58), a governmental organization attached to the Ministry of Science and Technology. Two years later in 2007, the Bolivarian Agency for Space Activities (ABAE) was created, which is an institution attached to the Ministry of Popular Power for Science, Technology and Innovation. The ABAE began its operations on 1st January 2008 (59).
The beginning of the Venezuelan space activity dates back to the year of 2002, when the government decided to make space exploration a priority and started to create the legal and institutional framework to make this goal possibly. Thus, the ABAE was created and the goals were set, but the key to success was the country’s stellar diplomatic ties with the People’s Republic of China (60).
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In its very first journey for building and launching its iconic first satellite (Venesat1 - Simón Bolivar), 70 Venezuelans traveled to China to receive training in satellite operations and witness the manufacturing process. Among goals for the Venesat-1 project, it was to provide communication services. Thus, just six years after beginning of Venezuela’s involvement in space sector, its first communications satellite was in orbit. Venesat-1 is said to be used by the government to provide satellite communications to its state-owned oil industry, its military, and to government research institutions (60).
To continue the process of development, while still exploring the possible applications of the Venesat-1, the second Venezuelan satellite was already being prepared, but this time the country would enter the Earth observation arena. The process repeated itself with more than 50 Venezuelans traveling to China to witness the manufacturing process and get training in operating an observation spacecraft. Based on the CAST 2000 platform, the Venezuelan Remote Sensing Satellite VRSS-1 (also known as the Miranda satellite after another Venezuelan founding father), was launched on 29th September 2012. This satellite is also controlled by the ABAE through local ground stations built for it in Venezuela (60). Table 7 presents key events in the Venezuelan space history. Table 7 Main space related events in Venezuela Year Event 2005 Venezuela and China signed technical cooperation partnership in the use and exploitation of space for peaceful purposes. 2007 Legal creation of The Bolivarian Agency of Space Activities (ABAE) 2008 Launch of the first communication satellite, Venesat-1, with cooperation of China. 2012 Launch of remote sensing satellite, VRSS-1, with cooperation of China.
There are different areas of ongoing space-relate activities in Venezuela receiving support and achieving outcomes such as:
• Research and development activities in conjunction with the academic sector to strengthen the space curriculum in academic centers (56).
• On-line platform course “Space Tele-detection Techniques for the Analysis of the Geographic Features of Schools” run by ABAE. The objective is to train primary and secondary school teachers in the use of satellite images to analyze the surrounding environment of educational centers, and to promote the participation of local communities in the development of public policies at local and national levels (56).
• To promote the development of the local space sector, Venezuela is assessing the establishment of a research center for small satellite technologies. The goal is to promote research networks and the development of space projects with the participation of local productive sectors in fields such as materials science, electronics, chemistry, engineering, telecommunications, education, informatics, geomatics and geophysics (56, 59), among others.
• ABAE is developing, in conjunction with the academic sector, several research projects intended to produce maps of Venezuela’s absolute gravity, gravity anomaly, and total magnetic field anomaly from satellite data (56, 59, 61, 62).
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• Strengthening local space capabilities. As part of the ongoing project run by ABAE’s Unit of International Affairs on “Institutional Strengthening and Human Training”, in December 2010, the local space agency and EADS-Astrium finished Module I of the “Comprehensive Training in Space Science and Technology”. The full training program includes three modules (Module I “Satellite Operations and Management”, Module II “Satellite Engineering” and Module III “Space Project Management”), and its aim is to reinforce the space capabilities of ABAE personnel in these three areas (56).
To fulfill designed goals for the Venezuelan space activity, ABAE has used international cooperation as a mechanism to strengthen the space programs promoted by Venezuela. Thus, among the current international cooperation agreements signed by Venezuela and its Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, in the fields of space science and technology, it is possible to cite partnerships with countries such as Brazil, China, India, Uruguay, Argentina and Bolivia (59).
As part of the national mandate, all the bilateral agreements must include the development of space projects in specific areas such as Earth observation, telecommunication and scientific research, as well as consider capacity building, training of qualified personnel, and technology transfer (59). According to Acevedo and collaborators (56), technology transfer is a complex process and ABAE should open up its possibilities to look for new space partners that could help reinforce the agency’s policy.
One option for Venezuela could be to consider the analysis of the South-South international cooperation (which is also a governmental guideline), exploring the space activities of developing countries and learning from their experiences. For instance, over the past few decades, South Africa has cultivated indigenous space know-how and industrial capacities, and has significant space-related ground infrastructure and experience in the handling of remote sensing data. The sustainability of the South African Space Program has also been improved by distributing non- recurring development costs through commercial sales of systems, components, services and, potentially, applications (56, 63). Furthermore, the primary goals of this program are focused on education and capacity building to satisfy African priorities. An even better known example of local and autonomous development of space capabilities to satisfy social needs is found in the Indian Space Program (ISRO) (56).
For Venezuela and its space agency ABAE, international cooperation is one of the options for putting in place the infrastructure and human skills needed to enhance national space capabilities (56, 57), and to obtain a mechanism to provide technological independence.
As the next step for Venezuelan space policy, it should look at the development of small satellites to support sustainable and stronger programs of development. To reach this purpose, a plan for training people again will be necessary to increase knowledge in mission requirements, design philosophy, payload design, project management, team work, and human resource development (56). The experience accumulated by Venezuela from its space activities over the past years, as well as the increasing role of international cooperation, are key factors that will contribute to its greater successful space development and position among the countries that dominate those space technologies. In this context, it is necessary that Venezuela continue its efforts to develop its
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10. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE TRENDS
The success of Europe in space, following the success of the U.S. and the former U.S.S.R., motivated South America nations to institute long-term space technology efforts for both space access and utilization. Today, space access is available to virtually any nation willing to purchase a launch, and competitively offered by more than eight nations who are able to provide a launch vehicle for payload delivery. Launch suppliers today include U.S., Russia, Ukraine, China, Japan, India, ESA-member countries (France and Italy), and several additional nations are following closely behind with their own government-sponsored launch vehicles.
Today, worldwide launch rates are appreciable and sustained. It is worth noting that the mix among the three major types of missions - telecommunications, science, and defense - is shifting toward an increased diversity of missions, sponsors, and providers. In looking closer at this mix, we are able to identify noteworthy trends about an emerging international industrial base for space products and services manufactured in South America.
Even though some countries can rent a launching site or share a compartment with the payload, especially in the case of nano and pico-satellites (for example, the most recently launch of Tita, the third Argentinian nano-satellite, using a Russian rocket that also carried another 30 satellites from different countries) space activity in South America is not strong (64). Having launching sites for LEO and GEO orbits in South America could bring the same benefits that they have brought for other countries in the world.
One of the biggest challenges for South America is undoubtedly to develop a launching site. Launch providers include governments and corporations located on three of the seven continents of the world (North America, Europe, and Asia), and are the product of aggressive R&D from national space agencies. Both new and derivative models of launchers have evolved according to individual nation’s space policies and strategies. Their respective launch sites are located close to the Equator on land, coastal areas, and even on the ocean itself. A review of this diversity of capability is an integral part of understanding South American trends and the possibility to rely on its own regional launch capability.
Peru launched the Mars desert research station (65) as an activity to simulate life on Mars, promoting a new culture and involving different sectors of the academy in this ambitious idea. The ARSAT-1 was the first satellite constructed in South America (66) in 2014. Bolivia’s long- awaited first foray into space took place in China when the Asian superpower launches the Andean national’s “Tupac Katari” the first telecommunication satellite (67). One of the most significant events this year which shocked the space community was when Brazil opted to unilaterally cancel the bilateral accord reached with Ukraine in 2003 to build a joint center for launching satellites at Brazil’s Alcantara aerospace base (68).
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10.1 Economic Incentives for Cooperation
A space project in the South American region requires a large budget and effort to be definitely realized; UNASUR has a clear ambition to reach an integral level of cooperation on multiple levels between its member countries, based on the social dimension of integration and on the local needs of each of the member countries.
One of the objectives of UNASUR is to promote a better integration between space agencies in South America. The region has experienced an important amount of democratic stability and social progress, which is a consequence, among other factors, of the benefits resulting from the political coordination among the countries. The organization has proven its ability to strengthen integration and find consensus, while respecting plurality.
UNASUR’s ability to cooperate is affected by the disproportionate size of Brazil’s economy, which accounts for about 60% of UNASUR’s total economic output. World Bank data shows that Brazil has the strongest internal market in South America and also the least trade-dependent economy in UNASUR, as seen in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Economic weight of each UNASUR member World Bank World Development Indicators database figures for 2011 (69)
10.2 Shared Vision for Space Utilization
The socio-techno-political expansion in South America (70) may be reflected in the industrial space age depending first upon the national strategic and economic interests of prospective participants. Unfortunately, the enabling technological infrastructure for future collaboration appears to be maturing slowly and lacks strength until now. More ambitious and long-term endeavors on space flight will rest on government resources; yet here, too, there appear to be more options for government customers in terms of suitable launch vehicles and launch sites around the world. National governments and their respective space agencies need to make
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Journal of Aeronautical History Revised 11 September 2018 Paper 2018/08 concerted efforts to leverage South American experience and knowledge in exploring space and exploiting technology to serve UNASUR constituents’ needs on Earth. A more detailed examination of the space services market place (access and utilization) is possible in terms of the success and failure of cooperatives, the pace of development of new space access capability (either private or governmental), or the operation and sustainment of such capability, where multiple geographically-dispersed parties are involved. Internationally, the space sector is maturing at a rapid pace with both public and private initiatives playing a role. There is no doubt that the internationalization of space is enjoying a period of ascendancy that can greatly benefit South American space efforts (71). “Earth is the cradle of humanity, but one cannot live in a cradle forever”, Konstantin Tsiolkovsky.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank Carol Carnett and Minoo Rathnasabapathy for their valuable inputs and text revision and the Bolivian authors who helped finalizing that section; Reynaldo Lopez Aramayo, Niels Omar Saavedra Tapia, Neila Alejandra Arteaga Vargas, Sanny Anghela Lizarro Quiroga, Náyade Karla Franco Valeriano and Shaghayegh Almasian Bellido.
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The Author
Bruno Sarli has been an Aerospace Engineer focused in space flight dynamics for the past seven years. After graduating in Aeronautics in Brazil and Space Engineering in Europe, he moved to Japan where he obtained a PhD in Engineering while working for ISAS/JAXA as a researcher. In 2016, Bruno joined the Global Trajectory Optimization Lab and the Planetary Defense Research Group at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, where he focused on mission design and planetary defense. Throughout his career, he worked in mission design and system analysis for four Japanese missions and currently works on the NASA DART and MAVEN missions. In particular, Bruno has contributed to implementing a new mis-thrust evaluation technique for low- thrust trajectory design as well as an asteroid deflection function focusing on maximizing Earth miss distance. Additionally, he developed a linear mapping technique for manoeuver support. Furthermore, his background includes teaching at a high school and university level. As a professional activity, Bruno is a member of the Space Generation Advisory Council and a committee member of the Workforce Development - Young Professional Program of the International Astronautical Federation.
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Author contact details Bruno Victorino Sarli, Space Generation Advisory Council, Brazil [email protected] Marco Antonio Cabero Zabalaga, Space Generation Advisory Council, Bolivia [email protected] Alejandro Lopez Telgie, Universidad de Concepción, Facultad de Ingeniería, Departamento de Ingeniería Mecánica, Chile [email protected] Josué Cardoso dos Santos, São Paulo State University (FEG-UNESP), Brazil [email protected] Brehme Dnapoli Reis de Mesquita, Federal Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Maranhão, Açailândia Campus, Brazil [email protected] Avid Roman-Gonzalez, Space Generation Advisory Council, Peru [email protected] Oscar Ojeda, Space Generation Advisory Council, Colombia [email protected] Natalia Indira Vargas Cuentas, Space Generation Advisory Council, Bolivia [email protected] Andrés Aguilar, Universidad Tecnológica Nacional Facultad Regional Delta, Argentina [email protected]
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