Humane Education Past, Present, and Future 3CHAPTER

Bernard Unti and Bill DeRosa

Introduction rom the earliest years of orga- need to correct children’s cruelty. tance of a virtuous citizenry devoted nized animal protection in “This tendency should be watched in to republican principles of gover- FNorth America, humane educa- them, and, if they incline to any such nance. This made education of the tion—the attempt to inculcate the cruelty, they should be taught the boy especially critical, since as a man kindness-to-animals ethic through contrary usage,” Locke wrote. “For he would assume authority over fami- formal or informal instruction of chil- the custom of tormenting and killing ly, chattel, property, and social insti- dren—has been cast as a fruitful other animals will, by degrees, harden tutions. Responsibility for educating response to the challenge of reducing their hearts even toward men; and the child for his leadership role rested the abuse and neglect of animals. Yet, they who delight in the suffering and with women, who were assumed to be almost 140 years after the move- destruction of inferior creatures, will the repositories of gentle virtue, com- ment’s formation, humane education not be apt to be very compassionate passionate feeling, and devotion— remains largely the province of local or benign to those of their own kind” buffers against the heartless struggle societies for the prevention of cruelty (Locke 1989). of the masculine public sphere. and their educational divisions—if Over time Locke’s insight raised Humane education provided one they have such divisions. Efforts to interest in the beneficial moral effect means of insulating boys against the institutionalize the teaching of of childhood instruction favoring the tyrannical tendencies that might humane treatment of animals within kindly treatment of animals. Growing undermine civic life were they to go the larger framework of the American comprehension of the importance of unchecked. Animals were nicely suit- educational establishment have had childhood experience and its impact ed for instruction that impressed only limited success. Moreover, on youthful character sustained a upon the child their helplessness and knowledge, understanding, and robust transatlantic publishing indus- dependence upon him and his consid- empirical measures of the impact of try devoted to the production of liter- erable power over them (Kerber humane education remain limited. In ature for children. In North America 1980; Grier 1999; Unti 2002). many respects humane education is the first juvenile works infused with The presence of the kindness-to- best seen as an arena of untapped the humane didactic began to appear animals ethic in antebellum child- potential rather than one of unful- in the late 1790s and early 1800s. The hood experience had still broader filled promise. earliest were reprints or excerpts of implications for the process of class English titles, but the genre quickly formation in North America. From gained important American enthusi- the 1820s onward, sympathy with The Origins of asts, including Lydia Maria Child and domestic animals, gradually encoded Harriet Beecher Stowe (Pickering in education lessons for children, the Kindness-to- 1981; Unti 2002). became an important means of incul- One explanation for the spread of cating such standards of bourgeois Animals Ethic the kindness-to-animals ethic lies in gentility as self-discipline, Christian Appreciation for the value of cultivat- its consonance with the republican sentiment, empathy, and moral sensi- ing kindness to animals in children gender ideology of the post-revolu- tivity. Moreover, as a household com- flowed directly from John Locke’s tionary United States. Early American panion, a domestic animal could observations on the subject. Although society assumed a set of paternalistic serve as a convenient real life medi- others had made the point previously, relationships both within and outside um for the practice and expression of in 1693 Locke offered the most the family, emphasizing the impor- compassionate feelings. Merciful prominent early statement of the

27 regard for animals became one hall- cruelty. Although many advocates cation they would push young citizens mark of a developing middle-class cul- adopted this approach, George T. toward what one reformer called the ture rooted in Protestant evangelical Angell of the Massachusetts Society “civilized life” of order, self-discipline, piety (Grier 1999). for the Prevention of Cruelty to Ani- civic loyalty, and respect for private In addition to their sociocultural mals (MSPCA) stood at its forefront. property. Between 1860 and 1920, the utility for instilling and enacting the Under Angell’s leadership, the common school movement, expand- principles of kindness and compas- MSPCA and its sister organization, ing its reach to include kindergarten, sion, the presence of animals in chil- the American Humane Education elementary, and secondary levels, dren’s literature fulfilled other didac- Society (AHES), provided both the became the dominant tradition in tic functions in nineteenth-century inspiration and the resources for American education. During the same domestic ideology. Narratives of ani- humane education, which became period, compulsory attendance re- mal life offered idealized conceptions central to the coalescence of a na- quirements—rare before the Civil of middle-class family relationships tional animal protection movement War—became universal, with Missis- and served as morality tales for during the last quarter of the nine- sippi the one exception (Butts and human domestic relations. By their teenth century (Angell n.d.). Cremin 1953; Cremin 1969). example the animal heroes of these Like the kindness-to-animals ethic Mann recognized the value of hu- narratives served to reinforce cher- itself, enthusiasm for humane educa- mane instruction, noting that ished norms of conduct and behavior tion of children within organized sys- the good man grows in virtue, and (Grier 1999). tems of education predated the anti- the bad man grows in sin....From Over time such functions helped to cruelty societies, coinciding with the the youthful benevolence that consolidate the place of animals in emergence of the common school rejoices to see an animal happy, the emotional framework of middle- movement. The massive influx of one grows up into a world-wide class domestic life. By the 1850s the immigrants in the 1830s and 1840s benefactor, into the healer of dis- kindness-to-animals ethic was a staple led some educators to envision the eases, the restorer of sight to the of juvenile literature as well as a fix- school as a central instrument of blind, the giver of a tongue to the ture of many middle-class homes. A assimilation, guiding immigrant chil- dumb, the founder of hospit- generation before the advent of orga- dren away from the “backward” cul- als....Another grows from cruel- nized animal protection in America, tures of their parents. Horace Mann ty to animals, to being a kidnap- the humane didactic was an estab- (1796–1859), universal schooling’s per, and enslaver, and seller of lished instrument of childhood social- best-known proponent, based his edu- men, women, and children. ization (Grier 1999; Unti 2002). cational philosophy on unlimited (Mann 1861) faith in the perfectibility of human Over time, humane values were beings and their institutions. His con- incorporated into formal systems of The Era of viction that the public school could education, including those inspired be the answer to all of the Republic’s by the object-teaching method associ- Organized problems had roots in the deepest of ated with the State Normal School at American traditions, including Jeffer- Oswego, New York, and its president, Animal sonian republicanism, Christian Edward A. Sheldon (1823–1897) moralism, and Emersonian idealism. (Sheldon 1862). Protection As Mann conceived the common Angell, influenced by Mann, After the anti-cruelty societies school, it would be a guarantor of stressed humane education’s utility formed in the late 1860s, humane social order that reduced the destruc- for ensuring public order, suppressing education became a vital objective of tive potential of class, political, or anarchy and radicalism, smoothing a burgeoning social movement specif- sectarian difference. This was not an relations between the classes, and re- ically devoted to the welfare of ani- unproblematic or unchallenged view, ducing crime. Humane education mals. In the earliest stages of anti- of course, and popular education was would be the solution to social unrest cruelty work, humane education a subject of intense debate (Cremin and revolutionary politics, he be- referred broadly to the instruction of 1969; Button and Provenzo 1983). lieved, and a valuable means for both adults and children. As the lim- By 1860 Mann’s ideals had reached socializing the young, especially the its of law enforcement-centered fruition, with public schools operating offspring of the lower classes. Angell approaches became clear, animal pro- in a majority of the states. Although also appreciated the significance of tectionists embraced early instruc- their philosophies varied, supporters the public school system as a forum tion in kindliness as a means of reduc- of the common schools hoped to for socialization in an increasingly ing adult crimes and prosecutions. improve children’s character by incul- secular society. He told the annual Accordingly they shifted their empha- cating morality and citizenship and to meeting of the American Humane sis to the education of children as a facilitate social mobility by promoting Association (AHA) in 1885 that “the long-term response to the spread of talent and hard effort. Through edu- public school teachers have in the

28 The State of the Animals II: 2003 first fortnight of each school year, inspire a canine analogue, advertised its “Do Everything” phase under about four times as many children, a contest for the purpose. The win- Frances Willard (Unti 2002). and have them more hours, than the ning entry was Beautiful Joe, by Mar- Sunday school teachers do during the garet Marshall Saunders of Nova Sco- whole year.” Humane education pro- tia. Later, a spate of autobiographical The vided a means of spreading the word works—written by a host of maltreat- that could be adapted easily by other ed animals—appeared, and the ani- Compulsory advocates, especially women, in what- mal autobiography became a staple of ever region or situation they might be humane literature. The other books Humane active. It did not require substantial in the AHES series anchored by Black funds, and anyone able and willing to Beauty—Our Goldmine at Hollyhurst Education work with children in the schools or (1893), The Strike at Shane’s (1893), Movement elsewhere could participate (Unti Four Months in New Hampshire The first discussion of compulsory 2002). (1894), and For Pity’s Sake (1897)— humane education occurred in Mass- Angell’s enthusiasm for humane were mainstays of the field well into achusetts in the 1880s, and by 1886 education helped to make it one of the twentieth century. The books, George Angell had helped to secure a the most important elements of ani- along with cash awards, medallions, humane instruction mandate as part mal protection work in the Gilded badges, and rewards of merit, were of compliance with an extant statute Age and the Progressive Era. The distributed in schools in recognition requiring “the teaching of humanity, MSPCA directed tens of thousands of of good behavior, recitations, essays, universal benevolence, etc.” By the dollars toward the production and dis- acts of kindness, and other attain- early 1900s, the notion of a national tribution of humane education litera- ments (Sewell 1890; Anonymous campaign for compulsory humane ture, making it the preeminent 1893; Bray 1893; Saunders 1893; education began to gather momen- source of such materials in the Barrows 1894; Carter 1897; Unti tum. In 1905 William O. Stillman of nation. It also invested time, effort, 2002). AHA and professional educator Stella and funds toward the formation of In the post-Civil War period, the for- H. Preston formed the New York Bands of Mercy. The English temper- mation of character became “a new Humane Education Committee to ance movement’s Bands of Hope, social religion and the dynamic for advance a state requirement. In that which rallied children against alcohol social change,” especially for femi- same year, both Oklahoma and Penn- consumption and related evils, pro- nists and moral reformers. It was sylvania passed state laws providing vided the model. Band of Mercy mem- believed that the properly instructed for moral and humane education. bers pledged to “be kind to all harm- child could resist temptation and The Oklahoma legislation required less living creatures and try to protect internalize a morality consistent with humane instruction as part of the them from cruel usage.” Angell and middle-class ideals of social purity moral education of future citizens. Thomas Timmins, a minister who had (Pivar 1973). Such preoccupation Sponsors wanted educators assisted with the development of with youthful virtue provided humane to teach morality in the broadest Bands of Mercy in his native England, advocates with both rationale and meaning of the word, for the pur- introduced the concept to the United wider opportunities. The promotion pose of elevating and refining the States in 1882. Timmins worked to of humane education as an antidote character of school children... form bands, while Angell strove to to depraved character and a panacea that they may know how to con- raise money and awareness (Timmins for numerous social ills brought ani- duct themselves as social beings 1883). In 1889 this initiative coa- mal protection into close alignment in relation to each other...and lesced as AHES. with other reform movements of the thereby lessen wrong-doing and From the 1870s onward, Angell had era. The movements for temperance, crime. been on the lookout for suitable liter- child protection, and humane treat- The law mandated that one half hour ature to guide the young toward the ment of animals, in particular, all each week be devoted to teaching values of kindness. He found his ideal reflected deep concerns about the “kindness to and humane treatment vehicle in Black Beauty, the novel dic- ramifications of cruelty and violence and protection of dumb animals and tated by a dying British invalid, Anna for individuals, the family, and the birds; their lives, habits and useful- Sewell, and first published in 1878. In social order. Each cause addressed ness, and the important part they are 1890 Angell circumvented copyright issues that straddled the line between intended to fulfil in the economy of laws and brought out the first Ameri- private and public spheres. Humane nature” (Unti 2002). can edition under the auspices of education work received an especially In 1909 the compulsory humane AHES. In just two years, more than significant boost in the 1890s from education movement achieved its one million copies were in circula- the creation of the Department of most important benchmark—the pas- tion. Black Beauty cast a long shadow Mercy as a division of the Women’s sage of legislation in Illinois that over the field, and Angell, wishing to Christian Temperance Union during

Humane Education Past, Present, and Future 29 included sanctions for noncompli- kindness to animals. Many humane late 1930s that the law in her state ance and provisions for instruction in periodicals included selections for was “unevenly observed,” its enforce- teacher-training schools. In Novem- children, and some of these found ment usually contingent on “some ber 1915 AHA adopted a resolution their way into published works superintendent, principal, or teacher favoring establishment of compulsory marked for use by Bands of Mercy with a kind heart, who personally has humane education in every state, (Firth 1883; Timmins 1883). In the compelled action” (Shultz 1924; selecting the 1909 Illinois law as its 1890s, however, the first manuals and Krows 1938). model. However, of the twenty states textbooks with systematic humane that had humane education require- lesson plans, question and answer ments in place by 1920, only two oth- sets, and related offerings began to The Longevity ers—New York and Oklahoma—fol- appear. In 1902 AHA formed a com- lowed the Illinois model in providing mittee to promote the publication of and Impact sanctions for non-compliance. In New textbooks that inculcated humane York compliance was tied to public ideals and to draw up guidelines for of the Bands funds, and the commissioner of edu- publishers of children’s textbooks. By cation was directed to publicize the 1930 about a dozen humane educa- of Mercy requirement (Unti 2002). tion titles had appeared (Unti 2002). For years, Our Dumb Animals (the The emergence of the professional Here and there, progress in institu- MSPCA’s monthly magazine) report- humane educator was a natural out- tionalizing humane education ed extensively on the formation of growth of the compulsory humane ensued. In Colorado the State Teach- Bands of Mercy. However, such education movement. The American ers College adopted a course of study reports were better reflections of Society for the Prevention of Cruelty in ethical and humane education that speaking engagements than of actual to Animals (ASPCA) created a was directed by the state’s Bureau of clubs or groups that went on to con- humane education department in Child and Animal Protection. For a tinuous activity. Referring to the 1916. The stated goal of the division time, humane advocates made efforts “sixty thousand branches of our was “not to do the humane education to canvass the meetings of the American Bands of Mercy” in 1905, work in our schools, so much as to National Education Association George Angell wrote, “What does this stimulate the work of the schools (NEA), and it seems that animal pro- mean? It means that over sixty thou- themselves.” By the beginning of the tectionists were successful in their sand audiences have been addressed academic year in autumn 1921, the outreach to national and regional on kindness both to human beings ASPCA was promoting essay contests teaching organizations, as well as to and the lower animals” (in Unti 2002, within the school system. That sum- school system administrators. In 588). Some years later AHES claimed mer, the humane education depart- 1924 the NEA president endorsed that more than 103,000 bands had ment cooperated with four Lower humane education at the annual formed between 1882 and 1916. In East Side school districts in New York meeting of AHA (Unti 2002). 1922 Angell’s successor, Francis Row- City to measure the effectiveness of Despite such progress, the push for ley, estimated that in forty years of humane propaganda with the chil- compulsory humane instruction was activity, the Bands of Mercy had dren of the foreign-born. The activity not necessarily instrumental in ensur- enrolled more than 4 million children the ASPCA chose to encourage was ing access or influence within the (Unti 2002). the rounding up of unwanted strays. schools. The law was frequently a While admitting their positive During 1922 the department estimat- dead letter in those states where it influence, social scientist William ed that it had reached 300 New York was approved. Hostile and indifferent Shultz underscored the “transitory City schools in the course of its work. superintendents and teachers could character” of the bands. Where “no Preston estimated that, in the sum- ignore the statutes with little fear of attempt is made to encourage them, mer of 1923, New York schoolchildren recrimination, and effective texts and they soon dissolve, leaving little or no brought in more than 28,000 small materials were not always readily effect upon the children’s charac- animals from the streets. As an available. Chicago, with its tradition ters.” AHA’s William Stillman conced- instrument of character develop- of progressive experimentation in ed that the bands “were not as care- ment, the kindness ethic nicely education, promised to be one place fully looked after or as rigorously served the goal of assimilation by in which humane education might followed up as they might be.” Rowley exposing immigrant children to nor- gain a significant foothold. But by believed that, in many cases, interest mative values and expectations 1923 advocates were casting doubt was sustained through the course of (Shultz 1924; Unti 2002). on the success of the movement for one school year, and that in succes- Throughout most of the nineteenth humane education even in Illinois. On sive years new bands would form at century, humane educators relied on the basis of her own experience in a the instigation of teachers or humane eclectic anthologies and an array of small town outside New York City, a educators who visited the schools didactic stories and novels devoted to New York reformer concluded in the again. In some cases, the bands

30 The State of the Animals II: 2003 enjoyed great longevity (Shultz 1924; ing” of American youth. Rowley met cation, university president Nicholas Unti 2002). the matter straight on in an editorial, Murray Butler used it to support a In fact under Rowley’s leadership writing: faculty position in social legislation. AHES launched an ambitious effort to Should anyone imagine that The funds disappeared into Colum- hold the bands together by maintain- humane education means a gen- bia’s general accounts and, with the ing humane educators in the field. eration of boys and girls with all exception of several historical stud- None of the organizational initiatives iron sapped from their blood, a ies, no progress toward the goal of the of the early twentieth century generation of cowards and crav- donor was realized (Unti 2002). matched the accomplishments of ens, he only reveals his total igno- The Columbia initiative was the AHES in building and sustaining a rance of what humane education most significant missed opportunity cadre of humane missionaries during is. The spirit of chivalry toward all in the history of humane education. the period from 1910 to 1925. Edu- the weak and defenseless, the Had the gift been allocated different- cational outreach to the schools was hatred of injustice and cruelty. . . ly, it might have supported the review especially robust in the pre-World War will make of the citizen, should and validation of teaching methods I years. the time demand it, a far better and content; the resolution of differ- The success of the AHES initiatives patriot and soldier than the self- ences between humane education, depended heavily on its field repre- ish, bullying pugnacious spirit nature study, and science education; sentatives, at least some of whom that often proclaims not a possi- the development of a training pro- were paid (Unti 2002). The field rep- ble hero, but only an arrant cow- gram for humane education special- resentatives were armed with a broad ard. (in Unti 2002, 590) ists; or the institutionalization of the selection of humane education mate- In any case, once America entered kindness-to-animals ethic in the cur- rials, including novels such as Black the conflict, war animal relief filtered riculum. However, the bias of Butler Beauty. By 1913 AHES was the straight into Band of Mercy work and and the professors he consulted made world’s largest publisher and distribu- such other humane initiatives as Be it hard for them to take seriously such tor of humane literature by far. Our Kind to Animals Week. The message academic investigations of humane Dumb Animals enjoyed a monthly cir- of universal peace through humane education (Unti 2002). culation of 60,000. In December education was subordinated to patri- At least a few researchers in the 1916 931 new bands were reported, otic imperatives. The movement’s pre-World War II era believed that the largest figure ever for a one- most vital activity—its outreach to humane education was a proper sub- month period, although one third of children—was reconfigured dramati- ject for scholarly inquiry. In 1931 these formed in Massachusetts. That cally to serve the interests of Ameri- concern for animals found its way same year AHES estimated that it had can nationalism (Unti 2002). onto the agenda of the Conference of spent more than $100,000 on litera- Educational Associations, whose ture and its distribution since 1882 members came together annually to (Unti 2002). The Failure of discuss educational theory and prac- Once World War I began, the focus tice in Great Britain. That year Susan of many animal protection organiza- Institutionali- Isaacs, chair of the British Psycholog- tions shifted to war concerns. Not ical Society’s Education Section, simply a distraction, however, the war zation spoke about her research concerning threatened humane ideals more fun- It was not the war but the lack of suc- childhood socialization and attitudes damentally as the United States pre- cess in institutionalizing humane concerning animals. Her method, pared for battle. In the years before education that led to its decline dur- applied in a small Cambridge school America joined the war, humanitari- ing the middle decades of the twenti- during the years 1924–1927, permit- ans could point to humane education eth century. Very few of the initiatives ted children the greatest possible as a powerful solution to the world’s launched by humane organizations freedom to pursue their own inter- ills. With the war tearing Europe gained the lasting attention of ests. In her research Isaacs paid spe- apart, American advocates cast it as teacher-training institutions, and cial attention to the conflicting ten- an inoculant against the animosities humane education certainly did not dencies toward cruelty and kindness and prejudices bred by conflict, and become a regular element of teacher to animals that she observed in chil- the guarantor of peace. But the preparation. The fate of a $100,000 dren. She had proposed that educa- wartime focus on preparedness also donation to Columbia University in tors should strive “to make a positive placed on the defensive humanitari- 1907, specifically earmarked for pro- educational use of the child’s impuls- ans who had so closely identified moting humane education, was per- es” so that children could be helped themselves with anti-militarism. haps the most conspicuous setback to reach “a more satisfactory psycho- Humanitarians felt vulnerable to the on this front. Rather than direct the logical solution for their own internal charge that their own educational money toward Teachers College for conflicts.” This method of instruc- program would lead to the “soften- studies and training in humane edu- tion, she asserted, would become “an

Humane Education Past, Present, and Future 31 active influence in the building up of emphasis on humane education sive Era animal protectionists. a positive morality of behavior to- promised to shift the balance of These considerations render the wards animals, going beyond the humane work. As an Our Dumb Ani- success of the campaign for compul- mere negative standard of not being mals editorialist, probably Rowley, sory humane education legislation unkind to them, and expressed in an optimistically predicted, highly ironic. Its clear relationship to eager and intelligent interest in their More and more societies orga- moral instruction and the inculcation life-histories, and a lively sympathy nized for the prevention of cruel- of good citizenship was endorsed in with their doings and happenings” ty to animals will turn to the work state houses all across America. Para- (Isaacs 1930, 166). of humane education. . .as their doxically, however, the determination Isaacs’s special focus was on chil- widest and most important field to see such laws passed was not dren’s exposure to the death of ani- of service. Train the heart of the matched by commensurate effort to mals and on dissection. The children child aright, and the cruelty from see them honored. In general, the she observed “showed greater sympa- which animals suffer will end far cadre of SPCA activists committed to thy with the living animals, and more more quickly than by punishing humane education dwindled, and consistent care, after they had the ignorant and cruel man. (Unti efforts to see its principles enshrined ‘looked inside’ the dead ones, and 2002, 610) in the curriculum of teachers’ insti- fewer lapses into experimental cruel- As it happened humane education tutes and colleges failed (Unti 2002). ty,” Isaacs reported. “In other words, did not become more central to the Ultimately, the difficulty of pene- the impulse to master and destroy work of SPCAs in the years that fol- trating local and regional school sys- was taken up into the aim of under- lowed. By the era of the Depression it tem bureaucracies proved insur- standing. The living animal became had diminished greatly, as the practi- mountable for a movement with much less of an object of power and cal and financial burdens of shelter limited resources and more urgent possession, and much more an inde- and hospital work, animal control concerns and responsibilities. Yet the pendent creature to be learnt about, obligations, and law enforcement cast blame for such failures should not be watched and known for its own sake.” other initiatives, including humane laid simply upon organized animal Isaacs found that the children moved education, to the margins of activity. protection itself; the impact of coun- steadily toward the non-interfering, What survived was the simple lesson tervailing forces was decisive. The observational attitude of many mod- of kindness to pets, carried into the classroom and the educational sys- ern naturalists, and developed a schools by SPCA staff members and tem were the subject of increasing humane outlook and sense of respon- volunteers who continued to enjoy struggles during the twentieth centu- sibility toward their pets and toward access to the earliest grades of ele- ry, and the question of how humans animals in general (Isaacs 1930, mentary school. Changes (such as the ought to encounter and treat animals 165–166). advent of motor vehicles) that elimi- was implicated in several of these. Obviously, these findings, gathered nated from Americans’ daily experi- Humanitarians were not the only ones in one school, could not be consid- ence the abuse of horses and other with an interest in animals. Agricul- ered broadly representative or conclu- working animals rendered obsolete tural societies, industry associations, sive. Nevertheless, the very singulari- much of the earlier practical educa- religionists, and science education ty of the approach taken by Isaacs and tion concerning animal welfare. At groups also fought for a stake in shap- her colleagues makes one thing clear: the same time, the movement’s edu- ing modern American education. fruitful research on children’s psycho- cational focus, normally centered on Many of these interests promoted logical development and on the meth- acts of individual cruelty, failed to consumptive uses of animals that ods by which an attitude of respect touch upon newer and socially sanc- were at odds with humane impera- and interest in animals could be tioned forms of animal use. Both self- tives (Unti 2002). inculcated was a neglected pursuit for censorship and the constraints The fortunes of “nature-study,” a much of the twentieth century. imposed by educational institutions contemporaneous education move- prevented humane education from ment, were very similar to those of reaching into the realm of the new humane education, as both declined The Mid- cruelties—institutionalized uses of in the face of a professionalizing field animals such as animal experimenta- of science instruction. The rise of a Twentieth tion and the mass production of ani- professional science education cadre, mals for food and fur that were well committed to the unification, ratio- Century beyond the experience and influence nalization, and standardization of In the early twentieth century, argu- of most individuals. Undoubtedly, too, American science curricula, crowded ments in favor of increased emphasis the disillusionment wrought by war, out both nature-study and humane on education as distinct from practi- depression, and other events deflated education, incorporating some of cal relief work for animals surfaced the grand claims and expectations their elements but ridding those ele- regularly. If actively pursued, the expressed by Gilded Age and Progres- ments of their romantic notions of

32 The State of the Animals II: 2003 affinity with nature and non-human of humane education. By the 1970s A study conducted by Jaime Olin animals. By the 1930s the term ele- such efforts sparked the formation of (2002), a graduate student at the mentary science had subsumed a separate division of The HSUS, pre- Tufts University Center for Animals nature-study, and humane education decessor of the National Association and Public Policy, provides some as a discrete subject of instruction for Humane and Environmental Edu- answers. Olin surveyed 600 animal was on the wane. As one scholar sug- cation (NAHEE). Founded in 1973 shelters, selected at random from gests, the “abstract rationalism” of NAHEE has become a preeminent approximately 2,800 in existence biology instruction in the higher source for information, research, and nationwide, about the scope and grades and in university courses also analysis in the field of humane educa- nature of their efforts to teach chil- left little room for the empathy-build- tion. dren humane values. The results of ing emphasis of nature-study and her investigation paint a picture of humane education approaches (Pauly humane education as a relatively 2002). The Status Quo widespread enterprise, yet one that The anti-cruelty movement’s over- Today the locus of humane education typically is relegated to side issue sta- all loss of influence and lack of vitali- activity in the United States contin- tus, addressed perfunctorily by most ty in the interwar period also had its ues to be the animal care and control animal care and control organizations effect. Humane education suffered as community, as elementary and sec- and simply ignored by others. much as any area of organized animal ondary schools and colleges of educa- Of the 203 animal care and control protection from the absence of tion have yet to accept and integrate agencies that responded to Olin’s 32- enlightened and energetic leadership, the teaching of most humane con- item questionnaire, 144—71 per- and the loss of a receptive public. By cepts into their curricula. Many ani- cent—were classified as having a World War II, organizations were mal care and control agencies humane education program. Those using badly dated humane education (SPCAs, humane societies, animal respondents reported being involved materials, if any. rescue leagues, and the like) offer in humane education for a median of In some regions viable outreach education programs in some form, ten years, and 42 percent reported programs undertaken by regional working primarily at the municipal or relevant activity for between eleven humane societies survived and county level. Such programs fre- and fifty years (Figure 1). The majori- enjoyed good access to public schools quently involve partnerships with ty of shelters with humane education even during the mid-twentieth centu- schools or other youth-oriented insti- programs claimed reaching between ry decades (Matthewson 1942; Whyte tutions. 100 and 500 children per year, most 1948; Walter 1950; American What methodologies does humane of whom were of elementary school Humane Association 1952). While education employ? What is being age (Figure 2). The vast majority of humane education outreach now taught and how effectively? How sig- respondents—94 percent—indicated tended to focus on the treatment of nificant is the role of youth education that they regard humane education companion animals and the benefits within the animal welfare movement? as either “essential” or “very impor- of keeping pets, it nevertheless reinforced the simple message of kindness to animals as an important standard of individual conduct. In addition, the kindness-to-animals ethic continued to resonate through children’s literature (Oswald 1994) and other cultural media (Cartmill 1993). These influences certainly strengthened decades of effort aimed at promoting personal rectitude in dealings with animals. After the post-World War II revival of organized animal protection (Unti and Rowan 2001), humane education gradually resurfaced as a priority of both national and local groups. In the mid-1960s, The HSUS began to invest serious attention and resources in humane education, collaborating with university researchers to formulate and test methods and techniques

Humane Education Past, Present, and Future 33 nated by companion animal issues (Figure 4). Olin’s respondents indicated that responsible pet ownership accounted for an average of 49 percent of their programs’ subject matter, safety around animals for 26 per- 40 cent, and the role of animal shelters 35 for 20 percent. On average, 8 percent 30 of programming was devoted to 25 wildlife issues, and 2 percent to topics related to farm animals. Obviously, 20 this distribution of priority reflects 15 the primacy of direct care and pro- 10 tection of companion animals in the 5 missions and day-to-day activities of 0 animal shelters. In addition, omission from youth education programs of such topics as intensive farming, the use of animals in research, and consumptive uses of wildlife may stem from other factors. These include the philosophical orientation of shelter tant” to their overall mission. munity service programs (44 per- administrators and boards of direc- If classroom visits and shelter tours cent), junior volunteer programs (30 tors; sensitivity to local politics; the traditionally have been the educa- percent), after-school activities (23 influence of competing and some- tional methods of choice employed percent), and summer camps (15 times hostile interest groups; the by animal shelters since the mid- percent). Thirty-six percent reported view that such issues do not fall under twentieth century, then it appears serving as a source of curriculum- the purview of animal care and con- from Olin’s investigation that little blended materials for classroom trol agencies; and the reluctance of has changed (Figure 3). Eighty-eight teachers. Children saw live animals in school officials to accept special percent of respondents reported con- 86 percent of humane education pro- interest topics into the curriculum— ducting classroom visits, and 77 per- grams and were allowed to touch an especially those that may be consid- cent included tours of their facilities animal in 73 percent. ered age-inappropriate, inflammato- in their programs. Fewer organiza- The content of humane education ry, or inimical to a community’s tions reported offering youth com- programs at the local level is domi- values, traditions, or economic base. Olin’s investigation also reveals that 88 percent of local animal care and control agencies obtain at least a portion of their youth education materials from outside organizations. Materials were procured most often from national animal protection 100 groups with a history of providing shelter-related services and dissemi- 80 nating youth education resources with a strong emphasis on compan- 60 ion-animal issues: The HSUS, the 40 ASPCA, and AHA. Thirty-five percent of the respondents reported using 20 KIND News, a classroom newspaper published by NAHEE. Sixty-four per- 0 cent said they included their own materials in their programs. If, prima facie, the above data shows humane education to be a vibrant enterprise, the deeper reality is that it remains a peripheral compo-

34 The State of the Animals II: 2003 57 percent of respondents said “media relations”; 51 percent said “adult education”; 33 percent said “animal behavior counseling”; 25 percent said “violence prevention”; and 23 percent said “pet therapy.” Although some of those job duties are not unrelated to children, it is clear that youth education, per se, rarely is given the undivided attention of one or more staff members. That education personnel are spread thin is also reflected in the fact that an average of only 21 percent of children reached by Olin’s respondents received more than one humane education intervention, e.g., more than one classroom visit or shelter tour, per year. If youth education were a high priority in the animal care and control community, one might expect that nent of animal welfare activity, as it 7). But personnel responsible for formal education credentials would be was throughout most of the last cen- youth education often are spread a criterion in the hiring of staff tury. Despite the fact that a majority thin, charged with handling a wide assigned to teach children. Olin of local animal care and control agen- variety of disparate job duties. For found, however, that only 15 percent cies report offering humane educa- example, when asked to give the title of respondents reported that the staff tion programs, have been doing so for of the person involved most directly member most directly involved with quite some time, and regard humane with humane education, 26 percent humane education had classroom education as mission-critical, com- of respondents indicated “shelter teaching certification, while 50 per- mitment to youth education as director,” while only 12 percent cited cent cited “on-the-job-training” in measured by funding—perhaps the “humane education director.” Thirty- lieu of such credentials. Twenty-four most salient measure—is anemic. eight percent indicated “other,” and percent indicated that their education Although the median annual budget in most cases, Olin found, that meant staff had informal teaching or youth reported by Olin’s respondents was “animal control officer” (Figure 8). leadership experience (Figure 9). $200,000 (Figure 5), 63 percent of When asked by Olin about other One of the most telling signs of organizations with humane education services performed by education staff, generally tepid support for humane programs reported allocating less than $1,000 to those programs, and only 21 percent reported having an annual humane education budget of $5,000 or more (Figure 6). Most respondents (74 percent) admitted that the amount of money budgeted for education was “not enough,” while 26 percent said the amount their organizations had allocated was “just about right.” The animal care and control community’s reluctance fully to embrace youth education also can be inferred from staffing-related data. Organiza- tions responding to Olin’s study reported a median of one paid education staff member (a significant number given that the median number of full-time, paid staff overall was four) and one education volunteer (Figure

Humane Education Past, Present, and Future 35 education is that 29 percent of the organizations answering Olin’s questionnaire did not respond to the item asking about the size of their education budget. Olin classified those organizations as not having a humane 80 education program. While the 70 assumption behind that classification 60 (i.e., no education budget means no 50 education program) may not be entirely valid, the fact remains that a 40 significant number of animal care 30 and control organizations make no 20 effort to teach humane values to chil- 10 dren, while most make a weak 0 attempt at best. Why? Why would an undertaking that, at least intuitively, holds such promise for advancing the cause of animal protection and that was so energetically pursued during the early decades of the animal welfare movement be given such minimal or funds would be raised to augment solving or preventing the problems attention nowadays by those most existing budgets. Perhaps a more fun- animals face, it typically does not ren- directly engaged in solving their com- damental answer lies in the dilemma der the same immediate, tangible munities’ animal-related problems? faced by animal care and control per- outcomes or level of emotional fulfill- Answers from animal shelter profes- sonnel: how can they meet basic, ment as, for example, uniting a fami- sionals typically hinge on points short-term needs—such as a commu- ly with a homeless pet or rescuing a about lack of time and/or funding— nity’s need for adequate animal con- stray dog from the hardships of the points raised, in fact, by some respon- trol and sheltering—and also reach street. In contrast its potential dents to Olin’s survey. Such ratio- broader, long-term goals, such as rewards may seem distant and nales, however, beg the underlying eliminating or significantly reducing abstract. So, while animal care and question, since if youth education animal abuse, neglect, and the over- control professionals may view youth were seen as crucial to achieving ani- population of companion animals? education as mission-critical in a mal protection objectives, time and Although youth education is seen as long-range sense, it often is treated in funds to support it would be allocated an important means of permanently the short term as a drain on resources that might otherwise be applied to more pressing, day-to-day concerns. That seems to have been the pre- vailing reasoning for many years. In 1922 Francis Rowley speculated that the promise of immediate results was 60 what kept so many humane advocates involved in direct relief of animals 50 rather than humane education of sub- 40 sequent generations (Unti 2002). It appears that similar forces are at 30 work now. As a result, youth educa- 20 tion continues to be a marginal if not entirely dispensable facet of animal 10 welfare work in the United States. 0

36 The State of the Animals II: 2003 it is simply that humane education initiatives typically are not subjected to formal evaluation to test their efficacy. Of the organizations responding to Olin’s survey, for example, only 7 percent reported formally evaluating their programs. Given the relatively low level of support for humane education, this assessment gap is not sur- prising. But it is significant, for two reasons: first, a lack of formal evaluation limits understanding of what methodologies are most and least effective and how humane education programs can be improved; and, second, it deprives animal protection advocates of an important tool for convincing school officials, colleges of education, and the public that humane education is a worthwhile pursuit that deserves funding and representation in standard curricula. Empirical studies conducted over Consequently, relatively little the last twenty-five years have tended Can Humane empirical evidence exists showing to show that education programs can that humane education programs indeed generate gains in knowledge Values Be increase children’s knowledge about of animal protection issues, improve- Taught? or improve their attitudes and behav- ment in attitudes toward animals, ior toward animals. None exists show- If, as suggested, a lack of immedi- and improvements in projected behav- ing that such gains are carried into ate—or at least immediately visible— ior toward them. Positive results have adulthood. The issue is not that there results is a disincentive for humane been inconsistent, however, and is proof to the contrary—indeed, organizations to expend resources on investigations have not been under- intuition, anecdotal evidence, and a youth education, it would seem that taken to determine whether humane handful of formal studies suggest that definitive empirical evidence demon- education results in positive changes humane education can work. Rather, strating the effectiveness of humane in actual behavior related to animals. education programs would provide an important incentive. That is, if the intended benefits of teaching humane values to children (e.g., gains in general knowledge about animal protection issues and the development of positive attitudes and behavior toward animals) were consistently brought to light through program evaluation, perhaps humane education would come to be seen as more of an urgent imperative than an abstract panacea. But there is an obvious Catch-22 here: an interest in spending time and money to assess the effects of a humane education initiative presupposes a relatively high level of interest in committing resources to humane education in general, and such willingness has been in short supply.

Humane Education Past, Present, and Future 37 The special challenges associated treatment—reading material with dren. Children who had been induced with assessing actual behavior toward four instruction sessions over a two- to empathize with animals, however, animals—such as cost, difficulty of month period. (A control group showed little tendency to extend that observation, and potential harm to received no instruction or materials.) increased empathy to other children. animals and children—have, no The lessons and reading material That finding calls into question the doubt, hindered such inquiries. focused on responsible pet ownership validity of the transference theory, Systematic research to test the and related topics. In contrast to the which holds that positive attitudes effects of general approaches to earlier study, results showed that, toward animals are transferable, or humane education and specific pro- although all three interventions led will generalize, to humans—a tacit grams peaked during the 1980s. Sev- to an increase in positive attitudes assumption in much humane litera- eral studies conducted early in that toward animals, the intensive, one- ture. Findings casting doubt on the decade relied on the Fireman Tests, lesson treatment had a greater posi- transference theory also have been assessment tools that presented chil- tive impact on attitudes than did the reported by Ray (1982) and Paul dren with a story about a boy whose reading material alone. Somewhat (2000), while Poresky (1990), house is burning down and who is unexpectedly, however, the repeated Ascione (1992), and O’Hare and given the opportunity to ask a fire- treatment was not found to be more Montminy-Danna (2001) have found fighter to save certain household effective than the one-time presenta- evidence to support it. items (Vockell and Hodal 1980). A list tion. The researcher suggested that In one of the few efforts during the of ten items is given, consisting of the more focused nature of the inten- early 1980s to assess the impact of seven inanimate objects, such as a sive treatment contributed to its suc- humane education on older children, television and a checkbook, and three cess compared with the repeated Cameron (1983) compared the animals: a dog, a cat, and a canary. intervention, the content of which effects of two intensive, classroom- The tests asked children to select was only loosely connected. No differ- based interventions on the attitudes three items from the list which they ences in test scores were found of eighth-graders. One relied on print think the boy in the story should tell between boys and girls or between material and media-based instruction the firefighter to save, the rationale fifth and sixth-graders. (films and filmstrips), the other on being that the more positive an indi- Contradicting the results of that print material and lecture-method vidual’s attitudes toward animals, the investigation was a similar one instruction. A control group received more likely it is that he or she will designed by the Animal Rescue no materials or instruction. Students choose the dog, cat, and canary for League of Boston. Relying on the receiving media-based treatment rescue. The first investigation Fireman Tests as the assessment tool, showed the greatest improvement in employing the Fireman Tests sought the Boston evaluation found that a attitudes. The lecture treatment to evaluate the effects that a single repeated humane education treat- group also improved but to a lesser classroom presentation conducted by ment consisting of lessons and mate- extent, while the control group a visiting humane educator had on rials presented over a period of sever- showed no positive change in atti- attitudes of third through sixth-grade al days had a greater positive effect on tudes. students, compared with simply giv- the attitudes of fourth and fifth- ing the children reading material graders toward animals than either a (Vockell and Hodal 1980). The one-time presentation or reading The Humane researchers found that the one-time materials without instruction (Mal- presentation had no more impact on carne 1983). The fact that the repeat- Education attitudes than did distributing the lit- ed intervention in this case took erature. The omission of a pretest place over a fairly concentrated peri- Evaluation from the study design, however, made od of time may have contributed to interpreting those results problemat- its success compared with the more Project ic (Ascione 1992). diluted, two-month repeated treat- Perhaps the most ambitious attempt A year later another Fireman Tests ment employed in the Jefferson at program assessment was NAHEE’s study analyzed the impact of three County study. Humane Education Evaluation Pro- different humane education treat- An innovative study during the ject. In that investigation, Ascione, ments on the attitudes of fifth and same period analyzed the effects of Latham, and Worthen (1985) sought sixth-grade students in Jefferson role-play as an empathy-building tech- to measure the impact of a curricu- County, Colorado (Fitzgerald 1981). nique. Malcarne (1981) found that lum-blended approach to teaching The three approaches tested were: playing the role of animals is an effec- humane values, using as the proto- light-treatment—reading material tive means for children to increase type NAHEE’s People and Animals: A with no instruction; intensive treat- their empathy with animals and that Humane Education Curriculum ment—reading material with one playing the role of children helps to Guide. The guide consisted of more instruction session; and repeated increase empathy with other chil- than 400 classroom activities, each

38 The State of the Animals II: 2003 designed to teach a humane concept showed improvement, generally their toward animals would extend to peo- along with a skill or concept in lan- attitude gains were not pronounced ple, the NAHEE project researchers guage arts, social studies, math, or enough to be statistically significant. developed two instruments: the Atti- science. The study involved more The researchers suggested that the tude Transfer Scale (ATS), which used than 1,800 children in kindergarten disparity in the treatment effects photos depicting situations involving through sixth grade and 77 teachers between the younger and older chil- other children to which students from various urban, suburban, and dren may have been due to the possi- could respond with varying degrees of rural school districts in Connecticut bility that conceptual knowledge and kindness and compassion; and the and California. Using a battery of attitudes are more malleable at the Revised Aggression Scale (AG), a mul- instruments developed by the West- earlier grades, or that baseline levels tiple-choice instrument that present- ern (formerly Wasatch) Institute for of knowledge and attitudes are lower ed school and home situations to Research and Evaluation, the investi- at the earlier grades, leaving more which children might react with vary- gation was designed to test the room for improvement. They also ing degrees of aggression. (The AG effects of a relatively weak treatment: cited the weak treatment as a possi- was administered only to children in teachers were required to lead only ble factor in the inconsistency of ex- grade three and above.) Results of the twenty activities (the equivalent of perimental-group gains. ATS and AG showed no statistically about ten hours of instruction) from The NAHEE study’s examination of significant differences between exper- the curriculum guide over the course projected behavior produced results imental and control group children at of an entire school year. The objective that were somewhat the reverse of the any grade except fourth. Surprisingly, was to evaluate the materials as they knowledge and attitude findings in fourth-grade boys in the experimental realistically might be applied during a terms of age-group comparisons. At group had lower interpersonal kind- typical school year by teachers with the kindergarten through third-grade ness scores on the ATS than did their many other curriculum requirements level, the projected behavior scores of counterparts in the control group. to meet. The instruments were experimental-group children did not Fourth-grade experimental-group designed to measure the curriculum differ significantly from control group children (girls and boys) also scored guide’s effect on (1) children’s knowl- scores. In contrast, at the fourth more aggressively on the AG than did edge of animals; (2) their attitudes through sixth-grade levels, the exper- fourth graders in the control group. toward animals; (3) their projected imental group showed significantly The researchers noted, however, that behavior toward animals, i.e., their more humane attitudes than did the the fourth-grade experimental-group perceptions of how they would behave control group. Why did older children scores were on the kind and non- in situations that allowed humane or respond more humanely on this mea- aggressive ends of the continuum of inhumane behavior; and (4) whether sure, while younger students showed scores for the attitude transfer mea- children’s attitudes toward animals greater gains on the knowledge and sures. transferred, or generalized, to people. attitude tests? According to the Despite its somewhat ambiguous The assessment tools were adminis- researchers, test format could have findings, the Humane Education tered as pretests and posttests to the had an influence. The knowledge and Evaluation Project produced some en- study sample, which was divided into attitude scales were composed of couraging—and intriguing—results an experimental and control group, multiple-choice or yes/no items, overall. The instruments that were the latter receiving no instruction which gave children a choice from created, the conclusions reached, and from the NAHEE curriculum guide at which to select an answer. The instru- the insights gained were valuable in any point in the school year. ment used to test projected behavior, providing direction for subsequent Results showed statistically signifi- on the other hand, required children research and can aid in development cant gains in knowledge as a result of to describe verbally the scenario and refinement of humane education the curriculum guide intervention at depicted in a drawing, formulate a methodologies. the kindergarten and first-grade lev- response to the situation, and explain els. Knowledge scores of second why they responded as they did— through sixth-grade children in the tasks that the older children may Recent Research experimental group also improved, have been developmentally more pre- Humane education program evalua- though not to a statistically signifi- pared to handle than were the tion continued sporadically in the cant degree. Attitudes toward ani- younger students. In addition the years following NAHEE’s landmark mals improved along similar lines: researchers surmised that teachers at study. In 1988 the MSPCA completed kindergarten and first-grade children the higher grades may have been an extensive investigation to examine in the experimental group showed more likely than those at the lower the impact of its statewide humane significantly more humane attitudes grades to focus their instruction on education program on the animal-wel- than their counterparts in the control the intentions and rationale behind fare-related knowledge and attitudes group. Although experimental-group humane behavior. of second through fifth-graders. Third, children at the higher grades also To determine if humane attitudes fourth, and fifth-grade children

Humane Education Past, Present, and Future 39 received three instruction sessions, mean attitude scores of the first and and posttest to determine the Potter and the investigation found gains in second-grade control and experimen- League program’s effect on animal- their knowledge and attitudes. This tal groups were higher (more hu- welfare-related knowledge, attitudes, was not the case, however, among sec- mane) than the mean attitude scores and projected behavior; (2) a measure ond-graders, who were exposed to a from the 1985 investigation. One rea- of attitude transference obtained by single classroom presentation. The son, the researcher suggested, was comparing pretest results with scores researchers concluded that results the possibility that the children par- from instruments designed to gauge were positive but limited, and sug- ticipating in the 1992 study were children’s human-directed empathy gested that a more marked impact more aware of and better educated on and quality of peer relations; and (3) might be achieved by consolidating humane and environmental issues an examination of the intellectual, the program, i.e., delivering a more in- than were their 1985 counterparts. If affective, and behavioral responses of tense intervention (Davis et al. 1988). that was the case, by 1992 scores on children to the program through the In a follow-up to the Humane Edu- the instrument used to measure the use of student and teacher focus cation Evaluation Project, Ascione younger children’s attitudes may have groups and classroom observation. (1992) assessed a treatment employ- been reaching a “ceiling,” which The study sample consisted of 181 ing NAHEE’s People and Animals cur- would make detecting differences third-graders, who took part in eight riculum guide and other materials in between control and experimental weekly forty-five-minute classroom thirty-two first, second, fourth, and groups more difficult. Ascione noted lessons, and 152 seventh graders, who fifth-grade classrooms. Pretests and that the scale used to measure the participated in five weekly forty-five- posttests were administered to assess older children’s attitudes was less sus- minute lessons. The third-grade changes in children’s attitudes to- ceptible to such ceiling effects. lessons covered such areas as basic ward animals and human-directed As a follow-up to the 1992 investi- pet care, the role of animal shelters, empathy. (The attitude measure was gation, Ascione and Weber (1996) and safety around animals; the sev- the same as that used in the 1985 tested fifth-grade students who had enth-grade lessons covered animals in study.) Results showed that the inter- participated a year earlier in the entertainment, endangered species, vention enhanced fourth-graders’ above study to determine if the pet overpopulation, and animal-relat- humane attitudes to a statistically effects found when they were fourth- ed moral dilemmas. significant degree. In addition fourth- graders were maintained. Results The Potter League investigation grade scores revealed a significant showed that fourth-graders who had revealed statistically significant gains generalization, or transfer, effect received the People and Animals in knowledge, attitudes, and intended from animal-related attitudes to intervention the previous year scored behavior at both the third and sev- human-directed empathy. Fifth-grade higher on humane attitudes scales enth-grade levels. In addition the children in the experimental group than did those who had not. Once examination of attitude transference also showed more humane attitudes again a generalization effect from indicated that children who were than did the control group, though attitudes toward animals to human- more knowledgeable about and favor- the difference was not statistically directed empathy was found. The ably disposed toward animals also significant. Ascione suggested the researchers interpreted their findings were more likely to respond with more modest gains among fifth- as evidence that classroom-based, greater empathy to people and have graders were due to the fact that fifth curriculum-blended humane educa- better relationships with peers. Qual- grade control group teachers report- tion can be an effective means of itative analysis yielded a wide range of ed substantially more instruction developing sensitivity in children information, most of which reflected related to humane education than toward animals and people. positively on the Potter League pro- their experimental group counter- Positive results also were found by gram. Conclusions regarding the parts. (Ascione noted that restricting O’Hare and Montminy-Danna (2001) third-grade intervention included the content of control group teach- in a comprehensive evaluation of a that the children enjoy the program ers’ instruction for purposes of the humane education program for third (especially the opportunity to relate study would have been unacceptable.) and seventh-grade students. The pro- stories about their pets), that con- No statistically significant effects on gram was offered by the Potter cepts are presented in a clear, age- attitudes or human-directed empathy League for Animals, an animal care appropriate manner, and that positive were found at the first and second- and control organization serving behavior toward animals is constantly grade levels, although the first-grade southeastern Rhode Island. The Pot- reinforced throughout the program. experimental group children did show ter League study was unique in that it During focus groups third-graders some gain in humane attitudes over employed qualitative research meth- related evidence of behavior change, first-grade children in the control ods as well as more typical, quantita- some stating that they had begun to group. In comparing those results to tive techniques. It included the fol- spend more time with their pets, had the more pronounced gains from the lowing components: (1) the stopped hitting or teasing them, or 1985 study, Ascione noted that the administration of a true/false pretest had shared their new knowledge with

40 The State of the Animals II: 2003 friends and family members. definitively whether children can be and how they are using humane edu- At the seventh-grade level, class- taught to think and behave kindly cation materials provided to them. It room observations revealed that the toward animals or what the best can entail simply identifying program Potter League material was presented instructional methods might be. The objectives, and administering brief in a way that allowed students to see empirical evidence compiled thus far, surveys to students or teachers to both sides of controversial issues, that however, suggests that humane edu- determine whether those objectives, the program stressed the positive cation has promise. Moreover, investi- e.g., positive changes in attitudes impact a single individual can have, gations such as those reviewed here toward animals, are being met. Even and that it appeared to have an imme- are significant not just for what they evaluation efforts as limited as these diate effect on some students. (One may prove or disprove, but also for can provide valuable information that boy, for example, said he would no the questions they raise and the ultimately can help an agency make longer shoot birds.) The researchers directions they provide for future the most effective, efficient use of its also noted that some seventh-grade inquiry. Do gains resulting from ele- humane education resources. Several students appeared somber after dis- mentary-level humane education ini- national organizations, such as cussions of particularly hard-hitting tiatives extend into the teen years and NAHEE and the Character Education issues. During focus groups several beyond? Do improvements in project- Partnership, offer guides to basic pro- seventh graders, like their third-grade ed behavior translate into more gram assessment. In addition, copies counterparts, suggested that their humane behavior in fact? At what of the instruments used to assess the behavior had changed or would ages is humane education most effec- impact of the People and Animals cur- change as a result of the Potter tive? What impact, if any, do instruc- riculum guide in the 1985 Humane League program. Some, for example, tor enthusiasm and teaching style Education Evaluation Project are indicated that they had become have on the efficacy of humane edu- available from NAHEE and can be kinder toward their pets and would be cation interventions? Such are just a adapted for use in assessing other more willing to speak up about mis- few of the questions waiting to be humane education initiatives. treatment of companion animals. addressed in a field that is ripe for Certainly, conducting rigorous Most seventh-grade students ex- study, not only because of the paucity experimental investigations of the pressed concern about the uses of ani- of existing research, but also because impact of humane education pro- mals in entertainment and stated that humane education seems especially grams requires expertise and they would curtail participation in relevant at a time when the connec- resources beyond the reach of most activities that involved the mistreat- tion between childhood cruelty to animal shelters. But providing the ment of animals. A few, however, animals and interpersonal violence in impetus for such investigations and thought the program’s emphasis on adulthood is widely known, and the facilitating them does not. By part- the cruelty of circuses and other perceived moral decline of our nering with college and university forms of entertainment was overstat- nation’s youth is a common and academic departments (including ed. The findings of the Potter League increasingly fervent lament. education, child development, social evaluation were overwhelmingly posi- work, and psychology), animal pro- tive, though the investigators noted tection organizations engaged in several limitations of the study (i.e., The Road Ahead youth education can provide the sub- that it lacked a control group; it did Vitalizing humane education research ject matter for study and access to not measure the retention of cogni- would create a solid foundation on teachers, children, and classrooms. In tive or attitudinal gains over time; and which to build a more prominent, return, academic institutions can its outcomes were based on the pre- influential humane education move- offer expertise in instrument develop- sentation of a program by only one ment. A substantial body of empirical ment, study design, and data analysis, instructor), and thus advised caution evidence not only would provide as well as a pool of graduate and in interpreting its results. Neverthe- humane educators with the knowl- undergraduate students in search of less, the project generated a host of edge necessary to develop effective topics for senior projects, master’s recommendations useful to the Potter pedagogical strategies, it also would theses, and doctoral internships and League’s education personnel—and lend much-needed credibility and dissertations. In addition, since both potentially to others in the field—and recognition to humane education as a universities and animal-protection represents an important contribution serious discipline. Animal care and agencies typically are skilled in the to the body of knowledge concerning control organizations can become art of fundraising—and often have the effectiveness of school-focused involved in humane education pro- established relationships with philan- humane education programs. gram evaluation in a variety of ways thropic institutions—partnerships Although the above survey of that need not be prohibitively elabo- between the two can be mutually ben- humane education program evalua- rate, expensive, or time-consuming. eficial when it comes to obtaining tion is not exhaustive, existing re- Assessment can be as basic as inter- grants to fund humane education research still is too limited to tell us viewing teachers to ascertain whether search.

Humane Education Past, Present, and Future 41 lund 1982). For humane educators, in response to the widespread public Back-to-Basics recognizing school priorities typically perception that our youth have fallen has meant creating lessons and mate- into a state of moral decline, the Revisited rials that are “curriculum-blended,” modern character education move- Closing the assessment gap will not, i.e., provide instruction in core sub- ment departs sharply from the values- by itself, ensure the advancement of ject areas—math, English, science, clarification trend of the 1960s and humane education. Insofar as giving and social studies—as well as convey 1970s. While recognizing that debate the teaching of humane values a more a humane message. A prerequisite for about moral issues has an important prominent, permanent place in Amer- the success of school-focused humane place in the classroom, character ed- ican schools remains a goal, the chief education initiatives in the future will ucation seeks not to assist children in obstacle continues to be humane edu- be the addition of another dimension clarifying their own personal values cation’s identity as a special interest. to curriculum blending: the align- but to train them to develop certain Traditionally, special interests have ment of humane education programs fundamental character traits. Typical- been objectionable to school adminis- with state curriculum standards. ly those traits include respect, re- trators, and low priorities for teachers Indeed, in their report to the Potter sponsibility, caring, fairness, and citi- (Underhill 1941; Westerlund 1982). League, O’Hare and Montminy-Danna zenship—principles that have formed The back-to-basics movement of the (2001) recommend that the league the conceptual underpinnings of hu- 1970s and 1980s rendered humane collaborate with school officials to tie mane education since its inception. education and other special interests its programs to curriculum standards. Over the last twenty years, the char- all the more superfluous to educators Teachers and administrators are like- acter education movement has bene- facing declining test scores and gen- ly to be more receptive to the teach- fited from growing public and legisla- eral complaints that children were ing of humane values if they know tive support and significant advancing to higher grades with sub- specifically which curriculum stan- government funding (DeRosa 2001). standard reading, writing, and math dards a particular humane education In 2002 $25 million in federal grants skills. Today, back-to-basics thinking program or lesson plan will help them was made available to state depart- is reflected in the adoption of state meet. The task of linking lessons to ments of education for the develop- curriculum standards by all states curriculum standards need not be ment and implementation of charac- except Iowa, where directives regard- burdensome for humane educators. ter education programs (Grenadier ing curriculum content are generated On the contrary, various Web re- 2002). Such programs already have at the district level (Topics Education sources, e.g., www.explorasource.com, been incorporated into the curricula Group 2001). Curriculum standards provide ready access to all state cur- of thousands of schools nationwide, enforced by state departments of edu- riculum standards, and the standards and the movement shows no signs of cation or school districts, combined themselves can serve as valuable weakening. with a growing emphasis on standard- guideposts in developing pedagogical The rise of character education and ized testing (teacher career advance- objectives and humane education its conceptual symmetry with humane ment is often directly tied to test program content. education present animal protection scores now) has made schools and organizations with a clear opportunity teachers more accountable—and for blending the teaching of humane more pressed for time. Consequently, The Character values into school curricula. Relying winning representation in the class- on the widely recognized effectiveness room for the issues of special interest Connection of animal-related content for captur- groups, including animal protection An obvious but not yet thoroughly ing children’s attention and imagina- organizations, has become an increas- exploited strategy for ensuring future tion, humane education has great ingly formidable challenge. representation for humane content in potential for enriching and enlivening Meeting that challenge will require school curricula—and for invigorat- lessons in core values, making that animal protection professionals ing humane education in general—is abstract concepts such as respect and keep the needs of teachers and alignment with character education, responsibility more accessible and schools paramount—a simple but an incarnation of the back-to-basics engaging for children. By providing sometimes overlooked precept. Fail- trend in the moral education realm. programs that focus on the ways in ure to convince school officials of the Today character education typically which treating animals humanely is an importance of teaching humane val- refers to the teaching of “core” or essential part of good character, ues often has resulted from an inabil- “consensus” values, basic principles humane educators can serve as valu- ity or unwillingness on the part of of right and wrong, which, propo- able resources to classroom teachers humane education advocates to artic- nents argue, transcend political, cul- who increasingly are being required to ulate the benefits of their programs tural, and religious differences. In a incorporate formal character educa- within the framework of teachers’ and return to a more traditional, virtues- tion lessons into their classroom activ- administrators’ priorities (Wester- centered moral education model, and ities (DeRosa 2001).

42 The State of the Animals II: 2003 tors to reach, albeit indirectly, more eral receptiveness to humane educa- Alternative children more consistently than tion will vary among school districts, would be possible through classroom animal care and control agencies may Methodologies visits or shelter tours. indeed find that non-school options Aligning humane education program In addition to teacher training and provide an expedient use of limited content with state standards and support, other school-focused strate- resources. Such options may also pro- character education curricula will gies may provide animal protection vide a means of broadening program- help ensure that proposals to intro- organizations with opportunities to ming beyond companion animal duce the teaching of humane values maximize their impact while limiting issues in cases where school officials in schools will be well received by the expenditure of time and money. are resistant to accepting potentially teachers and administrators. Actually These include the use of technology- controversial subject matter into the institutionalizing humane education based methodologies, such as chat curriculum. Strategies employed by in schools—i.e., making the schools rooms and videoconferencing, to link organizations either as supplements themselves a primary source of elementary and secondary teachers to or replacements for school pro- instruction in humane values—and and their students to animal care and grams have included summer youth providing teachers with the necessary control professionals and to provide camps; family humane education pro- training, tools, and motivation will virtual field trips (Finch 2001). By grams; interactive shelter-based require a reexamination of traditional positioning themselves as service exhibits; programs designed to instill humane education methodology. learning sites, organizations with a empathy in youth at risk for violent or Standard practices such as classroom particular interest in reaching teens— antisocial behavior; Web-based visits and shelter tours typically rele- an audience traditionally neglected by instructional material on a broad gate the classroom teacher to the humane education— also will benefit range of animal issues; and the cre- role of bystander, involved marginally from the growth of service learning as ation of partnerships with social ser- at most in the presentation of an educational model in American vice agencies, law enforcement, and humane concepts and lessons. Such high schools (Winiarskyj 2002). Work- pet product retailers. Other poten- approaches can reinforce the notion ing with education departments in tially productive non-school strate- of humane education as a novelty or colleges and universities to introduce gies include reaching out to faith- special interest, exclusively the the teaching of humane values in rele- based youth organizations, home- purview of the animal protection vant courses will ensure that new schooled children, and after-school organization, and both separate from teachers are familiar with humane programs, especially those serving and subordinate to core curricula. education and that they understand communities where children and fam- Making schools partners in the propa- its connection to character education ilies and their animals may be at high gation of a humane ethic will involve, and other curriculum areas. In shift- risk for abuse or neglect (D. at the very least, cultivating ongoing ing their primary role from practition- McCauley, personal communication working relationships with teachers er to trainer and facilitator, humane with B.U., July 3, 2002). and administrators. Creating humane education professionals can benefit Ultimately, the success of any education committees, composed of from assistance offered by various methodology, whether school-based, teachers representing target schools, national animal protection organiza- shelter-based, or dependent on collab- to assist in the development of cur- tions—some of which offer supple- oration with some other agency, will riculum-blended interventions may mentary classroom materials for the be measured primarily by a single be an effective first step in fostering elementary and secondary levels—as standard: its effectiveness in improv- such collaboration. Inevitably, howev- well as training in such areas as the ing children’s attitudes and, most im- er, integrating humane education in creation and implementation of portant, behavior toward animals. As a school curricula will require that ani- teacher in-service workshops and result commitment to a particular mal protection professionals divert at strategies for reaching teens. strategy must be accompanied by the least some of their attention from Exploring potentially more effec- resolve continually to evaluate it and, instructing children directly. Con- tive, efficient alternatives to tradi- if necessary, improve or abandon it. ducting professional-development tional humane education practices workshops for teachers and providing may also take animal protection orga- them with instructional materials nizations away from the schoolhouse Conclusions (aligned, ideally, with state standards entirely. Savesky (2002) has argued Virtually unlimited faith in the influ- and character education curricula), that obstacles to classroom access, ence of humane education has long for example, will help transfer the such as increased emphasis on stan- been a hallmark of organized animal locus of humane education from the dards and testing, have made school- protection in the United States. From animal protection organization to the focused approaches inefficient or an early stage, the humane move- schools themselves. Such an unfeasible for many organizations. ment pinned its hopes on education approach will enable humane educa- While access to classrooms and gen- as the remedy to cruel treatment of

Humane Education Past, Present, and Future 43 animals by future generations. How- consensus about the importance of ing structures to enhance representa- ever, the movement has not support- character education, by offering their tive democracy. A similar approach ed humane education with practical services to schools and school sys- might be taken for subsidizing the and financial resources commensu- tems, and by asserting the value of hiring and placement of humane edu- rate with this expressed interest. humane education to the objectives cation specialists within humane soci- Moreover, the effects of humane edu- of the character education movement eties, or for the endowment of rele- cation outreach remain unclear, and, (DeRosa 2001). They may further vant positions and proper training for a variety of reasons, the work of enlarge their opportunities by provid- programs within institutions of high- promoting kindness to animals ing humane education lessons that er learning. Such an investment through school programs proceeds can be correlated with conventional might serve to free humane educa- with limited prospect for measuring subject matter. tion from subordinate status within results and outcome. The move- For the most part, organized ani- organizations that otherwise are well ment’s inability to institutionalize the mal protection has been unable to equipped to promote the lessons of teaching of humane education in secure the introduction and perpetu- kindness to animals. Higher levels of teacher-training schools and related ation of humane education programs activity, expanded levels of research, institutions has restricted its influ- and philosophy within institutions of and more rigorous evaluation pro- ence, and the penetration of humane higher learning and teacher training. grams all will help to bring greater education programs run by humane This remains the great unrealized credibility to humane education and societies has proceeded unevenly goal, and perhaps the most promising validate the hopes that advocates where it has proceeded at all. objective, in the field. Yet it presup- have attached to it in the several cen- Nevertheless, there is no question poses an increased commitment to turies since appreciation for the value that the diffusion of humane values humane education strategies on the of kindness to animals as a didactic throughout American culture has part of humane societies. Expanded instrument first surfaced. advanced in the years since the levels of activity on this front can advent of organized animal protec- broaden possibilities for collaboration tion in 1866. Whatever the level of with institutions of higher learning Literature Cited success on other fronts of humane and teacher training and generate American Humane Association work, wanton acts of individual cruel- opportunities for program evaluation (AHA). 1952. National survey ty against animal pets are now usual- and ongoing curriculum develop- reveals vast humane education pro- ly seen as the signs of a maladjusted ment. gram. National Humane Review. and sick personality. Conversely a One limiting factor undoubtedly March. kind disposition toward such animals will be the tenuousness of programs Angell, G.T. n.d. Autobiographical is considered an important attribute tied to humane societies and their sketches and personal recollections. of the well-adjusted individual (Lock- budgets. American animal protection Boston: American Humane Educa- wood and Ascione 1998). Humane is highly decentralized, and the tion Society. education undoubtedly has reinforced responsibilities of municipal animal Anonymous [G.S. Porter]. 1893. The such ideas about healthy social and control; fluctuations in donor sup- strike at Shane’s: A prize story of psychological development. Indeed, it port; and the press of other priorities Indiana. Boston: American Hu- is unlikely that such awareness could have all had an impact on commit- mane Education Society. have coalesced in the absence of a ment to humane education by local Ascione, F.R. 1992. Enhancing chil- movement that accepted this per- societies. Without a steady invest- dren’s attitudes about the humane spective as a commonplace and pur- ment of resources in this arena, the treatment of animals: Generaliza- sued extensive measures to carry the spread and impact of humane education to human-directed empathy. lessons of kindness to generations of tion efforts are likely to remain Anthrozoös 5(3): 176—191. American youth. uneven and uncertain. Ascione, F.R., and C.V. Weber. 1996. Now, as at other times in the past, Humane education would seem to Children’s attitudes about the heightened interest in character edu- be an especially fruitful channel for humane treatment of animals and cation promises to increase opportu- foundation support. Historically, phil- empathy: One-year follow-up of a nities for promoting humane educa- anthropic foundations have played a school-based intervention. Anthro- tion programs. Teaching kindness- crucial role in helping to shape the zoös 9(4): 188-–195. to-animals is highly compatible with course of social change through Ascione, F.R., G.I. Latham, and B.R. the focus of contemporary character strategic investments and subsidies. Worthen. 1985. Final report, year 2: education, concerned as it is with the During the civil rights era, for exam- An experimental study. Evaluation inculcation of compassion, caring, ple, foundations underwrote voting of the humane education curricu- responsibility, respect, and sociality. rights campaigns in an effort to direct lum guides. Report to the National Animal welfare organizations may be the freedom movement’s energies Association for Humane and Envi- able to take advantage of the growing toward the creation of viable and last- ronmental Education.

44 The State of the Animals II: 2003 Barrows, E.A. 1894. Four months in acter (e-mail newsletter of the Princeton: Princeton University New Hampshire. Boston: American Character Education Partnership). Press. Humane Education Society. April. Pickering, S.F. 1981. John Locke and Bray, M.M. 1893. Our gold mine at Grier, K.C. 1999. Childhood socializa- children’s books in eighteenth-centu- Hollyhurst. Boston: American tion and companion animals: Unit- ry England. Knoxville: University of Humane Education Society. ed States, 1820–1920. Society and Tennessee Press. Button, H.W., and E.F. Provenzo, Jr. Animals 7(2): 95–120. Pivar, D. 1973. Purity crusade: Sexual 1983. History of education and cul- Isaacs, S. 1930. Intellectual growth in morality and social control ture in America. Englewood: Pren- young children. London: George 1868–1900. Westport, Conn.: tice-Hall. Routledge and Sons. Greenwood Press. Butts, R.F., and L. Cremin. 1953. A Kerber, L. 1980. Women of the repub- Poresky, R.H. 1990. The young chil- history of education in American lic: Intellect and ideology in Revolu- dren’s empathy measure: Reliabili- culture. New York: Holt, Rinehart tionary America. Chapel Hill: Uni- ty, validity, and effects of companion and Winston. versity of North Carolina Press. animal bonding. Psychological Cameron, L. 1983. The effects of two Krows, M. 1938. The hounds of Hast- Reports 66: 931–936. instructional treatments on eighth- ings. New York: Columbia Universi- Ray, J.J. 1982. Love of animals and grade students’ attitudes toward ty Press. love of people. The Journal of Social animal life. Ph.D. diss., Purdue Uni- Locke, J. 1989. Some thoughts on Psychology 116: 229-–300. versity. education. eds. J.W. and J.S. Yolton. Rowley, F.H. 1916. Preparedness and Carter, S.N. 1897. For pity’s sake: A Oxford: Clarendon Press. humane education. Our Dumb Ani- story for the times, being reminis- Lockwood, R., and F. 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Knopf. delivered at Antioch College. mentary instruction for the use of Davis, F.A., G.E. Hein, B. Starnes, and Boston: Ticknor and Fields. public and private schools and nor- S. Price. 1988. Evaluation report: Mathewson, L.M. 1942. Humane edu- mal classes. New York: Charles Massachusetts Society for the Pre- cation. Master’s thesis, Brown Uni- Scribner. vention of Cruelty to Animals school versity. Shultz, W.J. 1924. The humane move- outreach program, grades 2–5. O’Hare, T., and M. Montminy-Danna. ment in the United States. New York: Unpublished. 2001. Evaluation report: Effective- Columbia University Press. DeRosa, B. 2001. The character con- ness of the Potter League humane Timmins, T. 1883. The History of the nection. Animal Sheltering 24(4): education program. founding, aims, and growth of the 12-–21. Olin, J. 2002. Humane education in American Bands of Mercy. Boston: Finch, P. 2001. Humane education’s the 21st century: A survey of ani- P. H. Foster. radical new era. The Latham Letter mal shelters in the United States. Topics Education Group. 2001. Cur- 22(4): 6-–9. Master’s thesis, Tufts University. riculum standards: The new K–12 Firth, A., comp. 1883. Voices for the Oswald, L.J. 1994. Environmental mandate. www.topicseducation. speechless: Selections for schools and animal rights ethics in chil- com/download/Topics_Research_B and private reading. Boston: dren’s realistic animal novels of rief_v1n2.pdf. Houghton-Mifflin. twentieth century North America. Underhill, O.E. 1941. The origins and Fitzgerald, T.A. 1981. Evaluating Ph.D. diss., University of Oregon. development of elementary-school humane education: The Jefferson Paul, E.S. 2000. Empathy with ani- science. Chicago: Scott, Foresman, County study. Humane Education mals and with humans: Are they and Co. 5(3): 21-–22. linked? Anthrozoös 13(4): 194– Unti, B. 2002. The quality of mercy: Grenadier, A., ed. 2002. Character 200. 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46 The State of the Animals II: 2003 Appendix Milestones in Humane Education: A Pre-World War II Chronology Publications Released Organizations Legislation Other Founded Passed

1693 John Locke, Some Thoughts on Education published

1765 Goody Two-Shoes published

1780 Jeremy Bentham, Principles of Morals and Legislation published

1783 Dorothy Kilner, The Life and Perambulations of a Mouse published

1785 Sarah Trimmer, Fabulous Histories published

1792 Herman Daggett, The Rights of Animals published

1794 American edition of Fabulous Histories published

1794 American edition of Arnaud Berquin Looking Glass for the Mind published

1802 American edition of The Hare, or Hunting Incompatible with Humanity published

1824 Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) founded

1828 American Tract Society edition of Louisa’s Tenderness to the Little Birds published

1829 New York State anti- cruelty statute passed

1835 The Spirit of Humanity published

1845 American Sunday School Union edition of Charlotte Elizabeth’s Kindness to Animals; or The Sin of Cruelty Exposed and Rebuked published

1850 American Vegetarian Society Fugitive Slave Act passed Flogging in the U.S. founded in the U.S. Navy abolished

1851 Grace Greenwood, History of My Pets published

1852 Harriet Beecher Stowe, Massachusetts compulsory Uncle Tom’s Cabin published school attendance legislation passed

Humane Education Past, Present, and Future 47 (continued from previous page)

Appendix Milestones in Humane Education: A Pre-World War II Chronology

Publications Released Organizations Legislation Other Founded Passed 1866 Anson Randolph, American Society for the Autobiography of Prevention of Cruelty to a Canary Bird Animals (ASPCA) founded published

1867 Pennsylvania Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (PSPCA) founded

1868 Massachusetts Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (MSPCA) founded

1874 Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) founded

1875 New York Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children launched by Henry Bergh and Elbridge T. Gerry

1877 Anna Sewell, American Humane Black Beauty published Association (AHA) founded

1882 Band of Mercy concept introduced to United States

1883 Abraham Firth, American Anti-Vivisection Voices of the Speechless Society founded published

Thomas Timmins, The History of the Founding, Aims, and Growth of the American Bands of Mercy published

1886 Humane education mandate in Massachusetts spurred by MSPCA

1889 American Humane Education Society (AHES) founded

1890 AHES edition of Black Beauty published

1891 WCTU Department of Mercy formed by Mary F. Lovell

1892 AHA campaign against classroom vivisection spurred by Albert Leffingwell

1893 Marshall Saunders, Beautiful Joe published

48 The State of the Animals II: 2003 (continued from previous page)

Appendix Milestones in Humane Education: A Pre-World War II Chronology

Publications Released Organizations Legislation Other Founded Passed

1893 ASPCA, Kindness to Animals: A Manual for Use in Schools and Families published

1894 American edition of Henry Ban on classroom Salt’s Animals’ Rights vivisection in Considered in Relation to Massachusetts Social Progress published secured by MSPCA

1895 New England Anti- Vivisection Society founded

1897 Sarah J. Eddy, Songs of Happy Life published

Emma Page, Heart Culture published

1899 Ralph Waldo Trine, Every Living Creature published

1902 AHA Textbook Committee formed

1904 Nora Finch, Colliery Jim: William O. Stillman Autobiography of a Mine Mule assumes presidency published of AHA

1905 Humane Education Committee Oklahoma and in New York State formed by Pennsylvania pass Stillman and Stella Preston compulsory humane education laws

1906 J. Howard Moore, The Universal Kinship published

Richard von Krafft-Ebing, Psychopathia Sexualis discusses sadistic behavior toward non-human animals

1907 Henry Bergh Foundation for the Promotion of Humane Education established at Columbia University

1909 Compulsory humane education legislation passed in Illinois

1910 Flora Helm Krause, Manual of Moral and Humane Education published

1911 Millennium Guild founded

1913 S. Louise Patteson, Pussy Meow published

Humane Education Past, Present, and Future 49 (continued from previous page)

Appendix Milestones in Humane Education: A Pre-World War II Chronology

Publications Released Organizations Legislation Other Founded Passed

1915 Be Kind to Animals Week launched

AHA votes to seek compulsory humane education in every state

1916 Sandor Ferenczi, AHES produces “A Little Chanticleer” the first humane (case study of a boy’s cruelty education film, toward humans and non- “The Bell of Atri” human animals) published ASPCA creates humane education department

1917 Compulsory humane education laws passed in Maine, Wisconsin, and New York

1919 Harriet C.C. Reynolds, Thoughts on Human Education: Suggestions on Kindness to Animals published

1920 Kentucky approves compulsory humane education law

1923 Florida approves compulsory humane education law

1924 William J. Schultz, The Humane Movement in the United States, judges humane education the most important development of the previous decade

Frances E. Clarke, Lessons for Teaching Humane Education in the Schools published

1925 Alexander Ernest Frederick, The Humane Guide: A Manual for Teachers and Humane Workers published

1931 Susan Isaacs, Intellectual Growth in Young Children published

50 The State of the Animals II: 2003