Cross-C Research Deve t and Cult rnLng
MiguelAngel Escotet
he purpose of this chapter is to investi' Early Developments in gate, from a historical and descriptive viorpoint, the cross-culturai method in Crois- Cultur?l Research education as a part of the behaviorai sci- ln recent decades,a new branch of psychologyand ences. The first part of the chapter education, cross-cultural psychology/cross-cultural describes the early dwelopments in cross-cultural education,has becomean important elementin the research designsand the specification of some of the understandingof human development.Unlike more elements in cross-cultr:ral methodologr. The second traditional fields of psycholory, cross-cultural psy- part presents some issues related to cross-cultural cholory looks for diversity as well as similarities education and a basic framework to develop a culturai across nations. Furthermore, cross-cultural replica- learning theory in addition to the social learning tions are performed to veriff generalizationsdevel- approach. oped in a specificculture. The present comparative approach in education The cross-cttlfiral method in psychologyand includes the cross-cultural mettrod. The real value of education derived primariiy from theories of culttual the cross-cultural method in education lies, not in evolution in the field of anthropolory. One of the first discovering of facts for a single culturg but in obain- effectiveattempts to quantify, measure,and correlate ing empirical data to redesign educational objectives, ethnographic data to scientificdly tested theoretical implementation and oaluation of educational pro- posnrlatesis generallyascribed to EdwardB. Tylor. I:e grams and in finditrg means to reduce ethnocentrism 1889,he presenteda paperentitled "On a Method of in the society at larga Noah and Eckstein ogress that Investigating the Development of Lrstitutions: 'the field of comparative education is best defined as Applied to Laws of Marriage and Descent.'2It was at an inter-section of the social sciences,education, and the meeting of the RoyalAnthropological lnstitute of cross national study.'1 Great Britain, under the presidencyof Sir FrancisGal- Education as a discipline needs to very seriously to& who pointed out by scholarlyinvestigation for the F: a€mine the implications arising from educational first time, that the cultural units were dassifiedunder objectives which have been designed for a wide range degreesof independenceand concturenceAlthough Fof cultures or sub-cultues. A lack of clear and precise Tylor's study was,by the present researchmethodol- 5.scientific ':.'. research is one of the most serious problems ogy inadequate,historicdly, it is avery important con- t_:a .?i in the study of cultures. Under these circumstances, tribution to the evolution of a scientific methodologt , g. cross-culturd research is mandated in comparative in cross-culturalresearch. :-. education when more than trpo tlpes of validation are From 1889 to 1937 only two significantstudies €r involved. were presented in a cross-cultural perspective.The F,' Fi P:: F:. F:I tr
F F. first one was done by H.J. Nieboerin 19103in order logical or rational operations are performed prior to to reliateslavery as a part of industrid systems.The the final empiricd and statistical test.oloUnder this second one was researchon the correlation between approach,Murdock has been for manyyears,a leader material culture and social instinrtions as reported in in applying coss-cultural method. The wide use by 1915by HobhousgWheeler, and Ginsberg.{ others of his Cross-Culnral Sr.uveyand his World However,in the area of the ComparativeMethod Ethnographic Sample are obvious ocamples of his inAnthropolory, the period noted abovgwasvery cru- influence. ciai in cross-culturalresearch. For examplgFrarz Boas In 7949, an inter university organization sup- in "The Limitations of the ComparativeMethod"s ported financially by the Carnegie Corporation was reportedin 1895,a programwhichinvolved: formed under the title of "Human Relations Area Files.'One of its main objectiveswas to duplicate the 1. Detailed studies of individud tribes in their cul- ocisting files of Murdock's Cross Culturd Survey for tural and regional conteJct. the members and to distibute additional data 2. Tbe comparisonsof these tribal histories as a obained by the Survey among them. Howeveq the meansof formulating generallaws. sample was not always representativeof the whole Boas compared the historical method with the population. comparativemethod. Sapir in 1916,Wsler in 7926, An imporant contribution to culturd methodol- Lowie in 1919,Benedict in 1934,Kroeber in 1935and ogy was given in 1953 by Whiting and Child using many others provided a seriesof culturd studies uti- descriptive data on many cultures recorded in the lizing distributiond analysisof cultural traits for the Human RelationsArea Files.Later, Whiting and Whit- study of culture process. ingll outli'led three aspectsof the concept of culture: Another important developmentin anthropolog5l 1. They regardedculture as the body of knowledge panicular$ valuableto cross-culturd psychologyand transmitted from one generation to the next education, in the sarneperiod, refers to ctrlture and about how to do things or how to get things persondity field researchwhich is generallyattributed done,the techniquesof the society. Mead's study on "Coming of Age in to Margaret 2. Itwas the belief qystemof the culturg the ethno- work of Malinowski on "Sex and Samoa"6and the scientific and religious dogma. Repressionin SavageSociety."T These studies of child developmentand famity patterns createdquite a sen- 3. It was the ethical systemor set of vdues whidr sation throughout the world becauseof their implica- provides guidance as to what is good or bad, tions for psychoanalytictheory. In the ensuing years, what is important or trivid, and the relativemer- its of various goalsand behaviorsin a hierarchi- numerous anthropologistsundertook similar Psycho- dynarnic casestudies of personality dwelopment in cd sense. other cultures.IGrdiner(1939), for e: 74 Cultural and SocialFoundations of Education: fui lnterdisciptinary Approach .i; :.+ E F{' ffih! ffi' &i ur. the samemethodology; it is the scientific method instancg Radciiffe-Brown identifies itwith library tech- f, but there may be different techniques. nique and as the construction of history.zl Nadel ti The fundamentaldistinction becomespertinent if reducesthe scopeof cross-cultural method and defines we understand that while the "Latin culture" involves it as the systematic study of similarities and differences pany nations with different cultures (Spanish, French, tfuough the use of correlation and covariation.z2 Ialian, Portuguese, Albanian and Rumanian) and the For Campbella the purpose of research using circumstance of different nationalities, it is possible to cross-cultural dimensions or multinational compar- qtteralize commonalities which are derived in order to isons can be divided into three types: each from other culture+ such as the iifferentiate 1. Confirming and exploring the universality of culture" Margaret Mead has used the 'Anglo-Sa: Cross-CulturalResearch Deyelopment and Culturd Leanfng 75 important number of professionalassociations dealing alizationsabout someculturd groupswithout looking with comparativesttrdies and cross-cultural dimen- at their relationshipswith societyis rnethodologicaliy sions and journals in sudr disciplineswhidr coversa wrong. To achieve this objective in education, the substantid a[rount of cross-culturd snrdies26Anrong cross-cultural method as a part of the comparative them is a specializedquarterly joumal entitled, Cross- approach is the only meaningful tool for obtaining Culdtral R*sdt whose mission is to publish peer- empirical data from the ecisting educational system reviewedarticles describing cross-culturd studiesin dl and the complexityof hunian naftre. of the socia!/behavioralsciences and other sciences related with humans. Howevet this Joumal on$ Stages in Cross-Cultural Research acceptsshrdies whidr do more than just comparetwo or more cultures.Dependent variables must be linked A cross-culnrd research involves, at least four statisticallyto one or more independentvariables that stages.2e arealso measured. This is a very imporant issue,as we o Esablishing the purpose of the researchand delin- pointed out earlieq,because an observeddifference eating the transcultural variableswith respectto their could be the result of any other differenceor complex cross-societdcross-national, cross-communicationd casual interactions betnreenor among the cultures and subcultural characteristics. compared.To the linear models of the past and with 1. More than two societies or nations and lan- the more sophisticatedtectrniques and researchtools guageswould be desirableto produce suf6cient today, cross-cultural research is moving towards of diversityin order to eliminate competing,plausi- complexdesigns These non-linear designs more focus ble hypothesisor take advantageof subculturd on holistic conceptsrather than on fragmentedper- characteristics. spectives;thry rre more concerrredwith interactive effece benreen variablesthan with isolatedvariables 2. Arranging for preliminary meetings and avail- themselves. ability of additional personnelas well asresearch assisants, procedures for training them, tech- Objectives in Cross-Cultrrral Researctr niques for the collection of data, methods and techniques of andysis,and strategiesfor financ- The main purpose of cross-culturd researchin edu- ing and implementing the study. : cation and psychologr is the elaboration of generd i . A pilot study to test out ideas in a preliminary l and specific objectivesto the culttres involved with- fashion. out distorting an articulate comrnon goal.Generaliza- in education,must be supported 1. When the subcultural frame is not availablg a tions, very common ,l empirically to satisff the octernal vdidity of the demographicsurvey is necessary. conclusion. 2. Instrrments should be designed,selected and The advantageof the cross-cultural approachas adaptedto the cultures under sturdy.Tianslation, comparedwith the single cultural researdt approach back-translation,measurement of meaning and is ttrat the possibilitiesfor misinterpreation are less comparison are essential to validate verbal with the former.An intensive study of a single nation instruments. or culture providesrich insight into the societyor cul- 3. Preliminary studieson smdl samplesof subjects ture :rsa functioning organism,but hardly permits any in eachculture, societyor nation. generalizationto other societies or cultures of the 4. Scoring and coding of data,and chronograming same nation.T Whiting states that the advantageof (time scheduleplanning). the cross-culturalmethod are two fold:z8 o CarryinS out the main snrdy. 1. It insures that one's findings relate to human behavior in generalrather that being bound to a 1. Replication of the pilot snrdy. single culnrre. 2. Elimination of major sourcesof internd invdid- 2. It increasesthe range of variation of many tty. variables. r Refining the andysis, interpreting the results and One of the necessaryrequirements to establish publishing them. universalscientific laws is that the observedphenom- 1. Researchersfrom different cukrrres need full ena be applicableto all pertinent environments. In involvement in the anatSreisand interpretation of educationand psychologybehavioral laws need to be the findings to reduce ethnocentrism and cul- tested againstthe universal man, If this is not done, tural bias. proposedbehaviord laws or generalgoals can only be 2. Stimulate additional questions and problems acceptedin the particular societyor culture in which desemingof fuittrer intensiveresearch. they are found. For this re:lson,using abstractgener- 76 Culilral and Social Foundationsof Education: An hrterdisciplin"ry Approadr IEn W. &: ffi. M"attodological rs sues TestConstrttction TInory I -. It is not suffcient simply to translate a questionnaire ;_-, A basicwork on researchmethodology has been done guarantee its efEcient interpretation in a i.' by Brislin, Lonner and Thorndike.3o Besides their or a test to culture different from the one where it is originalty ;..:- approach some methodological issues which need to produced. It is necessary to make an adaptation or i' be taken into account in cross-cultural research are: t.: even substantid change in an instrument The con- I . The useof scientificmethodology. founding of language differences and personaiiry is the 5 Using scientifictools and approachesfound in classic study by S.M. Ervin in 1954 of 64 bilingual Appercep- iir., studying human behavior or educational Frenchmen who were given the Thematic +, constructs. tion Test ff.AT.) on two different occasions, once in rr',!t English and once in French. The response content and : r The lack of comparabilityamong psychologicalor - associated personality variable shifted significantly examinersworking in different cultures. . educational from one language to the other in ways that could be The synta:rof the ecaminer'srole relation to the predicted as knowledge of English or French cultures ;:-r;ii,'.ir. subjectmay be so inoctricablyembedded in the Also the investigations of Charles Osgood and his i.*' culture that it becomesconfounded with some colleagues using the Semantic Differential Technique of the major variables +:i. cultural under stutdy. for the comparative study of cultures is providing evi' : o Sampling:minimize the effects of common origln dence that e Cross'Cultural ResearchDenelopment and Cultural L€arning 77 2.4. MeasurementInterpretation and techniquesfor niques or mathematical theory in order to de- imputing missing data: Users of imputation tech- scribe educationd phenomena or behavioral niquesshould bear in mind that the reliabilityof the facts. technique is based on the reliability of the original 3. Experimental studies: Comparative andysis scale.In cross-culturaistudies it is possibleto have madethrough ocperimentalor quasiexperimen- larger amounts of missing data in the samedata set. tal designsor through observation,field or labo- Burton (1996)describes five techniquesto estimating ratory experiments.The control of cultural vari- data in cross-culturalcodes.36 They are:the variable ablesand randomizationare essentialin these meantechnique, the casemean techniqug the contin- studies. Campbell and Stanley's experimental gencytable technique, the Z-scoretechnique and the and quasi-experimentaldesigns can be adapted regressionanalysis technique. to cross-culturalresearch. Ethiul Issues Tlpet of Cros s - CulruralAdrninistratia e D esigns The scientificand technologicaldevelopment of some 1. The investigatoranalpes behavioralcharacteris- countries or cultures, as well as their researcherscre- tics or educationalcomponents of atesconflict with developingnations or other cultures his culture in other cultures, when the foreign researcher e4ploits the natural societiesor nations. resourcesof this dareloping countrywithout giving to 2. Tbe investigatoranallzes behavioral characteris- them any socialand scientificsatisfaction. Many host tics or educationalcomponents of other cultures culture scholars feel they are ignored or that thet to his culture. researcharea is being invaded. Herbert C. IGlman 3. The investigator from one culture designs a pointed out that in somenations or culturesthere is a cross-culturalresearch and invites scholars from growing resentnxentof academiccoloniaiism where the culture under study to join a team, acting as the extemalinvestigator is seenas orploiting a natural the chairman himself. resource,namely, the social-cultural heritage of the 4. Cross-culturaldesigns developed by groups of people.37An ocample of this resentnent is well investigatorsfrom different cultures. expressedthrough the famous Camelotand Sympa- 5. Cross-culturaldesigns developed by a group thetic projectsconducted in Latin Americaduring the of intemational or national institutions. sixties. ?ftte magazine Sciaze reported that "the Camelotaffair has seriouslydamaged prospects for independentacademic research in the hemisphere."3s Cultural Learning Theory: In order to reduceethical problems in cross-cul- A Cross-CulturalApprodch tural researchthe following points must be takeninto consideration: Besidesthe interest in generating universal general laws of behavior,the scientific orientation of contem- 1. Organizationof a researchteam, including mem- porary psychologicalresearch has given some recent bers of all cultures involved in the investigation. emphasisto the developmentand application of the 2. Sensitivityto the meaning of researchin differ- cross-cultural method, traditionally left to Anthropol- ent countries or cultures. ogy and related fields as it waspresented at the begin- 3. Autonomy of action for investigatorsin each ning of this chapter. culture. On the other hand, in order to generateprinciptes and laws of human behavior,it is necessaryto make 4. Patient development of mutual interaction and use of a comparativemethod. Basicresearch demon- collaboration. strates that the study of cultures without previously 5. Decentrdizationof funds. defining the cultural variation, generatesresults that 5. Mutual budgetcooperation. differ from the ones that include such variation.s Ttris fact leads us to present the researchhlpothesis "the Ttprsof Cross-CulruralSnd,izs more the intaculturd variation in a samplg ttre more 1. Historical studies: Comparativeanalysis, using the probability to draw generalizedconclusions with a the historical method of characteristics,similari- high lwel of actemal validity.' ties and differencesin alreadyexisting materials asprimary sources.seAIso, asqualitative research Social and Cultural Learning which is not necessarilybased on precisemea- Nevertheless,ttre maJ'orityof cross-cultural research surementand quantiative claims. divides the cultural variation (exampleLatin Culture 2. Descriptivestudies: Comparative andysis made vs.Anglo-Saxon Culture), but not the inta or subcul- through qualitative research, statistical tech- ture, which is the one ttrat definesthe first variation. 78 Cultural and Social Foundationsof Education: An InterdisciplinaryApproactr Er'- F ,ff' i;', For e:ample,to talk about American culture, wi*rout Nevertheless,the majority of cross-cultural re- l,' definingthe subctrlturalvariations (as the molding of search in psychology and education has been mis- ,,,, the behaviorperformed by the migratory European placedin cross-culturalterms or it has been reduc- , qroups,native Indians,Africans, Hispanics,Asians or tionism. For ecample,we could point out that: relevantcultural groups)leads us to a distortion ' 6th.t L. A researchdesign of a culture without a subcul- ,,11. results about American cultura Studies made of the tural variation, can not be consideredcross- , and Peck(1968) and Escotet(7973, 6yDiaz-Guerrero cultural. It is evenworse when someonedoes '.. 1992) related to the measurementsof vdues tb7e, researchof a cuiture different than his and the affective domains, determine that the last ones , and resultsare considered cross-cuitural. . ,acquire different meanings for the subjecr of the research according to the degree of cultural interac- 2. The majority of cross-culturalresearch has stu& tion that is introduced in the research'sdesign. ied the differencesof behavior,but not the simi- Alsq the group of elements described before and larities Differencesand similaritiesarerequired to the different components of individual learning and estabiishvalid cross-culturalconclusions. social learning analped by other researchers, have 3. When the subculnrral samplesare incorporated caused us to develop a new conception of learning as cross-cultural design sampleg they generate capable of measurement, which is called cultural an artificial eEeriment or descriptiveresearch. learning.ln general terms, learning is an epistemolog- This can give results that characterizeculturd icd process in which the individual (individual learn- practicesof a subculture but that do not charac- ing), society (social leaming) and culture (cultural terize those practicesof interaction betweenthe learning) take part. Learning is a fundamental process other subculturewhich is, in short, the observ- in life. Every human being learns and by means of able behavior. develops behavioral and culnual patterns leaming It is preciselybecause of this last point that our enable him to function in society. which hypothesisabout cultural learningresearch developed. By means of the cross-cultural method, we have The evolution of our culttual leaming hypothesiscan been able to infer techniques different from the tradi- be tracedthrough one of the researchprojects we did ones. We have dso capable of ocpanding tional been that generatedlater studies,from 1969 to 1992.41 the research hypothesis that man not only leams from At first, the objective of our study was to simply observation, but there are other forms imitation, etc. measurethe hierarchy of values of three subcultural of learning which are not simply learning from mod- samplesof the United States:the Chicanos or Mexi- In our research, we have been able to identif the els. can-Americans,the Navajo Indians and the Anglo- segregation, and cultural in- assimilation, e Cross-Cultural ResearchDevelopment and Cultural l-eaming 79 material about ttrem ttrat was later discussed.All this and interndization of negative culttrral practices, was done as :rn CIpednentat treatnenl A seventh while culturd learning determines accrrluration, group wasformed in which the three subcultureswere intellectual growttr, holistic thinking, creativity, atti- integrated and to which the previous Eeatrnentwirs tude tovard participation, solidarity, and democracy. applied.And finally there was another group made up Three learning principles can be identified in relation- of the three integrated subcultures but to rn'hich no ship to this dichotomy: treatnilentwas applied.At the end,the hierarchyof val- Assimilation: Tbkes place when one ethnic or ues and the meaningof the conc?ts of respectwere cultural group acquiresthe behavior,values, perspec- measured,according to behavioral scdes previously tives, ethos and characteristicsof another ctrltural or vdidated in these subculnres. The findings deter- etlrnic gtroupand shedsit ovrn culturd characteristics mined that the concept of respectwas substantidly Practice of assimilation by any group determines modified in the integrated group that received the complete loss of its original culture. This learning treatErent,but itwas the samein the subculturalsepa- mechanismis usedto reinforce different forms of eth- ..; ratedgroups that receivedthe sametreatmenl nocentrism and developsculttrral involution. Conflict + This not only means ttrat the methodological resoiution is based on competition and aggressive strategymodified the resulE but that a new hlpothe- attitudes and behaviors. sis emerged;a new qpe of learning exiss that only Acctrlturation: Tirkes place when cultures come .aj, ::.:: showsiaelf through an interaction or culturd break- into conact, influence eactr other, and an interactive up different from social and individual learning and exchangeof cultural elementsoccurs.When accultur- highly relatedto ethnic identity. Later studies,includ- ation is used by an ethnic group, the culture is modi- ing those that replicatedresearch by Segdl, Campbell fied but maintains its essence.This is the most impor- and Herkovits, regarding culnrral differencesof the tant learning principle for dereloping cultural perception of geometric illusions, reaffirm the hypo- learning. Conflict resolution is basedon cooperation, thesis of culturd leaming and show us some princi- toleranceand peacefulattinrdes. plesthat identif it. Accommodation: Thkes place when groups of In studiesmade in Colombia about earlylearning, different culfires, values and ethos maintain their rules of upbringrng and the danelopmentof behavior, separateidentities, no interaction occurs but they live fudila insists also in a modeling leaming for a deter- in a peacefulrelation. The practice of this mechanism mined culture, different from the learning models of involves the complete maintenanceof culturd differ- BanduraandWalters.{z encesand differentiatinggroup identification.Accom- There are sftdies being done with different Ven- modation only permits naeral growth, but neither ezuelansubcultures and migratory European groups. cultural learning nor ethnocentric leaming is devel' Thesesftrdies support our researchhlpothesis: There oped.Tends to avoidconflict. are a seriesof basicprinciples for cultural leaming. In The first two principles of learning are separated order to understandthese we haveto find, ogerimen- by at least six stagesof culturd development(see Fig- tally, laws of human behavior with universd validity. ure 6.1) which have elements in cornmon to Banla To achievethis we have to discriminate between qpologr.e Individual membersof ethnic groups are at the proportion of variation, due to universalparame- different stegesof cultural or ethnocentric learning ters and the proportion deterrninedby specific cul- which can be identified and described. turd contingencies.Cross-cultural psy&ology will The stagesare multidimensiond,linear and non- have in cultural learning the essenceof its scientific linear: they are not necessarilysequential; people can disciplineor at leasta significant part of it, while other experiencethe stagesmoving in all directions, stages areas of Psychologycan help shape this discipline. can be reachedverticdly or horizonally, and it is pos- Will cultural learning become the core of cross-cul- sible that a per€on may never experiencea particular turd education and psycholog? Additional and stage.These six developmentstrges are: ertensiveresearch regarding the relationship benn'een CulatralEtlztue?ltrifir: Internalization of the ethnic the processof learningand culture will determinethe and negative culntal practices. The individual or answerto this question. group practicesethnic and cultural separatism.Devel- opment of assimilation,culturd isolation, cultural ig: and Learning norance, fragmentedthinking prejudice and nation- Etturoeentric Cultural alism. Culturd involution. At this moment in time, it is possible to establish a KtmrWge of CultwalBelrcuionKnowledgeof unde- dichotomy betrpeencultural learning and ethnocen- sirable cultural practicesof hiVher own cultura May tric learning.The latter involves assimilation,cultural do'elop social encapsulationand enculturation. isolation, ignorance,fragmented thinking, prejudice 80 Cultural and Socid Foundationsof Education: An InterdisciplinaryApproach Cuftunllsolation ETHNOCENTRIC lgnorane*Prejudica LEARNING FragmentedThinking Biculturalism-M ulticulturalism CufturalParticipation CULTURAL - Globalisrnand Interculturalism lntellectualGrowth LEARNING HolisticThinking FIGURE6,1 STAGESOF DEWLOPMENTBETWEEN CUNURAL LEARNINGANDETHNOCENTNC ZEART\ING Cularal Discrimination: Self-evaluation (learning Without a doubt, the reality of the educational generali'ation and discrimination) in relation to cul- elgerience in the world demands the removal of a tural practices and attitudes towards his/her own cul- nationalistic" discriminatory and racist education. ture. Differentiation between desirable and undesir- Cross-culfi.ual research and cultural learning can be able practices. the tools and moving forces towards an interethnic and Bia^iluralism or lWltiatlturalism: Attitudes, skills intercultural education. The aim is not only to provide and commitment needed to par:ticipate in another access to education regardless of race, leligion, social culture (s) without losing his/her own culttrre. Respect class, age or gender, but to promote and maintain an for other culfirres and ethnic groups but not necessar- education respectfi:l of diversity as an ecologicd cul- ily interrelating wift them. tural system; an education which teaches to appreciate Intrnatiotulism: Reflective national and ethnic differences as a means towards individud and collec- identifications and the skills, attitudes and commit- tive growth. These goals are attainable provided that ment needed to function within a range of cultural the school integrates into its curriculum universal cul- groups and nationalities. Capableof developing social tural variables as well as those peruining to its particu- interaction among members of different nations or lar cultural environment. It is an unfortunate paradox societies. of our time that while tednolory abridges boundaries, Globalismand Intnatlnralism: The individual has space and time the more advanced societies increas- reflective and positive ethnic, national, international ingly detach themselves, cukurally and economically, and interculnual identifications. The intercultural from the impoverished oneg and harbor lack of soli. person has the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and darity and disguised racism. These ethnocentric prac- commitrnent needed to function v/ithin cultures tices endanger the survivd of mankind and are a sJnnp throughout his/her nation and world: thinks globally tom of the degradation of culturd relations among and acts locdly. Learning by diversity, acculturation, ethnic groups and nations. We need to build a culture intellectud growth, holistic thinking, creativity, atti- for peace and to disregard forever the culn:re of war tude toward participation, solidarity, and democracy. which has been the consequence of reinforcing ethno- Cultural evolution. centrism in people's minds. Cross-Cultural ResearchDordopment and Culturd Learning 81 2sM. FL Segall, D.T. Campbetl, and Mj. Herkovit* 1963. Cultural Notes Differences in the Perception of Geometric lllusions. Scia@, t HaroldJ. Noah and MaxA Eckstein.1969. Toutatd a Sciaw of CXXXDC pp.769-777. hrpordiw Hudiot London: The Macmillan Company,p. 26For exampl€, the Society for Cross-Cultural Research; the 727. lnternationd Association for Cross-Cultural Psychologr; Inter- 2 Edward B. Taylor. 1889. On A Method of Investigatingthe american Society of Psydrologr the Comparative Education Daielopment of tnstinrtions; Applied to Laws-oflv{arriage and Society; the Peace Science Society; Society for Personality and Descent,Iownalof tlu AnhtopologicalIttstirutz of GteatBriak and Social Psychologt the International Society of Political Psy- Ireland,XWII : pp-249272. cholog4 the International Sociological fusociation. These 3 internationd associations, for ocample, publish academic jour- H.J. Niober. 7910.Slavery a anIn&tstrial Systcn The Hague M. nals rclated to cross-cultural research. Some of them with a Nijhoff. large trajectory like the journal Cmss-Culnral Rseatrh which is { L. T. Hobhourss G. C. Wheeler,and M. Ginsbeqg.1915. The in its 3fth Annivqsarv in 1996. Material Culture and SocialInstitutions of the SimplerPeoples: 27See Miguel Angel Escltet 1973. A Comparison benveen Mer 82 Cultuml and Social Foundationsof Education: An leterdisciplinary Approadr I