Insights on the history of tuberculosis: Novalis and the romantic idealization Perceções da história da tuberculose: Novalis e a idealização romântica 7
Maria do Sameiro Barroso1,2a*
Abstract Tuberculosis affected the world Resumo A tuberculose tem afetado a population since ancient times, being população mundial desde tempos antigos, known to Hippocratic physicians. It was not sendo conhecida pelos médicos hipocráticos, completely understood and it was difficult não tendo sido, no entanto, completamente to manage. From the eighteenth century compreendida na sua complexa abordagem. onwards, it became highly devastating A partir do século XVIII, tornou-se altamente with a high sociological impact until Robert devastadora, tendo produzido um grande Koch (1843–1910) identified the pathogenic impacto sociológico, até que Robert Koch agent of tuberculosis, in 1882. His discovery (1843–1910), em 1882, identificou o seu agente enabled a progressive identification and patogénico. A sua descoberta permitiu uma control of infectious diseases. Novalis, born progressiva identificação e controlo das Georg Philipp Friedrich von Hardenberg doenças infeciosas. Novalis, pseudónimo (1772–1801), an early German Romantic de Georg Philipp Friedrich von Hardenberg poet, struck by the suffering and death of (1772–1801), um dos primeiros representantes his fiancée, Sophie von Kühn (1782–1797), do romantismo alemão, foi marcado pelo who died of a liver abscess as a complication sofrimento e morte de sua noiva, Sophie von of pulmonary tuberculosis, is a major Kühn (1782–1797), que morreu vitimada por founder of the romantic idealizing of the um abscesso hepático que surgira como uma disease which lasted until the control of the complicação de tuberculose pulmonar, é endemic. Current medicine tends to identify um dos principais fundadores da idealização the condition which struck Novalis as cystic romântica da doença que durou até ao fibrosis. However, his name will always be controlo da endemia. A medicina atual tende associated with the white plague, the feared a identificar a doença que atingiu Novalis
1 Portuguese Medical Association, Department of History of Medicine, Lisbon, Portugal. 2 CIAS — Centro de Investigação em Antropologia e Saúde, University of Coimbra, Portugal. a orcid.org/0000-0002-2860-7387 * Autor correspondente/Corresponding author: [email protected]
Antrop Port 2019, vol. 36: 7-25 • http://doi.org/10.14195/2182-7982_36_1 Artigo recebido: 14 de março de 2019 – Aceite: 29 de maio de 2019/Received: March 14th 2018 – Accepted: May 29th 2019 Maria do Sameiro Barroso 8 Pott (1714–1788) described a kind of pal- of Pott akind (1714–1788) described 2014:112). the disease(Barnett, wouldwork to contribute theonsetof living conditions, abaddiet, andover- predispositioninherited inwhichpoor stood asa “consumptive diathesis”, an two. For mostphysicians itwasunder- destroying familiesover agenerationor tion thatpassedfrom parents to children, seemedto beaconstitutionalcondi- It slowly destroyed andexhausted to death. consumption reflect theway thebodyis Greek word thatmeanswaste away) and The oldnamesofthedisease, “phthisis” (a medical care, andmostdidnot recover. requiring veloped long-term adisability were discussed, butmostpatientsde- environmentnutrition, andcontagion medical practice. The role ofhereditary, responsive to therapies, challenging the and exhaustingtheirminds, un- poorly slowly,their victims theirbodies racking oneinfive Europeans,losis killed taking Introduction tuberculosis. Novalis; romantic of literature; socialhistory Keywords: andtalented poets. young artists andinspired and ethereal diseasethatkilled In 1769, the British physician 1769, theBritish PercivallIn thenineteenth century, tubercu-In Pulmonary tuberculosis; Pulmonary tuberculose. Novalis; romantismo;Palavras-chave: história geniais. epoetas artistas social dae etérea quematou einspirou doença jovens atemível branca, àpeste sempre associado pâncreas). nome, O seu noentanto, ficará como mucoviscidose (fibrose do quística colicky diarrhoea; and, in some cases, finally the finally cases, insome and, diarrhoea; colicky of asaconsequence, and, ulcers, determine they where intestines, the of walls inthe time same the at found isoften diathesis, ageneral of result the be to presumed ordinarily lungs, inthe tubercles the 1 lungs andboneintuberculosis: ment ofotherorgans asidefrom the ing aninsightfulgrasp ontheinvolve- Laennec (1781–1826),succeededinhav- tuberculosis (Pott, 1782). wasassociated withpulmonary age. It children andadultsbefore years of forty of thetrunk. The conditionaffected weak tebral injuries, collapse, andcrookedness sy ofthelower limbsassociated withver- Translation: If we note that the development of Translation: of development wenote If thatthe In 1819,theFrenchIn physician René également les muscles, lesos, etc., encontiennent lymphatiques, laprostate, lestesticules, cas enfinlesglandes et quedanscertains suite nécessaire, ladiarrhée colliquative ; où ilsdéterminentdesulcères, et,parune même tempsdanslesparois desintestins, générale, quesouvent onentrouve en ordinairement lerésultat d’unediathèse tubercules danslepoumonparaît être Si onréfléchit queledéveloppementdes . 1 (Laennec, 1819:106) Tuberculose pulmonar; with anthrax, Koch believed thatbacte- with anthrax,Koch woolsorter’s disease. Basedonhiswork as anthrax,andpneumonia,known tric asgas- dangerous conditionknown asmalignant pustules,ulcers, a known in humanscausedsevere, localized skin and cattle, asthe diseaseofsheep gy ofanthrax,aprimary hadalreadyKoch identifiedtheaetiolo- (1843–1910). Koch pathologist Robert gress and doctor in1881, bytheGerman Con- Medical the Seventh International crobe wasannouncedinLondon, during Sow, 2006). bones, etc., also contain it. bones, muscles, prostate, testicles, the glands, lymphatic bacterium tuberculosis sputum andculture to identifythe examinationof bydirect be confirmed such aslungcancer. The diagnosis must ic. They may bepresent inotherdiseases cachexia.Buttheyareterminal notspecif- night sweats), malaise, andwasting anorexia, fever (may beassociated with rather thansudden),gradual weight loss, breathlessnessvariable), (gradual increase (notalways afeature,optysis volume copurulent orpurulentsputum,haem- sents cough,frequently productive, mu- tuberculum were calledtubercles (from theLatin 2014)since thelesions condition (Barnett, finally gave thenametuberculosis to the Schönlein(1793–1864) cian JohannLukas The discovery ofthisspecificmi- The discovery Pulmonary tuberculosis usuallypre- Pulmonary Twenty years later, physi- theGerman , diminutive of tuber). , diminutive oftuber). Bacillus antracis, (Campbell andBah- Myco- that of medicine Mirko Grmek (1924–2000): Grmek of medicineMirko cording to theCroatian-French historian Ac- in ancienttimesisdifficultto track. Tuberculosis inAncient History later (Magner, 1992). over infectious diseases, whathappened riological sciencewould leadto control evolution ofthelesiondependson thebreath.bacilli bytheairduring The due to thetransmissionofKoch´s explained by high oxygen content and ence ofthediseasefor thelungsmay be cough andblood-spitting. The prefer- ism result inconsumption,fever, fatigue, oftheorgan-by themetabolicproducts the generalpoisoningoforganism (cavities) and ending inlocaldestruction The caseous degeneration often The caseousdegenerationoften The precise history oftuberculosis The precise history lar structures. (Grmek, 1991:177) lar structures. (Grmek, ofcellu- and thecaseousdestruction mental lesion,namelythetubercle tological appearance of thefunda- disease alsohasincommonthehis- the specificmicrobe, thetuberculous ousness oftheprognosis. Aside from affected, thesymptoms, andtheseri- differ amongthemselves intheplace includes anumberofdiseasesthat sively byitsaetiology, tuberculosis geneity. Becauseitisdefinedexclu- since ithasnosymptomatic homo- adisease, speaking, sis isnot,strictly For itsclinicalnosology, tuberculo- 9 Insights on the history of tuberculosis: Novalis and the romantic idealization 10 Maria do Sameiro Barroso (Figure wasidentified inmummies 1).It remains sincetheNeolithic (skeletons) came across through anthropological to whichwe est diseasesofhumankind form oftuberculosis andoneoftheold- culous spondylitis, known istheearliest 1991). angular hump(Grmek, indicator isthepresence ofan primary dealing withiconographic material, the tions, andpyogenic osteomyelitis. When such astrauma,congenitalmalforma- be confusedwithotherboneconditions bonesmay andpetrified diagnosis ofdry dicated bypathognomonic lesions, the examination offresh tissue. Although in- onamicroscopic logical observation quite simplethrough anatomopatho- produces hump(angularkyphosis). asharp muscle. bodies The collapseofvertebral ing underthesheathofpsoasmajor downwards,scesses thatextend burrow- ab- canleadto paravertebral destruction asPott’sies, known disease. The caseous bod- oftheadjacentvertebral destruction the tuberculous spondylodiscitiswiththe vault. form is The mostcommonskeletal meninges, thebones, joints, andskin. organs, the (scrofula), thegenito-urinary involve thelymphnodesofneck localizationsmay Other taminated milk. ingested orallyinlarge amountsofcon- are infected whenbacilliare typically intestines lymphnodes andmesenteric immune resistance ofthepatient. The Pott’s astuber- disease, alsoknown The diagnosis oftuberculosis is Tuberculosis canaffect thecranial caseous abscesses(Figure 3). provide excellent dataonparavertebral ure 2).AncientEgyptianmummies also (Smithetal (around 1000BC) text ontheconditionisquite insightful: text 1991:183).AHippocratic tion (Grmek, consump- clinical features ofpulmonary cians hadfound theessentialtraitsof physi- ofHippocratic tions, agoodpart plied to otherchronic disablingcondi- a state ofdiminishingorwithering, isap- word for tuberculosis “Phthísis”, meaning and Romanperiods. AlthoughtheGreek demic worsening theHellenistic during classical age. There isevidenceoftheepi- the losis intheGreek during city-states monary, osseousandglandulartubercu- sources giveods. Literary noticeofpul- oflater peri- backs iscommonintheart are lacking. The representation ofhunch butosteological remains totory prove it inGreek terri- existed sincepre-history Greek-Roman time Phthisis andconsumption in such asamummy from the21 lent dataonPott’s diseaseinmummies, 177–178). AncientEgyptprovides excel- 1991: (Grmek, coast, andSouthAmerica and inlater periods, inEurope, thePacific of ancientEgyptdatingfrom 3400BC According tuberculosis to Grmek, and painoccupiesthechest is coughedup, theteeth chatter, thick sweet yellow-green sputum When there isdiseaseofthelung, . , 1910)(Fig- st Dynasty Dynasty Figure 2 Credit: Wellcome CC-BY. Collection. Image Figure 1 . Mummy andmodel withPott’s disease. Credit: Wellcome CC-BY. Collection. Image . Pott diseasefrom theNeolithic. Collection. CC-BY.Collection. Egyptian mummies. Credit: Wellcome Image tuberculosisabscesses dueto in vertebral Figure 3 . Diagram of showingthree types 11 Insights on the history of tuberculosis: Novalis and the romantic idealization 12 Maria do Sameiro Barroso in have aconsumptive child(Hippocrates tary, thataconsumptive patientwould dure for thetime. The patientcouldnot proce- boldandrisky wasavery nia. It suppurationfollowing pneumo- monary the chest(Laennec, 1819:525). theaccumulationoffluidwithin detect listening to sounds)usefulto theevoked thepatientbyshouldersand shaking ral rubs, etc., andfound succussion(by pleu- pocratic thoracicsounds:crackles, ventor ofthestethoscope, resumed Hip- researchers ontuberculosis andthein- -1826), oneofthemostoutstanding (1781- cian, René-Théophile-Hyacinthe later,chest. Centuries theFrench physi- applying theeardirectly to the patient’s soundsby heard respiratory abnormal Jones, 1923:151).Greek physicians also Hippocrates thoughtitwasheredi-Hippocrates Hippocratic physicians drainedpul- Hippocratic 1988: 277) older ones. inPotter, (Hippocrates frequent inyounger women thanin other timestoo. This diseaseismore of thenight,althoughhecoughsat andinthemiddle in themorning coughed up;hecoughsmostearly being when itisinhismouthafter patient isdisgusted by thesputum oftheirbodiesare wasted.parts The thin,andtheupper become very thesepatients nails becomecurved; deep; thefeet swell up, andthe the eyes becomered, andthevoice and becomesstiff, theareas under thethroat whistlesquietly back; are shown inFigure 4 (secondfrom left from the temple ofAsclepios inAthens the drainagewasnotattempted: However,survive. hewould surely dieif The belliedscalpedfigures inarelief 1988: 275) the patientdies. (Hippocrates whenithasflowed out, and stinking, slightlyyellow-green, lowing day thick, first day yolk-coloured, or onthefol- erally recovers; butifitflowsoutonthe and containsstreaks ofblood, hegen- escape: ifthepusiswhite andclean A sign whetherthepatientisgoingto cer unite before you remove thetube. off thetubelittlebylittle, andlettheul- out,cut iscompletelythe cavity dried ahollowtindrainagetube. sert When with afinger, andasmallamount,in- water,thin like whentouched sticky one inthemorning. When thepusis sion towards evening, andtheevening out;discharge infu- dried themorning withpus,soaked willnotbesuddenly that thelung, accustomed to being wineandoilwithatube, warm inorder with linen. aninfusionof Then make draw allthe pus, andplugthewound onthe tenth day,off pusonceaday; of raw linen, andtieitwithacord; draw propriate, plugthewound withatent removed asmuchpusyou thinkap- it. thumb, andinsert When you have of thebladeexposedto thenailofyour with apieceofcloth,leaving thepoint a belliedscalpel;thenwraplancet with First, theribs between cuttheskin in Potter, sleep, andaseavoyage ifthepatientwas himfromdisturbs business, indulging in that from businessandfrom everything age, andherecommends away keeping yearsfrom of eighteenth to thirty-five sis. Herefers to theageofappearance, respond to different forms oftuberculo- thewastingdiseaseswhichcor-scribed CelsusCornelius (26BC–50AD)de- responds to tuberculous empyema. defluxionpossiblycor-55–57). Massive inPotter,the side(Hippocrates 1988: fluxions, andwhenalungfallsagainst wounds, pneumonia,and massive de- cated to treat from suppurationsarising Asimilarprocedureto right). wasindi- (1907) Plate V. Figure 4 The Roman encyclopaedist Aulus The Romanencyclopaedist . Marble relief from the Athens Asklepieion, second century AD. relief secondcentury Reproduced from. Marble from theAthensAsklepieion, Milne losis inthelate eighteenth century. forsanatorium thetreatment oftubercu- ofseaside ued withtheconstruction These recommendations were contin- not too weak (Celsus, 1935:327–329). (Dormandy, 1999:4).Scrofula cansup- unfavourable prognosis disease ofvery dle Ages, asamanifestation ofageneral Mid- leading medicalschoolsoftheearly andMontpellier,the SchoolofSalerno the wasrecognizedneck, bythephysicians of tuberculosis ofthelymphglands Middle Ages to theseventeenth century Scrofula andconsumption from the Scrofula (literally meaninglittlepigs), 13 Insights on the history of tuberculosis: Novalis and the romantic idealization 14 Maria do Sameiro Barroso ry. Credit: Wellcome CC-BY. Collection. Image uscript from the mid-thirteenth century century fromuscript themid-thirteenth man- gical treatment. An Anglo-Norman awatercolour1911, after from the16 evil (scrofula). Watercolour byM.S.Lapthorn, 1558) touching theneckofaboy for theKing’s Figure 5. (Frith, 2014:29–35). formed byEnglishandFrench monarchs the seventeenth century, anditwasper- andlasted until century the thirteenth France wascommonafter (487–511).It Royal touch dates backto of Clovis, King The beliefinthecure ofscrofula bythe to itscure bytheRoyaltouch (Figure 5). medieval iconography, especiallyrelated asthe known “King’s Evil”. isrecorded in It purate and ulcerate; bythattimeitwas There isevidencethatscrofula hassur- Mary I,QueenofEngland(1516- Mary th centu- the medical treatment. AFrench of manuscript ally, animalingredients were the leading made ofvegetable, mineraland, lessusu- cranium itself(Hunt,1992:38–39).Cordials seems to begrowing onthescalpor ing withaproblematic caseofscrofula that displays an illustrationofaphysician deal- cardiac depression 1985:125). (Duke, was alsowidelyusedasananaleptic in (Figurecongestion, andrhinitis 6c).It asthma, bronchitis, emphysema, lung it stimulates respiration: employed for smalldoses, conditions. In in respiratory iswidelyindicated is amildantiseptic. It inflammations, It inrelieving itching skin. cular strains, conditions, gout,rheumatic inthetreatment ofmus- counterirritant is afolk medicine, usedasaliniment cine (Figure asolutionofwine, it 6c).In usedinmedi- Camphor isextensively the preparation ofexpensive perfumes. taining camphorandsafrole, isusedin of Asiatic origin (Figure oil, con- 6b).Its phora et al., 2012:196). of itsessentialoil, iscarcinogenic (Cunha component cause safrole, animportant useofcamphorisdangerousinternal be- ditions. However, thatthe nowwe know for con- itsuseintherelief ofrespiratory duced inFigure 1896:12). 6a(Dorveaux, tisique gives several for recipes ofelectuaries Praepositum nitan physician Nicholaus century, supposedlyauthored bytheSaler- Antidotaire Nicolai In thisrecipe,In camphorstandsout L.isaplantoftheLauraceaefamily (the phthisis).Oneofthemisrepro- Cinnamomum cam- from the fourteenth from thefourteenth la la ries, monarchs andnoblesoftheBour- andseventeenth thesixteenth centu- In were thedevastatingdiseasesoftime. Ages.ing theMiddle Leprosy andpest seem to have role dur- played aparticular made: Paris, France.Ville deParis, Credit: Île-de-France, ScienceMuseum,London. CC-BY. Place Unknown. ampouleofcocaine usedasalocalanaesthetic.along withthepurple Maker: and pains. Alltheliquidswere to begiven Unfortunately, by injection. ismissing, thesyringe used to control bleeding. heavy The camphorated oilwasusedto helpsoothebruises, aches The white glasscontainsether, apopular anaesthetic. “Ergotine” intheyellow ampoule was identify inanemergency. The blueglasscontainscaffeine, which wasbelieved to relieve pain. filled withliquid. Eachcoloured glasscorresponds to adifferent liquidsotheywere easyto Figure 6c graph, c. 1887,after W. Müller. Credit: Wellcome CC-BY. Collection. Figure 6a Figure 6b a) b) Pulmonary tuberculosis doesnot Pulmonary . First Paris aidkit, France, 1901–1910. containsanumberofampoules This firstaidkit . Recipeofthe . Camphortree ( Antidotaire Nicolas. Cinnamum camphora Reproduced from : flowering branchandsegments.: flowering Chromolitho- such astheDutch painter Rembrandtvan andtheirfamilieswere alsostruck, Artists people caughtbythediseasewashigher. the seventeenth century, thenumberof itmore visible. In the condition,making bon and Valois dynastieswere struckby c) Lantidotaire Nicholas, 1896:12. 15 Insights on the history of tuberculosis: Novalis and the romantic idealization 16 Maria do Sameiro Barroso emerged, boosted bytheRomanticmove- wards, newconceptson thedisease from fever hectic (Friedell, 2008:565). or red oncheekseitherfrom make-up ing to lastbeyond deathwithcheerful people dyingfrom consumptionlong- of of sensibility aboutakind also talked Baroque wasalso adecaying time. He creative oftheconsumptive. euphoria timized bytuberculosis, wrote onthe Antoine Watteau (1684–1721),alsovic- ser, 2018:29–31). forming theleadingrole oftheplay (Mo- asevereafter coughingattackwhileper- ment ofthedisease. Molière diedsoon his timewere helplessinthemanage- invalid”. imaginary “The The physicians of themasignorant inhisplayhe portrayed condition even worse. Nowonder that ings andenemasthatonlymadehis who justrushedto treat himby bleed- the physicians ofParis oftheUniversity gled againstthediseaseandalso had abundanthaemoptysis. Hestrug- XIV hired himto the Versailles palace, he Louisambulant actor. King after Short culosis. Hewasinfected whenhewasan oftuber- (1622–1673) wasalsoavictim she waspregnant child. ofherfourth wasalsocaughtbytuberculosis when kia delivery, after andSas- brandt diedshortly The three andRem- children ofSaskia hadalready diedoftuberculosis.Saskia (1606–1669). Rijn The motherofhiswife From on- theeighteenth century The French Baroque painter Jean- Jean Baptiste Poquelin (Molière) sociated with pulmonary tuberculosis. sociated withpulmonary as- were life inextricably His andthinking Romanticism. generation oftheGerman entist (mineralogist), belonging to thefirst many, was aphilosopher, mystic, andsci- tocratic familyofSaxony, Ger- innorthern poetsofalltime, ofanaris- inspiring born (Figure and 7),oneofthemostdisturbing Friedrich von Hardenberg (1772–1801) Novalis brother of twelve children and had a very brother oftwelve children and hadavery zig (1749–1818).Novaliswas the second wife, Auguste Bernardine, born Von Böl- Hardenberg (1738–1814) andhissecond ErasmusFreiherr Ulrich rich (Baron) von sonto Hein- the castleofOberwiederstet, and genius(Moser, 2018:12–14). seemed to ofdestiny, beagift refine ment, sive, conditionthat clean,andpurifying in syphilis. Instead, itwasapainless, elu- The bodysuffered noshame like ful mark, poets, andlovers.disease ofgenialartists, anditwasthe the mindandspirit, and creativeness. ennobledandrefined It fever seemedto give wingsto thoughts seemed to intensify life andfeelings. The hit anyone, regardless ofthesocialclass. It vidual disease, adeadlyarrow thatcould madeofitamysteriouscharacter indi- andliterature. endemic stimulating art Its withitacreative power,seemed to carry beginning. Tuberculousconsumption ment. The timeoftheRomanticfever was He was born onthe2 He wasborn Novalis, pennameofGeorg Philipp nd May 1772,at May factor for self-discovery and innergrowing. forfactor self-discovery positive insightsofdiseaseasadeterminant had provided and himalongreflection (Schulz,1969:8–14). narily developedSuddenly hisspirit extraordi- uphismind.the diseaseseemedto wake strong andpainfulstimulants. However, ach atony, requiring alongtreatment of He caughtdysentery, followed bystom- ill. 1780,hewasseriously as alittlechild. In not standingoutfrom theotherbrothers theran pietist.Hewasafrailandsickchild, religious fatherwasaLu- education.His around 1799. Image inpublicdomain. around 1799.Image Figure 7 1805), aleadingfigure Clas- ofGerman Jena, hemetFriedrich Schiller(1759– ofJenaasa LawUniversity student.In 1790,Novalisenrolled inthe October After thegymnasium, on the23 After The illnessandlongconvalescence . Novalis, portrait byFranz. Novalis, portrait Gareis rd
Mathematics, andPhilosophy attheUni- one year. 1791,heenrolled inLaw, In is abeneficialsource for hisbiography. The correspondence thattheymaintained Romanticism. German a poetoftheearly with Friedrich Schlegel(1772–1829),also along-lastingfriendship time. Hekept other great figures oftheliterature ofthe lute fulfilling. wasarevelation leadingto abso- poetry world. For Novalis, life waslearning, and ancestral truth,andtheinnocenceof tred onthesearch for theprimordial, the bycharacterized amagical idealism,cen- main linesofhisthoughtandpoetry, verdammt dem Geschicke/Zum unmännlichernGenuß joyment damne less Ifeelfacing thedestiny/To unmanlyen- Martin Christoph Wieland, in1791: Neue Teuscher Merkur, magazine published poemintheliterary young man” desJünglings),hisfirst (Klagen expressed inthepoem “Laments ofthe ing apeculiarandchallenging destiny, ity, (Schulz,1969:32). andbeauty bringing together innerharmony, moral- able to faceanunfavourable destiny came hismodelasamanwhohadbeen was hisfirstgreat influence. Schillerbe- impressed withSchiller´spersonality. He attheUniversity. Hewasvery History sicism, and, bythattime, aprofessor of Novalis stayed inJenafor justfor Novalis wasacquainted with the The poemalready pointsto the Novalis alsohadthefeeling ofhav- ] (Schulz, 1969: 28–29). ] (Schulz,1969:28–29). [ Kraftlos fühl ich mich von Kraftlos fühlichmichvon edited by the poet edited bythepoet Power- 17 Insights on the history of tuberculosis: Novalis and the romantic idealization 18 Maria do Sameiro Barroso Her letters do not reveal a particular in- Her letters donotreveal aparticular developedteenager body. withapoorly 1903: 25).Sophiewasathirteen-year-old secretly engaged inMarch 1795(Birch, Sophie wasonlytwelve. They became (Birch, 1903:20-21). ningen becamehisparadiseonearth (Figure 8)andfell inlove withher. Grü- 17, 1782—diedMarch 19,1797) (born Christiane Wilhelmine Sophievon Kühn a young ladyfrom family anaristocratic visit theoldcastleofvon Kühn, met lis, goingto Grüningenon businessto Sophie vonSophie Kühn points (Birch, 1903:20–21). later hewould beableto discussits the timerequired byothers, andmonths of out. Hecouldread abookinquarter real life. thattime, stood By hisbrilliance (Schulz, 1969:32–41).Hewaslonging for Assistant to the Weißenfels Salt Work December,nation. In hewasappointed June 14,1794,hetook thefinal exami- hewasaprodigious being.ertheless On expressed thefear nev- ofgettingsick; and fragile andinhisletters, heoften tenberg. Hewasnotrobust, hewasweak enrolled inLaw, of attheUniversity Wit- career proposed byhisfather,military he lationship. 1794,refusing to In follow the because herfatheropposedto theirre- affair withJulianeEisenstückthatended ofLeipzig.versity 1792,hehadalove In He was twenty-two years oldand He wastwenty-two On the17 th November 1794,Nova- second-person plural. ment, theyaddressed eachotherbythe distance. theengage- After a certain oftheattraction. heart They always kept acquired withillness, seemsto beatthe he other hand, anemotionalmaturity childish naturalness, naivety, and, onthe have questionedhimself. of Amixture Sophie meantto Novalis. Healsowould times itisnoteasyto understandwhat telligence (Schlaf, 1906:16)andsome- She liked to see everybody happy. to seeeverybody She liked How- tobacco. wineandsmoke to drink liked afraid ofspiders, she rats, andmarriage; older (Schulz,1969:52–53).Sophie was Schlegel inLucinda, butthesewere much inDiotimaorFriedrich Höderlin an, like inpublicdomain. tury. Image author.1797). Unknown Late eighteenth cen- 1782,†19März Sophie von Kühn(*17März Figure 8 Novalis thoughtofanidealwom- . Portrait of Christiane . PortraitofChristiane Wilhelmine worse again. She was taken toworse Jena and again.Shewas taken andSamuel, n.d.:proved 121). (Kluckhohn stayed thatfor like sometime, butitim- but shewasstillandcalm.Her condition andcouldnotmove,had beenbledtwice and thatshehadnotsleptfor days. She that Sophiehadsevere pains, thefever wrote inflamed, that herliver wasvery [1738–1814]), on20November, Novalis Erasmusvon Ulrich Hardenberg(Heinrich aletterously ill. to hisbrother In Erasmus phy. November, In Sophiebecameseri- Sophie shouldgive himwhathelacked. gether withhismuse(Preitz, 1957:53). to Schlegel. Hehadimagined livingto- physical love asheexpressed inaletter the wedding night,andthepleasures of women ingeneral: appreciated herqualitiesandpraised anything. Sheisalready something”. He on hisdiary: “She doesnotwantto be ever, hislove scared her. Novaliswrote In the Summerof1796,shegot In 1795,hebeganstudiesinPhiloso- In Novalis haddreamt on ofmarriage, the soul. (Birch, 1903:22–23) no future life of butinthewandering universalize.ize—we Shebelieves in are actresses. born They individual- nature theirart. They be ourart—our better thanus. Their nature seemsto erally, we are better. They recognize thanus. Freerperfect thanwe. Gen- in thebeautifulsoul. They are more women have whatSchlegelblames Herreal All tact. observation. Her keen in early March. Onthe19 in early situation improved butitworsened again drained byDrBlödauwithacatheter. The The fever washigh. The wound was that causedunbearablepainto Sophie. and reopened, withintense suppuration 1797, thewound worsened considerably Atthebeginning ofFebruary in-depth. wound healedontheoutsidebutnot ing to thephysician whoassisted her, the Sophie went backto Grüningen.Accord- ber, herconditionameliorated slightly. more Septem- sinceshehadfallenill. In valis wrote thathehadloved hereven andhercomposure. herspirits kept No- been operated withnoanaesthesia-she 1969: 58–59). wasrequiredthird intervention (Schulz, thata after operated again,andshortly heal. AttheendofAugust, Sophiewas assuredDr Stark thatthewound would ing great suffering to Sophie. However, dressing hadto bechangeddaily, caus- The surgical wound oozed heavily. The scess, tuberculosis. related to pulmonary ab- (sub-phrenic) was possiblyasinking er physicians operated herontheliver. It ing from tuberculosis. oth- andtwo Stark ler (1759–1805)alsopresumably suffer- (1735–1811), physician ofFriedrich Schil- Stark was assisted byDrJohannChristian berculosis (Schulz,1969:60–62). refers tu- to complicationsofpulmonary in thebookofChurch ofGrüningen was fifteen-years-old. The causeofdeath days herbirthday, after Sophiedied. She Despite allthesuffering -Sophiehad th March, two 19 Insights on the history of tuberculosis: Novalis and the romantic idealization 20 Maria do Sameiro Barroso the 36 tomb, hefelt incredible happiness. On 28,visitingSophie’s1957: 78).OnMay diagnosis wasalsotuberculosis (Preitz, brother, long-suffering. alsodiedafter The Sophie’s death,Erasmus, hisfavourite valis (Birch, 1903:29). the name Novalis as a literary pseudonym. pseudonym. the nameNovalisasaliterary “Blütenstaub” (Flower pollen)andadopted 63). “She isdead;soIwilldie” motionless, andpetrified” (Schulz,1969: seemed to bedead, devastated, dumb, hisownwords: In broken. “Everything a deepshockfor him.Novaliswasheart- suffering, braveness andfinaldeathwere plate (Figureher funerary 9).Herlong- (Contis and Voros 2006:487–505). proved later withantibioticmanagement rate. survival The favourable outcome im- a62% reported Oschner andco-authors sis wasinvariably fataluntil1938,when theprogno- was malodorous ordark, thedrainedpus ofthepus.the quality If prognosis wasestablishedaccording to it wastreated bysurgical incision. The byHippocrates. known When mature, On April 14, less than a month after 14,lessthanamonthafter On April In that year,In hewrote thework Sophie figures asNovalis’ fiancéein The hepaticabscesswasalready th feel hernear. (NovalisinBirch, 1903:29) wereCenturies asmoments —Icould grave asithadbeendustbefore me. moment ofenthusiasm—Iblewthe I wasunutterably joyful—kindling theevening IwentIn to Sophie;there day herdeath,hewrote: after , wrote No- age inpublicdomain. enberg