ENGLISH LANGUAGE II

MODULE 1: NOUNS, ARTICLES, DETERMINERS AND PRONOUNS. Explanations • Countable nouns A countable noun has a singular and a plural form. We can use a singular or plural verb with it. We can use numbers with it. Where is my shirt? Where are my shirts? a shirt, shirts, some shirts, four shirts • Uncountable nouns An uncountable noun has only one form. We can only use a singular verb with it. We cannot use numbers with it. Here is some advice for you. advice, some advice However, we can count an uncountable noun indirectly by using a phrase like a piece of, a bit of. When I left home my mother gave me two useful bits of advice. I've found out several interesting pieces of information. A few uncountable nouns end in -s, but they follow the normal rules for uncountable nouns and have a singular verb. The news is very bad today. Billiards is an interesting game. • Typical uncountable nouns Substances: water, air, coffee, plastic, iron, paper Abstract ideas: life, fun, freedom, health, time, progress Activities: work, travel, sleep, football, help, research Human feelings: happiness, anger, honesty, hope, respect, courage Groups of items: furniture, luggage Other words are found in the Practice section. Note the words below which are uncountable in English but countable in many other languages: accommodation, advice, behaviour, business, cash, equipment, furniture, health, homework, information, knowledge, luggage, money, permission, rubbish, scenery, traffic, travel, weather, work • Uncountable nouns that describe a category Some uncountable nouns can be used in a countable way when they describe a category. Uncountable use: Would you like some fruit after your coffee? Use as a category: There are two main fruits exported from Madeira, bananas and pineapples.

118 2 GRAMMAR 21 COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

• Change of meaning Some words have different meanings in countable and uncountable forms. Countable: an iron (domestic appliance) a wood (small area of trees) a paper (newspaper) a chicken (the animal) Uncountable: some iron (a substance/material) some wood (a substance/material) some paper (a substance/material) chicken (the meat) There is a similar contrast between: Item: a coffee (a cup of coffee) Material: coffee

• Other examples with a change of meaning: business (in general) a business (a company) gossip (talking) a gossip (a person) hair (all together) a hair (a single strand) help (in general) a help (a helpful person/thing) toast (grilled bread) a toast (formal words said before drinking) work (in general) a work (a work of art/engineering)

• Plural nouns These nouns only have a plural form and take a plural verb. My trousers are too tight. The stairs are very steep. Other common examples are: clothes, contents, feelings, goods, jeans, means, outskirts, surroundings, thanks

- Group nouns Some nouns can be followed by either a singular or plural verb. / think the government is/are wrong. It depends whether we think of the group as a whole (singular verb), or its individual members (plural verb). Other common examples: army, audience, class, company, crew, crowd, data, family, group, media, press, public, staff, team Some group nouns only take a plural verb: cattle, police, people

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3 FIRST CERTIFICATE LANGUAGE PRACTICE

Underline the most suitable word in each sentence.

a) Different countries have different weather/weathers. b) All areas of the skin are in fact covered in tiny hair/hairs. c) We've looked at the menu and we'd all like chicken/chickens. d) Jack is a millionaire and owns a lot of business/businesses. e) Have you a copy of the complete work/works of Dante? f) None of the passengers had insured their baggage/baggages. g) Students must pass their paper/papers to the front. h) I'm afraid we can't find cheap accommodation/accommodations for all of you.

2 Complete each sentence with a/an, some or by leaving the space blank.

a) When the play ended, there was / lengthy applause. b) I can't come out tonight. I have homework to do. c) Sue received excellent education. d) The inside is strengthened with steel frame. e) My friends bought me coffee maker for my birthday. f) David has just bought new furniture. g) Let me give you advice. h) My trousers need pressing. Can you lend me iron?

3 Underline the most suitable word in each sentence.

a) I would love to go on a long journey/travel by train. b) What's the latest news? Can I look at your paper/journal? c) Here's your ticket. Do you have any luggage/suitcase? d) Don't forget to buy a sliced bread/loaf. e) Why don't we leave the car in this car park/parking. f) I can't come to work today. I have a bad cold/flu. g) Excuse me sir, but do you have a licence/permission for this gun? h) Brighton has quite a good beach/seaside.

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4 GRAMMAR 21 COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

4 Put one suitable word in each space.

a) I'm looking for .accomodation . Do you know anywhere I can stay? b) Take my , don't go out alone after dark. c) The government plans to improve by paying teachers more. d) Can you lend me some ? I want to print out a letter. e) I need some about language schools. Can you help me? f) Richard is unemployed, and he is looking for a g) Could I have some ? Those apples and oranges look nice. h) I used to have long , but I had it cut. i) I can't do this on my own. Could you give me some ? j) If you can't undo the knot, cut the string with some

5 Complete each sentence with the most suitable word or phrase.

a) I like your new trousers. Where did you buy B ? A) it B) them C) them both D) them all b) There is always a very large at the church I go to. A) congregation B) audience C) spectator D) company c) The local has agreed to repair the road outside our house. A) government B) people C) council D) jury d) When the police arrived, we were pleased to see A) him B) him or her C) it D) them e) The car turned over, but luckily it didn't suffer serious A) damage B) injury C) damages D) injuries f) Sorry, I'm late, but I had a lot of to do. A) job B) work C) task D) labour g) Julie bought herself a complete new for winter. A) outfit B) cloth C) clothing D) wear h) I feel like going out tonight. Let's go to a/an A) dancing B) night C) club D entertainment i) Thanks for a great weekend! We really had a/an A) fun B) enjoyment C) hospitality D) good time j) In order to prove Smith is guilty, we must find some A) information B) evidence C) knowledge D) means

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5 FIRST CERTIFICATE LANGUAGE PRACTICE

6 Choose the most appropriate meaning for each sentence.

a) You mustn't lose heart. 1) Don't have an operation. 2) Don't give up hope. b) Where's my glass? 1) I need a drink. 2) I can't see. c) Jack has a new post. 1) The postman has delivered a letter. 2) He has a different job. d) All goods must be paid for in advance. 1) Nothing enjoyable in life is free. 2) You have to pay for these things first. e) I've joined a new company. 1) I have a new job. 2) I have some new friends. f) This hotel has class. 1) You can study hotel management here. 2) It is a good quality hotel. g) I don't have the means to help you. 1) I'm not able to help. 2) I can't understand what help you need. h) I'd like some china. 1) I want to go abroad. 2) I need some cups and plates. i) Do you have any cash? 1) Do you only have a cheque? 2) Isn't there a place to pay in this shop? j) They have a business in Leeds. 1) They have to go there to do a job. 2) They own a company there.

7 Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between two and five words, including the word given.

a) This island has a large population. people There are a lot of people on this island. b) Do you own these things? your Are belongings? c) The weather was good on our holiday. had We on our holiday. d) There were a lot of cars on the road to Manchester. traffic There on the road to Manchester. e) Gerry is a very strong person, in my opinion. strength Gerry in my opinion.

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6 GRAMMAR 21 COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

f) There are pieces of paper all over the floor! litter There all over the floor. g) Can I park my car here? allowed Is here? h) I know these machines are very expensive. machinery I know very expensive.

8 Complete each sentence with a suitable word from the box.

a) Let me give you a piece of advice. b) There is an interesting of news in the paper. c) A of stairs takes you to the top of the house. d) Could I have another of paper, please? e) Helen has a lovely of hair. f) Do you want another of toast? g) We bought Mike and Lynn a of cutlery for a wedding present. h) The lightning was followed by a of thunder.

9 Complete each sentence with a suitable word from the box.

a) I can't cut this loaf. Do you have a proper bread knife? b) I'm afraid that 'neice' is a mistake. c) There's usually a/an space opposite the cinema. d) We need a/an box to keep the money in. e) The tourist board have built a/an centre near the castle. f) We decided to put a/an conductor on the roof. g) Marjorie used to write a/an column in a magazine. h) These suitcases are very heavy. We must find a/an trolley. i) I must rush. I'm going to a/an lesson. j) Julie found her flat through a/an agency.

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7 FIRST CERTIFICATE LANGUAGE PRACTICE

10 Decide which answer (A, B, C or D) best fits each space.

Food habits Breakfast is one of those (1) B.. that varies from person to person, and country to country. For some (2) it means a (3) of toast and some coffee. In various places I've also been offered (4) or fruit. (5) executives might eat breakfast at the (6) , while for many schoolchildren breakfast is a (7) of milk at home, and then a long wait (8) the first break of the morning, when they eat (9) or (10) chocolate bar. Some families sit down and eat together (11) the morning, and listen to (12) news on the radio or (13) early morning television. For other people, the early morning is a rush (14) work or school, and there just simply isn't (15)

1) A times B meals C foods D plates 2) A people B persons C breakfasts D us 3) A sheet B loaf C slice D sandwich 4) A a cheese B the cheese C cheese D cheeses 5) A Business B A business C Business's D Businessmen 6) A train B street C morning D office 7) A glass B piece C warm D box 8) A to B is C until D which 9) A sandwich B the sandwich C a sandwiches D sandwiches 10) A a B some C a piece D a glass of 11) A for B in C at D while 12) A a B what C some D the 13) A look B watch C see D regard 14) A to B from C at D and 15) A there B it C enough D time

Key points 1 Check in a dictionary to be sure that a noun is countable or uncountable. The meaning of a noun may change depending on whether it is used in a countable or uncountable sense. Note that some nouns ending in -5 take a singular verb: The news is bad today And that some nouns only have a plural form: The police are arriving shortly. SEE ALSO

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8 Explanations Indefinite article • With something we refer to for the first time. {a/an) I've just had a great idea. I'll give you a call next week.

• With one of a group of things. Shall we choose a book from this catalogue?

• Where we use an adjective to describe a noun. Cairo is a very big city. It's a beautiful day.

• With someone's job. Peter is a truck driver.

• With singular fractions, group numbers and large numbers. one and a half kilos a dozen eggs a hundred envelopes

• Meaning per. He was doing ninety miles an hour. Julie earns £500 a week.

Definite article • With nouns we have mentioned previously. (the) There is a bedroom and a living room. The bedroom is quite large.

• With nouns we mention for the first time, but where it is clear which person or thing we are talking about. Can you pass the marmalade? My life changed completely after the war.

• Where there is only one of something. It is clear which one we are talking about. The moon is full tonight.

• With nouns followed by a descriptive phrase, which makes them definite. This is the man I told you about. See also the examples in brackets in the next section, paragraphs 4 and 7. This category includes proper names with a descriptive phrase. Compare with the next section, paragraph 2: London Bridge BUT the Tower of London

• With national groups. The British drink far too much tea.

• With classes of people. The rich get richer and the poor get poorer.

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• With individual items which represent a class. The lion is fast disappearing.

• With names of musical instruments that we can play. 7 can't play the piano but I can play the guitar.

• With some geographical names. In particular: oceans, seas, rivers, canals and regions. The Thames flows into the North Sea. the Arctic Also with plural countries, or where the country name contains a noun. the Netherlands the People's Republic of China

• With superlatives, ordinals, the same, the only. This is the best. You are the first. This is the only one.

• With media. What's on (the) television? I went to the cinema.

Zero article • With uncountable nouns and plural countable nouns when we are talking (no article) generally. Give peace a chance. Football is life. I hate wasps. All he talks about is cars.

• With most continents, countries, states, islands, mountains, lakes, cities, parks, roads and streets, squares, bridges, palaces, castles, cathedrals, stations and airports. We live in France. We took the train from Paddington Station to Bath. But see previous section, paragraph 9, for geographical names that use the definite article.

• With company names, years, months, days and special times of the year. She works for Lufthansa. I'll see you in January.

- With names of meals when we are talking generally. It's time for lunch. (BUT The lunch I had at Cafe Sol was good value.) What's for dinner? (BUT The dinner Sue gave us last night was delicious.)

• With unique jobs or roles (the definite article is also possible in these cases). Jim is (the) chairman of the company.

• With prepositions of place with certain buildings, where the purpose of the building is more important than the place itself. Sally is in prison. (she's a prisoner) Sally is in the prison. (she's a visitor to that specific building) Similar are: bed, church, class, court, hospital, school, university

- With means of transport when we are talking generally. We went there by car. (BUT We went there in the car that Alex borrowed.) Note that if we use in or on, we need an indefinite article. We went there in a car/on a bus.

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10 GRAMMAR 22 ARTICLES

Put a/an or the in each space, or leave the space blank.

a) We went by /.. - train to the west of England. b) people who live in Netherlands are called Dutch. c) judge sent me to prison for ten years. d) Columbus was one of first people to cross Atlantic. e) As captain of ship, I have complete authority. f) David learned to play violin when he was at university. g) Trafalgar Square is near Charing Cross Station. h) Did you read book I lent you last week? i) We'll put up shelves and then go to cafe for something to eat. j) Is that present Bill gave you for Christmas?

2 Underline the most suitable phrase in each sentence.

a) Is this a person/the person you told me about? b) This is the only cinema/an only cinema in the area. c) Philip has just bought the Thames barge/a Thames barge. d) I'm going to the British Museum/British Museum this afternoon. e) Are you going to church/the church on Sunday? f) Do you have a milk jug/milk jug? g) The Prime Minister/Prime Minister will give a speech this afternoon. h) The computer/Computer has already changed our lives dramatically. i) I haven't been to an open-air theatre/open-air theatre before. j) Here is a thousand pounds/the thousand pounds I owe you.

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11 FIRST CERTIFICATE LANGUAGE PRACTICE

3 Complete each sentence with the most suitable word or phrase.

a) The butler was .C I suspected. A) last person B) a last person C) the last person D) some last person b) Where you borrowed last week? A) is scissors B) are the scissors C) is some scissors D) are scissors c) Why don't we go to the park ? A) in the car B) with a car C) with car D) by the car d) Too much rubbish is being dumped in A) sea B) the sea C) a sea D) some sea e) This is exactly I was looking for. A) job B) a job C) some job D) the job f) Of all these cars, I think I prefer A) a Japanese B) some Japanese C) the Japanese one D) a Japanese one g) I try to go jogging at least four times A) the week B) of the week C) a week D) of a week h) Sally spent six months out of A) work B) a work C) the work D) some work

4 Complete each sentence (a-i) with one of the endings from 1-9. More than one answer may be possible.

a) Some people say that the 9. b) Most people think that a/an c) I don't agree that d) I feel that a e) I don't believe that a/an f) I didn't realise that the g) It's incredible to think that a/an h) I didn't know that i) I think it's quite unfair that the

1 good job is an important part of life. 2 single injection can protect you from so many diseases. 3 hundred miles an hour is too fast even on a motorway. 4 the unemployed should receive more help from the state. 5 queen of England doesn't pay any income tax. 6 tiger may well become extinct very soon. 7 third of a person's income should be paid in tax. 8 English are difficult to get to know at first. 9 the Tower of London was built by William the Conqueror.

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5 Put a/an or the in each space, or leave the space blank.

a) Neil Armstrong made ...the first footprint on the Moon. b) There was accident yesterday at corner of street. c) I need time to think about offer you made me. d) recipe for success is hard work. e) people who live in glass houses shouldn't throw stones. f) worst part of living in a caravan is lack of space. g) book you ordered last week is now in stock. h) dancing is more interesting activity than reading. i) people we met on holiday in north of England sent us postcard. j) little knowledge is dangerous thing.

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6 Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between two and five words, including the word given.

a) There is one problem here, and that's the weather. only The only problem here is the weather. b) There are no good films on this week. cinema There is nothing this week. c) Can't you swim faster than that? fastest Is can swim? d) I haven't been here before. time This is been here. e) A lot of wine is drunk in France. French The a lot of wine. f) If you drive faster, it is more dangerous. the The dangerous it is. g) It is difficult to discover what is true. truth The discover. h) Are you a good pianist? piano Can you well?

7 Underline the most suitable phrase in each sentence.

a) I was under an impression/under the impression that you had left. b) I have to go. I'm in a hurry/in hurry, c) I managed to sell the old painting at a profit/at profit. d) I think I prefer the other restaurant on the whole/on whole. e) How many hours do you work, on average/on the average, every week? f) I was in pain/in a pain after I twisted my ankle. g) Jack recovered from his accident and is now out of danger/out of the danger. h) Excuse me, but you're in the way/in a way. i) Sue felt seasick on the cross-channel ferry/a cross the channel ferry. j) The burglar hit me on my back of the neck/the back of my neck.

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8 Put a/an or the in each space, or leave the space blank.

a) What's the use in taking / - medicine for ?! cold? b) Is happiness of majority more important than rights of individual? c) It's long way by train to north of Scotland. d) philosophers seem to think that life is mystery. e) most cars start badly on cold mornings. f) There was time when I enjoyed skating. g) Do you have reason for arriving late? h) When I arrive home I feel sense of relief. i) end of book is by far best part. j) friend always tells me answers to homework we have.

Key points 1 With some types of building, the meaning can change depending on the use of the article. Helen is at school. (the purpose of the school is important - Helen is a student or a teacher) Helen is at the school. (the building itself is important - it is the place where we can find Helen) 2 The use of the article can show something about the context of a short piece of text. In particular, whether an item has or has not been mentioned before. The BBC reported that the two men have since been recaptured. Use of the shows that the two men have been mentioned before, and so this is an extract from a longer text. 3 Many uses of articles are idiomatic, and should be learned as part of a phrase. Diana works as a graphic designer.

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15 Explanations All - When all is used to show the quantity of something, it can be followed by of. Jim was there all (of) the time.

- All can be used for emphasis. Note the position. They all wore white shorts and shirts. Those stamps you bought me have all disappeared.

• All means the only thing when it is used in the construction all + subject + verb. All I want is some peace and quiet. It is unusual to use all as a single-word subject or object. Instead we use everything to mean all the things. Everything has gone wrong! (NOT All has gone wrong!)

No • When no is used to show the quantity of something, it can mean not any. There are no plates left. No new students have joined the class.

- No can also be used with a comparative adjective. It's no worse than before. There were no less than 500 applications for the job.

- No is not normally used alone before an adjective. Compare: This book doesn't have any interesting parts. (usual) There are no interesting parts in this book. (unusual - very emphatic) It is not interesting. But there is an idiomatic use of no with good. I tried hard but it was no good, I couldn't reach. (no good = useless) Another common idiomatic use is with -ing forms. Remember, no cheating! No smoking, please.

None • We do not use no of. Instead, we use none of or none on its own. None of the films that are showing in town look very interesting. I've checked all the films that are showing in town. None look very interesting. In everyday speech none is often followed by a plural verb form. In formal speech or writing it can be followed by a singular verb form. None of these telephones work. None of the members of the committee has arrived yet.

• To emphasize the idea of none we can use none at all or not one. A: How many people came to the party? B: None!/None at alU/Not one!

132 16 GRAMMAR 23 ALL, NO, NONE, BACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER

Each, every - The meaning of each and every is very similar and often either word is possible. Each/Every time I come here I go to my favourite restaurant. But sometimes there is a small difference. We use each when we think of the single items in a group, one by one. We use every when we think of the items in a group all together. Compare: They gave a medal to each member of the team. I believe every word he says.

• Each is more usual with a smaller group, and can mean only two. Every is more usual with a larger number, and cannot mean two. She kissed him on each cheek.

• We can use each of, but we cannot use every of. When the team won the cup, each of them was given a medal.

- Each can be used after the subject, or at the end of a sentence. The members each received a medal. The members received a medal each.

- Repeated actions are generally described with every. I practise the violin every day.

Either, neither - Either and neither both refer to choices between two items. Either means the one or the other. Neither means not the one or the other. Monday or Tuesday? Yes, either day is fine. Monday or Tuesday? I'm sorry, but neither day is convenient. So not + either is the same as neither. I didn't like either of those films. Neither of the films was any good.

- Either can also mean both. Note that either is followed by the singular form of the noun. On either side of the house there are shops. (on both sides)

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17 FIRST CERTIFICATE LANGUAGE PRACTICE

Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word given in capitals, and the meaning stays the same. Do not change the word in any way.

a) This is the only money I have left. ALL ....This is all the money I have left

b) There wasn't anyone at the meeting. NO

c) Both singers had bad voices. NEITHER

d) All of the cups are dirty. NONE

e) Everyone was cheering loudly. ALL

f) You both deserve promotion. EACH

g) I read both books, but I liked neither of them. EITHER

h) Whenever I cross the Channel by boat I feel seasick. EVERY

2 Rewrite each sentence, beginning as shown, so that the meaning stays the same.

a) Everyone in the office was given a personal parking space. Each ..person in the office was given a personal parking space. b) This town doesn't have any good hotels. There are c) Love is the only thing that you need. All d) These two pens don't write properly. Neither e) We are all responsible for our own actions. Each f) All of us feel lonely sometimes. We g) All of the shops are closed. None h) Both jobs were unsuitable for Helen. Neither

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18 GRAMMAR 23 ALL, NO, NONE, EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER

3 Complete each sentence with the most suitable word or phrase.

a) Jack walked into the room with a gun in either C. A) side B) door C) hand D) one b) I had a hundred offers for my house. A) neither B) each C) all D) no less than c) I feel so tired this evening. I've been working hard A) all day B) every day C) each day D) day by day d) The two cars for sale were in poor condition, so I didn't buy A) either of them B) both of them C) neither of them D) each of them e) I tried to lift the heavy trunk but it was A) not good B) no less than good C) neither good D) no good f) The room was full of people and were speaking. A) neither of them B) all of them C) none of them D) each of them g) spent more time walking a century ago. A) People all B) All persons C) each people D) All h) My friend Jonathan has a gold earring in A) his two ears B) each ear C) every year D) the ears i) I looked everywhere for my pen and it was here A) none of the time B) every time C) all the time D) each time j) People say that there is like show business. A) all business B) no business C) not business D) all business

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4 Complete each sentence with the most suitable word from the box.

a) Is either.... of you interested in working on Saturday this week? b) I am afraid there are vacancies in the company at present. c) I think we should be given at least £50 d) other Saturday we watch our local hockey team. e) Let's start now. There's time like the present! f) you are interested in doing is going to the cafe! g) There are two beds. You can sleep in one, it doesn't matter. h) Sally gave a present to and every one of us! i) And the star of our show is other than Dorothy Rogers! j) My boss has given me chance to succeed.

5 Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence, using the word given. Do not change the word given. You must use between two and five words, including the word given.

a) I always go to the cinema on Thursdays in winter. Thursday I go to the cinema every Thursday in winter. b) This has nothing to do with you! none This is business! c) I'm afraid there aren't any empty seats at the front. all I'm afraid at the front are taken. d) From today, lorries are not allowed to go through the town centre. no From today to go through the town centre. e) The days get colder and colder, it Each colder. f) Both questions were impossible to understand. couldn't I question.

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20 GRAMMAR 23 ALL, NO, NONE, EACH, EVERY, EITHER, NEITHER

g) You only want to listen to rock music! is All you to rock music. h) As many as 20,000 people are thought to have attended the concert. than No are thought to have attended the concert. i) Each child was given £100. were The £100 each. j) We cannot waste any time! no There waste.

Look carefully at each line. Some of the lines are correct, and some have a word which should not be there. Tick each correct line. If a line has a word which should not be there, write the word in the space.

Supermarkets The every time I go to a supermarket I ask myself why I go shopping there so often. Last time I ended up buying all the kinds of things when the all I really wanted was a packet of rice and a small loaf, but could find neither of them. I looked in every one corner of the shop but there was simply no a sign of these products. I looked carefully on either side of the aisles but it was no any good. I ought to confess here that I had forgotten my glasses! All of I could see was rows of colourful shapes of all sizes. I decided to ask an assistant. They were all a busy of course and none of them was anywhere nearby in any case. Meanwhile I had been filling my basket with all the kinds of things I thought I wanted. After I had paid, I had no money left for the weekend, but I hadn't bought the either of the things I wanted!

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Key points 1 In the construction all + subject + verb, all means the only thing. All we need now is a new car. But we do not use all by itself as a subject. Instead we use everything. Everything is missing, I'm afraid. (NOT All is missing) 2 Note these idiomatic uses of no. No parking. No smoking. It's no use. It's no good. 3 Each refers to the single items in a group, one by one. Every refers to all the items of a group together. It is usual for larger numbers. Make sure that each letter has a stamp. Every Manchester United fan will be celebrating tonight. Both words are followed by a singular verb {has not have in the example above). We can use each of but not every of. Each of these books has its interesting points. 4 Either and neither refer to two items, separately. Both hotels look good to me. Either one would be OK. Neither of these hotels is very comfortable. Both words are followed by a singular verb (is not are in the example above). 5 None (= not one) is often followed by a plural verb form in everyday speech, but a singular verb in formal speech and writing. None of the students have/has answered the question correctly.

22 Explanations Basic uses of articles are assumed known. Definite article • Classes This is one way to refer to classes, and is perhaps more formal than using a plural: The tiger is threatened with extinction. • National groups Groups as a whole: The French eat in restaurants more than the English. Single examples are not formed in the same way: A Frenchman/woman, an Englishman/woman. • Other groups If these are clearly plural: the Social Democrats, The Rolling Stones Note the difference: Pink Floyd, Queen (no article) • Unique objects the moon, the sun Note that there are other suns and moons in the universe. This planet has a small moon. • Titles These tend to be 'unique'. The director of studies If the title is post-modified (has a description coming after the noun), the is more likely, but not essential. Compare: She became President in 1998. She became (the) President of the United States in 1998. • Other titles The may be part of the title, and so is capitalised. Newspapers: The Independent, The Sunday Times • Musical instruments Jane plays the flute. The guitar is my favourite instrument. It is, of course, still possible to use a where it would naturally be used. There was a small brown flute in the window of the shop.

104 23 GRAMMAR 17 ARTICLES

• Emphatic use This is heavily stressed and emphasises the following noun. This hotel is the place to stay. See also Grammar 14. • Geographical names The following use the: Rivers: the Thames Mountain ranges: the Alps Oceans: the Mediterranean Unique features: the Channel, the Arctic Compass points/areas: the East, the Middle East Countries: collective or plural: The United Kingdom, The Netherlands This does not apply to: Mountain peaks: Everest (but The Matterhorn) Continents: Asia Countries: France The definite article is sometimes used before Lebanon and Gambia: The Lebanon The Gambia • Place names Post-modification, especially with ... of... plays a role in place names. Compare: Leeds University/The University of Leeds London Bridge/The Tower of London -» If the first part of a place-name is another name, then normal rules about zero article apply. Brown's Restaurant The Garden House Hotel The same applies in geographical names: Canvey Island The Isle of Man • Most and the most Most hotels in England are very expensive, (making a generalisation) This is the most expensive hotel in town, (talking about a specific hotel) • Importance of context The definite article refers to already mentioned items, and so its use depends on context. The Smiths had a son and a daughter. The son was in the Army and the daughter was training to be a doctor. On the Saturday, there was a terrible storm. Here, the Saturday refers to a day in an area of time already mentioned. On the Saturday of that week ...

24 105 ADVANCED LANGUAGE PRACTICE

Indefinite article • Jobs Compare: Tony is a builder. Tony was the builder of that house. • In measuring Three times a week. Fifty kilometres an hour. £3.50 a kilo. £15,000 a year. Formally, per can replace a/an. • Unknown people Use of a/an emphasises that a person is unknown. A Mr Jones called while you were out. Zero article • Names Compare: Matthew Smith is one of my favourite artists, (a person) A Matthew Smith hangs in their bedroom, (a painting) • Some unique organisations do not use the. Parliament, but The (House of) Commons • Streets Most streets do not use an article. Green Road Godwin Street Exceptions are: ^ The High Street The Strand and street names without preceding adjectives. Compare: Holly Drive The Drive Translation Study these sentences. Would you use an article in your language? problems I know how to use a computer. A pound and a half of cheese. I was holding it in my hand. It's a film about homeless people. Terry has flu. I've got a headache.

106 25 GRAMMAR 17 ARTICLES

The activities include revision material.

In each space put a/an or the, or leave the space blank.

It has been announced that for (1) third consecutive month there has been (2) rise in (3) number of (4) people unemployed, rather than (5) fall that had been predicted. (6) rise was blamed on (7) continuing uncertainty over (8) government economic policy, and couldn't come at (9) worse time for (10) Prime Minister, who is facing (11) growing criticism over (12) way (13) present crisis is being handled. (14) MPs are increasingly voicing (15) fears that despite (16) recent devaluation of (17) pound and cuts in (18) interest rates, (19) government still expects (20) recovery of the economy to take three or even four years. To make (21) matters worse, (22) „. number of small businesses going into (23) liquidation is still at (24) record level, and (25) housing market is showing no signs of recovery. Some backbenchers expect (26) general election before (27) end of (28) winter unless there is (29) rapid change of (30) fortune.

2 Underline the most suitable option. A dash (-) means that no article is included.

a) Helen doesn't like the/- cream cakes sold in a/the local bakery. b) The/- handball is fast becoming a/the popular sport worldwide. c) We could see that the/— Alps were covered in the/- snow. d) It's a/- long time since I met a/- lovely person like you! e) Diana has a/- degree in the/- engineering from the/- University of London. f) At the/- present moment, the/- man seems to have the/an uncertain future. g) The/- problem for the/- today's students is how to survive financially, h) The/- French enjoy spending holidays in the/- countryside. i) Please do not turn on a/the water-heater in a/the bathroom, j) Sue bought a/the Picasso I was telling you about the/- last week.

26 107 ADVANCED LANGUAGE PRACTICE

Correct the errors in these sentences. a) It's not a first-class accommodation unless it has a private bathroom.

b) On this record twins play piano duet.

c) The halfway through meal we realised what waiter had said.

d) If the Mrs Hillier phones, say I'm away on trip.

e) There is a wonderful scenery in eastern part of Turkey.

f) Cocker spaniel is one of most popular pet dogs.

g) There is going to be fog and a cold weather all the next week.

h) I spent very interesting holiday at the Lake Coniston in England.

i) We are against war in general, so of course we are against war like this between superpower and developing country.

j) The burglaries are definitely on increase.

In each space put a/an or the, or leave the space blank. a) I'm going to stand for Parliament at next election. b) When I left station, I had to stand in queue for taxi for long time. c) We took trip around London and saw Tower Bridge. d) happiness of the majority depends on hard work for everyone. e) most main roads in this part of country follow line of roads built by Romans. f) Have you got latest record by Gipsy Kings? g) If I had time, I would like to take up archery. h) We spent pleasant evening having drinks at Robin Hood. i) Nile flows right through city. j) summer I spent in USA was one of best in my life.

108 27 GRAMMAR 17 ARTICLES

5 In each space put a/an or the, or leave the space blank.

a) She was first woman to cross Atlantic in canoe. b) Go down High Street and turn right into Mill Road. c) Please let me carry shopping. It's least I can do. d) I don't like milk in coffee. e) At end of busy day, sleep is best tonic. f) James Joyce I knew wasn't novelist and wasn't Irish either. g) We'll go for walk if sun comes out. h) This is last time I do you favour for a while. i) I'm staying in Hilton so you can leave me message.

6 There are ten extra appearances of the in the following text. Underline them. The word processor and the calculator are without a shadow of doubt here to stay, and in the many respects our lives are the much richer for them. But the teachers and other academics are claiming that we are now starting to feel the first significant wave of their effects on a generation of the users. It seems nobody under the age of 20 can spell or add up any more. Even several professors at leading universities have commented on the detrimental effect the digital revolution has had on the most intelligent young minds in the country. The problem, evidently, lies with the automatic spellcheck now widely available on the word processing software. Professor John Silver of the Sydney University, Australia, said: 'Why should we bother to learn how to spell correctly, or for that matter to learn even the most basic of the mathematical sums, when at the press of a button we have our problem answered for us. The implications are enormous. Will the adults of the future look to the computer to make the decisions for them, to tell them who to marry or what the house to buy? Are we heading for a future individual incapable of the independent human thought?'

28 109 ADVANCED LANGUAGE PRACTICE

7 In each space put a/an or the, or leave the space blank.

a) Please watch cabin attendant as she demonstrates use of oxygen mask. b) Paul spent half of his life in Far East. c) You have to use at least pint and half of milk. d) Dick has sore throat and is taking medicine. e) We arranged accommodation on outskirts of city. f) There is very difficult crossword in ' Times'. g) Could you give me information I asked for in letter I sent you? h) I bought jewellery for my sister but it wasn't kind she likes, i) I always wanted to be astronaut but ambition wore off. j) And last of all, don't forget to put cat out for night.

o Underline the most suitable option. A dash (-) means that no article is needed. a) Brenda is the/- ideal for a/the job. She has a/- wealth of the/- experience. b) The/- safety at the/- work is a/- major concern for us. c) The/- poorest people in the/- country live in this city. d) Have you seen a/the new 'Hamlet' at the/- National Theatre? e) There is a/- beautiful countryside within an/- easy reach of a/the hotel. f) I have a/- terrible cold and am staying in the/- bed today. g) I earn £3 an/the hour as a/- supermarket cashier on the/- Saturdays, h) The/- charge for an/- excess luggage is £10 a/the kilo. i) The/- most of the/- life is a/- matter of getting on with the/- others, j) This country is officially called The/- United Kingdom of The/- Great Britain and The/- Northern Ireland.

110 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 5 Nouns and determiners

5.1 Types of noun phrase

Noun classes: count, noncount, and proper nouns Concrete and abstract nouns Nouns with dual class membership Reclassification Partitive constructions Partition in respect of quality Partition in respect of quantity Measure partitive nouns Noncount nouns and their count equivalents

Determinatives Central determiners The articles Other central determiners Central determiners and noun classes

Predeterminers 64

, All, both, half All and whole The multipliers double, twice, etc The fractions one-third, two-fifihs, etc Postdeterminers (a) Cardinal numerals (b) Ordinal numerals and 'general ordinals' (c) Closed-class quantifiers (d) Open-class quantifiers

The use of articles with common nouns Specific and generic reference Specific reference : definite and indefinite Uses of the definite article (a) Immediate situation (b) Larger situation (general knowledge) (c) Anaphoric reference: direct (d) Anaphoric reference: indirect (e) Cataphoric reference (f) Sporadic reference (g) The 'logical' use of the (h) The use of the with reference to body parts Uses of the indefinite article Nonreferring uses of the indefinite article (Bb) Pluralia tantum ending in -S The indefinite article and the numeral one (BC) Unmarked plural nouns: people, police, etc Uses of the zero article (C) Regular plurals The zero article compared with unstressedsome The pronunciation of the regular plural The zero article with definite meaning The spelling of the regular plural Noun phrases in a copular relation (D) Irregular plurals Noun phrases with sporadic reference (Da) Voicing and -S plural (a) Some 'institutions' of human life and society (Db) Mutation (b) Means of transport and communication (DC) The -en plural (c) Times of day and night (Dd) Zero plural (d) Seasons (I) Animal names (e) Meals (11) Nationality nouns (f) Illnesses (111) Quantitative nouns Parallel structures (IV) Nouns with equivocal number Fixed phrases involving prepositions Foreign plurals (De) Nouns from Latin ending in -us /as/ The articles in generic reference (Df) Nouns from Latin ending in -a /a/ The generic use of the indefinite article (Dg) Nouns from Latin ending in -urn /am/ The generic use of the zero article (Dh) Nouns from Latin ending in -ex, -ix The generic use of the definite article (Di) Nouns from Greek ending in -is /IS/ With singular noun phrases (Dj) Nouns from Greek ending in -on With plural noun phrases (Dk) Nouns from French: bureau, corps, etc 65 Some nationality words (Dl) Nouns from Italian ending in -0 /au/ The articles with abstract noncount nouns (Dm) Nouns from Hebrew: kibbutz - kibbutzim Compounds Proper nouns Forms of address Proper nouns behaving as common nouns (a), Number Gender

(b)! Determination \ (a/b) Personal malelfemale nouns (c) I Modification (c) Personal dual gender Names with no article (d) Common gender Personal names (e) Collective nouns Temporal names (f/g) Higher animals Geographical names (h/i) Lower animals and inanimate nouns other locative names consisting of proper noun Names of countries + common noun descriptor Names with the definite article Case Structure of names with the Common case and genitive case Classes of names typically preceded by the The forms of the genitive inflection The 'zero genitive' Number The genitive and the of-construction Number classes Genitive meanings (A) Singular invariable nouns Gender of the genitive noun (B) Plural invariable nouns The genitive in relation to noun classes (Ba) Summation plurals The genitive with superlatives and ordinals Noun classes: count, noncount, and proper nouns 245

Noun heads with the genitive Types of noun phrase The grammatical status of the genitive 5.1 Genitive as determinative The noun phrase typically functions as subject, object, and complement of clauses and as complement of prepositional phrases. Consider the different Genitive as modifier subjects in the following sentences: The group genitive The independent genitive The girl The 'local genitive' The blonde girl The blonde girl in blue jeans The 'post-genitive' is my sister. The blonde girl wearing blue jeans The blonde girl who is wearing blue jeans Bibliographicalnote She Sentences [l -51 are alike in having the same noun (girl) as noun-phrase head (cf 2.28, 17.2). The noun phrase in [l] has the simplest structure, consisting of only the definite article and the head; in [2] it also has a premodifying adjective (blonde); in[3-51 the noun phrase has, inaddition, postmodification: in [3] a prepositional phrase (in blue jeans); in [4] a nonfinite clause (wearing blue jeans); and in [5] a relative clause (who is wearing blue jeans). In [6] the noun phrase consists of only one word (she), which is one of a closed class of grammatical words called personal pronouns. Such pronouns can 'deputize' for noun phrases and hence cannot normally occur with determiners such as the definite article, premodification, or (normally) postmodification:

*the blonde she ?she in blue jeans 66 Since noun phrases of the types illustrated in [2-51 include words and structures that will be dealt with in later chapters (adjectives, prepositional phrases, clauses), it will be convenient to reserve the treatment of 'complex' noun phrases incorporating such items until Chapter 17, which deals with the noun phrase as a whole. The present chapter will be restricted to the constituency of the 'basic' noun phrase, ie the classes of nouns together with articles or other closed-class determinative elements that can occur before the noun head, including predeterminers like all, central determiners like these, and postdeterminers like last and few: all these last.few days

Noun classes: count, noncount, and proper nouns

5.2 It is necessary, both for grammatical and semantic reasons, to see nouns as falling into different subclasses. That this is so can be demonstrated by taking the four nouns Sid, book, furniture, and brick and considering the extent to which it is possible for each to appear as head of the noun phrase functioning as object in the sentence I saw . . .: without any determiner (a); with the lightly stressed determiners the /21a/ (b), a /a/ (c), some /sam/ (d); and in the plural (e). The result of this test can be seen in Table 5.2: 246 Nouns and determiners Noun classes: count, noncount, and proper nouns 247

Table 5.2 Test table for noun classes Concrete and abstract nouns 5.3 Cutting across the grammatical and semantic count/noncount distinction, there is a semantic division into nouns like pig which are CONCRETE (ie (a) Sid *book Jurniture brick accessible to the senses, observable, measurable, etc) and nouns like di8culty (b) *the Sid the book the furniture the brick which are ABSTRACT (typically nonobservable and nonmeasurable). But while (C) *a Sid a book *afurniture a brick abstract nouns may be count (like remarklremarks)or noncount (like warmth/ (d) *some Sid *some book some furniture some brick *warmrhs), there is a considerable degree of overlap between abstract and (e) *Sids books *furnirures bricks noncount (cf 5.58). Figure 5.3 shows the noun classes introduced so far.

The difference between column 1 (with only one possibility) and column oncrete : hun. pig, toy, . . . 2 3 (with all possibilities) indicates the degree of variation between the count + abstract: dificilty, remark.. . . noun classes. Nouns that behave like Sid in column 1 (Confucius, Paris, Sierra common Leone, etc) are PROPER NOUNS, which will be further discussed in 5.60ff huner,gold. . . . The nouns in the other columns are COMMON NOUNS, but there are nouns noncount important differences between them. Those which, like book in column 2 (bottle, chair, forest, idea, etc), must be seen as denoting individual countable \proper: John. Paris, . . . entities and not as an undifferentiated mass, are called COUNT nouns. Nouns which, like furniture, conform to the pattern of column 3 (as do bread, grass, Fig 5.3 The most important noun classes warmth, music, etc), must by contrast be seen as denoting an undifferentiated mass or continuum. These are called NONCOUNT nouns. Finally we have nouns in column 2 + 3 which can be either count or Nouns with dual class membership noncount nouns (eg: brick, cake,paper, stone), in that we can view a noun like 5.4 The division of nouns according to countability into count nouns and brick either as the noncount material [l], or as constituting the countable noncount nouns is basic in English. Yet the language makes it possible to object [2]: look upon some objects from the point of view of both count and noncount, 67 as in the case of cake: The house is built of brick. He used bricks to build the house. A: Would you like a cake? B: No, I don't like cake. The type headed 2 + 3 may be classified grammatically in two ways: (a) Such nouns may be said to have dual class membership. In other cases, eg: either as a lexical class of noun which combines the characteristics of count paper, there is no readily perceptible parallelism but a notable difference in nouns and noncount nouns, or (b) as two separate items, one count and the meaning between the two nouns: other noncourit. The former mode of analysis is convenient for nouns like I want an evening paper. ['newspaper'] [l] brick and cakelwith little difference in rheaning between count and noncount Wrap the parcel up in brown paper. ['wrapping paper'] []a] uses. Therefore such nouns will be said to have 'dual class membership' (cf 5.4). Note also the variation of quantifiers (eg: rnuch/many) in some of the Although in sentences such as I like music, I like Sid, the two nouns look following examples of count and noncount nouns: superficially alike in terms of article usage, we will say that music has ZERO She was a beauty in her youth. [COUNT] L21 ARTICLEbut tqat Sid has NO ARTICLE. The label 'zero' is appropriate in the She had great beauty in her youth. [NONCOUNT] [2al case of common nouns which have article contrast, eg: music as opposed to She's had many dz@culties. [COUNT] L31 the music (cf 5.52fn in: She's not had much dz$culty. [NONCOUNT] 134 I like music and dancing. He's had several odd experiences. [COUNT] [41 [NONCOUNT] I think the music is too loud in here. He hasn't had much experience. [4al There were bright lights and harsh sounds. [COUNT] [S] If, however, we disregard special grammatical environments like the Sid I Light travels faster than sound. [NONCOUNT] [sal mean is tall (cf 5.64), proper nouns have no article contrast (Sid/*the Sid), and She will give a talk on Chinese art. [COUNT] [61 will therefore be said to have 'no article'. That's foolish talk. [NONCOUNT] [6al The lambs were eating quietly. [COUNT] [71 Note COUNT nouns, as they are termed in this book, are by some grammarians called 'countable' There is lamb on the menu today. [NONCOUNT] [W nouns; similarly, our term NONCOUNT nouns corresponds to 'mass' nouns or 'uncountable' nouns in other grammars. In many other cases, the type of distinction to be seen in the count noun Iamb 7

248 Nouns and determiners Noun classes: count. noncount, and proper nouns 249

(the animal, as in [7])and the noncount noun lamb (the meat from the animal, Partitive constructions as in [7a])is achieved by separate lexical items, as in: They raise a great many calves,pigs, and sheep. Partition in respect of quality Weeat a great deal ofveal, pork, and mutton. 5.6 Both count and noncount nouns can enter partitive constructions, ie constructions denoting a part of a whole. Such constructions express both Other count/noncount pairs realized by different lexical items are the quality partition (eg: a kind of paper) and quantity partition (eg: a piece of following : paper). Quality partition is expressed by a partitive count noun like kind, sort, or type followed by an of-phrase,eg: a garment - clothing a job, a task - work (cf 5.9) a laugh - laughter a suitcase - luggage SINGULAR PARTITIVES PLURAL PARTITIVES a 'permit -permission a poem - poetry a new kind of computer new kinds of computers a weapon - arms (cf 5.77) a machine - machinery a delicious sort of bread delicious sorts of bread other types of research Note also the contrast between the noncount noun money and the count another type ofresearch nouns naming differentunits ofmoney: Quality partition of noncount nouns may thus be expressed either by a Wehaven't much money left. We've only got a few coins/two dollar partitive construction or by reclassification(cf 5.5): bills/some pound notes. a nice kind of coffee - a nice coffee English types of cheese - English cheeses Note The distinction between count nouns and noncount nouns is not fully explainable as necessarily inherent in 'real world' denotata. This is clear when we compare the words of languages closely Note Whether we are dealing with count or noncount nouns, we can express the quality partition in related to English (c! 5.9). Rather, the justification for the count/noncount distinction is based the forma + adjective + noun, such that a sentencelike the followingissuperficiallyambiguous: on the grammatical characteristics of the English noun. We are importinga new Italian shirt. It may mean either 'a new type of' or 'a new item' (the former interpretation naturally being

more likely in this case). 68 Reclassification

5.5 Nouns may also be shifted from one class to another by means of conversion ., (cf App 1.53). Thus a noncount noun like cheese can be 'reclassified' as a Partition in respect of quantity count noun involving a semantic shift so as to denote quality partition 'kind/ 5.7 (a) Noncount nouns type/formof', eg: Noncount nouns are seen, as we have said, as denoting an undifferentiated mass. However, the expression of quantity and thus countability may be A: What cheeses have you got today? achieved by means of certain GENERALPARTITIVE NOUNS, in particular piece, B: Well,we have Cheddar, Gorgonzola, and Danish Blue. bit, item, followed by an of-phrase:

Similarly, a noun like coffee, which is normally noncount, as in [l],can be SINGULAR PARTITIVES PLURAL PARTITIVES reclassified as a count noun to mean an 'appropriate unit of' as in [la]and apiece of cake twopieces of cake [lb], or a 'kind/sort/brand of'as in [lc]and [Id]: a bit ofchalk some bits of chalk Do you want tea or coffee? an item of news several items of news Can I have a coffee, please. ['acup ofcoffee'] Quantity of noncount nouns may thus often be expressed either by partitive Two coffee&,please. ['twocups ofcoffee] nouns or by reclassification (cf 5.5): two lumps of sugar = two sugars. This is a nice coffee. The most widely used partitive expression is a piece of, which can be I like Brazilian cofees best. combined with both concrete and abstract nouns, eg:

Note There is a special case ofreclassification in cases like the following: Concrete : a piece ofbacon/chalk/coal/land/paper Are you cosmetics? Abstract: a piece of advice/information/news/research/work Here there is no coreference relation between subject and complement as in Are you a teaclrer? The complement represents instead a compressed form of the predication; eg: Arc you (selling) Bit generally implies a small quantity: a bit of rice/news/fun/research.With cosmerics? In this use of the noun there is an implied contrast: 'cosmetics as opposed to toys, abstract nouns, item is used (liesidespiece): jewellery, etc in a department store'. Similarly: Are you 103? ['the occupant of room number 103, as opposed to 104, etc'] an item of business/information/news['a news item'] The contrast may also be more explicit, as in: Are you chtrrchor chapel?['a member of the Churchof England or a nonconformist'] Item is not generally used with concrete nouns: *an item of oillcake (BUTan In theselast cases we may argue that the noun has been reclassified as an adjective (cfApp 1.51), item of clothing). as in Theyie wry Oxbridge. In addition to these general partitives there are some more restricted and Noun classes: count, noncount, and proper nouns 251 250 Nouns and determiners

But, of course, since in many cases the adjective modifying the whole group could equally apply descriptive TYPICAL PARTITIVES which form expressions with specific concrete to the second noun, we have some instances like the following where the meanings of the two noncount nouns, such as the following: phrases differ little, if at all: an atomlgrain of truth a hot [cup of tca] = a cup of hot tea a good [stroke of luck] = a stroke of good luck a bar of chocolate/soap/gold/iron a beautiful [pair of legs] = a pair of beautiful legs a blade of grass The premodifiers (hot, etc) in such cases often apply more appropriately to the second noun than a block of icelflats (BrE)/seats [in a theatrellshares [in a business] to the first; ie it is not the cup but the tea that is hot in a hot cup of tea. In a nice glass of aAiskj, a cut of lamblmeat; a joint of meat (BrE) nice is roughly equivalent to 'welcome' and offers only implicit comment on the quality of the a drop of water/oil/whisky liquor. [b] Typical partitives sometimes have a negative intensifying force (cf8. l I 1 ): a grain of corn/rice/sand/salt A:,Did you sleep well? a loaf of bread B: No, I didn't get a wink (of sleep). a lump of coal/lead/sugar [C] When the two partitive constructions combine, the quantity partitive is included in the scope a sheet of paper/metal/ice of the quality partitive: a slice of bacon/bread/cake/meat [nokinds of [loavcs of bread] a speck of dustldirt but not: *t~~aloaves of kinds ofbread a stick of chalk/dynamite/celery/rock [a sweet] (BrE)/candy (AmE) Measure partitive nouns a strip of cloth/land/paper The measure partitives relate to precise quantities denoting length, area, a suit of clothing/clothes/annour 5.8 volume, and weight, for example (note the compulsory of): (b) Plural count nouns Whereas the general partitive a piece of can be used with many of the Length: a foot of copper wire noncount nouns (a piece of paperlbaconlnews, etc), it cannot be used with a metre (BrE)/a meter (AmE)/a yard of cloth plural count nouns (including invariably plural nouns like cattle; cf 5.76fl?. a mile of cable Other partitives are used with them, eg: Area: an acrela hectare of land Volume: a litre (BrE)/a liter (AmE) of wine a (large) crowd of people apintla quart of milk 69 a (huge)$ock of birdslsheep Weight: an ounce of tobacco apound of butter a (small) herdof cattle a kilo of apples a ton of coal apacket (BrE)/pack (esp AmE) of cigarettes a series of incidents/concerts/lectures Measure partitives can be either singular or plural: a bunch of flowerslkeys [In informal style, bunch is also used about alone gallon of water people, like 'group': a bunch of teenagers.] twolseveral gallons (c) Singular nouns If count, the second noun must be plural: Partition can also be expressed in reference to singular count nouns, eg: a piece of a loaf a branch of a tree apage of a book a section of a newspaper a verse of a poem Noncount nouns and their count equivalents 5.9 It may be noted that, apart from a tendency for concrete nouns to be count Fractional partition can also be expressed by such general quantitative items and for abstract nouns to be noncount, there is no necessary connection as halJ; all, whole + of + noun (cf 5.16f): between the classes of nouns and the entities to which they refer. In some related languages, the nouns corresponding to infirmation, money, news, and a quarter of work, for example, are count nouns, but in English they are noncount: that piece (of meat). He didn't give us much information. Do you need all this money? the rest of The news is rather bad today. the remainder of She doesn't like hard work. Note [a] When we modify a partitive noun sequence, the modification applies to the group as a whole: Some noncount nouns with count equivalents are given below: an expensive cup of coflhe ['The crip ofcoflecost ;I lot.'] 252 Nouns and determiners Determinatives 253

NONCOUNTNOUN COUNT EQUIVALENT Determinatives This is important information. apiecelbitlwordof information Have you any news? apiecela bitlan item of good news 5.10 When used in discourse, noun phrases refer to the linguistic or situational a lot of abuse a termlword of abuse context. The kind of reference a particular noun phrase has depends on its some good advice apiecelword of good advice DETERMINATIVE element, ie the item which 'determines' it. This function is warm applause a round of applause typically realized by a Set of closed-class items, or DETERMINERS, which occur How's business? apiecelbit of business before the noun acting as head of the noun phrase (or before its premodifiers) There is evidence that. . . apiece of evidence (cf 2.28m. Thus we say that the noun phrase in [l] has indefinite reference, expensivefurniture apiecelan articlela suite of furniture whereas the noun phrase in [2] has definite reference: The interest is only 5 per cent. a (low) rate of interest a bicycle? What (badlgood) luck! a piece of (badlgood) luck Have you seen the bicycle? Since such differences between languages can be adequately treated only in contrastive grammars, we will restrict the list below to a sample of some Indefinite reference is typically indicated by the indefinite article alan, and nouns (in addition to those mentioned earlier) which are noncount in English definite reference is typically indicated by the definite article the, but, as we but correspond to count nouns in some other languages: shall see, there are also other determiners with a similar function. We distinguish three classes of determiners: anger behaviour cash chaos chess 'conduct (I) PREDETERMINERS, eg: half, all, double; (11) CENTRAL DETERMINERS, eg: the articles the, alan; courage dancing education (111) POSTDETERMINERS,eg: cardinal and ordinal numerals, many, few. equipment fun harm homework hospitality leisure The three classes of determiners have been set up on the basis of their moonlight music parking position in the noun phrase in relation to each other. Thus we do not find photography publicity 'refuse central determiner + predeterminer (*their all trouble), or postdeterminer + research resistance safety central determiner + predeterminer (*Jive theall boys), but only the order I + scenery shopping smoking I1 + I11 given above: all their trouble, UN thefive boys. 70 sunshine , trafic violence We begin by discussing the articles and other central determiners (5.11 - 14), and then go on to predeterminers (5.15- 19), and postdeterminers (5.20- Note [a] Some of the nohcount nouns can he count nouns with special meanings, eg: moneys'amounts 25). of money', as can be seen in a dictionary. [b] It can be argued that some nouns, like weather, are neither count (*a weather) nor noncount (*a lot of weather), but these nouns share features belonging to both classes. Noncount noun features include the premodified structures a lot ofgood weather, some bad weather, what lovely Central determiners weather. On the dtdr hand, wunt noun features include the pluralgo out in all weathers, in the worst of weathers. i The articles [c] On the use of fun'as adjective, c/ 7.14 Note [cl. [d] Some noncount nouns accept the indefinite article when they are modified (c/ 5.59). eg: 5.11 The most common and typical central determiners are the definite and They are doing a brisk business. (NOT *a business) indefinite articles, the and alan, respectively. We have seen in 5.2 that In some cases no modification seems to be required. In the following example, however, different noun classes require different articles. For the two classes of modification is in fact implied: common nouns, the count and noncount nouns, the distribution into number She has had an education. ['a good education'] (singular/plural) and definiteness (definitelindefinite) can be stated as follows: [e] Names of languages are all nonwunt, eg: . She speaksgood English. [.r 'a good English] Table the articles count and noncount nouns Occasionally, however, they are count, as in the partitive sense described in 5.6: 5.1 1 Use of with She speaks a dialectal French. ['a dialectal form of French'] COUNT NONCOUNT

definite the book thefurniture SINGULAR indefinite a book furniture

definite the books PLURAL indefinite books

The forms of the articles depend on the initial sound of the following word. 254 Nouns and determiners Determinatives 255

In its unstressed (and normal) use, the definite article is always written the other determiners have the additional function of pronouns, eg: some, that, but pronounced /aa/ before consonants and /at/ before vowels. The unstressed and either: indefinite article is a /a/ before consonants and an /an/ before vowels. Note DETERMINER FUNCTION PRONOUN FUNCTION that it is the pronunciation, not the spelling, of the following word that A : I want some ice. B: Here's some for you. determines their form: A: What's that thing over there? B: That's our computer. Either book will do. You can have either (of the books). lhe laal}boy, usage, hole the "" ]understanding, hour a /a/ an /an/ On pronouns like either with or without the alternative ofconstruction, cf The use of the articles is discussed in 5.26ff. 6.48. No and every are exceptional: like the articles, they cannot function Note [a] The indefinite article a/an can be regarded as an unstressed numeral, equivalent to stressed independently as pronouns. They can, however, form part of compound one. Compare: pronouns'when followed by (-)one, -body, or -thing (cf 6.45fn: a poundpr two one or two pounds Alan cannot cooccur with one (except, in limited cases, when one is the head of a noun phrase: no one nobody nothing . You are a one!, 66.55 Note [b]), and may sometimes replace one (cJ'5.38). everyone everybody everything [b] There is fluctuation in the form of the indefinite article before some words that are written with initial h, depending on whether the 11 is pronounced ornot: Unlike other central determiners, the articles have no lexical meaning but hotel, herb solely contribute definite or indefinite status to the nouns they determine. Yet historical novel BUT:a history I zn){ the dependence is not unilateral. For example, a count noun like boy is, on habitual drunkard nm: a habit its own, only a lexical item. To assume grammatical status, it requires an [c] The initial h is not pronounced in hour (Itourl~t),honest, honour (honourable), heir (heiress, heirloom). Thus: an hour ago, an honours degree. 'overt' determiner of some kind. The use of the articles will be discussed in [d] Note words which are spelled with an initial vowel but pronounced with a consonant: a 5.268, and the use of other central determiners in Chapter 6. European car, a UNESCO 08fcial; and, conversely, words which are spelled with an initial consonant but pronounced with a vowel: an MP, an RP accent. Note [a] There are two exceptions to the rule that count nouns cannot occur without a determiner. [e] The articles are stressed only for very special emphasis. Here the distinction between the One occurs in parallel structures (cf 5.50): 71 pre-vowel and pre-consonant form is neutralized for the definite article: Man or boy, I don't like him. 'the /bi:/ boy, usage, understanding, hour The other exceptional case is that of vocatives (cf 10.52f): 'a /et/ boy, usage Look here, man! 'an lien/ understanding, hour Man is also used generically without the article (cf 5.54 Note). In writing, emphasis is often indicated by italics or underlining: 'the man'. [b] Coordinated noun-phrase heads can share a determiner placed before the first head (cf The stressed definite article is often used to indicate excellence or superiority in some respect 13.67): [l, 21, or the identity of somebody well-known [3] (cf 5.63): the boys and (the)girls He would be 'the /di:/ man for the job. [l] the radios, (the) tape recorders, and (the) television sets in this store The demonstration will be'the /bi:/ event this week. 121 a knife, (a)fork, and (a) spoon You don't mean 'the /6i:/Professor Hart? ., [31 There is some criticism of the overuse of stressed articles for expected unstressed articles, Central determiners and noun classes especially on radio and TV (cfoveruse of stressed prepositions, 9.9 Note, 18.14 Note [b]). [I] The indefinite article means 'a certain', 'a person giving his name as' (cJ one 5.63 Note [b]), 5.13 We have noted in 5.2 that there are certain cooccurrence restrictions between articles and common nouns. The definite article can occur with all three noun in such cases as: ' A Mr Johnson,came to see you last night. classes (singular count, plural count, and singular noncount), but the zero [g] On alan in distributiveexpressions of frequency like t~viceoday, cf 5.18. and indefinite articles cannot do so. When we consider determiners as a whole, we will find that there are many more restrictions. For no, for example, Other central determiners we have all three possibilities: 5.12 The use of the articles is not the only possibility for 'determining' nouns. no pen no pens no music Instead of a or the with book we may have eg: this/that/every/each/no book. But there are incomplete paradigms for this, either, and enough: Like the articles, these words, and some others, are called central determiners. They form a set of closed-class items that are mutually exclusive with each this pen *thispens this music other, ie there cannot be more than one occurring before the noun head: *a either pen *either pens *either music the boj~and *a some boy. Thus, the central determiners are in a 'choice *enough pen enough pens enough music relation', ie they occur one instead of another. In this respect they are unlike eg: all, many, and white, which are in a 'chain relation' (cf 2.5), ie they occur 5.14 The central determiners can be divided into five types with respect to their one after another in the noun phrase: aN the many white houses. cooccurrence with the noun classes singular count (chair, problem, etc), plural The articles have no function independent of the noun they precede. Most count (chairs,problems, etc), and noncount nouns (furt~iture,information, etc). 256 Nounsand determiners Determinatives 257

Type SINGULAR PLURAL NONCOUNT Type (c):Determiners of singular count nouns and singular noncount nouns. COUNT COUNT The demonstrative determiners this and that (cf 6.40jJ: Have you read thislthat book? Type (d):Determiners ofplural count nouns. The demonstrative determiners these and those (cf 6.40fn:

Fig 5.14 Cooccurrence of central determiners and noun classes Have you seen these/thoseplays? Type (e): Determiners ofsingular count nouns. Type (a):Determiners of singular count, plural count, and noncount nouns. (i) The indefinite article a/an (cf 5.36fl: (i) The definite article the (cf 5.27fn: Have you got a pen? Where do you want me to put the chairlthe chairslthe furniture? (ii) The universal determiners every and each (cf 6.51): (ii) The possessive pronouns as determiners: my, our, your, his, her, its, their I want to interview everyleach student individually. (cf 6.29): (iii) The nonassertive determiner either (cf 6.59m: Have you seen my suitcaselmy suitcases]my luggage? You can park on either side. (iii) The relative determiners whose (cf 6.34) and which (cf 6.35 Note [c]): (iv) The negative determiner neither (cf 6.62): The lady whose car you hit was furious. Neitherparty accepted the arbitration proposal. Call again at 11, by which time the meeting should be over. Note [a] Strongly stressed some can occur also with certain singular count nouns, especially temporal

(iv) The wh-determiners in -ever (cf 14.20): nouns (cf 6.52): 72 Vote for whicheverproposal you think most favourable. "~oie'day he will get his scholarship. With the meaning 'a certain', etc. stressed some can also cooccur with other singular count ,. For whatever reason, don't be late again. nouns: Whosever idea this may be, I don't like it. 'Someoddperson asked for you on the phone. [b] Stressed any can occur also with singular count nouns under certain conditions (cf 6.61): (v) The interrogative determiners what, which, whose (cf 6.36fn: I will consider "anyoffer/offers. ['it doesn't matter which'] What colour? [C]Every is exceptional among central determiners in occasionally allowing a genitive or a possessive determiner to precede it: Which information? Hiseuery action shows that he is a very determined young man. Ern Nor: *rhe/a~te~:eryoctio~l Whose ideas are these? X (vi) The negative determiner no (46.62): Predeterminers Wehave no problem/problems with violence here. 5.15 Predeterminers, which can occur before certain central determiners, include : The sign said 'Noparking'. (i) all, both, and hav(cf 5.16f): Type (b):~etekiners of plural count nouns and noncount nouns. UN (the)girls, both those cars, halfan hour (i) Zero article (cf 5.39fn: (ii) the multipliers double, twice, three times, etc (cf 5.18): There were people everywhere. Do you want to play chess? double the sum, twice my salary (ii) The assertive determiner some (unstressed:Isam/) and the nonassertive (iii) the fractions one-third, one-fifth,etc (cf 5.19): determiner any (cf 6.59fn: one-third the time I want some rolls/bread, please. (iv) such, what (cf7.63, 17.96): Have we got any rolls/bread for breakfast tomorrow? Such a surprise! (iii) The quantitative determiner enough (cf 6.57): What a fine day! I haven't got enough equipmenr/toolsto do the job. Predeterminers are mutually exclusive: 258 Nouns and determiners Determinatives 259

aNgirls, both girls BUT NOT: *all both girls halfthe sum, double the sum BUT NOT: *halfdouble the sum

Note The combination allsuch, as in [I], is an exception to the rule, just noted, that predeterminers All is considered a pronoun in all these constructions except [l] and [2], where are mutually exclusive: it is a predeterminer. Although every attempt is made to find suitable foster-homes for the children, it The predeterminer both and the centra1:determiners either and neither are cannot be assumed that ansuch placements will be successful. [I] not plural proper but 'dual', ie they can refer to only two entities. Compared The predeterminer such, used in this way as a pro-form (cf2.44.6.44 Note [b]), can also follow quantifiers such as any, no, and many, as well as cardinal numerals: with the numeral two, both is emphatic: Outbreaks of small-arms fire along the frontier became more frequent in ~a~, Both (the)] students wereexcellent. The two Pn0(~e~~~anyI ) such incidents were ofitiaIIy investigated. For the use of these items as pronouns, cf6.50 (all, both), 6.57 (half).

All and whole All, both, half 5.17 The form all + noun with no article usually has generic reference (cf 5.26): 5.16 The predeterminers all, both, and halfhave restrictions on cooccurrence with Allmen are created equal. [generic reference] determiners and noun heads. They can occur before the articles (all the time), possessive determiners (allmy time, etc), demonstrative determiners (all this Contrast: AN the men in the mine wore helmets. [specific reference] time). However, since they are themselves quantifiers, all, both, and halfdo But all noun is not necessarily generic, eg: not occur with the 'quantitative' determiners every, (n)either, each, some, any, + no, enough (but cf 5.17 Note [a]). Both can occur only with plural nouns and I will see all (the) students at 11 a.m. has dual number (see below) : AN (the) men must leave their coats here, but (the) women may take

theirs with them. 73 all (the) day all (the) days all (the) furniture halfa day halfmy days halfthe furniture The predeterminer all and the quantity partitive whole (cf 5.7) appear in both (thelmy) eyes parallel expressions. In the whole of, the definite article is obligatory. The use of all (of) (the) and the whole (of) is far from straightforward. In addition to this predeterminer function, all, both, and halfas pronouns can take partitive of-phrases, which are optional with nouns and obligatory with (i) All, all the, or the whole is used with temporal nouns, eg: pronouns (cf 'ofpronouns', 6.48): all (of) the students all of the~lwhom both (of) his eyes both of themlwhich All of the unit of time is rather uncommon : half(of) the timelcost halfof itlthis + ?aNof the day/hour/week With a quantifier following, the of-phrase is preferred (esp in AmE): In the negated expression I haven't seen him all day, only the zero form is allof the meyboys used. With indefinite reference, only whole can be used: All three can be lsed as independent pronouns: a whole morning I spent studying the script. ['full, entire'] A[l/both/ha[Spassed their exams. the whole morning AN and both (but not half) can occur after the head, either immediately or in (ii) AN the or the whole is used with other count nouns that are understood the M adverb position (after the operator, cf 8.16). For all and both we have, to be divisible: then, the following possibilities: All students were accepted. the whole All the students were accepted. All noun occurs occasionally with concrete singular count nouns [l, 21, and ANof thestudents were accepted. + it is less rare with contrastive stress [la, 2a], where book and banana are The students were all accepted. treated as a divisible mass: AI! were accepted. Allof them were accepted. ?I haven't read all the BOOK. [l] 260 Nouns and determiners Determinatives 261

The monkey ate all the ba~ha. his strength the amount twice I haven't read ~LLthe book. her age [their salaries The monkey ate ALL the banana. this amount The normal constructions would be: the sum the whole Once, twice, and three, four, etc times can cooccur with the determiners a, Also with abstract nouns, the whole is often preferable to all the; eg: every, each, and (less commonly) per to form 'distributive' expressions of frequency with a temporal noun as head (48.64): the whole truth/distance/environment (iii) With proper nouns and other nouns without the definite article, all once (of)or the whole of is used: year four Finland/LOndonjnext month decade the whole of } Such expressions can also occur with every spatial nouns: The use of all+ a geographical name to denote the population is rather + formal : Westopped once every mile. All Paris welcomed the General. Both with temporal and spatial nouns, every can be followed by a numeral in In less formal contexts, The whole of Paris . . . would be normal in denoting such expressions as the above: the population, or (more likely) referring to the city area. once every three months (iv) Withnoncount nouns all (of)the is used: twice every hundred miles Have you used up all (of)the coffee? The fractions one-third, two-fifths, etc All (of)the music on the programme was modern. 5.19 The fractions can also be followed by determiners. Unlike the multipliers, 74 The whole of i$ less preferred and the whole is unacceptable here. the fractions have the alternative of-construction. The indefinite article can replace one (cf 5.38): Note [a] There is also an adverb halfwhich can cooccur with noun heads, as in: one-third It is halfwine, halfwater. (of)the time it took me. In the colloquial negation n't half(esp BrE), halfcan precede enough (cf 8.107 Note [b]): He hasn't ha!fenough money. [b] Bath and halfwith the o/-construction are sometimes (especially dialectally) preceded by the Postdeterminers definite article: 1 You don't knqw the haljbf if. 5.20 Postdeterminers follow predeterminers or central determiners (if such I've had enough of the both ofyou. determiners are present). But they precede any adjectives and other [c] The postposed pronoun all in They were all hungry must not be confused with all as an premodifying items (cf 17.2). Postdeterminers include: informal intensifying adverb in He 1s all upser (cf 7.57). [dl For the following uses of quire, rather, such, and what, cf 7.56 Note [b], 7.63: (a) Cardinal numerals (cf 5.21): my three children It was quite aparty. It's rather an odd story. (b) Ordinal numerals and 'general ordinals' (cf 5.22): thefirst day, the last Such afneprt'sent! What a stupid idea! month [el 'Restrictives' likejust, only, especially, etc also occur before determiners: (c) Closed-class quantifiers (cf 5.23f):fewpeople Only the best cars are exported. However, they have no special relation to noun phrase structure, since they can also modify (d) Open-class quantifiers (cf 5.25):a large number ofpeople verbs, adverbs, and adjectives (cf focusing subjuncts, 8.1 16f): l a boy. (a) Cardinal numerals He,s just { feel& sick. 5.21 One cooccurs with singular count nouns (one sister), and the other cardinal alittle sick. numerals (cf 6.63) cooccur with plural count nouns (two, three, etc brothers). sleepy. In many contexts, one may be regarded as a stressed form of the indefinite The multipliers double, twice, etc article and may sometimes replace it (cf 5.19,5.38): 5.18 The second type ofpredeterminer includes the multipliers which occur with nouns denoting quantity: I would like photocopy of this article. 262 Nounsand determiners Determinatives 263

Thus, the indefinite article normally cannot cooccur withone, but the definite article can : We have a lot of time. [21 *a one book 1 the one ['only'] book I like best In the case of (a) few ['a small number'] and (a) little ['a small quantity'], there the two books 1 is positivelnegative contrast according to whether the indefinite article is used or not. When a/an does not precede, few and little are stressed: (b) Ordinal numerals and 'general ordinals' (a few 'books. ['some, several'] 5.22 The ordinal numerals have a one-for-one relation with the cardinals:first/ {$W 'books. ['not many] one, secondltwo, thirdlthree, fourth/four, ttventieth/twenty, etc (cf 6.63f). He wrote a little 'poetry. ['some'] The 'general ordinals' include items like next, last, past, (an)other, additional, and further ['additional'], which resemble the ordinal numerals The postdeterminers (a)few and'(a) little (cf 6.53,6.62), the determiners any, grammatically and semantically. no, and some (cf 5.39J 6.52), and the predetenniners all and both are all Ordinals cooccur with count nouns and usually precede any cardinal quantifiers although they belong to different syntactic classes. numbers in the noun phrase: Note [a] Few and little may be preceded by central determiners other than 0. eg: these few days, that thefirst two days another three weeks little money, but we shall refer only to afe~vversusfe~v, a little versus little where the distinction is clearest. Note [a] The general ordinals last, post, and rle.rt may precede or follow cardinals with a difference of [b] Several can be preceded by a possessive determiner in the sense of 'separate', 'respective': meaning. For example: the last tlvopoges would mean 'the last and penultimate page of a book', their several opinions. whereas the two last pages could mean 'the last page in each of two books'. On divided concord [C] Mony andfew can also be used predicatively in formal style (cf6.53 Note [b]. 6.62): usage, eg: The last two nrortths islare . . ., cf 10.35 Note [b]. His faults were many//ew. [bl Another has two functions. It can be the unstressed form of 'one other' in contrast with the Many can also function as a predeterminer with singular count nouns preceded by the indefinite other (definite; cf 6.58). as in [l]; or it can have the meaning of 'further', 'additional', 'second', in article: 75 which case there is no definite form, as in [2]: many a good student (rather formal) ['many goodstudents'l [d] The quantifier enough is used with both count and noncount nouns: ' 1 don't like this room. I'd prefer otller]One' {tire [I] There are (not) enaugli students. We need another t11o rooms for the meeting. There is (not) enough money. rtwo more rooms'; cf: the other two rooms 'the two different rooms'] 121 Occasionally it follows the noun (especially noncount: money errough), but this use strikes many Note that when it is followed by a plural cardinal number, another takes a plural noun as head. people as archaic or dialectal.

5.24 Since a few determines plural count nouns (afew books), and a littledetermines (c) Closed-class quantifiers noncount nouns (a Iittlepoetry), neither of which noun classes cooccurs with 5.23 There are two small groups of closed-hass quantifiers which function as the indefinite article, it will be clear that in these instances a belongs to the postdeterminers (cf 6.53ff). quantifier alone. (i) Many, (a) few, and several cooccur only with plural count nouns: Few, little, much, and many are gradable, and also have comparative and superlative forms (cf 7.74f): too many few/fewer/fewest dollars many/more/most dollars mistakes in your essay. little/less/least money much/more/most money There is a tendency to use less (instead of fewer) and least (instead of fewest) (ii) Much and (a) little cooccur only with noncount nouns: also with count nouns: She hasn't got much money. You've made less mistakes than last time. She has only got (a) little money. This usage is however often condemned. No less than is more generally There are restrictions on the use of much with singular and many with plural accepted : nouns, and the corresponding open-class postdeterminers are widely used No less than fifty people were killed in the accident. instead (cf6.53). Thus much is typically used in a nonassertive sentence like [l]; but in an assertive sentence like [2], usually a lot of (chiefly in informal Being gradable, many, much, few, and little can be modified by intensifying style), or a similar colloquial postdeterminer, is used: adverbs (cf7.87ff): too much, very few, etc. We don't have much time. [l] Note The quantifier little ['not much'] should be distinguished from the homonymous adjective little 264 Nouns and determiners The use of articles with common nouns 265

['small'], which cooccurs with singular or plural count nouns: a littlegir1,five littlegirls. Thus a The use of articles with common nouns little cake is ambiguous according to whether it means 'a small cake' [brtle = adjective] or 'a small amount of cake'[littb = postdeterminer]. Specific and generic reference 5.26 In discussing the use of the articles, we must distinguish between specific and (d) Open-class quantifiers generic reference. Compare sentences [l] and [2]: 5.25 There is also a large open class of phrasal quantifiers which function semantically like the closed-class quantifiers, but most of which consist of a A lion and two tigers are sleeping in the cage. noun of quantity (lot, deal, amount, etc) followed by of and often preceded by Tigers are dangerous animals. the indefinite article. Some of these, includingplenty of, can cooccur equally In [l] the reference is SPECIFIC,since we have in mind particular specimens with noncount and plural count nouns: of the class 'tiger'. But if we say [2], the reference is GENERIC, since we are thinking of the class 'tiger' without specific reference to particular tigers. students. The room contained p a lot of 11 . The distinctions between definite and indefinite, and between singular and - Iture. plural, are important for specific reference. They tend to be less crucial for generic reference, because generic reference is used to denote the class or These quantifiers (especially lots) are chiefly used informally. species generally. Consequently, the distinctions of number which apply to Others are restricted to quantifying only noncount nouns [l], or plural this or that member, or group of members, of the class are neutralized, being count nouns [2]: largely irrelevant to the generic concept. Singular or plural, definite or indefinite, can often be used without appreciable difference of meaning in generic contexts: The chest contained a (large) quantity [l] }{ A German is a eood musician. A tiaer I (sma1I.l amount Germans The Germans The tiger

The hall contained a 76 l21 A fourth possibility might even be included: The German is a good musician. As the examples suggest, it is usual for these open-class quantifiers to be modified by a quantifying adjective, the latter being obligatory in Standard But the slight differences between these various forms, and the reasons for English with deal. (On concord with open-class quantifiers, cf 10.43.) preferring one to another, will be considered in 5.52ff. Although the quantity nouns lot, deal, etc look like the head of a noun The use of articles with specific reference is summarized in Table 5.26: phrase, there are grounds for arguing that the whole expression (a lot of, a good deal of, etc) functions as a determiner. Notably, the verb regularly has Table 5.26 Use of the articles with specific reference number concord with the second noun, >ather than the first, as in: DEFINITE INDEFINITE Lots offobd was on the table. = There was lots offood on the table. COUNT NONCOUNT COUNT NONCOUNT SINGULAR the tiger the furniture a tiger (some)fun~itttre Note [a] As with less an$ least, there is a tendency (esp in AmE) to use aniourrt for the more generally acceptable number also with count nouns, despite objections to this usage: PLURAL the tigers (some) tigers There were large amounts oftourists on the ferry. This hall can seat a large amount ofpeople. [bl In familiar spoken English we find a wide rangeofquantifiers roughly synonymous with lots Only those choices italicized in this table are used for generic reference. At o/; eg: present we will concentrate on the specific use of the articles, which is much We've got bags of time. more frequent than the generic. stacks of She's got heaps of money. {,oodsof I Specific reference: definite and indefinite They have umpteen jazz records. Uses of the definite article 5.27 The definite article the is used to mark the phrase it introduces as definite, ie as 'referring to something which can be identified uniquely in the contextual or general knowledge shared by speaker and hearer'. The'something'referred 266 Nouns and determiners The useof articles with common nouns 267

to may be any kind of noun phrase referent: a person (the girl), a group of the North Pole the Equator the earth people (thefiremen), an object (the lamp), a group of objects (the roses), an the moon the sea the sky abstraction (the plan), a group of abstractions (the fears), etc. Moreover, the the stars the universe the cosmos noun determined by the may have pre- or postmodification, by which the the zenith the nadir the Renaissance 'something' identified by the may be more precisely specified, eg: the Greek gods the Republic the Church the talllamp the lamp on the table There is a tendency for some nominal expressions following the to be written with initial caoitals. This is because such ex~ressionsin effect have UNIQUE Given that the use of the relies on shared knowledge, there are several DENOTATION, and in this respect resemble proper nouns (cf 5.60fn. ways in which the identity of the referent may be determined or 'recovered' There is no clear dividing- line between 'immediate' and 'larger'- situations; by the hearer, as we shall see in 5.28ff. instead, there is a scale of generality running from the most restricted to the least restricted sphere that can be envisaged: that of the whole universe of Note As elsewhere, when no distinction is necessary in this discussion of articles, 'speaker' subsumes 'writer', and 'hearer' subsumes 'reader'. human knowledge.

Note [a] Singular noun phrases having unique denotation include phrases referring to classes, groups, '(a) Immediate situation etc of human beings such as the following (cfcollective nouns, 5.108): 5.28 The term SITUATIONAL REFERENCE may be used to describe cases where the the working class the proletariat reference of the is derived from the extralinguistic situation. We first the bourgeoisie the aristocracy Similar plural phrases include those referring to clans, tribes, races, etc: IMMEDIATE distinguish the used with reference to the situation: : the Romans the Cordon Highlanders The roses are very beautiful. [said in a garden] the masses the Italians The use of the in respect of the 'larger situation'overlaps with the generic use (cf 5.52fl. Have you visited the castle? [said in a given town] [b] Contrary to normal practice, there is no article before earth in the following expressions (cf I missed both the lectures this morning. [said by one student to 5.41fl: another] come backldown to earth Have you fed the cat? [said in a domestic context] He's very down toearth. rdirect'] These are the pistons. [explaining the engine of a car] What on earth are you doing? 77 It is, of course, possible for the speaker to misjudge the knowledge of the (c) Anaphoric reference: direct hearer, in which case the hearer may need to seek clarification through a 5.30 The term ANAPHORIC REFERENCE is used where the uniqueness of reference which- or what-question (with the nucleus on the wh-item): of some phrase the X is supplied by information given earlier in the discourse (cf 12.6). We may distinguish two kinds of anaphora: direct and indirect. A Have you fed the cat? WH~CHcat? definite noun phrase receives DIRECT anaphoric interpretation where the Aren't the red roses lovely? WHAT red roses? same noun head has already occurred in the text, and it is clear that a relation of coreference exists between the two noun phrases. (By COREFERENCE we Note In practice, since a speaker cannot always be surebf the hearer's state of knowledge, use of the involves a certain 'amount of guesswork. In fact, in some cases the assumption of shared understand a relation between the two noun phrases such that they have the knowledge is a palpable fiction. Notices such as Mindtheaepand Be~vareofthedog,for example, same reference.) For example : generally do not assume that the reader was previously aware of the hazards in question. John bought a TV and a video recorder, but he returned the video recorder. (b) Larger situation (general knowledge) 5.29 The identity of the referent may be evident from knowledge of the 'larger' Here, as in other similar cases, there is a complementary role for the definite situation which speaker and hearer share, eg: article and the indefinite article: the first reference to an object will ordinarily be indefinite; but once the object has been introduced into the discourse in the Prime Minister the airlines the last war this way, it can be treated as 'contextually known', and can thenceforward The larger situation may in fact be worldwide (the Pope), or be shared by all be referred to by means of the definite article. inhabitants of a country; eg in the United States, at a given time, virtually (d) Anaphoric reference: indirect everyone will know which president is being referred to by the phrase the 5.31 INDIRECT ANAPHORA arises when a reference becomes part of the hearer's President. When it is as wide as this, the 'larger situation' is scarcely knowledge indirectly, not by direct mention, as in the example in 5.30, but distinguishable from general knowledge and may extend, in extreme cases, by inference from what has already been mentioned: to the whole planet or to the whole of human history. In the use of phrases like the sun there is the presupposition that, in our experience or fields of John bought a bicycle, but when he rode it one of the wheels interest, there is only one such object. Similar examples are: came off. [l1 268 Nouns and determiners The use of articles with common nouns 269

The wheels of the bicycle can be taken for granted in this sentence because cataphoric but entails some degree of anaphoric reference. Compare [4] and (a) a bicycle has already been mentioned (ANAPHORA),and (b) we know that [4a]: bicycles have wheels (GENERALKNOWLEDGE). In this way, we can see that The bicycle John bought has been stolen. [assumes unique indirect anaphora combines two kinds of 'recoverability'. Another way to reference; cfi John's bicycle] L41 look at it is to say that indirect anaphora combines anaphoric reference with A bicycle John bought has been stolen. [cf: a bicycIeofJohn's, cf cataphoric reference (cf 5.32); eg we understand the wheels in [l] above to be 17.461 14al an elliptical variant of the wheels of the bicycle. This latter explanation does not, as we shall see, apply to all such cases. At other times, there is no such indefinite alternative, because the whole Some further examples of indirect anaphora are the following. Once we phrase has unique denotation, like the Equator (cf 5.29): have introduced the topic of a farm, we can go on to talk about the farmer, the the height of Mont Blanc the parents of Elvis Presley farmhouse, the pigs, the barn, etc; once we have introduced the topic of an *a height of Mont Blanc *(some) parents of Elvis Presley orchestralconcert, we can go on to talk about theprogramme, the audience, the conductor, the second oboe, etc. Note It is not necessary to postulate that the expression [S] presupposes some unspoken preamble such Consider finally these examples: as [5a] but, rather, such as [Sbl: the mud on your coat [S] I lent Bill a valuable book, but when he returned it, the cover was There's some mudon your coat. [sal filthy, and thepages were torn. [21 You know there's mud on your coat. [Sbl They got married in grand style. The bride wore a long brocade Contrast [6] with [6a]: dress, and the bridesmaids wore pink taffeta. The organist How did you get the mud on your coat? 161 played superb music, and the choir sang magnificently. [31 Did you know you have {*~~~ud]onyour coat? &a1 In [3] the topic of 'a wedding' is introduced by means of the verb phrase got married (hence the bride, the bridesmaids); there is also the presumption of a church, and hence the organist, the choir. There is thus no easy way to explain (f) Sporadic reference

the subsequent occurrences of the by means of ellipsis; to do so, it would be 5.33 The is sometimes used in reference to an institution of human society. For 78 necessary to yostulate such long-winded phrases as [3a]: example, in [l]there aFe two possible interpretations of the theatre: the bridesmaids who accompanied the bride when she got My sister goes to the theatre every month. [l] married U4 By situational reference, it may mean a particular theatre, say the Criterion Theatre, which my sister attends regularly. But a more likely meaning is that (e) Cataphoric reference my sister does not necessarily confine her theatre-going to one building: the 5.32 By the CATAPHORICuse of the may be understood the use of the definite article theatre refers, rather, to the theatre as an institution, so that it would be in a context where what follows the hea? noun, rather than what precedes it, inappropriate to ask, in response to [l]: Which theatre? We call this the enables us to pinpoint the reference uniquely. 'Cataphoric' is therefore the SPORADIC use of the, because reference is made to an institution which may opposite of 'anaphoric' reference. In practice, however, the cataphoric use of be observed recurrently at various places and times. the definite article is limited to cases where the modification of the noun There is a similar use of the news, the radio, the television, the paper(s), the phrase restricts the reference of the noun, so that its referent is, for the press, etc, referring to aspects of mass communication: purpose of the,discourse, uniquely defined. Thus, the italicized postmodifiers of the followirig nouns justify the use of the: Did you hear the ten o'clock news? in the paper(s) The President of Mexico is to visit China. The girls sitting over there are my cousins. of~rance The wines that Franceproduces are among the best in the world. [3] But with television or TV, there is also the possibility that the article will be - l omitted (cf 5.45). In principle, however, there is no difference between postmodification and The concept of sporadic reference also extends to expressions referring to premodification as a means of specifying reference. Compare: modern transport and communication, such as the bus, the train, thepost (esp the President of Me.~ico 114 BrE), the mail (esp AmE), the telephone: the Mexican President [lbl Mary took the buslthe train to London. OR: a busla train Sometimes the definite noun phrase can be contrasted with an equivalent He promised that the letters would be in thepostlthe mail this indefinite phrase. In such instances, the definite article is not in fact genuinely evening. 270 Nouns and determiners The use of articles with common nouns 271

In a temporal rather than spatial sense, sporadic reference may even be taken In these examples, the personal pronoun or noun referring to the 'possessor' to apply to the optional use of the before words referring to seasons (eg: the of the body part is the object, and the body part is a prepositional complement. wititer, cf 5.47), and to festivals, etc (the New Year, cf 5.67). There are virtually synonymous clauses in which the body part is preceded by a possessive pronoun, and functions as object: Note [a] The sporadic use of the is in certain instances close to the generic use of the (cJ'5.55J). Compare the use of the theatre in [I1 above with the generic sense of the theatre['drama as an art him by the hand. form'] in [2l: I {his hand. She's an expert on (the) (Elizabethan) theatre. I21 Similarly: thenovel, the ballad, ((rre) dronla. It is often possible, though sometimes unidiomatic, to use a possessive [b] The contrast between situational and sporadic use is manifest in this pair of examples: pronoun in place of the: There.s a vase of on the leleuision (set). {*te/wision. I shook him by his hand. [lbl There's an interesting play on (the) telecision. He kissed her on her cheek. [e] On the sporadic use of the in cases like the hdrber's, cf 5.125. She patted him on his shoulder. In other cases the 'possessor' phrase is subject of the clause: (g) The 'logical' use of the l1 5.34 We may reserve the term LOGICAL for cases where the uniqueness of the My mother complains of a pain in thelher hip. referent is to be explained not so much by knowledge of the world, as by The wanted man has a scar on'thelhis left cheek. appeal to the logical interpretation of certain words. These words are postdeterminers and adjectives whose meaning is inalienably associated with 1; 1 Alternatively, the 'possessor' may be implied rather than stated: uniqueness: ordinals such asfirst; 'general ordinals' such as next and last (cf The doctor diagnosed a fracture of the collarbone. 5.22); also same, only, sole; and superlative adjectives like best and largest: Many patients in the hospital suffered from a disease of the liver.

When is thejrstflight to Chicago tomorrow? [l] But such constructions are not exceptions to the general rule that the refers to This is the only remaining copy. [2] what is uniquely identified by shared knowledge. There is no unclarity in any Of the three newspapers we have in this city, this is the best. [31 of these cases as to the identity of the body in question. The restriction of this use of the to prepositional complements means that

In these cases the indefinite article or the zero article would generally be 79 the possessive pronoun, rather than the, has to be used in such examples as: absurd: I I Have you broken your arm? NOT: *Have you broken the arm? Ada and i have hobby. A further restriction is that the possessive pronoun must be used if the body part does not refer to what is denoted by the direct object: We must catch {*F}next bus. with her leji hand. She the {?with the left hand. Note [a] The 'logical' usk of the is closely related to cataphoric reference. Compare [I] with [La]: One factor which could make [2a] acceptable, and indeed nonnal, is the When is theflight that leaves~frstfor Chicago tomorrow? [lal [b] The occurrence of fixed phrases such as a bestfriend is possible in special contexts: eg if a interpretation 'she is left-handed'. Similarly: child is always changing his or her best friend, one may refer to the current favourite as a new bestjriend. More freely, zero article may be used in front of fixed phrases such as: She kicks the ball with the leftjbot (because she is left-footed). { the best man } He was best man ['groomsman'] at the wedding. (c) He was man for the job.) l i With such an interpretation, the is normal, but the rule is not absolute. Note [a] There can be a slight difference of meaning between the construction illustrated by [l] and by lla]. The following appear to be synonymous: (h) The use of the with reference to body parts [31 They grabbed him by the arm. 5.35 With reference to parts of the body and following a preposition, the is often { his arm. f3al used instead of possessive pronouns my, your, her, their (cf also the indefinite But one can imagine a grisly context in which [3a] refers to an arm severed from the body; this article, 5.36 Note), etc: context could not apply to 131. Ibl. . It is difficult to -eeneralize about cases of the above constructions. Some are purely idiomatic: Mary banged herself on theforehead. She looked me in the eye and told me the whole story. [but not here: looked in my eye, They pulled her by the hair. although this is what a doctor will do at an examination of the eye] Further semantic factors are the following: Everyone gave us a pat on the back. (i) The use of the is preferred when the reference is to unpleasant conditions of the body (eg Don't keep digging me in the ribs. aches, pains, wounds): 272 Nouns and determiners The use of articles with common nouns 273

haw a cold in the head have spies on the hroin Note The indefinite article, like the definite article (cf5.35). is sometimes used with body parts: be red in tlrejace be onned to teeth Sally has sprained on ankle. [31 (ii) This use applies only to parts of the body, and cannot usually be extended to things which He's broken a leg. [41 are worn: BUT NOT:'Roger has hurt a nose. [S] They seized him by the throot/tlre beordltltecollor/?tlrejacket. Alan cannot be used unless the body has more than one of the body parts mentioned; hence 151 Moreover, only those verbs which can take the personal direct object without the prepositional is absurd in implying that Roger has more than one nose. Even when the body part is not unique, phrase can occur in this construction : the possessive pronoun is the usual choice (cj5.35): He kickedlhitltapped me on the shin. I'He kicked etcmy shin.'But not: *He stepped me on Sally has sprained her ankle. [3al the toes; *He stepped my toes.] He's broken hisleg. 144 [c] Outside the above conditions, the issometimes used instead of possessives in a masculine I've cut myfinger. style'of speech: How's the back? [referring to an injury] Let's have a look at thearm. [This is also what a doctor, ofeither sex. might say to a patient.1 Nonreferring uses of the indefinite article Related to this usage is the habit of some men of referring to their wives, or children, by the 5.37 The indefinite article is strongly associated with the complement function in (informal) : a clause, or more generally with noun phrases in a copular relationship (cl How's the )v@'?[normally: your ~vije] Wait till I tell the w$e about it! [normally: my ~vi/e] 2.22, 10.8). Here it has a descriptive role (similar to that of predicative How are the childrenlkids? adjectives), rather than a referring role: Note also (familiar) : Paganini was a great violinist. . How's theold man? ['your husband/father'] [d] On other uses of the (eg: themore the nrerrier; 4Omilestorhegollon),cjll.43. My daughter is training as a radiologist.' We found Lisbon (to be) a delightful city. What a miserable day (it is)! (cf 11-31) Uses of the indefinite article Whereas the indefinite article is required in the previous examples, there is 5.36 The indefinite article is notionally the 'unmarked' article in the sense that it vacillation in the following cases (cf'unique role', 5.42): 80 is used (for singular count nouns) where the conditions for the use of the do her duties as (a) hostess not obtain. That is, a/an X will be used where the reference of X is not my appointment as (a) lecturer uniquely identifiable in the shared knowledge of speaker and hearer. Hence Jung as (a) thinker a/an is typically used when the referent has not been mentioned before, and is assumed to be unfamiliar to the speaker or hearer: Sometimes alan is nonreferring in a stronger sense; it may not refer to anything in reality at all: An intruder has stolen a vase. The intruder stole the vase from a locked case. The case was smashed open. Leonard wants to marry a princess who speaks five languages. As we see from this (unusually explicit) example, the indefinite article, in From this sentence, we cannot tell whether Leonard knows a certain princess contrast to the definite article, makes no assumptions about an earlier and wants to marry her, or whether he has simply laid down exceptionally mention. But in actual usage the distinction may be less overt. For example, stringent qualifications for his future wife. For all we know, there may be no a conversation may begin as [l] or as [la]: princess who speaks five languages in existence.

A house on the corner is for sale. Note Although alan is used for descriptive exclamations such as What ajool (he is)!, there is also an The houselon the corner is for sale. exclamatory use of the in Thejool!, The silly boy!, etc. Such expressions often accompany a declarative clause, and are added as a parenthesis (intonation remaining at a low pitch): The only difference in meaning is that, in [la], the speaker presupposes that John is getting into D~T,the idiot! the hearer will know which house is meant (perhaps because there is only My D.iucffle4 the little oi~linglha's broken the ~+l(ironic) one such house), whereas, in [l], no such assumption is implied. There is a related type of descriptive exclamation in which a noun phrase with theor zero article Unlike the definite article, the indefinite article does not signal coreference is followed by that and a subject and verb (normally be): with a preceding indefinite noun phrase. In sentence [2], the speaker does not (The) fool that he is! On the exclamatory use of pronouns (Silly me!, Youjool!, etc), cj6.20. claim that the two watches are the same (although he.may be obliquely suggesting that such is the case): The indefinite article and the numeral one Bob lost agold watch yesterday, and Bill was wearing a gold 5.38 The indefinite article derives historically from the unstressed form of one, watch this morning. [21 and in present-day English there are still many contexts in which this But if the second a gold lvatch is changed to thegold watch, the claim is made numerical function is uppermost. Thus one could be substituted as a slightly that the two watches are indeed identical, and that (probably) Bill is a thief. emphatic equivalent of a in the following coordinate constructions (cf 5.21): 274 Nouns and determiners The use of articles with common nouns 275

a mile or two cf: one or two miles (10.41 Note [b]) vegetarians. The Wrights have two daughters and a son. They haven't become a foot and a halfof water cf: one and a hayfeel (5.73 Note [b]) The difference between the uses of zero and of some may be summarized The following are other examples in which one could replace alan, and where as follows. Unstressed some, although it is sometimes considered a plural the adjective single can add an intensifying force to the indefinite article (or article, actually keeps its quantifying function, and indicates reference to a one) : specifiable (though indefinite) quantity or amount. (Thus in [l], the speaker Mungo can walk forty miles in a (single) day. does not tell us the number of melons, but in principle the number could be They didn't stop talking for a (single) moment. found out.) The zero article, in contrast, indicates simply the category of the There's not a (single) pickled onion in the house. objects, etc referred to. So vegetarians in [4] names a category of persons, and the sentence simply indicates that the people referred to by they belong to Alan often occurs in this quasi-numerical sense following a negative (cf that category. 10.62). Note The zero article may he usid instead of sorile, particularly if a contrast is implied prosodically : Note [a] The use of the indefinite article in a numerical or quantifying function is perhaps most I've just bought MEwns (but not grapes). [lal obvious in its occurrence in such expressions as (cf 6.65): I haven't bought adoKs(but I've bought magazines), W a hundred, a dozen, a score, a thousand, a n~illiort,a milliori and a ha[j['1,500,000'],a quarterla tlvel/rh of + noun 5.40 Sometimes some and zero are both acceptable; in other cases one of them is Other uses are seen in quantifiers (cf 5.23f, 6.53) such as afii~:a little, a great nmny, a large number of, etc; also in measure phrases (cf5.18) such as: less acceptable, or even quite unacceptable. In the following two examples, halfan hour, ten dollars a day, sixty miles an hour. three tinles a minute, etc some would be unacceptable: [b] In addition to being a numeral. one also has substitute and generic functions. But in the use of the indefinite article in a generic.sense (A tiger can be dangerolrs),alan cannot be replaced by These shoes are made of leather. one (cf 6.56). I've always preferred coffee to tea.

In [l], the speaker is merely interested in the type of material of which the 81 shoes are made: the quantity is irrelevant. In [2], the interest focuses on the Uses of the zero article two types of drink, and it is irrelevant to consider particular quantities. In other cases, the introduction of some would necessitate a sharp difference The zero article compared with unstressed some in meaning, eg: 5.39 With plural count nouns and with noncount nouns, the indefinite article does Joe's been chasing women ever since he was young. [31 not occur (cf 5.13f ). The zero article is used instead : In [3], some women would produce the incongruous impression that Joe has Have you ever eaten roasted chestnuts? been steadfastly chasing the same group of women, rather than that he is an Milk is good for you. incorrigible Don Juan. Do you likeyolk music? The distinction we have to draw, then, is between ~~~CATEGORIALmeaning But the plural or noncount equivalent of alan is sometimes the unstressed of zero, and the QUANTITATIVE meaning of some. It can now be seen that the determiner some /sam/. Contrast: generic meaning of the zero article, as in Tigers arefierce animals (cf 5.26), is no more than a special variant of this categorial meaning. But it is still worth separating generic reference, where we could substitute all tigers with little change of effect, from the specific categorial reference of sentences like [3], some melon. where clearly there is no claim that all women have been chased by Joe (cj ?melons. 5.56). She has become a vegetarian. As has already been hinted, the choice between zero and some is sometimes 1 more a matter of focus than of clear contrast of meaning. There are many They have become situations in which either choice could be made, with only a minor alteration *some vegetarians. of the force. Compare: In the negative, unstressed any is the equivalent of some (but cf 10.59 Note Would you like (some) coffee or (some) tea? [b]), so that a contrast may be observed between [3] and [4]: I've been writing (some) letters this morning. any books. We have just received (some) news from Moscow. I haven't bought {?bookS. ] The variant without some will focus on the category as a whole; eg [4] is 276 Nounsand determiners The use of articles with common nouns 277

asking about two kinds of drink, and 151 is concerned with a kind of activity, [d] Determiners (the, your, etc) are frequently omitted in official forms, eg: viz the activity of writing letters. But when some is added, the focus changes Please send the stipulated items, viz: to whatever quantities of tea and coffee, or of letters, that the speaker has in (i) birth certificate (ii) passport mind. (iii) correctfie Compare the omission of articles in headlines (1 1.45f ). The zero article with definite meaning 5.41 Apart from proper nouns, nouns take the zero article with definite meaning Noun phrases with sporadic reference only in rather special circumstances, as described in 5.42ff. 5.43 We have already mentioned (cf 5.33) the use of the in noun phrases with 'sporadic' definite reference, as in the radio, the theatre. In other cases, Noun phrases in a copular relation however, the sporadic use has become so institutionalized that the article is 5.42 Unlike many other languages, English normally requires an article with a not used. We distinguish, under this heading, a number of different categories singular count noun as complement (cf 5.37): of zero article usage which are 'frozen' as part of idiomatic usage.

an engineer. the secretary. (a) Some 'institutions' of human life and society is {*engineer. secretary. 5.44 Certain nouns have the zero article, especially as complement of at, in, and There is, however, one circumstance in which the zero article occurs in such on in quasi-locative phrases: thus someone may be in church, but not *in constructions: this is where the complement (or an equivalent appositive library. We call them 'quasi-locative' because, although they appear to have noun phrase) names a UNIQUEROLE or task. As the following examples show, locative meaning, their function is rather more abstract (cf: the theatre, 5.33). in such cases the zero article alternates with the: In such contexts, nouns such as college, church, etc do not refer to actual buildings or places, but to the institutions associated with them: to be in Maureen is (the)captain of the team. [l] prison, for example, is to be a prisoner, not a casual visitor; to go to sea is to John F. Kennedy was (the)President ojthe United States in 1961. [2] follow the occupation of a sailor; see the left-hand column below. In the As (the)chairman of the committee, I declare this meeting closed. 82 [3] right-hand column we illustrate the same nouns as used with the in situational They've appointed Fred (the) treasurer, and no doubt he will soon or cataphoric reference: become (the)secretary. [41 Anne Martin, (the)star of the TVseries and (the) author of a well- Compare : known book on international cuisine, has resigned from her post The townlthe city is very old. lie down on the bed on the Consumer Council. l51 bein) hospital (BrE) redecorate the hospital go to The copular relation signalled by as (cf 9.48) is illustrated in [31, and the prison, jail walk around the prisonlthe jail copular relation of apposition (cf 17.65ff)is illustrated in [5].In each of these class (esp AmE) The class works hard. examples, it is implied that only one person holds the particular position visit the school mentioned. 1: ;;) {,:F (cf 9.17) look out towards the sea be in/be at church admire the church Note [a] Here we may also place examples where the appositional noun phrase indicating a unique role or task is placed first: go to college the gates of the college FBIChiefJ. Edgar Hwver 161 Chelsea centreLfonvard Milton Smith [7] Note [a] Other related phrases are the following, some of which show variation in the use of article: With restrictive apposition Id, 71, the article is generally omitted, whereas in nonrestrictive get out of bed apposition [7a](cf 17.68). it is not: during (the) breaklrecess the Chelsea centre-forward, Milton Smith P4 be inlreturn to camp There is a gradient linking the former construction to the institutional use of titles, as in King live on/ofT(the) campus George, Chairman Mao, Doctor Smith. But the use of more elaborate phrases of this kind be on/otT(the) stage preceding a name is characteristic of the journalistic style sometimes known as 'Timestyle', at (the)court [royal palace]; in (the) court [law court]; The case was settled out of court; take because of its association with Time magazine. someone to court [b] The complement of turn (cf 16.22) is exceptional in having zero article even where there is come/go/leave home; be (at) home; feel at lrotire (cf5.51) no implication of uniqueness: With uniuersity, the article is optional in BrE in the expressions be allgo to (the) rmiversity, Jenny started out as a music student before she turnedlinguist. BUT: . . . before she became a whereas AmE requires the definite article (as also with hospital in AmE: 'He's in the hospital.'). li~rguist. [b] The article is sometimes left out also when the reference is to the building, not the institution : [C] Becausea unique role is implied, thedefinite article isgenerally omitted followingexpressions I walked straight back into/ta schoul. such as the post ul, thepositio~ioj, and the role of: She's at church, arranging flowers. After declining the post of Secretary of State, he nevertheless found himself taking on the In AmE, and increasingly in BrE, the article is often omitted in expressions like: role of u~ioficialadvi.er to the President. in the center of town, the buszess part of tobwi 278 Nouns and determiners The use of articles with common nouns 279

(b) Means of transport and communication in (the) spring/summer 5.45 This type is confined to zero article following by; but the same nouns can be in (the) autumn (esp BrE) [Fall in AmE has the article: in thefall] used elsewhere with 'sporadic' the (cf 5.33): But with reference to a particular season, the article is included: Compare : The siring oflast year was cold. bicycle take the bicycle travel bus be on the bus T~~~~~~ '''E) befire last was unusually busy. The autumn (esp BrE) leave prefer the car come choose the boat Note the difference between [l]denoting calendar time and [2]denoting g0 train take a/the train seasonal climate: be on the plane The winter of I963 was an exciting time. radio Winter in 1963 was not like this last winter. telephone, telex communicate/communication by post (esp BrE) (e) Meals mail (esp AmE) 5.48 The zero article is in general use for meals as an institution [l], but the can be satellite used for meals that need to be singled out [2]: Compare: I Where are we having dinner tonight? a talk on the radio The dinner after his retirement party was quite lavish. Jill is on the telephone. put a letter in the post Examples of the zero article for the meal as an institution which recurs day send it through the mail by day:, ") (breakfast The satellite is replacing cable TV. 83 Also: by hand(cf 5.51,9.49 Note [a]). brunch, cocktails (both esp in US) before tea (esp in UK) (c) Times of day and night after lunch, dinner 5.46 These take a zero article particularly after at, by, after, and-before: at/for supper Compare: Often, however, the and the zero article are virtually interchangeable: at dawnldaybreak watch the dawn That day, (the)lunch was served on the terrace. when day breaks during the day at sunrise [AmE also: at sunup] ,. The sunrise was splendid. The indefinite article is used for a particular meal: at sunset [AmE also: at sundown] We admired the sunset. We had a nice dinner, just the two of us. atlaround noonlmidnight in the afternoon at duskltwilight see nothing in the dusk (0 Illnesses atlby night wake up in the night 5.49 The zero article is normally used for illnesses, eg: anaemia, appendicitis, (by)day and night in the daytime diabetes, influenza, pneumonia. But the is often used, in a more traditional before morning came in/during the morning style of speech, for some well-known infectious diseases: (the)flu, (the) Evening approached. in the evening measles, (the)mumps, (the)chickenpox; also (the)hiccups. On the plural form after nighi$aIl/dark ' all through the night of mumps, etc, cf 5.75. DaylNight came; day by day (cf 5.50); all day/night/week/year(long) (cf Note [a] The articlecannotnormally beomitted withthelaplague,norwithsome popular, nontechnical 8.63 Note [b]) expressions such as thebends, thejitters, thela bellyache (familiar). Except in the fixed expression catcl1 cold, the indefinite article is required with cold, fever, and tenlperature: (d) Seasons Our daughter had a terriblecold last week. 5.47 The article is usually, but not always, omitted when referring to seasons I have (~~~~ratU,ee)so h staying in bed today. generally, as distinct from referring to a particular part of a particular year [b] Headache is always a count noun: (cf temporal names, 5.67): I have a splittingl~eadachethis morning. Other nouns formed from ache are treated as noncount when they denote a condition: (The) winter is coming. Nutsgive me toothache. 280 Nouns and determiners The articles in generic reference 281

When they denote a single attack or pain, they are usually count in AmE and noncount in BrE: Many complex prepositions (cf 9.1 l) also contain nouns without an article: suffers lrom ~s~o~)I~c~~~c~Jc.(esp AmE) On and on top of, by way of, etc; and there are also idioms in which a verb is followed {(,hr) .~toma~l~od~.(esp BrE) by a noun with zero article and (often) by a preposition: take advantage oj; setfire to, get word of, etc (cf16.58). Such uses of nouns are iixed phrases, as Parallel structures can be seen in their lack of article and number contrast: 5.50 There is a tendency to omit the article, even with singular count nouns, where two nouns are placed together in a parallel structure: advantage

arm in arm face to face day by day *advantages hand in hand eye to eye teaspoonful by teaspoorlful mile upon mile back to back side by side Sometimes the same noun is repeated after a preposition, as in the above examples; at other times, one noun is balanced against arother noun of contrasting meaning: from jather to son The articles in generic reference husband and wge from right to left OR:from the right to the left 5.52 Earlier (cf 5.26) it was noted that all three major forms of article (the, alan, from west to east OR: from the west to the east and zero) may be used generically to refer to the members of a class in toto : from beginning to end OR: from the beginning to the end The bull terrier makes an excellent watchdog. Phrases with the noun repeated typically have an adverbial function: A bull terrier makes an excellent watchdog. Bull terriers make excellent watchdogs. ace toface. They talked I/ man to man. They stood (g~;~",'deyeball. Of the possible combinations of the articles with singular and plural, the one 84 which does not occur with count nouns - that of the zero article with the It can be argued that the nouns have no article because they have largely lost singular form - is the only possibility which occurs with noncount nouns: their independent nominal status. We note, in support- - of this, that variation in the number, determination, or modification of these nouns is normally Velvet makes an excellent curtain material. [21 impossible : It should not, however, be assumed that the three options [la], [lb], and [lc] *They talked old man to young man. are in free variation. One difference between them is that, whereas the [la] *They stood toes to toes. keeps its generic function in nonsubject positions in the sentence, alan [lb], and to a lesser extent zero [lc], tend to lose their generic function in these Such parallel structures are, therefore, virtually idioms exemplifying 'frozen' article use. positions: There is one construction, however, in which the parallel structure with the medieval mystery play. [W zero article is productive of new instances. This is where the two nouns are Nora has been studying a medievalmysteryplay. [%l coordinated, and particularly where the coordination is emphasized by a medieval mystery plays. Pc1 correlative such as both. . .and or neither. . . nor (cf 13.35Jr): Of these, only [3a] refers to mystery plays as a genre; [3b] refers to only one The birth took place this morning, and both (the)mother and (the) play; and [3c] is most likely to refer only to a subset of them. We consider child are doing well. other differences below. They pitched camp between a small winding river and a ridge covered with brushwood; but neither (the)river nor (the) brushwood Note One cannot replace a in the generic sense, as in [I b] (cf 5.38 Note [b]). afforded the protection they needed in the event of attack. l The generic use of the indefinite article Fixed phrases involving prepositions 5.53 The generic use of alan picks out ANY REPRESENTATIVE MEMBER OF THE CLASS. 5.51 In addition to adverbial phrase idioms such as hand in hand, face to face, Thus any can be substituted for alan in examples like: there are other idioms in which nouns with a zero article occur before or after The best way to learn a language is to live among its speakers. a preposition. Some of the prepositional phrases considered in 5.44fl(such as 1 at home, by hand) fall into this category, and to them we may add further Generic alan is therefore restricted in that it cannot be used in attributing examples such as on foot, in turn, out of step. properties which belong to the class or species as a whole. Thus: . 282 Nouns and determiners The articles in generic reference 283

The tiger is Tigers are becoming almost extinct. When the noun refers toaclassof human beings, the typifying connotation l of generic the can sound inappropriate,: BUT NOT: *A tiger is becoming almost extinct. ?The Welshman is a good singer. [c$ Welshmen are good singers.] ?The doctor is well paid. [cf: Doctors are well paid.] The generic use of the zero article ?As the child grows, it develops a wider range of vocabulary. 5.54 The generic use of zero article with both plural nouns and noncount nouns It is more appropriate when used to identify the typical characteristics of a identifies the class considered as an UNDIFFERENTIATED WHOLE (cf 5.39S): class in terms of personality, appearance, etc: Cigarettes are bad for your health. He spoke with the consummate assurance and charm of the success&l Hydrogen is lighter than oxygen. Harley Street surgeon: Necessity is the mother of invention. I Note [a] Another determinative word sometimes used with a typifying geneyc force is your (cf 5.63 Research shows that it is the elderly who are the prime victims of Note [cl): injarion. 1 Your average football supporter is not interested in comfort. Hunger and violence will continue to mark the future of mankind/ l In contrast to the, this use of your is associated with familiar speech; but it resembles the in its humanity. focus on the 'typical specimen' of the class. [b] Ambiguity may occur over the generic/speclfic interpretation: We consider the use of the zero article with noncount abstract nouns in 5.58f I I A : The president is too powerful. B: Which president? Note When it has the meaning of 'the human race' rather than 'a male human being', nron and its A: No, I mean presidents in general. synonym mankind are used generically without the article: i

This book is an attempt to trace the history of "lan. {mankind. With plural noun phrases Man meaning 'human being' (antonym: beasf) and its plural nlen may also be used in the same 5.56 Generic the occurs with plural noun phrases in two special cases: way. Thus: t l (a) Nationality nouns, ie noun phrases referring to the peopleof anationality, A nlan is a social animal 85 1 an ethnic grout).-. etc. en: the Chinese, the English (cf 7.25) Men have been on this planet for over a million years. (b) Phrases with an adjective head referring to a group of people, eg: the Man and wonran meaning 'the malelfemale part of the human race' are now less often used in a unemployed ['people who are unemployed], the blind, the rich, etc (cf 7.24) eeneric sense: Woman is the glory of all created existence. (S. Richardson) In other cases, the + plural noun cannot be used for generic reference. Because ofobjections to thegeneric useof man, other expressionsareoften preferred: hre~ronnki~rd. Thus the following sentences are not acceptable in a generic sense: the human race, etc. Parallel structures make a special case (cJ5.50); note that mar1 and ~t~a,~natr,rtrurr urtd n.i/l. do *The wolves are carnivorous. Wolves are . . . not refer to the human race: *The hydrogen is lighter than the oxygen. u Hydrogen is . . . Man and rabbit hisplay remarkably similar features in mating behaviour. But the following is unacceptable except in technical: scientific use: In scientific descriptions, however, we may find expressions like the rodents 'Rabbit displays similar features to ntan. (referring to the whole order Rodentia). It is arguable, in fact, that instances of (a) and (b) are not truly generic, either. Rather, they are plural phrases with unique denotation because (like The generic use of the definite article the masses, the fairies, the clergy, the Saints, etc) they designate a uniquely identifiablegroup of people. Hence there is a marked contrast between the With singular noun phrases (generic plural) in [l] and the (generic singular) in [la]: 5.55 The is rather limited in its generic function. With singular heads, it is often formal or literary in tone, indicating THE CLASS AS REPRESENTED BY ITS The Romans defeated the Carthaginiansin 202 BC. 111 TYPICAL SPECIMEN: ?The Roman defeated the Carthaginianin 202 BC. [lal A great deal of illness originates in the mind. [l] is acceptable in comparison with [la], because the Romans and the No one knows precisely when the wheelwas invented. Carthaginians refer collectively to a group of people, rather than to a typical My colleague has written a book on the definite article in Spanish. specimen. The Romans is thus a generalization (like the mathematicians, the Marianne plays the harp very well. teenagers, the birds, etc in similar use), whereas the Roman implies a generic As the last example shows, names of musical instruments and also dances statement. Nevertheless, it will be convenient to apply the term 'generic' to usually take the definite article: both the singular and plural uses. With nationality nouns, there is a distinction to be drawn in many cases play the violin [but: play baseball], dancing the samba between the generic nouns (with invariable plural) ending in -ish, -sh, or -ch, 284 Nouns and determiners !I The articles in generic reference 285 and the nongeneric nouns ending in -man in the singular and -men in the plural (both forms pronounced /man/). Compare: NAME OF SPECIFIC REFERENCE ~~~,"~~cE The Welshare fond of singing. [generic] COUNTRY, ETC Welshmen'are fond of singing. [generic] SlNGULAR PLURAL PLURAL The Welshmen are fond of singing. [specific] The forms ending in -me? are subject to the general tendency to disfavour Argentina Argentinian an Argentinian Argentinians the Argentinians words of masculine bias (cf 5.105), and if a sexually neutral expression is iv)(the) Argentine Argentine an Argentine Arerentines the Argentines sought, Welshmen in [2b], for example, may be replaced by Welsh people. (v) There is also the feminine term Welshwomen, etc but this type of word is rare Denmark Danish a Dane Danes the DanesIDanish or nonexistent in some cases, eg: *Jirewoman,*fieshwoman. Finland Finnish a Finn Finns the FinnsIFinnish With other nationalities, the distinction between generic and specific Poland Polish a Pole Poles the Poles/Polish nationality nouns does not arise: Saudi Arabia Saudi a Saudi Saudis/ the Saudis/ (Arab~an) (Arabian) Saudi Saudi Arab~ans The Finns are fond of sport. [generic] Arabians Finns are fond of sport. Arab [dl an Arab Arabs the Arabs [generic] Spain Spanish a Spaniard Spaniards the Spaniards1 The Finns Zknow are fond of sport. [specific] ~Gnish ' In the following section, we give specimens of the various kinds of words for Sweden Swedish a Swede Swedes the Swedes/ Swedish people and nationality. (4 cf Note [e] 5.57 Some nationality words England English an Englishman Englishmen the English France French a Frenchman Frenchmen the French Holland, the Dutch a Dutchman Dutchmen the Dutch SPECIFIC REFERENCE NAME OF REFERENCE Netherlands

COUNTRY, ETC Ireland Irish an Irishman Irishmen the Irish 86 SINGULAR PLURAL PLURAL Wales Welsh a Welshman Welshmen the Welsh

(i) (vii) . . China Chinese a Chinese [a] Chinese the Chinese Britaln British a Briton [fl Britons the British Japan Japanese a Japanese Japanese the Japanese Portugal Portuguese a Portuguese Portuguese the Portuguese (viii) Switzerland Swiss a Swiss Swiss the Swiss Scotland Scots [g] a Scotsman [e] Scotsmen the Scots Vietnam Vietnamese a Vietnamese Vietnamese the Vietnamese Scottish a Scot Scots (Scotch) (a Scotchman) (Scotchmen) (the Scotch) (ii) l Iraq 'lraqi an Iraqi Iraqis the Iraqis Israel Israeli an Israeli Israelis the Israelis Note [a] Chinaman is rare in educated use. Pakistan Pakistani a Pakistani Pakistanis the Pakistanis i [bl The segment -man in German is not a gender suffix (as in Englishman);consequently there are i no *Germen or 'Gerwomen. (iii) ! [cl Grecian is chiefly used of Ancient Greece, and tends to refer toobjectsor abstractions,rather Africa African an African Africans the Africans than to people: a Grecian urn. America American an American Americans the Americans Id] Arab is the racial and political term (the Arab nations, etc). Arabic is used of language and Asia Asian an Asian Asians the Asians literature, as well as in Arabic numerals(as opposed to Roman numerals). Arobia(n) is associated Australia Australian an Australian Australians the Australians with the geographical area of the Arabian peninsula (c/: Saudi Arabia). Belgium Belgian a Belgian Belgians the Belgians 11 [el Terms such as Englirhman/Englisl~menare included here because of their ability to be used Brazil Brazilian a Brazilian Brazilians the Brazilians generically for the inhabitants of the country (but cf 5.56); there are corresponding feminine Europe European a European Europeans the Europeans terms Englishwoman, etc, but these are rarely used. Germany German a German [b] Germans [b] j [fl Britisher and Brit are colloquial variants of Briton. The use of Briton is more restricted than the Germans Greece Greek [c] a Greek Greeks the Greeks I j Englishman, Scot, and Welshman with specific reference. Because of the homophony of Briton ;: Ia Hungary Hungarian a Hungarian Hungarians the Hungarians and Britain, a spoken sentence beginning eg:'An old Briton. . .'is likely to be misunderstood. India Indian an Indian Indians the Indians [g] The inhabitants of Scotland themselves prefer Scots and Scottish to Scotch, which however Italy Italian an Italian Italians the Italians is commonly used in such phrases as Scotch terrier, Scorch ~vl~isky,Scotch eggs, Scotch pancakes. Norway Norwegian a Norwegian Norwegians the Norwegians In contrast, Scottish denotes nationality and geographical area, rather than type: the Scattislz Russia Russian a Russian Russians the Russians l universities,the Scottish Highlands, a Scottish/Scots accent. 286 Nouns and determiners The articles in generic reference 287

[h] In cases where there is a language with a name related to a nationality word, the adjective between [l] and [Ib]: whereas [Ib] implies that she is studying the history of form is used for the language (cf5.58 Note): Europe as a whole, [l]allows the interpretation that she is studying only some She speaks Chinese, Norwegian, Polislr, Irish, etc. aspects of European history or a particular college course. The type of contrast illustrated above by [l] and [I b] can also be noted with concrete noncount nouns, and with plural nouns: The articles with abstract noncount nouns 5.58 Abstract nouns tend to be count or noncount according to whether they refer 18th century furniture. [2] to unitary phenomena (such as events) on the one hand, or to states, qualities, This specializes in {fie furnitureof the 18th century. [2a] activities, etc on the other. The following illustrate typical count abstract South American butterflies. [31 nouns : Alice is engaged in research on the butterflies of South America. [3a] meeting - meetings But in these cases it is to a greater or lesser degree acceptable to omit the: arrival 7 arrivals discovery - discoveries The museum specializes in furniture of the 18th century. [2bl ?Alice is engaged in research on butterjies of South America. [3bl The following are typical noncount abstract nouns (cf also the list in 5.9): employment, happiness, honesty, literature, sleep Note There are expressions in which the definite article is optional with the name of a language (c/ 5.57 Note [h]), as in: ' But the same abstract nouns can often switch between count and noncount a word borrowed from (the) Frenclr/(the)Italian use (cf dual class membership, 5.4): examples from (the)Sanskrit/(the) Hebrew The following expression is now archaic except in, for example, Irish English: He has the French. L41 She showed me much kindness. many kindnesses. The meaning of [4] is 'He knows French', to be contrasted with the regular curricular sense of I PI: He has French and Englislr Society must be changed by 87 a revolution. 5.59 The partitive effect of the definite article in the history of Europe (example In English, noncount abstract nouns usually have no article when used 5.58 [lb]) finds a parallel in the use of the indefinite article in such examples generically: as these : My favourite subject is history/French/mathematics/music. . . Mavis had a good education. [l] Happiness is often the product of honesty and hard work. My son suffers from a strange dislikeof mathematics. (ironic) L21 Theory must go hand in hand withpractice. She played the oboe with (a)remarkable sensitivity. [3] Normally thd zero article also occurs.when the noncount abstract noun is The indefinite article is used exceptionally here with nouns which are premodified: ' normally noncount. The conditions under which alan occurs in such cases She's studying European history. [l] are unclear, but appear to include the following: But when the same noun is postmodified, especially by an of-bhrase, the (i) the noun refers to a quality or other abstraction which is attributed to a definite article normally precedes it: person; l (ii) the noun is premodified and/or postmodified; and, generally speaking, She's studying *history of Europe. the greater the amount of modification, the greater the acceptability of the history of Europe. alan. We thus find typical contrasts of the following kind: In confirmation of (ii), notice that a would have to be omitted from [3] if the human evolution - the evolution of man adjective were omitted: medieval art - the art of the Middle Ages *a sensitivity. Oriental philosophy - the philosophy of the Orient She played the oboe with 18th century morality the morality of the 18th century - However, a would become more acceptable than zero if the noun were It appears that the cataphoric the is added in examples like [lb] because modified : the effect of the ofphrase is to single out a particular subclass of the phenomenon denoted by the noun, and thereby to change a generic meaning She played the oboe with (a)charming sensitivity. into aspecific or partitive one. In this connection, we notice a slight difference a sensitivity that delighted the critics. 288 Nounsand determiners Proper nouns 289

Proper nouns 91 Londons ['cities called or resembling London'] When a surname is made plural and preceded by the definite article, it takes 5.60 Proper nouns are basically names of specific people (Shakespeare), places on the meaning 'the family called X': (Milwaukee), months (September), days (Thursday), festivals (Christmas), magazines (Vogue), and so forth. As we saw in 5.2, proper nouns do not the Wilsons, the Joneses /-U/, the Prideaux 1-21 generally share the formal characteristics of common nouns. In particular, \p1 The rules for making proper nouns plural are the same as for common nouns they lack articles, or rather article contrast: (cf5.798: but note the rules for exceptional spellings in 5.81 111). Paris - *the Paris - *a Paris The Ha~ue- *Harue - *a Harue (b) Determination Within a given universe of discourse, proper nouns generally have unique Some types of proper nouns are customarily preceded by the definite article denotation, and are usually written with initial capital letters (though not all (eg: the Andes, cf 5.72), but they lack article contrast, since the article cannot nouns so written are proper nouns). Proper nouns often combine with normally be varied (*an Ande, *some Andes). If reclassified as common nouns, descriptive words which we will call DESCRIPTORS,and which also begin with however, proper nouns can have their meaning varied by articles and other a capital letter, to make composite names like Senator Morse, Dallas Road. determiners: We may therefore draw a distinction between a PROPER NOUN,which is a single word, and a NAME, which may or may not consist of more than one a Shakespeare ['an author like Shakespeare'] word. A name normally functions as a single unit with respect to grammar. his new Shakespeare ['his copy of the works of Shakespeare'] This means that, even if a composite name has an internal structure that is Other examples are: grammatically analysable (eg as King's College is analysable as genitive noun + head noun), that structure cannot normally be varied by the insertion I used to know a Mary Roberts, too. ['a person called Mary ~oberts'] of words, by change of inflection, etc. For example, The Hague has a built-in She is the second Mrs White - the first one died. definite article, but The does not act as a variable determiner, nor is it capable Lu Xun has been known as 'the Chinese Gorkr'. 88 of being followed by adjectives: *The beautiful Hague. Equally unacceptable The definite article with nuclear stress placed before a name has the special is *King'sfamous College. meaning of 'the well-known personlplace named X' (c/ 5.1 1 Note [el):

Note [a] Like other grammatical categories, the class of proper nouns has unclear boundaries. For A: I used to know John Lennon quite well. example, a number of common nouns with unique denotation are close to proper nouns, and are B : Surely you can't mean THE /&:l John ~Nnon? sometimes spelled with a capital letter (cf 5.29), eg: Fate, Fortune. Heouen, Hell, Nature, Paradise, Earth By contrast, the indefinite article placed before a personal name can have the Compare also, in their generic sense, Man and Woman (c/ 5.54 Note). On another level, we meaning 'a certain person called X but otherwise unknown': might wonder whe!her King's in King's College is to be classed as a genitive common noun which is part of a composite name. t A Mrs Robertson was trying to contact you this morning. [b] In The Hague Conuention, the article may be called 'conflated', since the definite article also occurs with premodifying names without built-in article: The Paris Peace Talks. As for loss of Note [a] There is a disparaging use of thot/those in expressions like that Mary, those Joneses: article in names, as in my native Hague, cf 5.72 (e). That Mr ~~Idipshas been on the phone again. Isn't he a NO~sance! But stressed that is not disparaging in: Proper nouns behaving ascommon nouns Oh, you mean TH~TMr Phillips. [Lthat particular person'] 5.61 Having unique denotation, proper nouns may also be expected to lack This has no such overtones in: Who's this Mrs ~d~ertsonthat phoned? number contrast, determination, and modification. In general they do, but [bl The fact that the pronoun one can substitute for a name is strong evidence of its conversion there are also circumstances in which they take on the characteristics of to the status of a common noun in examples like this (cf6.55): common nouns. A John Lemon, but not the FAMOUS one. 1 knew {ONE (person called) John Lennon. (a) Number Note the nuclear stress on, and the pronunciation of, the indefinite article /er/. [C] Possessives and genitives can be used to denote close family relationships (cf 5.55 Note [a]): 5.62 Proper nouns normally lack number contrast. Most proper nouns are singular, Is your Jennijer still at SCH~L?['your daughter Jennifer'] and do not have a plural (Indonesia - ?Indonesias),or else they have a plural Did you know that your Mrs w~fr~['theone you know'] has been arrested forsn6~lifting? but no singular (the West Indies - *a West Indy). There are, however, special John and Mary are very anxious about their Tom. [ie their son1 circumstances in which proper nouns are reclassified as common nouns, so Granny is delighted with Peter's Jane. [eg Peter's girlfriend] that they no longer have unique denotation (cf App 1.53): (c) Modification Shakespeares ['authors like Shakespeare'] 5.64 When they have the normal unique denotation, proper nouns can only be Smiths ['people whose name is Smith'] 290 Nouns and determiners Proper nouns 291

modified by nonrestrictive modifiers, such as a nonrestrictive relative clause PERSONAL NAMES (with or without titles; cf 5.66) (cf 17.22ff) or nonrestrictive apposition (cf 17.68): TEMPORAL NAMES (cf 5.67): Dr Brown, who lives next door, comes from Australia. (i) Festivals, religious periods, etc I Theseus, a Greek hero, killed the Minotaur. (ii) Months, and days of the week GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES (~f5.68): Nonrestrictive premodifiers are limited to adjectives with emotive colouring, (i) Continents such as : (ii) Countries, counties, states, etc old Mrs Fletcher dear little Eric poor Charles (iii) Cities, towns, etc beautiful Spain historic York sunny July (iv) Lakes (v) Mountains In a more formal and rather stereotyped style, the adjective is placed between OTHER LOCATIVE NAMES consisting of proper noun + common noun the and a personal name: descriptor (cf 5.69) 1 the beautifid Princess Diana ['Princess Diana, who is beautiful'] l the inimitable Henry Higgins ['Henry Higgins, who is inimitable'] Personal names Whether or not they are accompanied by titles, personal names normally Proper nouns show that they can temporarily take on features of common have no article (cf apposition 17.88). The name itself may consist of: nouns (cf5.63), and accept restrictive modification of various kinds: given (first, or Christian) name alone: Margaret, Jack, etc The Dr Brown I know comes from Australia. the surname (family name, or last name) alone: Smith, Wilson, etc The flower arrangement was done by a Miss Phillips in Park Road. given name(s) and surname together: Margaret Jane Smith, Do you mean the Memphis which used to be the capital of Egypt, or the Jack Wilson Memphis in Tennessee? In addition, one or more given names (in American usage regularly the I spoke to the younger Mr Hamilton, not Mr Hamilton the manager. 89 middle one) may be reduced to initials: In such cases, a determiner (especially the) is usual. But in addition, cataphoric the with restrictive modification can have the effect of splitting M. J. Smith; J. Wilson; Charles R. Maguire up the unique referent of the proper noun into different parts or aspects. We Names such as these may be prefaced by the normal title of Mr for a man, may therefore classify this as a PARTITIVE meaning: or Mrs, Miss, MS for a woman, or a courtesy title indicating the person's UNIQUE MEANING PARTITIVE MEANING status. Among the titles ascribing status are those indicating royalty (eg: Queen), rank of nobility (eg: Lord), political, clerical, or judicial office (eg: during Eadter during the Easteyof that year President), military rank (eg: Major), or academic or professional status (eg: in England in the England of Queen Elizabeth Doctor). Some examples : in Denmark in the Denmark of today Mr and Mrs Johnson General MacArthur Chicago the Chicago IIike ['the aspect of Chicago'] MS Waterhouse Professor Smith Shakespeare the young Shakespeare ['Shakespeare when he was Dr Brown Cardinal Spellman l young'] Private Walker Inspector Harris Bradford the Bradjbrd she grew up in 1 Captain O'Connor Chancellor Brandt Note [a] Compare the 'partitive' use of the genitive in James Joyce's Dublin ('the Dublin which lames Lord Nelson Governor Rockefeller Joyce knew'], etc. Lady Churchill Judge Fox [b] In the names of monarchs, etc. an adjectival cognomen is placed after the proper noun, and is prefaced by the, eg: Cl~arlesthe Great, Iuan the Terrible. This type of appellation is similar to Fuller details of appositional titles are given in 17.91. On the use of titles and an appositional type of name, in which the by-name is nominal: William the Cotrqueror. But in names as vocatives without the article, cf 10.53. these latter cases, the article is sometimes omitted: Richard (the) Lionheart, Richard Crookbock. [c] On nonrestrictive premodification as in an embarrassed Ben Miles, etc, cf17.3 Note. [a] MS,usually pronounced /m~z/,is now widely used as a female title which avoids making the distinction between married and unmarried (Mrs and Miss). On the plural of terms of address, Names with no article cf5.103. 5.65 We now turn to regular examples of names without an article. The following [b] The title Sir is used for a knight or a baronet. It is exceptional in that it must be accompanied by the given name of the holder, but need not be accompanied by the surname. Thus Sir Basil list summarizes the main classes of name that take no article, in accordance Sperlce can be abbreviated as Sir Basil, but not as 'Sir Spet~ce.Withother titles, it is usually the with the main rule (cf 5.60): given name that isomitted in an abbreviated version: MS(Julia) Warrrl~ouse. [cl In naming monarchs and popes who have shared the same given name with others (eg : King 292 Nouns and determiners Proper nouns 293

James I, Queen Elizabeth 11). we normally write the appended numeral as a cardinal roman And or1 the Thursday she got worse. So, on the Friday we called the doctor. ['the Thursday. number. But in speech, this numeral is rendered as an ordinal (cf 6.63): I 'the first', 11 'the etc of the week concerned'] second', VII 'the seventh', etc. [d] The use of the'article in the following is exceptional: (i) imperial titles: the Emperor Napoleon; (the) Enlperor Haile Selassie; (the) Czar Ale.wrzder: Geographical names (the)Archduke Ferdinand [but: Kaiser Wilhelna 111 5.68 The following categories of names normally have no article, even with a (ii) the Lard ['God'] premodifying adjective: (iii) (the) RevJohn Smith [always the Reuerend John Smith in the spoken form] (iv) titles of peerage, when followed by an oj-phrase: the Duke of Wellington, the Countess of (i). Names of continents: Derby, etc (North) America (medieval) Europe (equatorial)Affica [e] In familiar style, kinship terms with uniqde referen~sbehave like proper nouns in having no determiner, and often in beginning with a capital letter: (Central)Australia (East)Asia Antarctica Where's mother? [also: Mummy, Mum (BrE familiar); Monrmy, Mom (AmE familiar)] Note that Antarctica refers to the continent, while ?he Antarcric refers more You'll see Uncleon Saturday. - Father is here. [also: Daddy. Dad, Pop (familiar)] generally to the polar region (cf: the Arctic). Contrast: MylThe fother was the tallest of the family. (ii) Names of countries, counties, states, etc: The following expressions are very informal, and used especially in a family environment by or to young children: (my)Daddy, bour) Mom, etc. (Elizabethan) England (West) Scotland (industrial)Staffordshire (modern) Brazil (French)Canada (northern)Arkansas Temporal names 5.67 These have no article when they are used to refer to the period as a recurrent Note the exceptional use of the for certain countries and regions, eg: (the) item in the calendar (cf sporadic reference, 5.43; seasons, 5.47): Argentine (but Argentina, without the article, is more common; cf 5.57). Other examples: (i) Names of festivals, religious periods, etc: the Crimea the Punjab the Ruhr

Christmas (Day) Independence Day Easter (Sunday) the Saar the Sahara (the)Sinai 90 Passover Good Friday New Year (the) Sudan (the) Ukraine (the) Yemen New Year's Day New Year's Eve Ramadan The is sometimes used with French names, eg: the Auvergne; it is also used (ii) Names of months, and days of the week: with plural names such as the Everglades (cf 5.72), and for names ending with January, February, . . . Monday, Tuesday, . . . a compass point: However, these words behave more like common nouns when they refer to the NearlMiddlelFar East, the (Deep) South, the Midwest individual periods, or when they refer cpllectively to more than one occasion. (iii) Names of cities, towns, etc: Along with nqxt and last + a noun, tkey have zero article when they are connected with a point of time implicit in the linguistic or situational context (downtown) Boston (central) Brussels (on prepositional usage, cf 9.40). Contrast: (ancient)Rome (suburban)New York Note the exceptional article in The Hague; also the use of the article in certain districts of large cities: the Bronx, the City, the West/East End (of London). (iv) Names of lakes (cf 17.89): (Lake)Ladoga Lake Michigan Loch Ness Silver Lake Lake Nicaragua Ullswater Days of the week also occur with the indefinite article, without reference to a particular Sunday: Note exceptions such as the Great Salt Lake. He left on a Sunday. (v) Names of mountains (cf 17.89): Days of the week have a plural, but months of the year normally do not: Mount Everest Mont Blanc Ben Nevis (Mount)Snowdon Vesuvius Aconcagua I hate Mondays. ?I hate Januaries. Note As the examples above show, in the names of lakes and mountains, the descriptor usually Note In rather popular BrE usage (felt by some to be nonstandard), the days of the week have the precedes rather than follows the proper noun: Lokc Michigan, not *Michigart Lake. There are, definite article in caseslike the following: however, some cases in which the descriptor follows: Pikes Peak, Bassortlr~taiteLake. 294 ~&nsand determiners Proper nouns 295

Other locative names consisting of proper noun + common noun descriptor the simple proper noun Oxjbrd. Although native English speakers may be The structure 'proper noun + common noun descriptor (or by-name)' is able to analyse this into two elements ('ford for oxen'), such an analysis plays typical of the names of natural features (such as forests, woods, and hills) and no part in their understanding of Oxford as the name of a university city. man-made features (such as roads, streets, squares, buildings, airports, parks, This 'scale of institutionalization'explains why there are many exceptions and gardens). The article is normally omitted: to the above categories of names which lack an article, and why there is sometimes vacillation between the use and omission of the definite article. It Epping Forest Park Lane Paddington Station might be better, in fact, to regard names without articles as exceptions to the Clapham Common Madison Avenue Kennedy Airport more general rule that definite noun phrases are introduced by the article the. Hampstead Heath Times Square Magdalen College But an even better way of looking a; this problem is simply to acknowledge Kew Gardens Portland Place Canterbury Cathedral that what accounts for apparent exceptions is the absence of a clear-cut Hyde Park Scotland Yard Windsor Castle boundary between names and definite descriptions. Consider the following Bredon Hill Westminster Bridge Buckingham Palace three cases: Piccadilly Circus Hampton Court Fountains Abbey York University. There are, however, many exceptions. For example, in London, the Albert In 1965- 1968 she attended (the)Hatfield Polytechnic. Hall and the Mansion House are buildings, and the Mall and the Strand are the Paris Conservatoire. streets. More general exceptions are the names of theatres, museums, etc (cf 5.72). The reason for using the article in the one case, and omitting it optionally or obligatorily in the other two, seems to be largely a matter of how far the name Note [a] Names of British universitieswhereoneelementis a place-name can usually have two forms: is an institutionalized name among English-speaking (and in this case the Uniuersity ofbndon (which is the official name)and London Uniuersity.In names of American particularly British) people. universities, there is a fairly regular contrast between the two types, as in the Uniuersity of In the following sections we deal with the in-between area of names CaI#iorttia and California State University. Universities named after a person have only the latter form: Yale Uniuersity, Brown University, etc. preceded by the definite article. They might, indeed, be called 'descriptive [b] The can exceptionally occur with Road in the names of some urban thoroughfares: names', since not only do they take the article, but they can be analysed, in (the)Edgware Road, (the) Old Kent Road[but only: Oxford Street, Fifrh Avenue] terms of noun-phrase structure, into head and modifiers. 91 Large modern intercity highways also tend to have the article: the Son Diego Freeway, the Merrit Parkway, the Pennsyluatria Turnpike, the M1 (Motor~vay) Structure of names with the Names with the definite article 5.70 There is a gradient between names like Sir Walter Scott and noun phrases 5.71 (i) Without modification: which are termed DEFINITE DESCRIPTIONS, such as the author of Waveriey. the Kremlin the Koran The Guardian Both names and:definite descriptions have (situationally) unique denotation; the Pentagon lhe Bible The Times but one of them is grammatically 'frozen'hwhile the other is formed according the Knesset the Parthenon the Dbil to the normal productive rules for constructing definite noun phrases. The most obvious indicator of a name is its spelling with initial capitals; while (ii) With premodification: the most obvious indicator of a definite description is its initial definite the Suez Canal the Washington Post article. Expressions which combine both these features, such as the Eiffel the National Gallery the American Civil War Tower, are neither completely name-like nor completely description-like, but the Socialist Bookshop the Ohio State Uniuersity Press somewhere between the two. We may therefore illustrate the gradient The Ford Foundation the British Broadcasting Corporation between descriptions and names roughly as follows: the English Channel (the BBC) (iii) With postmodification:

the Oxford rood the House of Commons the Institute of Psychiatry the District of Columbia the Bay of Fundy Fig 5.70 The gradient between descriptions and names the Cambridgeshire College of Arts and Technology

(i) is a definite description ('the road to Oxford'); in (ii) that description is Virtually all names with postmodification like those above are postmodified by an of-phrase, and have an obligatory the. conventionalized to the extent that Road is capitalized, so that the whole makes a composite name; in (iii) the loss of the article has taken this (iv) With ellipsis of elements: conventionalization further. The purest example of a name is perhaps (iv), The original structure of a name is sometimes unclear when one element has 296 Nouns and determiners Number 297

been dropped and the elliptic form has become institutionalized as the full (d) Ships and planes, particularly when renowned in history, eg: the Victory, name : the Spirit of St Louis the Tate (Gallery) the Mermaid (Theatre) (e) Newspapers and periodicals: The Economist, The New York Times, The the Atlantic (Ocean) the (River) Thames Observer, The Providence Journal, The London Review of Books. The is the Mediterranean (Sea) the Majestic (Hotel) generally spelt with a capital letter in names ofnewspapers. Irrespective ofwhether or not the article is part ofthe name itself, it is Note When the article is written with a small t, it is not part of the name itself. Hence any modifier not used after an indefinite article or other determiner or genitive: describing the referent follows, rather than precedes, the article: the breathtaking Hinrolayas, the lower Mississippi. In The Hague, however, The is part of the name (cj'5.72 e). Have you got a Times? [not:*a The Times] She's a Times reporter. Have you seen today's New York ~imes? Malcolm lent me his Guardian. Classes of names typically preceded by the Magazines and periodicals, on the other hand, often have a zero article: (a) Plural names (in general), eg: the Netherlands, the Midlands, the Great Time, Punch, English Language Teaching Journal, New Scientist, Scientific Lakes, particularly including the following two categories. American. (i) Groups of islands: the Hebrides, the Shetlands, the Canaries (or the Canary Islands), the Bahamas (ii) Ranges ofmountains or hills: the Himalayas, the Alps, the Andes, the Rockies (or the Rocky Mountains), the Pyrenees, the Pennines. Also nonplural names of ranges: the Caucasus, the Sierra Nevada. Number Exceptions: Kensington Gardens, Burnham Beeches (b) Other geographical names: Number classes (i) Rivers: the Avon, the Danube, the Euphrates, the Potomac, the Rhine. 5.73 The English number system constitutes a two-term contrast: SINGULAR, 92 (The word River can sometimes be inserted after the: the River Avon, which denotes 'one', and PLURAL, which denotes 'more than one'. Each noun etc; but for some rivers it comes last: the Potomac River, etc; cf phrase is either singular or plural, and its number is determined in general 17.89). by its head, which is typically a noun. In the following sections we will (ii) Seas and oceans: the PaciJic (Ocean), the Atlantic (Ocean), the Baltic concentrate on number as a property of nouns, and as a basis for their (Sea),the Kattegat classification. (iii) Canals: the Panama Canal, the Suez Canal, the Erie Canal (iv) Other geographical features of coastline: the Gulfof Mexico, the Note [a] In addition to singular and plural number, we may distinguish dual number in the case of both, either, and neither (cj5.16). since they can only be used with reference to two. Borh has Cape oy Good Hope, the Bay of Biscay, the Strait of Magellan, the plural concord (cj6.50); either and neither have singular concord (46.59fl). Sound bf Bute, (the)Bosphorus, the Isle of Man, the Isle of Wight [b] Unlike some languages where plural implies'twoor more'. English makes the division after Note that when there is premodification rather than postmodification in 'more than one': category (iv), the usually disappears. Thus: one haway, one day BUT:one and a ha!fdoys, tltv days, orrc or t~t~o day.^ However, the following remain singular: the Isle of Wight BUT: Long Island a pound and a hay; a day or two (cf 5.3% nrure than orrc doy the Bay of Naples BUT: Hudson Bay 5.74 Wedistinguish three main number classes of nouns: (c) Public institutions, facilities, etc: (i) Hotels and restaurants: the Grand (Hotel), the WaldorfAstoria (A) SINGULAR INVARIABLE NOUNS,including noncount nouns (eg: music, (ii) Theatres, opera houses, cinemas, and clubs: the Criterion (Theatre), gold), most proper nouns (eg: Thomas, the Thames). We may also the Globe (Theatre), the Athenaeum consider here abstract adjective heads, eg: the mystical (cf 7.26). (iii) Museums, libraries, hospitals, etc: the British Museum, the Bodleian (B) PLURAL INVARIABLE NOUNS, k nouns occurring only in the plural, eg: (Library),the Middlesex Hospital people, scissors. Wemay also consider here personal adjective heads, Probably because of their origin as place-names, Drury Lane and Covent eg: the rich (cf 7.23S). Garden are exceptions to the rule that theatres and opera houses take the, (CID) VARIABLE NOUNS,ie nouns occurring with either singular or plural as in the Metropolitan. When the name ofa public institution begins with number: a genitive, the is not used : White's, Gaylord's (Restaurant),Brown's (Hotel), The dog is . . . Guy's (Hospital),St John3 (College). The dogs are . . . 298 Nouns and determiners Number 299

We distinguish two subclasses: (C) REGULAR, with plurals predictable Abstract noncount nouns normally have no plural: music, dirt, homework, from the singular (like dog), and (D) IRREGULAR, where the plural is etc. But some can be reclassified as count nouns where they refer to an not predictable (eg:foot -feet, child - children). In this latter group instance of a given abstract phenomenon: injustices, regrets, kindnesses, we find a large number of nouns with foreign plurals, eg: criterion - pleasures, etc. Many abstract nouns are equally at home in the count and criteria, analysis - analyses. noncount categories (cf 5.4). Proper nouns are typically singular and invariable: Henry, the Thames, etc Figure 5.74 provides a summary of the classification with section references (cf5.62). to the subsequent discussion. Some noncount nouns, particularly those denoting natural phenomena, may be pluralized, eg: NOUN SINGULAR PLURAL CLASS walking through the woods I have serious doubts/gravefiars. raise someone's hopes Let's play on the sands. (A) SINGULAR INVARIABLE Some plurals express intensity, great quantity or extent, and have a literary noncount nouns (Aa) (5.75) gold flavour, for example: abstract adjective heads the unreal (Ab) (7.26) proper nouns Henry (Ac) (5.60fn the snows of Kilimanjaro the sands of the desert

' (B) PLURAL INVARIABLE sailing on the great waters summation plurals scissors (Ba) (5.76) Note the following classes of invariable nouns ending in -S which take a pluralia tantum in -S thanks (Bb) (5.77) singular verb, except where otherwise mentioned: unmarked plural nouns people (BC) (5.78) personal adjective heads the rich (Bd) (7.23f) (i) News is always singular (cf 5.9): proper nouns the Alps (Be) (5.62) Here is the news from the BBC. What's the news today? 93 (c) NOUNS WITH (ii) Nouns ending in -ics denoting subjects, sciences, etc are usually REGULAR PLURAL dog - dogs (c) (5.79fn invariable and treated as singular, eg: (D) NOUNS WITH Mathematics is the science of quantities. IRREGULAR PLURAL Other such nouns include: voicing and -S plural calf calves (Da) (5.83) - acoustics economics linguistics mutation plural foot -feet (Db) (5.84) athletics ethics phonetics -en plural , child \, children (DC) (5.85) - classics gymnastics physics zero plural ' sheep - sheep (Dd) (5.86m stimulus - stimuli (De) (5.93) Some, however, can be singular or plural, in particular when such words can larva - larvae (DO (5.94) denote both one's knowledge of the subject and the practical application of Stratum - Strata (Dg) (5.95) results : matrix matrices (Dh) (5.96) - Politics is said to be the art of the impossible. [the science of foreign plurals ' thesis theses (Di) (5.97) - government] [l] criterion criteria - (Dj) (5.98) Hispolitics are rather conservative. [political views] [lal bureau - bureaux (Dk) (5.99) tempo - tempi (Dl) (5.100) In some cases, there are forms without -S for special uses: cherub cherubim (Dm) (5.101) - Statistics is a branch of mathematics. These statistics show that exports are still low. Fig 5.74 Number classes There is a surprising statistic in your latest report. A new ethic is needed in the world today. (A) Singular invariable nouns Has the new coach found a tactic that works? 5.75 Noncount nouns are singular and invariable, ie they have no plural. Some concrete noncount nouns can be reclassified as count nouns with specific (iii) Names of certain diseases ending in -S are usually treated as singular meanings, for example butters ['kind(s) of butter'] and a beer ['a glass of beer'] (but some speakers also accept plural), eg: (German) measles, mumps, rickets, (cf 5.5). shingles: 300 Nouns and determiners Number 301

A: Have you ever had measles? with premodification: (a) new clippers, (a)garden shears, (an) old-fashioned curling tongs. Forms are commonly singular when used attributively: a B: Yes 1 had {:em] when I was a child. spectacle case, a suspender belt, a trouser leg, a pajama/pyjama top (cf 17.108). (iv) The names of some games ending in -S have singular concord, eg: Note Compasses can be used in the singular (con~~uss)in the sense 'instrument for drawing circles': billiards (but usually: a billiard table), checkers (AmE), draughts (BrE), She drew her circle with a cot~~puss. craps, darts (but : a dartboard), daminoes,jves, ninepins: In the sense of an instrument of navigation, it is a normal count noun: A magnetic compass is Darts is becoming very popular as a spectator sport. Magnetic MWasscs are) necessary fanavigation.

(B) Plural invariable nouns (Bb) Pluralia tantum ending in -S 5.77 Some 'pluralia tantum' (ie nouns that, in a given sense, occur only in the (Ba) Summation plurals plural) end in -S, whereas others have no plural marking, eg: people (cf 5.78). 5.76 Summation plurals denote tools, instruments, and articles of dress consisting They have plural concord, eg: oftwo equal parts which are joined together: These damages have not yet been paid, have they? [damages A: How much are those binoculars? B: They are £60. = 'compensation in money imposed by law for causing loss The most c6mmon summation plurals are the following: or injury'] [l1 (i) Tools and instruments: In many cases, plufalia tantum ending in -S also have singular forms, which however can be dissociated in meaning from the plural, eg: bellows; glasses, spectacles, binoculars; scales ['a balance']; clippers, forceps, pincers, scissors, shears, tongs, tweezers That damage was repaired long ago. [damage = 'loss, harm'] [lal (ii) Articles ofdress: Other examples of plliralia tantum: 94 braces (B~E),breeches, britches (AmE),briefs,pannels, jeans, knickers, accommodations (AmE) : living accommodations pants, pajhmas (AmE),pyjamas (BrE), shorts, slacks, suspenders, tights, amends: make everylall possible amends for something trousers, trunks annals ['a historical record of events']:in the annals of history Number contrast can be achieved by means ofapair of. Thus apair of trousers archives: The documents should be kept in the archives. (BUT: archive refers to one item, but twopairs of trousers refers to two (cf 5.7 Note [a]): administration) That's a nice pair of slacks. arms ['weapons']: arms aid; arms control; the arms race; take up arms; ALSO: As I'm shortsighted I always carry twopairsofglasses. munitions arrears: He's in arrears with his payments; the arrears ofwork Plural pronoun concord is usual even with a singular determiner +pair: ashes: burn to ashes; Her ashes were scattered; the ash(es) of a burned letter (BUT: cigarette ash; ashtray; Ash Wednesday) I Ii ke {*:i~~}pair. How much areis it? they? auspices ['support']:under the auspices of banns [ofmarriage]: publish the banns Although nohns that are summation plurals require plural concord, they bowels, entrails, intestines: the movement of the bowels; an infection of the differfrom ordinary plural nouns in that they are not generally thought of as intestines (BUTsingular count: the large intestine) denoting plural number. Yet usage varies. For many speakers, it is as follows brains ['the intellect']: You should use your brains. (BUTsingular count is (cf 10.43 Note [c]): more common generally, and particularly so when the meaning is Both pairs of scissors anatomical: 'The average human brain weighs 14 oz.') (?) Both of the scissors clothes /klau(B)z/: warm clothes; a clothes basket (BIJT:cloths /kloes/ as (?)Both scissors plural ofcloth: a table cloth) clubs, diamonds, hearts, spades [playing cards]: the ace of clubs; the jack of two pairs of trousers. hearts; BUT: I've only one diamond in my hand. NOTE singular concord in : (?) two trousers. (informal) Spades is the suit. It was hearts last game. I want apair of trousers. the Commons/L.ords [the House of Commons/Lords in the UK]: The *one trouser. Commons are discussing the new bill. (?)a scissors. (informal) communications ['means of communicating']:communications gap; telecom- Many of the summation plurals can take the indefinite article, especially munications network 302 Nouns and determiners Number 303

congratulations: Many congratulations on your birthday! steps [outside a building]: a flight of steps; on the church steps contents: a table of contents (BUT:the silver content of a coin; the style and surroundings['environment']: These surroundings are not good for the child. content of a book) systems: a systems analyst; computer systems applications credentials: evaluate the credentials of students thanks: Many thanks for. . .;All my thanks are due to you. customs: pay customs duty; go through customs at the airport; a customs troops ['soldiers']: Many troops were sent overseas. (BUT:troop movement; a officer trooo carrier; a trooo of scouts) dregs: coffee dregs/grounds; the dregs of society tropics. living in the tropics (BUT:the Tropic of Cancer) dues ['fee']: pay one's dues to a society; harbour dues valuables: Are mv valuables safe here? earnings: Her earnings are higher this year. (BUT:earning power); ALSO: wages ['weekly pay']: What are his wages? (BUToften also singular: a wage proceeds, returns, riches earner; a minimum wage; a good/poor/high wage; a wage freeze) funds ['money']: for lack of funds; be short of funds (BUT:a fund ['a source of wits: live by one's wits (BUT:She has a keen wit. Her speech had wit.) money']) writings ['literary production' (formal)]: His writings are not widely known. goods ['property, merchandise']: leather goods; a goods train (BrE) (AmE = a freight train) grassroots ['the rank and file']: grassroots opinion/revolt/support (BUT:at grassroot level) (BC)Unmarked plural nouns: people,police, etc guts ['bowels'; ALSO 'courage' (familiar)]: He's got the guts to do it. (BUTin 5.78 The following nouns have no plural marking but are used as plurals (cf also premodification: a gut reaction; noncount: catgut) collective nouns like clergy, staff, etc, 5.108): heads ['front side of a coin']: Heads or tails? (i) people: heauens in the expression 'Good Heavens!' (BUT:go to heaven) How many people are there in the world today? honours: an honours course/degree/list humanities ['arts']: the humanitieslarts faculty People functions as the normal plural ofperson : letters ['literature']: a man of letters There was only oneperson lodgings: a lodgings bureau (BUT:a lodging house; a poor lodging); ALSO: digs There were many people 95 (BrE informal): Many students move into digs instead of living on Persons is often used instead of people, especially in official style: 'a campus. ALSO: quarters: married quarters(0u~:theLatinquarter['district']) looks: He has good looks. (BUT:give somebody a hard look) person or persons unknown'. Whenpeople means 'nation', it is a regular count noun: mains: turn the water off at the mains; NOTE in some phrases the -S is retained in premodification: mains adaptor; mains water supply The Japanese are an industrious people. manners ['social behaviour']: Where are your manners?; manners and They are a great people. customs (BUT;DO it in this mannerlway; I don't like his manner ['personal the English-speaking peoples way of acting;]) \, In this sense, however, the singular form people is normally constructed minutes ['a record of proceedings']: the minutes of a meeting with plural concord: odds: What are the odds?; be at odds with; odds and ends outskirts: She lives on the outskirts of the city. The Portuguesepeople have chosen a new President. pains ['care, trouble']: take great pains with something; be at pains to do (ii) Folk is more restricted in use than people: countryfolk,fisher folk, island something folk, folk art, folk music. Folks is used in casual style (That's all. folks0 particulars ['details']: Take down the particulars of this event. and often with a possessive determiner in the sense of 'family' (my premises ['building' (in official style)]: There is a suspect on the premises. (BUTin logic: a first premise) folks). regards ['good wishes']: Ann sends her regards. (BUT: win his regard (iii) police: 'The police have caught the burglar'. ['respect']) relations: an exercise in public relations To denote individual police officers we normally use a police ofleer, or remains ['remainder']: the remains of the castlelthe meal a policeman/policewoman with the plurals police oficers, policemen, savings ['money saved']: a savings bank; a savings account (BUT:a saving of policewomen : £5) Why don't you ask apoliceman? spirits ['mood']: to be in good spirits (BUT:He showed a kindly spirit.) stairs [inside a building]: a flight of stairs; downstairs (BUT:a staircase; a In a collective sense 'the police force', only police can be used: stairway) He wants to join thepolice. [NOT,in this sense, thepolicemen] 304 Nouns and determiners Number 305

(iv) cattle: 'All his cattle were grazing in the field.' only in -oes: domino (plural: dominoes); also: echo, embargo, hero, (v) poultry ['farmyard birds']: 'Where are your poultry?' potato, tomato, torpedo, veto. But it is treated as singular in the sense of 'meat': 'Poultry is harder to liiil. -0s or -OES: In some cases there is variation between -0s and -oes come by nowadays than beef. plurals, eg: archipelago (plural: archipelagos or archipelagoes); also banjo, bufilo (cf 5.87), cargo, grotto, halo, innuendo, mangesto, (vi) livestock ['animals kept on a farm']: 'Our livestock are not as numerous motto, mulatto, tornado, volcano. as they used to be.' (111) Nouns ending in -y preceded by a consonant change -y to -i and add (vii) vermin: 'These vermin cause disease.' -es: sky - skies; -y is kept after avowel: day - days, except for nouns ending in -guy /kwi:/ (where u is only a spelling vowel required after (C) Regular plurals q), which have the plural -pies (soliloquy - soliloquies). Proper nouns 5.79 Variable nouns have two forms: singular and plural. The singular is the ending in -y have plurals in -ys: the two Germanys, the little Marys. unmarked form that is listed in dictionaries. The vast majority of nouns are variable in this way and normally the plural is fully predictable both in (IV) The final consonant is doubled in a few words, eg: fez -fezzes, pronunciation and spelling by the same rules as for the -S inflection of verbs quiz - quizzes. (cf 3.5,3.7), ie they form the regular plural. If the plural cannot be predicted (V) The apostrophe + s is used in some nouns of unusual form, eg letters: from the singular, it is an irregular plural. dot your i's; numerals: in the 1890's (or, increasingly, 1890s); abbreviations: three PhD's (or, increasingly, PhDs). The pronunciation of the regular plural 5.80 The regular -S plural has three different pronunciations /E/, /z/, /S/ depending Note In abbreviations, reduplication also occurs as a purely written convention, eg: p -pp [the on the final sound of the base. plural = 'pages'], l - I1 [= 'lines'], MS - MSS [= 'manuscripts'], ex - exx [='examples'], c - (i) /rz/ after bases ending in sibilants: cc [= 'copies'],/-R[= 'and following pages']. /S/ in horse - horses; box - boxes /tJ/ in church - churches (D) Irregular plurals /z/in size - sizes /3/ in mirage - mirages -5.82 Irregular plurals are by definition unpredictable. Whereas the plural /IZ/in 96 /J/ in rush - rushes /d3/ in language - languages horses, /z/ in dogs, and /S/ in cats can be predicted from the final sound in the (ii) /z/ after bases ending in vowels and voiced consonants other than ,. singular of the nouns, there is no indication in the written or spoken forms sibilants: day - days, bed - beds of, for example, ox, sheep, and arialysis to suggest that their plurals are oxen, (iii) /S/ after bases ending in voiceless consonants other than sibilants: sheep, and analyses. The particular plurals of these nouns have to be learned bet bets, month months as individual lexical units. - - In manv cases where foreign words are involved, it is of course helpful to The spelling of the regular plural know aboit pluralization in;he relevant language$, particularly ~ainand Greek. Thus, on the pattern of analysis analyses we can construct the 5.81 The plural suffix is written -S after most nouns: hat - hats, including nouns - ending in silent -e (college - colleges). There are however several exceptions following plurals: axis - axes, basis - bases, crisis - crises, etc. But we cannot to this rule: always rely on etymological criteria: unlike larva -larvae, for example, plurals like areas and villas do not conform to the Latin pattern (cf 5.94). (I) Unless the noun is written with a silent -e, the plural suffix is spelled -es after $ouns ending in sibilants which are spelled -S (gas - gases), -z (Da) Voicing and -s plural (buzz - buzzes), -X (box - boxes), -ch (church - churches), -sh (bush - 5.83 (i) Some nouns which, in the singular, end in the voiceless fricative /0/ bushes). (spelled -th) form plurals with the corresponding voiced fricative /a/ followed by /z/. The spelling of the plural is regular (-ths): (11) Nouns ending in -0 have plurals in -0s or -oes. (i) -0s: When -0 is preceded by a vowel (letter or sound), the spelling -th /0/ - -ths /Elz/, eg: path -paths is -0s: bamboos, embryos, folios, kangaroos, radios, studios, zoos. There is considerable indeterminacy between voicing and nonvoicing in When -0 is preceded by a consonant, the spelling is also usually many nouns ending in -th. With a consonant letter before the -th, the -0s: dynamos, pianos, quartos, solos. Abbreviations are included pronunciation of the plural is regular /OS/: in those nouns with -0s: kilos (= kilograms), memos (= memo- randa), photos (= photographs); and ethnic nouns: Eskimos, berth - berths, birth - births, length - lengths Filipinos (but also zero, cf 5.88). With a vowel before the -th, the plural has, again, often regular pronunciation (ii) -OES: The following are among those nouns which have plurals /0s/, as with: 306 Nouns and determiners Number 307

cloth, death, faith, heath, moth (DC)The -en plural 5.85 The -en /an/ plural occurs in three nouns: In a few such cases, however, there are both regular and voiced plurals, eg: brother brethren (with mutation as well as the -en ending) is limited to truths /tru:Bs/ or /tru:Bz/;similarly: oaths, sheaths, youths (/ju:Bs/ (esp - brother meaning 'fellow member of a religious society'; otherwise AmE)), wreaths regular brothers (ii) Some nouns which, in the singular, end in the voiceless fricative /f/ child - children (with vowel change /a11- /I/ and -r added) (spelled -for ye) form plurals with the corresponding voiced fricative /v/ ox - oxen (In AmE, the plural oxes is also sometimes found.) followed by /z/ The spelling ofthe plural is -ves: (Dd) Zero plural -f If/ - -ves /vz/,eg: calf- calves 5.86 Some nouns have the same spoken and written form in both singular and -fe /f/ - -ves /vz/,eg: knife - knives olural. Note the difference here between, on the one hand, invariable nouns, Voiced plurals, spelled -ves and pronounced /vz/,occur with: which are either singular [l]or plural [2],but not both; and, on the other hand, zero plural nouns, which can be both singular and plural [3,3a]: calf- calves life - lives shelf- shelves elf.- elves loaf - loaves thief - thieves This music is too loud. [l] half- halves self- selves (cf 6.23) wife - wives AN the cattle are grazing in the field. 121 knife - knives sheaf - sheaves : wolf- wolves This sheep looks small. L31 leaf - leaves All those sheep are ours. [W Both regular and voiced plurals are found with: We distinguish the following types of nouns with zero plural: (I) animal names (cf 5.87), (11) nationality nouns (cf 5.88), (111) quantitative nouns (cf dwarf (plural:dwarf/dwarves), hoof, scarf, wharf 5.89n, and (IV)nouns with equivocal number (cf 5.91). Other nouns ending in $(e) have regular plural -f(e)s Ifs/,for example: belief

(I) Animal names 97 (plural:beliefs), chief, clzy, proof, roof, safe. 5.87 Animal names normally have the regular plural: (iii) One noun (house)ending in the voiceless fricative /S/ in the singular has cow - cows, eagle - eagles, monkey - monkeys, etc the plural /zrz/:house - houses. However, many animal names have two plurals: -S and zero plurals, eg: duck, Note [a] In BrE bath has the voiced plural /bo:dz/ or /ba:%s/ when it means 'swimming pools', but herring. Zero tends to be used partly by people who are especially concerned usually /bo:9s/ when it means 'bathtubs'. with the animals, partly when the animals are referred to in the mass as [b] Clouerleaf occurs with either clouerleafsor clouerleavesin the plural. Regular plurals occur in names, eg the Toronto icehockey team Maple Leafs. game : [c] The painting term stilllijc has a regular pluralc stilllfes. Have you ever shot duck? Wecaught only a fewfish. (Db) Mutation The regular plural is used to denote different individuals, species, etc: 5.84 The plural is formed by MUTATION (a change of vowel) in the following seven nouns : Can you see the ducks on the pond? l thefishes ofthe Mediterranean man /m=$/ - men /men/ woman /'wuman/ - women /'wrrn~n/ foot /U/ -fief /i:/ tooth /U:/ - teeth /i:/ In some cases usage is variable, eg: goose /U:/ - geese /i:/ louse /au/ - lice /a11 mouse /au/ - mice /a11 He caught five ELs. Note [a] Compounds with unstressed -man, as in Englishman - Englishmen (c/ App I.64), have no The degree of variability with animal names is shown by the following difference in pronunciation at all between singular and plural, since both are pronounced /man/. examples: Similarly :fireman -firemen, postman -postmen, etc. [b] German and mongoose are not compounds with man and goose, and thus have regular plurals: (i) Regular plural, eg: Germans, mongooses. However, the irregular plural can be found also in nouns that are not 'true' bird, cow, eagle, hen, hawk, monkey, rabbit compounds with -man; eg: dragoman - dragomansor dragomen. (ii) Usually regular plural: [C] Regular plurals are normal in names, such as Mother Gooses, and may occur when otherwise mutational nouns have derived meanings, eg: Those louses!, Sillygooses! (familiar use). elk, crab, duck (zero only with the wild bird) (iii) Both regular and zero plurals: antelope, reindeer,fish,jlounder, herring. shrimp, woodcock 308 Nounsand determiners Number 309

(iv) Usually zero plural: (ii) Foot denoting length and pound denoting weight often have: zero plural, bison, grouse, quail, salmon, swine (cf the normal word pig which particularly when a numeral follows: always has regular plural) jive foot two. (v) Always zero plural: sheep, deer, cod She's only 1jive {z:}tall. Note [a] Swine used as a word of abuse may also have a zero plural: jive feet. (usually) Youswine'labout one or more persons] He called them swine. (iii) Also pound denoting currency may have zero or regular plural when a But it is occasionally used with a regular plural: numeral follows: these swines with their big cars two pound(s)ffty. [b] Some animal names, like duck and goose, refer to both game and food: skoot/eat duck. But in This ticket costs only the latter case, the noun is noncount. For other animals there is a special word for the flesh of an animal considered as food, ie: shoot deer but eat w~ison(cf5.4: piglpork, etc). Note The more general'use of singular for plural with measure nouns is nonstandard but widely current: (11) Nationality nouns It weighsfiwpound. He's nearly six foot. 5.88 Nationality nouns ending in -ese also have zero plurals (cf 5.57): More widely acceptable is: Fiwpound of potatoes, please. one Chinese - five Chinese; similarly: Japanese, Lebanese, Portuguese, The singular is however standard in quantitative expressions of the following type (c. 17.108): a Sinhalese, Vietnamese, etc; also: one Swiss - two Swiss tl~ree$ot ruler. Certain nationality and ethnic names are sometimes used without -S: 5.90 Other quantitative nouns (some of them rather rare) with zero plurals include Apache@), Ban&), Bedouin(s), Eskimo(s), Navaho(s) the following when used with definite numbers and measurements:

Sioux has the same written form for singular and plural, but the pronunciation brace [= 21: 'five brace of pheasants' 98 /su:/ in the singular corresponds to either /su:/ or /su:z/ in the plural. gross [= 12 dozen]: 'ten gross of nails' head [= l]: '400 head of cattle' (111) Quantitative nouns horsepower, HP: 'This engine has only fifty horsepower.' 5.89 (i) The nouns dozen, hundred, thousand, and million have zero plurals when Aundredweigitr [British weight = i i2 poiinds]: 'five hand:cd::.eigh? (ef they are premodified by another quantitative word (cf 6.65): coal)' (ki1o)hertz: 'Two kilohertz equals 2000 hertz.' three dozen glasses two hundred people many thousand times several million inhabitants p /pi:/ ['penny'

This is a busy crossroads. Foreign plurals crossroads : There are several crossroads here. 5.92 Foreign plurals often occur along with regular plurals. They are more common in technical usage, whereas the -S plural is the most natural in data ['information, especially information organized for analysis'] (from everyday language. Thus: formulas (general) -formulae (in mathematics, the Latin singular datum, plural data) is usually constructed as a plural linguistics, etc), antennas (general and in electronics) - antennae (in biology). [l]. But it is often constructed also as a singular, especially in scientific Our aim here will be to survey systematically the main types of foreign contexts [la]: plurals that are used in present-day English and to consider the extent to Many of these data are inconclusive. which a particular plural form is obligatory or optional. Most (but by no Much of this data is inconclusive. means all) words having a foreign plural originated in the language mentioned The regular English plural datums is used as a reference term in in the heading. surveying. (De) Nouns from Latin ending in -us /as/ dice: 'oneltwo dice' (or perhaps: 'one of the dice' for the singular). Die 5.93 The foreign plural in most cases is -i /all, as in stimulus - stimuli (also in the expression 'The die is cast' is no longer recognized as being the /'st~mjali:/).Other nouns with -i plural only: alumnus, bacillus, locus. The singular of dice. Die ['engraved stamp for coining, etc'] has the regular plural of corpus is corpora or corpuses, and the plural ofgenus /'dgi:nas/ is genera plural dies. /'dgenara/. gallows: 'oneltwo gallows', 'gallows humour' Nouns with only the regular plural (-uses) include: headquarters: 'a large headquarters', 'Where is/are the headquarters?' innings [as a cricket term]: 'a long innings', 'two innings' [The apparatus, bonus, campus, caucus, census, chorus, circus, impetus, corresponding baseball term is regular: 'an inningltwo innings'] minus, prospectus, sinus, status, virus kennels (as well as being plural of regular kennel) ['a collection of kennels Nouns with both plurals include: where dogs are kept']: 'alsome famous kennels' focus -focuses /'faukas~z/,or foci /'fauka~,'fausar/

links: 'a fine but difficult golf links', 'We have several links here.' 99 fungus -funguses /'fi\ggasrz/, orfungi /'fi\gdgar, fngga~,'fi\gd3i:, 'f~ggi:/ means: 'a means of communication', 'use every/all means available', 'a ' also: cactus, nucleus, radius, syllabus, terminus means test' (Df) Nouns from Latin ending in -a /a/ This mews is very fashionable. mews (BrE): {These mews are 1 5.94 The foreign plural is -ae /i:/ as in alumna - alumnae. Other nouns with -ae plural only include: alga, larva. oats: 'Is/Are oats grown here?' Nouns with only regular plurals (-as) include: area, arena, di/emma, diploma, drama, era, etc. ofipring : your offspring? Nouns with both plurals include: antenr~a,formula,nebula, certebra. This new series is series : beginning next month. (Dg) Nouns from Latin ending in -urn /am/ These new series are l 5.95 The foreign plural is -a /a/ (in careful pronunciation, alternatively /a:/), as in This species is curriculum curricula. Other nouns with the -aplural only include: addertdunt, species: now extinct. - [F hese species are bacterium, corrigendum, desideratum, erratum, ovum. Nouns with only the regular plural include: album, chrysanthemutrt, works ['factory, plant'] with compounds (steelworks, waterworks): museum, premium. a/two large works Nouns which are usually regular: forum, stadium. An enormous steelworks was Nouns with both plurals: aquarium, candelabrum, curriculum, maximum, built here in the thirties. A number of steelworks were medium, memorandum, millennium, minimum, moratorium, podium, refirendum, spectrum, stratum, symposium, ultimatum. But works ['the moving parts of a machine'] is a plurale tantum, and work ['job'] is noncount (cf 5.9). Note [a] Media is often used in the senseof 'news media' with reference to press, radio, and television, when it is sometimes treated as a singular with a regular plural ~tte

But again this usage is widely criticized. Note Confiti (from Italian conjetto, which is not used in English) and other Italian plurals like [c] On data. cf 5.91. macaroni, ravioli, spaghefti, etc are usually treated as noncount nouns, and take a singular verb in [d] Besides singular candelabrunr with the plural candelabra, there is also singular candelabra English. Grafiti is usually treated as an invariable plural, but one also hears the singular grafito. with the regular plural candelabras. [e] Agenda and insignia (pluralsbf Latin agendunr and irtsigrtium) are used in English as singulars (Dm) Nouns from Hebrew: kibbutz - kibbutzim with the regular plurals agendas and itrsignias. 5.101 The foreign plural is -im, as in kibbutz - kibbutzim beside the regular kibbutzes. Usually regular: cherub, seraph. (Dh) Nouns from Latin ending in -ex, -ix 5.96 The foreign plural is -ices /rsi:z/ as in index - indices. However, index and Compounds appendix have both regular and foreign plurals. The regular form indexes is 5.102 Compound nouns, ie nouns which consist of more than one base (cf App used for reference to parts of a book or other publication; the plural indices is I.57#), form the plural in different ways. It is most common, particularly in largely used for 'indicators'. Appendix has either plural for reference to parts informal usage, to consider the compound as a simple noun and pluralize the of a book; it is regular for parts of the body. Other nouns that have both last element (even when it is not a noun, as in sit-ins). regular and foreign plurals are: apex, vortex, matrix. Only foreign plural: (i) Plural in the iast element (normal): codex. assistant director - assistant directors babysitter - babysitters (Di) Nouns from Greek ending in -is /IS/ breakdown' - breakdowns 5.97 The foreign plural is -es /i:z/, as in singular basis/'bersrs/, plural bases /'bersi:z/. close-up - close-ups Other nouns which take this plural are eg: ALSO: grown-up, take-over, sit-in, take-off (NOTE spelling in: stand- analysis, axis, crisis, diagnosis, ellipsis, hypothesis, oasis, paralysis, by - stand-bys) parenthesis, synopsis, synthesis, thesis gin-and-tonic - gin-and-tonics; SIMILARLY: forget-me-not - forget- me-nots, mouthful - mouthfuls (ORsometimes: mouthsful); SIMI- Metropolis has the regular plural : metropolises. LARLY : bucketful, spoonful (ii) Plural in the first element occurs especially when the compound includes Note Bases can be either the plural of base, eg: naual bases(pronounced /'belsrz/), or the plural of basis, eg: bases of an opinion (pronounced /'be~si:z/).Similarly, axes can be the plural of axeor axis, and a postmodifier or final particle: 100 ellipses the plural of ellipse or ellipsis. notary public - notaries public grant-in-aid - grants-in-aid (Dj) Nouns from Greek ending in -on commander-in-chief - commanders-in-chief 5.98 The foreign plural is -a, as in criterion - criteria, phenomenon -phenomena, man-of-war - men-of-war both of which regularly take the -a plural. Nouns with only regular plurals: coat-of-mail - coats-of-mail electron, neutrqn, proton; chiefly regular: ganglion; both plurals: automaton. passer-by - passers-by \ The following occur with plural either in the first or last element: Note Informally, criterib and phenomena are sometimes used as singulars, and criterias as plural. This attorney general - attorneys general (ALSO:attorney generals) usage is however widely condemned, and the objection to both these singular forms is stronger court martial - courts maitial (ALSO:court martials) than to singular data (cf 5.91). media (cf 5.95 Note [a]), and strata (cf5.95 Note [b]). mother-in-law - mothers-in-law (ALSO:mother-in-laws (informal)) (iii) Appositional compounds (a woman doctor ['The doctor is a woman']) (Dk) Nouns from French: bureau, corps, etc whose first element is, or includes, man or woman pluralize both the first 5.99 A few nouns ending in -eau and -eu, eg: bureau and adieu, may retain the and the last element : French -X as the spelling of the plural (bureaux, adieux), beside the commoner -S (bureaus, adieus). In English, the plurals are however almost always gentleman farmer - gentlemen farmers pronounced as regular, ie /z/, irrespective of spelling. Similarly: tableau, manservant - menservants (old-fashioned) plateau. woman doctor - women doctors Some French nouns ending in -S or -X are pronounced without the final But the plural is in the last element (type i) when the compound is not sibilant in the singular, eg: (army) corps /ko:'/, and with a regular /z/ in the appositional :woman-hater(s) ['X hate(s) women']. Similarly: man-eater - plural, with no spelling change (corps /kxrz/): chamois (leather), chassis, (lbux) man-eaters. pas, patois, rendezvous. Forms of address (D!) Nouns from Italian ending in -0 /au/ 5.103 The plural of Mr Smith, to denote two people with that name, is the two Mr 5.100 The foreign plural is -i /I/ as in tempo - tempi; only regular plural: solo, Smiths. Messrs /'mesarz/ (BrE) is chiefly used in the names of firms: Messrs soprano; both regular and irregular plural: virtuoso, libretto, tempo. Smith and Brown Ltd. 314 Nouns and determiners Gender 315

The plural of Miss Smith is the Miss Sm~ths,eg: the two Miss Smiths. The (a/b) Personal rnale/fernale nouns Misses Smith is rather formal and old-fashioned. 5.105 Personal male nouns have pronoun coreference with who-he and female The plural of Mrs /'m~srzjSmith is the two Mrs Smith(s); and, similarly, MS nouns with who-she. These nouns are of two types. Type (i) is morphologically /m~z/Smith (cf 5.66 Note [a]): the two MS Smith(s). unmarked between male and female, whereas in Type (11) the two gender forms have a derivational relationship. The derivational suffixes are not productive, however. We cannot, except jocularly, for example, form clerk - *clerkesson the host - hostess pattern (cf App 1.33). (i) Morphologically unmarked for gender, eg: bachelor - spinster boy -girl brother - sister Gender father - mother king - queen man - woman Mr - Mrs, Miss, MS monk - nun nephew - niece 5.104 By GENDER is meant a grammatical classification of nouns, pronouns, or uncle aunt other words in the noun phrase, according. to certain meaning-related - distinctions, especially a distinction reIated to the sex of the referent. (ii) Morphologically marked for gender, eg: In English, unlike many other related languages, nouns, determiners, and host - hostess waiter - waitress adjectives have no inflectionally-marked gender distinctions. Some 3rd prince - princess hero - heroine person pronouns and wh-pronouns do, however, express natural gender steward - stewardess usher - usherette distinctions: god -goddess emperor - empress it, which, etc [NONPERSONAL]contrasts with the following: In the following two pairs, it is the male noun that is marked: who, whom, etc [PERSONAL] he, himself, etc [MASCULINE,chiefly PERSONAL] bridegroom - bride widower - widow she, herself, etc [FEMININE,chiefly PERSONAL]

Some malelfemale pairs denoting kinship have dual gender terms, for 101 Gender in English nouns may be described as 'notional'or 'covert' in contrast example parent for father - mother and sibling (esp technical) for brother - to the 'grammatical' or 'overt' gender of nouns in languages such as French, sister. Some optional female forms (poetess, authoress, etc) are no longer in German, and Russian; that is, nouns are classified not inflectionally, but normal use, being replaced by the dual gender forms (poet, author, etc). semantically, according to their coreferential relations with personal, In order to avoid sexual bias in language, attempts have been made (esp in reflexive, and wh-pronouns. We use the terms MALE and FEMALE in reference AmE) to introduce sex-neutral forms, such as s/he for both she and he, to the 'covert'gender of nouns, as distinct from the 'overt'gender of pronouns. wojman for woman and man,jight attendant for airline hostess. The prospect The patterns of pronoun coreference for singular nouns give us a set of of wider acceptance of s/he and wojman is reduced by the fact that these are nine gender clabas illustrated in Fig 5:104: written forms only. Other such examples are: supervisor for foreman fisherfor fisherman PRONOUN GENDER CLASS EXAMPLE COREFERENCE firefighterfor fireman mail carrier for mailman chair(person)for chairman usher for usherette (a) male brother who-he (5.105) spokesperson for spokesman homemaker for housewife sister who-she (5.105) doctor who-helshe (5.106) Member of Congress for Congressman who- helshellt baby {which-it ' ) (5.107) (c) Personal dual gender (e) collective jbmily {~~~~~~v) (5.108) 5.106 This class of nouns, which has who-he or she pronoun coreference, includes, for example, the following: artist cook doctor enemy foreigner friend guest inhabitant librarian novelist parent person animal 1 professor servant singer speaker '(h) lower * which-it student teacher typist writer animal) { (hellhe) ) (5.110) Linanimate (i) inanimate box which-it (5.1 10) If it is felt desirable to give information on the sex of the person, a gender Fig 5.104 Gender classes marker may be added, such as male student/female student. The dual class is 3 16 Nouns and determiners Gender 317

on the increase, but the expectation that a given activity is largely male or the intelligentsia the laity the press female dictates the frequent use of gender markers: thus a nurse, but a male the public the rank and file the youth (of today) nurse; an engineer, but a woman engineer. No rational rules can be given for whether a noun should have dual gender distinction or not. It seems, for (iii) Collective proper names, eg: example, quite arbitrary that guest and servant should be dual in contrast to the Commons (UK) Parliament the Vatican host - hostess and waiter - waitress. (the) Congress (US) the United Nations the United States Note [a] Just as association, compatty, corporation,federario~~,.firm,ream, etc are included among the (d) Common gender collective nouns, names of commercial firms are treated in the same way: 5.107 Common gender nouns are intermediate between personal and nonpersonal. 1.1 increased salesabroad. The wide selection of pronouns (wholwhich-helshelit) should not be (2,,,,,l ($1 understood to mean that all these are possible for all nouns in all contexts. A [b] Churcli and youth in (ii) also occur of course as regular colint nouns, the latter denoting a young male: mother is not likely to refer to her baby or child as it, but such nonpersonal The police are looking for five youths. ['young men'] reference may well be preferred by somebody who is emotionally unrelated to the child, or wishes to generalize across sex distinctions in scientific contexts : (f/g) Higher animals 5.109 Malelfemale gender distinctions in animal nouns are maintained by people A child learns to speak the language of its environment. with a special concern (for example with pets), eg: cock and rooster (AmE) Other nouns that belong here (chiefly when the animals are treated as pets or for the male (with which-it or who-he coreference) and hen for the female otherwise 'personified') include blackbird, cat, monkey, rabbit. (with which-it or who-she coreference). Other examples: buck - doe bull - cow dog bitch gander - goose (e) Collective nouns lion lioness ram ewe stallion mare tiger tigress 5.108 These differ from other nouns in taking as pronoun coreferents either singular - - - - it and relative which or plural they and relative who without change of number Note ,In general, in nonexpert contexts there is no need to make a gender distinction, such as dog - in the noun (the army: itlwhich-theylwho; cf plural the armies: they-which). bitch and stallion mare. We can then use one term to cover both sexes, as in the case of dog - 102 Consequently, the verb may be in the plural after a singular noun, though far and lion, or use a different term, eg: horse to cover both stallion and mare. less commonly in AmE than BrE (cf 10.36): I (h/i) Lower animals and inanimate nouns The committee has met and it has rejected the proposal. have met and they have 5.110 Both lower animals (eg: beetle, butterfly, snake, toad, tadpole) and inanimate l nouns (eg: box, car, idea) have which and it as pronouns. However, lower The difference reflects a difference in point of view: the singular stresses the I animals may also be viewed as higher animals. Thus we may speak of nonpersonal collectivity of the group, and the plural stresses the personal 'goldfish who swim around', 'bees who are busy', etc. individuality within the group. Here arPexamples of collective nouns: 1 Sex differences can be indicated by a range of gender markers for any (i) army ' association audience animate noun where they are felt to be relevant, eg: male -female frog. Other board cast clan examples : class club college buck-rabbit - doe-rabbit cock-pheasant - hen-pheasant commission community company dog-fox - bitch-fox he-goat - she-goat corporation council couple roe-buck - roe-doe crew crowd department enemy faculty (AmE) family We make no claim for the categories 'higherllower animals' to parallel the federation firm flock biological classification. Some animals require finer gender distinctions in gang generation government the language than others. This can be attributed to a number of factors. The group herd institute layman normally has no knowledge about the sex of animals like ant, herring, jury majority minority snake, spider; or, even if he does, it may not be a fact that he wants or needs opposition Party population to indicate. He and she are only likely to be used for animals with which man, staff team university 'the speaking animal', has the closest connections (in particular the domesticated animals). (ii) The following usually occur in the singular only with the definite article: the aristocracy the bourgeoisie the church Names of countries the clergy the elite the gentry 5.111 Names of countries have different gender depending on their use. 318 Nouns and determiners Case 319

(i) As geographical units, they are treated as class (i), ie inanimate: But it should be borne in mind that the label 'possessive' does not adequately apply to all uses (cf 5.116). Here is a map of France. It's one of the largest countries of Europe. (ii) As political/economic units, the names of countries are often feminine, The forms of the genitive inflection it class (b) or (g): 5.113 The genitiveof regular nouns is realized in speech only in the singular, where France has been able to increase her exports by 10 per cent over the it takes one of the forms /IZ/,/z/, or /S/, following the rules for the -S inflection of nouns (cf 5.80) and verbs (cf 3.5). writing, the inflection of regular nouns last six months. In is realized in the singular by apostrophe s (boy's), and in the regular plural England is proud of her poets. + by the apostrophe following the plural -S (boys'). (iii) In spo'rts, the teams representing their countries can be referred to by ' As a result, the spoken form /spaiz/ may realize three forms of the noun the name of the country used as a personal collective noun, ie class (e) spy as follows : (esp BrE) : The spies were arrested. [plural, common case] France {ize(BrE)} improved {zeii(esp BrE)}chances of The spy's companion was a woman. [singular, genitive case] winning the cup. The spies'companions were women. [plural, genitive case] In AmE there may be number variation in the pronoun (but not in the verb, Since the genitive adds nothing to a regular plural noun in speech, and which is singular) in this construction. nothing except the final apostrophe in writing, this plural genitive may be called the ZERO GENITIVE. Note Inanimate enfifies, such as ships, towards which we have an intense and close personal By contrast, some nouns with irregular plural like childpreserve a number relationship, may be referred to by personal pronouns, eg: distinction independently of the genitive singular and genitive plural That's a lovely ship. What is shelit called? distinctions: In nonstandard and Australian English, there is extension of she references to include those of antipathy as well as affection, eg: child - child's, children - children's She's an absolute bastard, this truck.

With such irregular plurals, as Fig 5.1 13 shows, the same genitive ending 103 (spelled 'S) occurs with both singular and plural nouns.

Case

Common cage and genitive case , 5.112 We shall distinguish between two cases of nouns: the unmarked COMMON CASE (eg: boy in the singular, boys in the plural) and the marked GENITIVE CASE (eg: boy's in the singular, boys' in the plural). Case in pronouns will be discussed in 6.2E on the genitive in relation to the of-construction, cf 5.1 15. Distinctions of case mark the structural and semantic function of noun phrases within sentences. It is arguable, as we shall see, that even the common/genitive distinction in present-day English is not really a case Fig 5.1 13 The genitive inflection with regular and irregular plurals distinction, although it is a relic of a former case system comparable to that of Latin or of modern Russian (cf 5.123). We adhere to established Note [a] In addition to representing different case forms of the noun spy, the pronunciation Isparzl terminology in this respect, but since the common case is simply the form could of course also be the -S form of the verb, as in [I], or the noun with the contracted form of used when the genitive is not used, our attention in the following sections is [2], or has [3] (cf3.32f): will be devoted to the genitive. He spies on behalf of an industrial firm. [(I Thespy's here. 121 The 'central', but far from the only use of the genitive, is to express The spy's been cycling along the coast. L31 possession: to this extent the term 'possessive' is fittingly applied to genitive [b] In postmodified noun phrases, there is a difference between the plural and the genitive pronouns like his. We may compare: endings, because the genitive ending is added to the end of the phrase, not to the end of the head noun (cf'group genitives', 5.123): The children's toys are new. ['the toys belonging to the children'] The palace was the KirigoJDer~nrark'.~. Their toys are new. ['the toys belonging to them'] They praised the Kings ofDerirrrark. 320 Nouns and determiners Case 321

The 'zero genitive' /srz/ theories. However, Jesus and Moses normally have the zero form of the 5.114 In addition to its normal use with regular plurals such as boys', the 'zero spoken genitive and are written Jesus' and Moses' (as well as Jesus's and genitive' is used to avoid repetitive or awkward combinations of sounds in Moses's). the following cases (cf Fig 5.114): (iii) with fixed expressions of the form for. . . sake, as in for goodness'sake, genitive Is/ if ending for conscience'sake, where the noun ends in /S/ (cf 5.120). The genitive and the of-construction 1 5.115 In many instances there is a similarity of function and meaning between a p/ if ending noun in the genitive case and the same noun as head of a prepositional phrase chrldrcn :F 1 with of (sometimes called the 'of-genitive'). The genitive inflection of [l], where ship's precedes and determines the head noun name, corresponds to the OF-CONSTRU~ION of the prepositional phrase in [la], where of the ship if not postmodifies the head name: genitive ending in /z/ the ship's name? 111 word is What is singular [the name of the ship? [h] Dickens's Jotiesf In many cases, like [l] and [la], the two forms are equivalent in meaning and Bur~rs:~ L if ending are both perfectly acceptable. In other cases, either the genitive or the of- inflected ending in /z/ construction is the only appropriate choice: genitive -ina . Dickcjns' sibilant Jones' John's school BUT NOT: ?the school of John Burru' the front of the house BUT NOT: *the house's front

For further discussion of the of-construction, and its relation to the genitive, 104 cf 5.116fj' and, in particular, 17.38ff, where the of-construction is also ! one syllable E~tripides' / compared with other types of postmodification. Our purpose in this chapter ,fiw goodne.~~' is to examine the genitive as a construction in its own right, and to indicate in fixed sake the semantic as well as the syntactic restrictions on its use. L expressions i,fur cot~sciettce' The use of the genitive is determined by a combination of structural and sake semantic conditions. We will look in turn at (i) the meanings expressed by the relation between the genitive noun Lge;tive word is regular plural:slways zero and its head noun (cf 5.1 16) (ii) the type of noun taking the genitive (cf 5.1 17-1 19) Fig 5.1 14 The forms of the inflected genitive (iii) the type of noun acting as head (cf 5.120)

(i) with ~rbeknames of more than one syllable which end in -S, as in: Genitive meanings I Euripides' /di:z/ plays, Xerxes' army, Socrates' wife 5.116 The meaning expressed by the genitive can best be shown by sentential or phrasal analogues such as we present below. For comparison, a corresponding (ii) with many other names ending in /z/ where, in speech, zero is a variant use of the of-construction is given where this is acceptable. of the regular /IZ/ genitive. There is vacillation both in the pronunciation and in the spelling of these names, but most commonly the pronunciation is /IZ/, (a) POSSESSIVE GENITIVE My wife has a father. and the spelling is an apostrophe only. (In the following examples, the my wife's father Mrs Johnson has a passport. minority forms are given in parentheses.) Mrs Johnson's passport the earth's gravity The earth has (a certain) gravity. WRITTEN FORMS SPOKEN FORMS cf the gravity of the earth Burns' (Burns's) poem /'ba:'nz~z (bxrnz)/ Dickens' (Dickens's) novels /'drk~nz~z('d~k~nz)/ (b) SUBJRCTIVE GENITIVE The boy applied for. Jones' (Jones's) car J'd3aunzrz (d~unz)/ the boy's application . . herparents' consent Her parents consented. Names ending in other sibilants than /z/ have the regular 1121genitive: Ross's cf the decline of trade Trade declined. 322 Nouns and determiners Case 323

(C) OBJECTIVE GENITIVE highest on the gender scale (cf Fig 5.104), ie 'personal' nouns (particularly the family's support (. . .)supports the family. those referring to human beings and higher animals) and collective nouns the boy's release (. . .) released the boy. with personal gender characteristics. Relating this to 5.104, we may infer cf a statement of the facts (. . .) stated the facts. that the possessive use is especially associated with the genitive because we think of 'possession' chiefly in terms of our own species. It is possible to see (d) GENITIVE OF ORIGIN the partitive genitive at the opposite pole on comparable grounds: the the girl's story The girl told a story. marginal acceptability of ?the house's roof matches the irrelevance of personal the general's letter The general wrote a letter. gender to a noun denoting something which is merely being measured or ?France's wines France produces wines, dissected. cf the wines of France Further factors influencing the choice of genitive are the principles of end- (e) DESCRIPTIVE GENITIVE (Cf 5.122) focus and end-weight (cf 17.45, 18.3n, which encourage the placing of more a women's college a college for women complex and communicatively more important units towards the end of the a summer's day a summer day, a day in the summer noun phrase. According to the principle of end-focus, the genitive tends to a doctor's degree a doctoral degree, a doctorate give information focus to the head noun, whereas the of-construction tends cf the degree of doctor to give focus to the prepositional complement:

(f) GENITIVE OF MEASURE The explosion damaged the ship's funnel. hnnel in focus] ten days' absence The absence lasted ten days. Having looked at all the funnels, she considered that the most cf an absence of ten days handsome was the funnelof the Orion. [the Orion in focus]

(g) GENITIVE OF ATTRIBUTE This principle is congruent again with the preference for the of-construction The victim had courage. with partitive and appositive meaning, where the genitive would result in the victim's courage

The victim was courageous. undesirable or absurd final prominence: 105 theparty's policy The party has a (certain) policy. *the problem's part, *his resignation's shock cf the policy of theparty The preference for placing complex constructions after the head accounts for (h) PARTITIVE GENITIVE the oddity of [l] (cf 5.123) in comparison with [la]: the baby's eyes The baby has (blue) eyes. the earth's surface The earth has a (rough) surface. ?She is a man I met in the army's daughter. cf the surface of the earth She is the daughter of a man Imet in the army.

Note [a] There is a tendency for genitives to be taken as subjective, and for of-constructions to be And conversely, it accounts for the oddity of theof-construction with simple taken as objective. Thus, with inadequate context, a phrase like [I] is likely to be interpreted as form, eg [2a], as compared to [2], which shows the normal preference for a 'The family supports. . .', but [2] as '. . . examined the fire department'(cf 17.41m: possessive pronoun : the family's support [l] the examination of thefire department 121 She is his daughter. [bl A marginal additional category, the genitive of apposition, may be mentioned: Dublin'sfair ?She is the daughter ofhim. city (cf: Dublin, a fair city). In today's usage, however, this is normally replaced by an appositive o/-construction (cf 17.47, 17.89): thecity of Dublin. (On the 'post-genitive' in a daughter ofhis, cf 5.126.) [c] On the use of the genitive to denote close family relationships (Peter's June), cf 5.63 Note [c].

I Note [a] The relevance of personal gender is shown also in the fact that indefinite pronouns with personal reference (cj'6.9). such as sonreone and anybody, admit the genitive inflection, while equivalent pronouns with nonpersonal reference do not: sonreone's sl~adov,but not 'sonlething's shadow. Gender of the genitive noun [b] Some idioms, in spite of end-focus, require a construction in which the personal pronoun is I 5.117 The semantic classification in 5.1 16 is in part arbitrary. For example, one complement in a postmodifying of-phrase: could claim that cow's mik is not a genitive of origin ['milk from a cow'] but It will be thedeathofnte. a descriptive genitive ['the kind of milk obtained from a cow'], or even a the impudence of him subjective genitive ['The cow provided the milk']. For this reason, meanings the cheek ofher ['her rude behaviour'; BUT: 'I kissed her cheek.'] and sentential analogues can give only inconclusive help in choosing between I don't like the taste/look/feel, etc of it. For the life ofme, 1 cannot remember her name, and yet my memory ofher is still vivid. the genitive and the of-construction. The last example also illustrates the tendency (mentioned in 5.1 16 Note [a]) to use such a The choice can be more securely related to the gender class of the genitive I construction where the of-phrase has an objective meaning (compare: nzy tirantor~qql her 'I noun. Generally speaking, the genitive is favoured for classes which are remember her'). 324 Nouns and determiners Case 325

The genitive in relation to no~inclasses [a] It seems that semantic relations other than possession (cf 5.1 17) place stronger restrictions 5.118 The noun classes (a-c) frequently take the genitive (cf 17.388): on the 'personal' quality of the genitive noun thandoes possession itself. For example:

(a) PERSONAL NAMES (cf 5.66): Table 5.1 18 Possessive and objective genitive with personal and nonpersonal nouns Segovia's pupil, George WashingtonLstatue POSSESSIVE GENITIVE OBlECTlVE GENITIVE PERSONAL the man's collar the man's release from prison (b) PERSONAL NOUNS (cf 5.105) : NONPERSONAL the dog%collar ?the dog's release from quarantine the boy's new bicycle, my sister-in-law's problems In combination with theobjective genitive, a nonpersonal noun results in a less acceptable noun (c) ANIMAL NOUNS, in particular those denoting 'higher animals' (cf 5.109): phrase than does a personal noun. [b] With temporal nouns in the plural, the apostrophe is sometimes omitted (c/ 17.108): the horse's tail, the dog's collar several {E:] vacation (d) COLLECTIVE NOUNS. The genitive is also used with collective nouns (cf 5.108) whichemphasize the aspectof'organized individuals', in particular those denoting authoritative and other organizational bodies, eg: thegovernment's economic plans the nation's resources the committee's decision the Company's directors The genitive with superlatives and ordinals The genitive is particularly common with locative nouns of Class (f) above The genitive is further used with certain kinds of inanimate nouns (e-h): when it is followed by a superlative adjective or a 'general ordinal' (cf 5.22) such as only,first, and last. The corresponding prepositional phrase in these (e) GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES (cf 5.68), eg: cases is introduced by in rather than by of: continents : Europe's future, Australasia's natural resources the world's best universities the best universities in the world countries: China's development, the United States' attitude - this country's only university the only university in this country states: Maryland's Democratic Senator, Rhode Island's colonial period - Africa's first arts festival the first arts festival in Africa 106 cities and towns: Hollywoodk studios, London's water supply - universities: Harvard's Department of Linguistics More generally, the genitive combines with superlatives, ordinals, and 'general ordinals' to express a meaning which is independent of all the (f) 'LOCATIVE 'NOUNS' denoting regions, institutions, heavenly bodies, etc. meanings listed in 5.116 above, and which can best be paraphrased by a They can be very similar to geographical names, and are often written relative clause : with initial capital letter, eg: Paganini's last performance the earth's interior the Church's mission the last performance that Paganinigave the world'i economy the hotel's entrance - the Cabinet's greatest mistake the nation's waterways a country's population the greatest mistake that the Cabinet made the Club's pianist the city's atmosphere - the Gallery's rotunda the school's history

(g) TEMPORAL TUNS, eg : the decadks events this year's sales Noun heads with the genitive a day's work today's paper 5.120 So far, genitive constructions have been identified by reference to certain a moment's thought the hockey season's first event classes of the genitive noun (personal, collective, temporal, etc). There are, however, some constructions with the genitive which can best be described (h) OTHER NOUNS 'OF SPECIAL RELEVANCE TO HUMAN ACTIVITY', eg : in terms of specific lexical noun heads. the brain's total weight the game's history Expressions with edge, end, surface, for . . . sake permit the alternative oj the mind's development science's influence construction (cf 9.12 Note [c]): the body's needs love's spirit my life's aim the play's philosophy the water's edge. or charity's sake. infreedom's name the book's true importance She stood at [the edge of the water. He did it ('for the sake of charity. the treaty's ratification the novel's structure Similarly: at the river's edge, at his journey's end, for art's sake, the water's duty's call a word's function surface, for heaven's sake. the polh results television's future The following expression does not permit the of-construction: 326 Nouns and determiners Case 327

their rn0ne.v'~worth. That the genitive can be expanded into a phrase in this way is not get {*the worth of their money. surprising when we recall its equivalence to a prepositional phrase, in which of is followed by a noun phrase complement: Similarly: at one's wits'end, at arm's length, within arm's reach. Note the stress typical of compounds (cf 17.104), which indicates that the the hind leg of [a horse] following are compounds: our 'nroney's ,worth, a 'stone's ,throw. Compare the the opinions of [some people] relatively free syntactic constructions of, eg: withinlbeyondlout of (her) reach. the recent decision of [the Italian government] One implication of the determinative function of the genitive is that the genitive phrase is normally in initial position in the superordinate noun The grammatical status of the genitive phrase, so that any words occutring in front of the genitive noun in the phrase belong to that noun rather than to the noun which is head of thesuperordinate Genitive as determinative noun phrase, as in [2-6]. 5.121 Most commonly the genitive functions as a determinative (cf 5.108): it fills a One exception to this, however, arises when the genitive construction slot in the noun phrase equivalent to a central determiner such as the [l]. This follows a predeterminer such as all, both, or half(cf 5.16). Since the genitive is so whether the genitive is a possessive pronoun (such as her [la]), a single fills a position equivalent to that of a central determiner, these words noun (such as Jenny's [Ib]), or a noun accompanied by its own determiners preceding the genitive noun may apply either to that noun or to the andlor modifiers (such as my daughter's [lc]), as shown in Fig 5.121a: superordinate head noun. In [7], the predeterminer both applies to parents, but in [8] both can only apply to girls': DETERMINATIVE HEAD both [the girl's] parents [= both parents of the girl] [71 the (new) desk [both the girls'] mother [= the mother of both the girls] [81 her (new) desk JennyS (new) desk Note The construction with genitive or possessive pronoun with determinative function will have . mydau.qhter's (new) desk definite reference, eg: (i) (ii) her son Sicsan's son 107 Fig 5.121a The genitive as determinative If we want the indefinite interpretation, we have to resort to the of

SUPERORDINATE NOUN PHRASE There were ten g;::;:]wives at the meeting. GENITIVE NOUN PHRASE Notice, in connection with the last example, that the expression farmer's a horse's hind leg L21 wives does not imply polygamy: if this is a descriptive genitive, it is simply somepeople's opinions [31 the plural of farmer's wife. The change to the plural genitive farmers' ~riives the older boys' books [41 every teacherS guide to child psychology [S] may, however, be preferred. the Italian government's recent decision L61 Another distinguishing mark of the descriptive genitive is the fact that any modifiers and/or determiners preceding it generally belong to the head Fig 5.121b The structure of the superordinate noun phrase with a noun, rather than to the genitive noun. The speaker who refers to a quaint old genitive noun phrase as determinative shepherd's cottage is passing a comment on the age and quaintness of the 328 ~ounsand determiners Case 329

cottage, not of the shepherd. Nevertheless, there are cases where the The independent genitive modifying genitive itself contains a modifier: 5.124 The head of the superordinate noun phrase in a genitive construction may be How much do those [farm workers'] cottages cost? omitted if the context makes its identity clear. The result is the so-called It was meant to be a PhD thesis, but to me it read likea vrst-year INDEPENDENT GENITIVE: undergraduate's] essay. My car is faster than John's. [= John's car] [l] This china used to be regarded as [poor man's] Worcesterporcelain. ['the Her memory is like an elephant's. [= an elephant's memory] [21 sort of porcelain which resembled Worcester, but which a poor man This year's mixed doubles final was much better than last year's. could afford'] [ = last year's mixed doubles final] [31 If you can't afford a sleeping bag, why not borrow somebody Note [a] As the examples above suggest, the descriplive genitive tends to have an idiomatic else's? [= somebody else's sleeping bag] [41 connection with the head noun. The fullest stage of lexical assimilation to the head is observed Mary's was the prettiest dress. [= Mary's dress] in expressions where the genitive and the head form a compound (cf App 1.578). as in bull's-eye [S] and eat'spalv (where the meaning is metaphorical). Between these and more freely constructed Don't touch those cards - they're my partner's. [= my partner's expressions such as lvomelr's college should be placed combinations where the two words are cards] [61 written separately, but where the stress is placed in the first (genitive) element, as in compounds: 8grrls ., pchool 'bids ,nest 'curv's prilk 'mloes',lioer As the examples show, this genitive is frequently an elliptical variant of a Thus birh nest resembles compounds both in meaning and in stress pattern (CAfa..rhole, rabbit noun phrase in which the genitive has its usual determinative function. But warren). In many cases the first noun ends with an S, which can be written in three ways: note that a possessive pronoun used in this genitive construction requires the a girl'sschool [genitive singular] independent form (cf 6.29): a girls'school [genitive plural] a girls school [common case plural] Hers was the prettiest dress. [sal The second variant is favoured in an allgirls'sclrool['a school entirely for girls']. [b] Modifying genitives may occasionally contain their own determiners: Strictly, the pronoun illustrates quasi-ellipsis rather than ellipsis (for this my thisyear'sexami~rationquestions['myexamination questions for this year'] distinction cf 12.40). By this means, the strange cooccurrence of two central determiners my this may take place, as in the above example. Note With the ofconstruction in comparable environments, a demonstrative pronoun thar/those is

normally required (cf 12.19): 108 The group genitive The population of New York is greater than The modifying genitive, however, is rare in comparison with the genitive in determinative function; and since we observed in 5.121 that the genitive construction in this latter function can be a noun phrase, not merely a single The 'local genitive' noun, it is necessary to revise the idea (with which we introduced the genitive 5.125 The genitive is less clearly ellipted in expressions relating to premises or in 5.1 12) that the genitive is a noun inflection. The -S ending is not a case establishments (sometimes called the 'LOCAL G~NITIVE'): ending in the sense which applies to languages such as Latin, Russian, and German. It can be more appropriately described as a 'postposed enclitic': ie, We'll meet at Bill's. its function is parallel to that of a preposition, except that it is placed after Here at Bill's normally means 'where Bill lives', but the hearer might not the noun phrase. This view is inescapable if we take into account the so- know whether the appropriate head would be house, apartment, place, etc. It called GROUP GENITIVE (or 'embedded genitive'), in which the genitive ending is for this reason that the term 'ellipsis' is strictly not applicable (cf 12.32f). is affixed to a postmodifier: The reference of a genitive proper noun could also be to a restaurant, a bar, the teacher of music's room ['the room of the teacher of music'] etc, as in [l]: Obviously the 'possessor' in this example is the teacher, not the music; but Let's have dinner at Tiffany's. [l] the 'S cannot be added to the head, as one would expect if 'S could only be a By contrast, where the genitive noun is a common noun, it would only refer noun inflection. Instead, it is regularly added to a prepositional postmodifi- to the dentist's professional establishment [2], and the same applies to proper cation which is part of a name or a compound noun phrase: nouns referring to commercial firms [3]: [[the University of Minnesotal's] President I'm going to the dentist's. [[the Museum of Modern Artl's] Director [21 Wendy has just been shopping in Harrod's/Foyle's/Macy's. [[myson-in-law]'s] prospects t31 This usage is normal also in relation to 'one-person' businesses, as in [4]: Since the group genitive fits most naturally into patterns of postmodification of the noun phrase, we defer further treatment of it until 17.119. I buy my meat at (Mr) Johnson's. L41 I 330 Nouns and determiners Case 331

The 'local genitive' is used in the following three cases: that irritating habit of her father's an invention of Gutenberg's (i) For normal residences: several pupils of his my aunt's. But the independent genitive is not in this case elliptical. Rather, the post- the Johnsons'. [BUT: with the Johnsons] genitive contrasts in terms of indefiniteness or unfamiliarity with the normal (ii) For institutions such as public buildings (where the genitive is usually a determinative genitive. Whereas [l] and [2] presuppose definiteness, the saint's name): presupposition in [la] and [2a] is one of indefiniteness: St Paul's (Cathedral), St James's (Palace), Queen's (College) Jim's fiiend [l] a friend of Jim's [lal Joseph Haydn's pupil [2] a pupil of Joseph Haydn's 124 (iii) For places where business is conducted: Like the group genitive, the post-genitive belongs more closely to the subject the barber's, the.hairdresser's, the butcher's, the grocer's, W.H. Smith's, matter of Chapter 17 than to that of this chapter. We accordingly postpone the chemist's (BrE), the druggist's (Am E ;usually the drugstore) further discussion until 17.46. (On the 'sporadic' use of the here, cf 5.33.) The 'S is often dropped: at/to the chemist (BrE), the druggist (AmE), the hairdresser, the greengrocer Bibliographical note With large businesses, their complexhy and in some sense plurality causes On nounclasses, see Algeo (1973); Bolinger(1969); Quirk (1978); SeppPnen (1974); Sloat (1969). reinterpretation of the -S ending as a plural rather than genitive inflection On reference and determiners, see Van der Auwera (1980); Behre (1967); Bolinger (1980b); Button-Roberts (1976, 1977); Christophersen (1939); Hawkins (1978); Hewson (1972); Kaluia (Barclays, Harrods, Selfridges, Woolworths). The genitive meaning - if it (1981); Kramsky (1972); Perlmutter (1970); Powell(1967); Robbins (1968); Ryd6n (1975); Sloat survives - isexpressed by moving theapostrophe: at Macys'. This uncertainty (1969); H. S. Ssrensen (1959); K. Ssrensen (1981). over the status of the -S ending is matched by a vacillation in concord. On number, see Ball (1927128); Hirtle (1982); JuuI(1975); SeppZnen (forthcoming a); Sussex reflecting the conflict between plurality and the idea of a business as a (1979). 109 collective unity: On gender, see ~acobssdn(1968b); Kanekiyo (1965). On case, see Altenberg (1982); Dahl(1971); Jahr Ssrheim (1980); Svartengren (1949). ~arrodiislure very good for clothes. In some cases, where the -S form cooccurs with the indefinite article, a genitive interpretation is unavoidable: a cleaner's. They have taken the rug to *a cleaners.

Note In relation to commercial firms, all three forms (Harrod's, Harrods, Harrod) may be found and constructed as either singular or plural (plural is esp BrE, cf10.36). Thus the following variants are used in the same document: ~ibert~'sare~hewholesalers for this country. Liberty's is probably best known for its beautiful printed silk. This silk, for which Liberty arc the wholesalers in this country, . . . It can be noted, however, that the Harrod's form is more likely than the Harrod,~form to be followed by a singular verb. The Harrod form, which has become Cdshionable relatively recently and still strikes many people as odd or pretentious, tends to be used only for very large enterprises. With titles of firms involving multiple names, however, the forms without -S are more current, especially in AmE, eg: Sears Roebuck.

The 'post-genitive' 5.126 An of-construction can be combined with a genitive to produce aconstruction known as the POST-GENITIVE (or 'double genitive'). In this construction, the independent genitive acts as prepositional complement following of: some friends of Jim's ['some of Jim's friends'] Pronouns and numerals

Pronouns Introduction Case Case forms The use of case forms Subjective and objective cases Person Gender Masculine and feminine gender Sexual bias in the use of pronouns Number Subclasses of pronouns Central pronouns Personal pronouns With specific reference 'Referring it' 'Prop it'

Special uses of we . 110 Anaphoric and cataphoric reference Modification and determination of personal pronouns Generic uses of personal pronouns Pronouns with coordinated antecedents Reflexive pronouns Basic use Obligatory reflexive pronoun as object Obligatory reflexive pronoun after a preposition Optional reflexive pronoun Emphatic use Possessive pronouns Determinative and independent possessives Possessives and the 'emphatic determinative own' Reciprocal pronouns Relative pronouns Restrictive and nonrestrictive Wh-pronouns, that, and zero Who and whom Interrogative pronouns Indefinite and definite interrogatives Who, whom, and whose What and which Demonstrative pronouns Pronouns Number and gender Modification and determination Introduction Situational reference 6.1 Pronouns share several characteristics, most of which are absent from nouns. Anaphoric and cataphoric reference Their name implies that they 'replace' nouns, but we have already seen (2.44) Indefinite pronouns that this is to a great extent a misnomer. It is best to see pronouns as comprising a varied class of closed-class words with nominal function. By Compound pronouns 'nominal' here we mean 'noun-like' or, more frequently, 'like a noun phrase'. Of-pronouns Semantically, a pronoun may be a 'pro-form' in any of the three senses Universal pronouns illustrated in the following example: All and both Each and every Margot longed for a bicycle, and at last (C)somebodygave (B) her (A) a brand new one. Assertive pronouns The some series (A) It may substitute for some word or phrase (as one may substitute for a Multal and paucal quantifiers noun, and therefore be a 'pronoun' in a quite literal sense). One (B) It may signal, as personal pronouns like her do, that reference is being . (a) Numerical one made to something which is given or known within the linguistic or (b) Substitute one situational context (cf 19.33f). (C) It may stand for a very general concept, so that its reference includes (C) Generic one the reference of untold more specific noun phrases: somebody, for Ha& several, enough example, indicates a broad class of people including a girl, a man, a Other and another secretary, etc. Nonassertive pronouns Some and any series All three pronouns in italics in the example have this in common: their Any and either meaning in itself is general and undetermined; their interpretation therefore 111 Negative pronouns depends to an unusual extent on what information is supplied by context. Syntactically, most pronouns function like noun phrases rather than nouns (cf 5.1). They combine in only a limited way with determiners and modifiers. 6.63-69 Numerals We can say, indeed, that most pronouns, being intrinsically either definite or .63-64 Cardinal and ordinal numerals indefinite, incorporate their own determiner (cf 5.lOfn. Contrast: .65 Hundred, thousand, million the men a tall man .66 Date; 'X *the they *a tall he .67 Fractions .68 Mathematical symbols In addition, some pronouns have morphological characteristics that nouns .69 Currency statements do not have: (a) CASE:There is a contrast between subjective and objective cases: Itme, Bibliographical note shelher, wholwhom, etc (cf6.28). (b) PERSON: There is a contrast between lst, 2nd, and 3rd persons: Zlyoulshe, etc (cf6.6). (c) GENDER: There are overt grammatical contrasts between (i) personal and nonpersonal gender; and between (ii) masculine and feminine gender: helshelit, etc (cf 6.8f). (d) NUMBER: There are morphologically unrelated number forms, as in !/we, helthey, as opposed to the typical regular formation of noun plurals: girl/ girls, etc (cf 6. I If). These special distinctions associated with pronouns are found most notably in the class of PERSONAL PRONOUNS,which may be regarded, by reason of their frequency and their grammatical characteristics, as the most important 336 ~ronounsand numerals Pronouns 337

and central class of pronouns. Accordingly, it is to personal pronouns above Table 6.3 Case functions of personal pronouns

all that we turn in exemplifying these characteristics. In the following FUNCTION SUBJECTIVE CASE OBJECTIVE CASE sections we examine the categories of case, person, gender, and number in more detail, before proceeding to a consideration of the various classes of subject He was late. pronouns. subject complement It was he. (formal) It was hinl. (informal) Case object I saw him. Case forms prepositional complement I gave it to him. 6.2 Nouns and most pronouns in English have only two case forms: COMMON case (children, someone) and GENITIVE case (children's, someone's). However, the five personal pronouns I, we, he, she, they and the wh-pronoun who have a Subjective and objective cases further distinction between SUBJECTIVE and OBJECTIVE cases. 6.4 We have noticed in Table 6.3 a discrepancy between the use of case in formal and informal English. In the main, formal English follows the normative Table 6.2 Personal pronouns with subjective, objective, and genitive case forms grammatical tradition which associates the subjective pronouns with the nominative case of pronouns in inflectional languages such as Latin, and the SUBJECTIVE I we he she they who objective case with the oblique cases (especially accusative and dative cases) it - OBJECTIVE me us him her them who(m) in such languages. Hence the subjective form appears not only in subject position, but in that of subject complement, and also in constructions where GENITIVE it can be postulated that the predicate has been ellipted, leaving a 'stranded' your its their determinative my our his subject. This last, however, may have different realizations in the short independent mine ours yours theirs response :

It's Ilme. 112 As Table 6.2 shows, there are additionally two genitive forms, a determinative A: Who is there? B: (Only) me. and an independent form (cf 6.29), for five of the pronouns. {Me - There is a merger (syncretism) of case forms in the following pronouns: more intelligent than He is she (is). the determinative genitive and objective forms of she are identical, and the / as intelligent as } PI I subjective/objective distinction between who and whom is not always maintained (cf 6.35, 6.38). The personal pronouns you and it do not have But in response forms and comparative constructions, the subjective pronoun distinct subjectibe and objective case forms (cf 6.14). on its own, such as she in [2], sometimes gives a stilted impression, and it is The genitive 'forms of the personal pronouns are, in accordance with preferable to add the operator after it: she is. In contrast to the traditionally 'correct' use of the subjective form It's I in grammatical tradition, called POSSESSIVE pronouns. [l] and . . . thanlas she in [2], informal usage favours the objective form: The use of case forms I A: Who's there? B: Me. [lal 6.3 The use of the possessive pronoun forms corresponds largely to that of the more intelligent than her. genitive of nou4s (cf 5.1 12ff), except that the two different possessive forms, He is {as intelbgent as } where they exist, function as determinative and independent genitives (cf 6.29). The latter are, in effect, 'true pronouns'. We may say that, in informal English, as and than count as prepositions (and The choice between subjective and objective cases is made on the basis of are therefore followed by an objective pronoun as prepositional complement) a ~ronoun'sfunction in the clause. As their name imvlies, subiective versonal instead of counting as subordinating conjunctions (cf 9.4, 14.12). pronouns function as subject and sometimes as subject complement; objective personal pronouns function as object, prepositional complement, and 6.5 This purely structural explanation, however, is not the whole story. To sometimes as subject complement. account for the general pattern of pronoun usage in informal style, it is Table 6.3 opposite shows that both subjective and objective case forms can reasonable to say that the traditional case distinctions do not operate here be used as subject complement. Although the prescriptive grammar tradition any more than they do with the genitive (cf 5.1 12ff). Instead, there is a broad stipulates the subjective case form, the objective form is normally felt to be division of the finite clause into 'SUBJECT TERRITORY' (the preverbal subject the natural one, particularly in informal style. We shall now examine this position) and 'OBJECT TERRITORY' (which includes all noun-phrase positions overlapping use of case forrns more carefully. l apart from that immediately preceding the verb). In informal English, that 338 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 339 is, the objective pronoun is the unmarked case form, used in the absence of It was them that did it. positive reasons for using the subjective form. It is this which accounts for After indefinite pronouns (nobody, everyone, all, etc) but or except, usage the use of me, him, them, etc in subject complement function in conversational + is again divided between subjective and objective case forms (depending on contexts (It's only me, That'll be them, etc), and for the use of me informally in whether but and except are considered conjunctions or prepositions) : 'absolute' functions such as those of [la] above. Pressing the point a little further, we may say that the same idea of 'object territory' explains an often condemned tendency for speakers to use the objective case even in the subject function where a pronoun is coordinated, and therefore is separated to some There seems to be a tendency (at least among prescriptivists) to favour the extent from the following verb, either by position or by failure of concord, as subjective case after but in subject territory [9],and the objective case in in the nonstandard : object territory [IO]; in [l L], I would be considered a hypercorrect form: are going abroad for a holiday. Nobody but she can solve our problems. Mary and him Nobody can solve our problems but her. The nonstandard usage of [3] may become even more 'reprehensible', though Nobody said anything but me. not the less common, if the offending pronoun also violates the rule of To avoid the issue, the alternative construction with myself can be used politeness which stipulates that 1st person pronouns should occur at the end (cf 6.27): of the coordinate construction: Nobody said anything but myself. [l 14 Me and Mary are going abroad for a holiday. l41 The objective form is the generally accepted form when the pronoun is in an The prescriptive bias in favour of subjective forms appears to account for object relation to the verb: their hypercorrect use in coordinate noun phrases in 'object territory': between you and I, asfor John and I, etc. Another reason is that X and I is felt to be a I want nobody but him. ['I want him and nobody else'] I121 polite sequence which can remain unchanged, particularly in view of the distance between the preposition and I. Compare also: Note [a] See 10.44 Note [b] on the question of concord, as in: 113 It is I who am to blame. ~et('s)you'and 1do it! 1It is me whoS to blame. (informal) He says he saw John and Ilast night. [bl The theory of 'subject territory' and 'object territory' can also be extended to deal with the peculiar distribution of who and 1~1ton1(cf 6.35, 17.13J). These are examples of a type which is not uncommon in informal [C] In familiar speech, us may occur instead of ale (cf6.18) in expressions like: conversation. Usgirlscan always take a joke. In cleft sentences there is often felt to be unclarity about the grammatical function of a pr+oun acting as 'focus' (cL18.25ff): Person It was she who came. [S] 6.6 Personal, possessive, and reflexive pronouns have (unlike nouns) distinctions ?she (that) John criticized. of person. The three persons may be defined as follows: It was {?her (informal) 1ST PERSON PRONOUNS : It was her that came. (informal) I, me, my, mine, myself It's not me kho's proud. (informal) we, us, our, ours, ourselves The focal pronoun has a Janus-like status, being a subject complement with The reference of these pronouns includes the speaker(s)/writer(s) of the respect to the preceding verb be, and an element of variable function with message. respect to the following verb. 2ND PERSON PRONOUNS: In [S], where she is a complement with respect to was and a subject with you, your, yours, yourself, yourselves respect to came, there is no conflict in formal usage, since the subjective The reference of these pronouns includes the addressee(s), but excludes the pronoun is favoured for both functions. But in [6] there is a conflict of speaker(s)/writer(s). functions, and neither pronoun form is felt to be completely satisfactory. ~RDPERSON PRONOUNS: Since her is the object of criticize, however, the objective form is superficially he, him, his, himself more acceptable, and is preferred in informal usage. In familiar usage, the she, her, hers, herself objective form isoften used even where the pronoun is a subject with respect it, its, itselJ' to the following verb: they, them, their, theirs, themselves 340 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 341

The reference of these pronouns excludes both speaker(s)/writer(s) and The terms INCLUSIVE we and EXCLUSIVE we are sometimes used for 1st person addressee(s); ie 3rd person pronouns refer to 'third parties' not directly plural pronouns which respectively include and exclude reference to the involved in the origination or reception of the utterance in which they occur. addressee. We should in addition distinguish a special type of exclusive we All noun phrases (except those having 1st and 2nd person pronouns as called COLLECTIVE we which indicates a plurality of speakerslwriters, eg in heads) are 3rd person for purposes of concord: petitions (We,the undersigned, . . .)or in prayers (We thank Thee, 0 God, . . .). \ Unlike some languages, however, English does not make any formal ;kz has just arrived. distinction between 'inclusive' and 'exclusive' reference. The only circum- stance in which inclusive we is grammatically distinct is in the 1st person To clarify the implications of person, we use the symbols S, h, and o imperative Let's. . . (cf 3.51 Note [b], 11.26). This contraction of us to 'S (cf (mnemonic aids: 'speaker', 'hearer', 'other') as follows: App 11.9) is only possible where us has inclusive reference (cf 6.18). There is a corresponding question shall we.. .? in which we also has inclusive S: the originator(s) of the message, whether speaker or writer, and reference, and which may be added to the imperative as a tag question: whether singular or plural h : the addressee(s) of the message, whether hearer or reader, and Let's enjoy ourselves, shall we? whether singular or plural o: any other referent($ excluded from the definitions of s and h Gender Gender distinctions are largely restricted to 3rd person singular pronouns of Then the meanings of the three persons can be summarized as in Fig 6.6: the categories of personal, possessive, and reflexive pronouns, as shown in Table 6.8:

1st person Table 6.8 Gender distinctions in pronouns 2nd person

PERSONAL GENDER feminine 114 3rd person

Fig 6.6 Meanings of Ist, 2nd, and 3rd person NONPERSONAL GENDER itself

The meanings of the singular pronouns are limited to the boxes with thick These gender distinctions are neutralized in the plural: they, them, etc. No borders, while the meanings of the plural pronouns may include also the pronouns other than those in Table 6.8 manifest a masculine/feminine boxes with thin borders. These various possibilities are illustrated with contrast, but the personal/nonpersonal contrast is also found in relative reflexive pronouns in Table 6.6: pronouns (wholwhom contrasted with which) and in indefinite pronouns (somebody contrasted with something, etc). The 1st and 2nd person pronouns Table 6.6 Ist, 2nd, and 3rd person pronouns are inevitably of personal rather than nonpersonal gender.

P- The choice between personal and nonpersonal gender is determined S h ( PERSON EXAMPLES WITH REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS : I primarily by whether the reference is to a'person', ie to a being felt to possess 1st I gave myselfup. characteristics associated with a member of the human race. So defined, 2nd You should be ashamedof yourse(f,Richard! 'persons' are not only human beings, but may also include supernatural Mary has hurt herself. beings (the Deity, gods, angels, fairies, etc), and higher animals (cf 5.109). Exceptional uses such as it referring to babies and she referring to ships have already been noted (cf 5.107, 5.1 11 Note). The occurrence of he and she in We, the undersigned, pledge ourselves to . . . cases of outright personification is common in informal use: he may refer to We complemented ourselves too soon, John. a computer; she (or, for some women, he) to a car. In poetry and fiction ['inclusive we'] (especially children's fiction) there are virtually no limits to the kinds of The children and I can look after ourselves. object which can be personified in this way. ['exclusive lve'] In the use of 3rd person singular pronouns, the absence of a pronoun of You, Ann, and I are working ourselves to death. personal gender which is neutral between he and she influences the boundary You ought to be ashamed of yourselves, children! between helshe, on the one hand, and it on the other. Just as a baby may be You and John will have to cook for yourselves. designated it, so a member of a nonhuman species may be designated he or They helped themselves to coffee and cakes. she(cf 5.109S): 342 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 343

The robin builds its nest in a well-chosen position . . . and, after the Sexual bias in the use of pronouns eggs have hatched, the mother bird feeds her young there for several 6.10 In recent decades, the use of he, him, etc as an 'unmarked' pronoun when the weeks. sex of the referent is undetermined has been opposed, particularly in the United States, by those campaigning against sexual bias in language. Some As this example shows, the pronoun usage can vacillate within a single of the methods proposed for avoiding the unmarked masculine are illustrated paragraph or even a single sentence. in the following examples and suggested revisions (quoted from the TESOL Quarterly Style Sheet, Vol 13): (a) The speaker must constantly monitor his listener to check that Masculine and feminine gender assumptions he is making are shared assumptions. 6.9 The choice between masculine and feminine pronouns is primarily based on SUGGESTED REVISION (change to the and rephrase) : the sex of the person (or animal) referred to: The speaker must constantly monitor the listener and check that the assumptions the speaker is making are shared. Fred looked at himselj'in the mirror. (b) Very often the writer does not monitor his arguments very well or get his Freda looked at herselfin the mirror. narrative in the right order. Difficulties of usage arise, however, because English has no sex-neutral 3rd SUGGESTED REVISION (change to plural) : person singular pronoun. Consequently, the plural pronoun they is often used Very often writers do not monitor their arguments very well or get their informally in defiance of strict number concord, in coreference with the narratives in the right order. indefinite pronouns everyone, everybody ;someone, somebody; anyone, anybody ; (c) The students do almost all the interacting, the teacher taking a back seat. no one, nobody (cf 10.50): That is to say, he is not under the pressure of acting as chairman or host. Everyone thinks they have a right to be here. SUGGESTED REVISION (change to s/he and rephrase): Has anybody brought their racket? . . . That is to say, s/he is not under the pressure of acting as classroom No one should pride themselves on this result. director. The last example illustrates the use-of an invented sex-neutral pronoun slhe.

The plural is a convenient means of avoiding the traditional use of he as the 115 It is uncertain how far such experimental forms as this will come into general unmarked form when the sex is not determined (cf: man, 5.54 Note), as in use, especially when s/he is only a written form with no corresponding spoken the formal: form (unlike MS; cf 5.66 Note [a]); and, still more seriously, there is no Everyone thinks he has a right to be here. (formal) [lal objective or possessive form. Generally, it is not certain how far the advocacy The use of the plural is also a means of avoiding the cumbersome device of of nonsexist language will succeed in discouraging such usages as the coordinating masculine and feminine: unmarked masculine pronoun. What is clear is that the feminist movement in language has made many language users aware of problems of sexual bias Has anybofy brought his or her racket? 124 which were overlooked by earlier generations. And the same'choice may be made in referring back to a singular noun phrase with a personal noun of indeterminate gender as head: Number Every student has to make up his own mind. 6.11 As already indicated (6.1 and 6.6), the personal, reflexive, and possessive The applicant is required to sign his name clearly on page four of pronouns have singular and plural forms which are morphologically this form. unrelated. It is also worth noting that the plurals of the 1st and 2nd person The dilemma of concord also arises with coordinate subjects and with have a more specific meaning than do those of nouns. Except when it refers subjects of common gender, but here resort to the evasive tactic of the plural to, for example, collective authorship (cf 6.18), we means 'I plus one or more pronoun, though common in everyday speech, is less acceptable: other persons'; and, similarly, you with plural reference normally means 'you (singular) and one or more other persons, but not me'. But contrast of number Either he or his wve is going to have to change their attitude. is neutralized with you: in current standard English, only the reflexive forms Not every drug addict can solve their problem so easily. yourselfand yourselves preserve a distinction between singular and plural: They is particularly difficult to avoid in cases like [4], and in tag questions [5] Harry, behave yourself! (cf 10.50 Note [a]) : Harry and Susan, behave yourselves! Everybody came to the party, but they've left now. 141 (On archaic and nonstandard forms of the 2nd person singular and plural Someone died here yesterday, didn't they? L51 pronouns, cf'6.12 Notes [b] and [c].) 344 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 345

Reflexive pronouns in general show number contrast in the manner of and number, there is an archaic system of pronouns where other 2nd person pronouns survive in restricted situations, especially in religious language, as shown in Table 6.12: nouns. The suffix -selfin the singular changes, by the addition of a sibilant suffix, to -selves in the plural (cf such nouns in $as calf- calves, 5.83): Table 6.12 Archaic system of pronouns

SUBJECTIVE OBJECTIVE REFLEXIVE POSSESSIVE singular tt~yself yoursev hinrse~/herselJlitseIj' ~lural ourselves yourselves themselves

PLURAL Fig 6.1 1 Reflexive pronouns ye /ji:/ you/@e) jourselues your yours (y-forms) There is also the rare (royal) singular form ourself(cf 6.18 Note [a]). Pronouns belonging to other classes, such as interrogative, relative, and indefinite pronouns, do not in general have number contrast. Exceptions are While we present this system of religious usage, it should be pointed out that there is a great deal . of variation in current religious. .practice. There is a trend towards the adoption of present-day the demonstratives thislthese and that/those, and the indefinite pronoun one pronoun forms (c/ verb forms, 3.4 Note [b]). For example, the traditional use of th-forms in when used as a substitute. Otherpronouns, like the corresponding determiners Quaker usage seems to be no longer current. In some dialects of BrE, particularly in the north of (cf 5.12), are invariable for number. The pronoun both, like the predeterminer England, forms deriving from the earlier singular rlioa/tlree are still current also in nonreligious both, has dual meaning, but is plural for purposes of concord. contexts.

Subclasses of pronouns 6.12 There are formal grounds for saying that, just as the traditionally unmarked 6.13 The class of pronouns includes a number of heterogeneous items, many of gender category is masculine, so the unmarked number category is singular. which, as we have already seen, do not share all of the above contrasts. For The compound indefinite pronouns someone, everybody, nothing, etc are example, somebody (being 3rd person) has no corresponding 1st and 2nd singular, and have no plural counterparts (*someones, *everybodies, *nothings); person distinction, no subjective/objective contrast, and no masculine/ yet they themselves can refer to more than one entity, and be notionally feminine contrast. Yet it is included among our pronouns, as it incorporates its own determiner, is a closed-class item, and has the kind of generalized 116 plural : meaning we associate with pronouns. The point we want to make here is that A: Did you see anyone in the library? the characteristics which single out the pronoun class from the noun class are Yes, several people. not shared by all its members. Figure 6.13 shows the different subclasses of B:{ *No, several people. pronouns and gives references to sections where they are discussed: Similarly, the substitute pronouns any and none are notionally often personal: Ilme, wetus,. . . associated with plural number; but, according to prescriptive grammatical CENTRAL reflexive: myself; ourselves,. . . tradition, they are singular, and hence in formal English they are generally --E possessive : mylmine, ourlours, . . . RECIPROCAL: each other, one another required to agree with a singular verb (cf 10.42). RELATIVE : the wh-series, that The interrogative pronouns who and what are similar to any and none in CINTERROGATIVE:the wh-series that they are treated as singular for subject-verb concord, even though they 1DEMONSTRATIVE: this, these, that, those may imply a plural answer: all and both ,-universal--{ A: whoss!comingto the party? B: Most of our neighbours. each and every the some series A: What's on the menu today? B: Lots of things. multal and paucal Note [a] In the absence of a singular/plural distinction in the 2nd person plural reference is sometimes indicated by lexical additions, cg: youpeoplc, you boys, and (esp AmE) youguys. half; several, enough [b] The low-prestige plural form youse /ju:z/ is current in Northern AmE and certain areas of INDEFINITE other and another Britain such as Liverpool and Glasgow. In Southern AmE, by contrast, the singular/plural nonassertive: the any series and either distinction has been re-formed through suffixation of the originally plural form: You-all (v'aN Lnegative: the no series and neither 6.62 /j3:1/) is widely used on all social levels in Southern AmE (always with a plural meaning by those to whom the form is native, although often misunderstood as a singular by outlanders).There is Fig 6.13 Pronoun subclasses also a colloquial genitive y'aN's /j>:lz/,as in: I really likey'ull's new ['your family's new car'] car. Personal, possessive, and reflexive pronouns may be called the CENTRAL [c] You in earlier English was a plural pronoun only, and was restricted to oblique cases. Although you has gained universal currency as a 2nd person pronoun which is neutral in case PRONOUNS, since they share those features we have mentioned as being 346 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 347

particularly characteristic of pronouns, viz contrast of person, gender, and Personal pronouns subjective/objective case. Although these central pronouns fulfil different syntactic functions, they have obvious morphological resemblances. This is With specific reference also the reason why the possessives my, your, etc have been grouped with 6.15 The personal pronouns usually have definite meaning, and resemble the noun central pronouns, although such possessives, being determinative in function, phrases introduced by the definite article in that they may have situational, cannot function alone instead of nouns, but only together with nouns (cf anaphoric, or cataphoric reference (cf 5.28fn. 6.29). The 1st person and 2nd person pronouns, when they havespecific reference, are used to refer to those directly involved in the discourse situation: viz the speaker(s)/writer(s) and the addressee(s) (cf 6.6). Central pronouns The 3rd person pronouns may also be used situationally, to refer to some 6.14 The central pronouns have in common the distinctions of person (Ist, 2nd, person(s) or thing(s) whose identity can be inferred from the extralinguistic and 3rd), gender (masculine, feminine, and nonpersonal), and number context : (singular and plural) that have already been discussed. In addition, most personal pronouns have distinctions of case. The various forms of the central Are they asleep? [spoken to his wife by a husband nodding his head pronouns are displayed in Table 6.14: towards the children's bedroom] Oh, how kind of you! May I open it now? [said by someone receiving a Table 6.14 Personal, reflexive, and possessive pronouns present from a guest] Much more frequently, however, the identity of the referents of 3rd person pronouns is supplied by the linguistic context. As with the definite article, we distinguish between the ANAPHORIC and the CATAPHORIC uses of a 3rd person pronoun, according to whether the element with which it corefers (the ANTECEDENT)precedes or follows it (cf 5.30fn. The more common type of textual reference is anaphoric reference:

We have an excellent museum here. Would you like to visit it? 117 [ = the museum] [l] My brother is afraid that he will fail the test. I21 The young girl stared at Dun and said nothing: she seemed offended by his manner, as if he had had the intention of hurting her. L31 Dr Solway took the student's blood pressure that day. He also examined his lungs and heart. [41 I plural It will be noticed that in [4] he and Dr Solway are coreferential, and his and the student's are coreferential. We recover the appropriate antecedent by means of the content of the sentence. For example, the second sentence of [4] singular masculine he can be changed so as to enforce a different interpretation of the pronouns:

hers Dr Solway took the student's blood pressure that day. He had felt sick during the night and came for his help as soon as the clinic singular non- itself opened. [4al personal Now the content of the sentence suggests that he refers to thestudent and his l they l them I tl~emsel~es1 their 1 theirs / to Dr Solway. If the use of the pronoun is felt to be ambiguous or confusing, l cf Note [c] the antecedent can be used again, or a lexical equivalent can be found : . . Thestudent had felt sick during the night, and came Note [a] On the 'editorial ~ve'andother special uses ofthe 1st person plural pronoun, cJ'6.lS. for {D' SO1way's} help as soon as the clinic opened. [b] Apart from you, there are the rare and/or restricted 2nd person pronouns thou, vou-all. etc (c/' the doctor's 6.12 Notes [bl and [cl). [c] Thenl is sometimes replaced by 'enr lam/ in familiar use, as in Kick 'em our! [d] Us is theonly pronoun that has a contracted form ('s) in standard English (c/'App11.9): Ler:r 'Referring it' 80. 6.16 The neuter or nonpersonal pronoun it ('REFERRINGit') is used to refer not 348 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 349

only to inanimate objects as in example 6.15 [l] above, but also to noncount What time is it? It's half past five. substances (such as some soup in [I] below), to singular abstractions (such as How far is it to York? It's a long way from here to Cairo. the sack of Rome in [2]), and even to singular collections of people, such as It's warm today. It's been fine weather recently. Parliament in [3]: It's getting dark. What day is it today? She made some soup and gave it to the children. 111 This 'PROP it', if it has any meaning at all, refers quite generally to the time The sack of Rome shook the whole of the Western World: in a or place of the event or state in question (cf 10.26). sense, it was the end of the Roman Empire. [21 Even less meaning can be claimed for the it which occurs as an anticipatory Parliament's answer to all awkward problems is to establish a subject in cleft sentences (cf 18.25fl or in clauses with extraposition (cf . Royal Commission whose findings it can then ignore. [31 18.33fl, as in[[-31: In fact, in the personal/nonpersonal opposition, the nonpersonal gender is Isn't it a shame that they lost thegame? 'unmarked', in that for any antecedent for which he or she is inappropriate, .It must have been here that Ijirst met her. it will be used instead. Hence, it can corefer to a whole clause or sentence, as I take it then that you're resigning. in [4] and [5]: But here, too, it can be maintained that the pronoun is not quite void of A :Who said that I was crazy? meaning, since it arguably has cataphoric reference (forward coreference) to B: I said it. ['that you were crazy'] [41 a clause (italicized in [l-31) in the later part of the same sentence. One Rome was sacked by the Visigoths in 410 AD. It ['the sack of justification of this is the feeling of ellipsis in sentences such as [la] and [2a], Rome'] was the end of civilization as the West had known it. [5] which are like [l] and [2] except that the antecedent of it has to be supplied Many students never improve. They get no advice and therefore keep from the linguistic context: repeating the same mistakes. It's a terrible shame. 161 A : They lost the game. As is illustrated by [6], it can even corefer to a sequence of sentences. B : Yes, so I hear. Isn't it a shame? A: Where did you first meet her? It is the only personal pronoun which is almost always unstressed. He and 118 she, for example, can be contrasted with one another by nuclear stress: B : It must have been here.

SH~eams more than HE does. In some cases, it is necessary to add words which do not precisely replicate those in the text, eg: It, on the other hand, can only very rarely receive stress, for example when it is used as a citation form : The bell rang, and I went to the door. It was Dr Long. [4] Is this word i~?[looking at a manuscript] To make full sense of sentences like 141, we have to supply, for example: One reason why it is rarely stressed is that when a stressed nonpersonal It was Dr Long (who had rung the bell). pronoun is needed, it is supplanted by this or that (cf 6.408, 12.10fn. Thus [5a] is identical to [5], except that this, a stressed and slightly more emphatic Note [a] Perhaps the best case for a completely empty or 'nonreferring'it can be made with idioms in proform, replaces it: which it follows a verb and has vague implications of 'life in general', etc: At last we've made if. ['achieved success'] Rome way sacked by the Visigoths in 410 AD. 'This was the end of have a hard time of it ['to find life difficult'] civilizdtion as the West had known it. make ago of if ['to make a success of something'] [sal stick it out ['to hold out, to persevere'] How's it going? Note There are several restricted usages with nuclear stress on it. For example: Go it alone. Is that ir?['Lthat all you wanted me for?'] You're in for it. ['You're going to be in trouble.'] Also, with the sense of 'sex appeal', 'charisma', etc. it is stressed in: [b] fican beused as asubstitutefora predication,andespecially for acharacterizingcomplement She's got ir. (c/ 10.20): In children's games, stressed if is used to indicate whoever is next to play, in expressions like the and she ldorro it. la rich womans. 'rich'] following: She was {:;:: You're ir. She's i~. If there could ever be such a thing as a modest Roman, Augustus was not ir. ['not a modest Roman'] This last example is exceptional in that if is stressed (~(6.16). Other uses of it as a substitute form 'Prop if are discussed in 12.13, 12.24fl. 5.17 Since it is the most neutral and semantically unmarked of the personal pronouns, it is used as an 'empty' or 'prop' subject, especially in expressions denoting time, distance, or atmospheric conditions: 350 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 351

Special uses of we (e) We may occasionally be used also in reference to a 3rd person (=he,

6.18 The 1st person plural pronoun has a number of special uses: she). For example one secretary might say to another with reference to I their boss: (a) One common use is the 'INCLUSIVE AUTHORIAL we' in serious writing, as We're in a bad mood today. in : As we saw in Chapter 3, . . . Note [a] The v~rtuallyobsolete 'royal tie' (=I) 1s tradltlondlly used by a monarch, as In the follow~ng examples, both famous d~ctaby Queen V~ctor~a Here we seeks to involve the reader in a joint enterprise. Besides not We are not ~nterested~n the poss~b~l~t~esof defeat We are not amused having this 'intimate' appeal, you here would also be felt to be too [b] In nonstandard use, plural us 1s commonly used for the s~ngularme, as In I informal or authoritative for discursive or scholarly writing. Compare Lend usa fiver I [c] On the generlc use of we and other personal pronouns, cf6 21 also [l] with the more informal let's in [2]: We now turn to a different problem. Anaphoric and cataphoric reference Let's turn now to a different problem. 6.19 Examples already given in 6.15-16 have ~llustratedthe anaphoric use of personal pronouns. Cataphoric reference occurs less frequently, and under (b) The so-called 'EDITORIAL we' is still common enough in formal limited conditions. Where it does occur, anaphoric reference is also possible, (especially scientific) writing by a single individual, and is prompted so that we can equate two synonymous sentences such as [l]and [la] in wh~ch by a desire to avoid I, which may be felt to be somewhat egotistical. the positions of pronoun and antecedent are reversed: For instance, the writer of a scholarly article may prefer [3] to [4]: = Before Geraldjoined the Navy, he made peace with his family. [la] On the whole, cataphoric reference such as that in [l] is associated with ('Editorial' here is not applied to the fully justified use of we with formal written English. Also, it generally occurs only where the pronoun is reference to the consensus of an editorial board or other collective at a lower level of structure than its antecedent (where 'level' is understood body.) by reference to levels of branching on a tree diagram, as in 2.7fn. Thus, in 119 [2] and [3] the pronoun is a constituent in a relative clause: (c) The 'RHETORICAL we' is used in the collective sense of 'the nation', 'the Those who most deserve it rarely seem to suffer defeat. party', as in: Melville well knew that to the men who sailed in her, a whaler was In the 19th century we neglected our poor as we amassed wealth. anything but a pleasure boat. Today we are much more concerned with the welfare of the And in [4], the cataphoric pronoun appears as part of the complement of an people as a whole. \\ initial prepositional phrase: This may be viewed as a special case of the generic use of we (cf 6.21). On his arrival in the capital, the Secretary of State declared support for the government. (d) There is also a use of we in reference to the hearer (=you) which may [41 I occur for example when a doctor is talking to a patient: When this condition of subordination is not fulfilled, there is no equivalent of the kind illustrated in [I] and [la]: How aie we feeling today? 1 Jacqueline thinks she understands me. In the context, this use of we may be understood to be condescending, 151 # She thinks Jacquekne understands me. but it also has an implication of sharing the problem with 'you' in the [Sal situational context of a doctor/patient or teacherlstudent relation, for While she can easily corefer to Jacquelinein [S],such coreference is impossible example. A teacher wishing to instruct without overtly claiming in [5a], so that here she and Jacqueline must be understood to refer to two authority may use the 'inclusive' 1st person plural (cf6.7): I different people. The conditions under which a pronoun can have coreference to another Now then, let's have a look at that project, shall we? constituent can be summarized as follows. The constituent to which This can be an evasively polite equivalent of: coreference is made must have precedence over the pronoun in one of two senses : Now then, let me have a look at that project, will you? (i) It must precede the pronoun, or

I l 352 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 353

(ii) it must have a higher position in the constituent structure (cf 2.7) of the (d) Adverbs: sentence than the pronoun. you there, we here With cataphoric pronouns, the first condition fails, and so the second (e) Prepositional phrases: condition must obtain. we of the modern age Note [a] The above summary is not without exceptions. In journalistic writing, in particular, there is us over here (familiar) occasional use of cataphoric pronouns wh~chappear in noninferior positions: you in the raincoat

These days you have to be careful with your money. [41 John and Mary stole a toy from my son. Their mother told them to return They say it's going to snow today. E] if to him, but they said it was theirs. Although used generically, these personal pronouns we, you, and they retain The conditions of concord here, in fact, are the same as those which govern something of the specific meaning associated with the lst, 2nd, and 3rd subject-verb concord (cf 10.34m. persons respectively. They are therefore not wholly interchangeable. If the antecedent phrases governed by and contain noun phrases or Potentially, we and us in [l] and [2] have the widest meaning, because they pronouns of different persons, the choice of pronoun is determined by the may include reference to speaker, addressee, and 'third parties' (cf 6.6). The criteria discussed in 6.61: This means that there is an order of precedence reference of 'inclusive we'can be progressively enlarged (as already illustrated whereby the 1st person outweighs the 2nd person, which in turn outweighs by the 'rhetorical we' discussed in 6.18(c)) from those involved in the the 3rd person: immediate speech situation to the whole human race. In this fully generic PERSONS IN ANTECEDENT PERSON OF PRONOUN sense, a sentence with we as subject can be replaced by a passive sentence with unspecified agent (cf 3.71): ,+2 ------+ l 1+3 ------Wenow know that the earth is round. + l = It is nowknown that the earth is round. 2+3 ------+ 2 Generic you, on the other hand, is'typically an informal equivalent of one: 1+2+3 ------+ l Fig 6.22 Pronouns with coordinated antecedents you} can always tell what she's thinking. One Examples: But you again retains something of its 2nd person meaning: it can suggest We have a lot to talk about, you and I. [2+1+1] that the speaker is appealing to the hearer's experience of life in general, or Freda and I have finished our work. Can we start lunch else of some specific situation, as in: now? [3+1-+11 This wine makes you feel drowsy, doesn't it? You and John can stop your work now, if you like. You 121 can both eat your lunch in the kitchen. [2 + 3 -+ 21 Sometimes, the reference is to the speaker's rather than the hearer's life or experiences : The same order of precedence applies where three or more noun phrases are combined in the antecedent: It wasn't a bad life. You got up at seven, had breakfast, went for a walk. . . If you, Mary, and I have already finished, we can have lunch. [2+3+1-+11 Like generic u eneric they is informal, and retains something of its yP 'g You, Mary, and John will meet at the station. specific quality qs a personal pronoun. Being a 3rd person pronoun, it You can then go together to the party. [2+3+3-+2] excludes reference to the speaker and the addressee. Consesuentlv,- -- it tends to designate, in a sometimes disparaging way, the mysterious forces which Note [a] A somewhat different situation arises when the antecedent noun phrases do not include the appear to control the ordinary citizen's life: 'the authorities', 'the media', 'the person appearing in the pronoun: government', etc : IfyouandJohn have already finished, ~vecanhave lunch. [I] Mary and John will be at the station. Youcan then go together to the party. [21 I see they're jaising the bus fares again. Whatever will they be doing In spite of appearances, the italicized phrases and pronouns in these examples can be understood next? to be partly coreferential. But this interpretation requires the implication of a third omitted conjoin; eg: we in [l] is understood to mean 'you, John, and 1'. They don't make decent furniture nowadays. [b] In addition to a coordinated antecedent, the 3rd person plural pronoun may also have (cf: You can't get decent furniture nowadays.) multiple antecedents, such as She and an Indian in: She married an Indian, and they went to live in Delhi. Note The ordinary citizen's awareness of this use of they/them as a denial of personal responsibility can be seen in expressions like: Reflexive pronouns The members took up a them and us attitude to the Union. 6.23 Reflexive pronouns end with -self(singular) and -selves (plural). These suffixes are added to the determinative possessive forms for the 1st and 2nd person Pronouns with coordinated antecedents (a), and to the objective form for the 3rd person (b) (cj'Table 6.14): 6.22 When a pronoun has as its antecedent two or more noun phrases coordinated by and, the pronoun itself must be plural, even if each of the noun phrases is (a) myself yourself ourselves yourselves singular : (b) himself herself itself themseloes 356 Pronouns and numerals

There is also an indefinite generic reflexive pronoun oneself(cf 6.56), and a very rare 'royal we' singular reflexive pronoun ourself(cf 6.18 Note [a]). As the name implies, reflexive pronouns 'reflect' another nominal element of the clause or sentence, usually the subject, with which it is in a coreferential For an object, complement, or prepositional object which is coreferential relation : with the subject, the reflexive pronoun is obligatory. The basic reflexive pronoun always corefers to the subject of its own clause, Table 6.23 Functions of reflexive pronouns even though that subject may be 'understood'. For example, the implied subject of the -ing participle clause in [2] is Vincent, and himselfis therefore ANTECEDENT REFLEXIVE PRONOUN EXAMPLE the appropriate reflexive pronoun: subject direct object They het~edthemselc?es. [l1 Freeing himselfwith a sharp knife, Vincent lurched towards subject indirect object Sheallowed herselfa rest. [21 the door. [2] subject subject complement He is not himselftoday. l31 subject prep. complement The caR uavs for itself: 141 In [3], it is John who is understood to be the subject of the infinitive clause, and the appropriate reflexive is therefore himself, even though the subject of subject . appositional phrase We couldn't come ourselves. the main clause is she: {We ourselws couldn't come. himself: She asked John to invite The reflexive pronoun has two distinct uses: basic and emphatic. The basic *herself: use is illustrated by [l41 above: here, the reflexive pronoun functions as Similarly, as the implied subject of a normal 2nd person imperative is you object or complement and has the subject of its clause as its antecedent. In (cf 11.25), it would be ungrammatical for such an imperative clause to contain the emphatic use, illustrated by [5] and [Sal, the pronoun is in an appositional as its object any other reflexive than a 2nd person pronoun: relation to its antecedent. yourselves ! Note [a] As subject complement (but not normally as object) the reflexive pronoun receives nuclear *otrrselves! stress: *themselves! He is not himsh~~.['He does not feel well.'] 122 There is consequently an ambiguity only in writing between the object and complement interpretations when a reflexive pronoun comes after the verb: Note [a] In a noun phrase which is a nominalization of a clause (c/ 17.51), the antecedent of the reflexive will be an embedded noun phrase which functions as 'subject'of the nominalization: He FBLT himself. [S V C] He felt himsh~~. [S V C,] [b] Very occasionally a reflexive pronoun precedes the subject with which it has coreference (c/ Philip's boundless admiration of himself is well known, fronting, 18.20m: Your confidence in yourself I Foryourselues you have done a great deal, but for others nothing. As in these examples, the antecedent is normally a subjective genitive (cJ5.I 16). It was understood that getting herselfmarried to an aristocrat was Henrierra's first duty to [b] When a nonfinite clause or a nominalization has an implied human subject of the most her family. / indefinite kind ('someone or other'), the reflexive onesel/(or its informal equivalent .i'ourself) In emphatic use (c/;6.28), front positionof myselfissommon: may be used: Myselj; I feel quite happy about the plan. Voting for {;t~$~]is unethical.

Basic use Pride in was considered a deadly sin. 6.24 The basic reflexive pronoun takes the function of a noun phrase in the {zti,] structure of the clause or phrase: it may be an object, a complement, or a [c] In informal AmE we can find uses of a personal instead of a reflexive pronoun as indirect object which is coreferential with the subject, eg: prepositional complement. Since it corefers to the subject, however, the He got hi~n['himself'] a new car. We're going to elect us a new president next year. reflexive pronoun cannot itself be a subject. In this, it shows that it belongs to 'object territory' (cf 6.5), and has affinities with the objective personal pronoun. But it contrasts with the objective pronoun in meaning in examples Obligatory reflexive pronoun as object such as this: I 6.25 We may distinguish the following types of construction in which the reflexive pronoun, when coreferential with the subject, is always used in preference to He saw in the mirror. {i:ylf] the objective case pronoun:

In [l], himself is necessarily coreferential to the subject he, while him (a) With REFLEXIVE VERBS, ie verbs which always require a reflexive object, necessarily refers to some other person. We have to use the reflexive rather such aspride oneselfon : than theordinary objective pronoun. The reflexive pronoun must agree with prides herseu the subject in terms of gender, number, and person: l on her academic background. l 358 Pronouns andnumerals Pronouns 359

Examples of other reflexive verbs: Obligatory reflexive pronoun after a preposition absent oneself(firom) avail oneself(of) 6.26 The following types of construction require a reflexive pronoun after the demean oneself(forma1) ingratiate oneself(with) preposition, if the subject is the intended antecedent: perjure oneself (a) With prepositional objects, ie prepositional complements which have a close connection with the preceding verb (cf 16.5): (b) With SEMI-REFLEXIVEVERBS, ie verbs where the reflexive pronoun may be Mary stood looking at herselfin the mirror. omitted with little or no change of meaning, such as behave (oneself), Do look ajier yourselves ! shave (oneself) : We did not know what to do with ourselves. : Behave He thinks too much of himself. now! Behave They take too much upon themselves. shave himself ] twice a day. (b) With prepositional phrases following a noun which refers to a work of He has to {shave art, a story, etc: Other semi-reflexive verbs are: Every writer's first novel is basically a story about himself. adjust (oneself) to dress (oneself) Rembrandt painted many remarkable portraits of himself. hide (oneself) ident fi (oneself) with Do you have a recent photograph ofyourself? prepare (oneself) for prove (oneself) (to be) wash (oneself) worry (oneself) Optional reflexive pronoun 6.27 The basic reflexive pronoun is sometimes optional, in the sense that it may (C) With NONREFLEXIVE VERBS, ie verbs which are transitive, but are not acceptably be replaced by the more usual ordinary objective pronoun. The particularly associated with the reflexive pronoun. Compare [l] and [la]: self-forms are chosen to supply special emphasis : Williams publicly blamed himselffor the accident. 111 (a) In some spatial prepositional phrases:

Nobody blamed him for the accident. [lal She's building a wall of Russian BQKS about her(self). 123 Other such nonreflexive verbs are, for example: Holding her new yellow bathrobe around her(se1f) with both arms, accuse, admire, amuse, dislike, feed, get, hurt, persuade she walked up to him. Mason stepped back, gently closed the door behind him(self), and It is with reflexive verbs (type a) and nonreflexive verbs (type c) that the walked down the corridor. choice between reflexive and objective pronoun, as in 6.24 [l] may be made. They left the apartment, pulling the spring lock shut behind Compare also d~ess(semi-reflexive verb) in [2] withget up (nonreflexive verb) them(se1ves). in [3] (herself= !he mother, her = Jane):, (b) In 'semi-emphatic' use. Here the reflexive pronoun normally receives Jane's mother dresses {:;lrSerl)] before 8 a.m. nuclear stress. It does not have the subject as its antecedent, but is commonly used as a more emphatic equivalent of the 1st and 2nd person Jane's mother gets (herself) up before 8 a.m. personal pronouns. Especially, however, when it replaces I and me, {her l myselfis felt by many to be a hyperurbanism, a genteel evasion of the normal personal pronoun. The reflexive pronoun in these contexts can Note [a] Many verbscan havedifferent constructions, eg: enjoy: be reasonably called 'semi-emphatic' because it can be regarded as an myself: ['had a good time'] abbreviated version of a sequence of the personal pronoun followed by I enjoyed theparry. ['took pleasure in'] the emphatic reflexive pronoun (you yourself, him himselJ; etc). Thus ithe gccesis. I'liked'l (esp AmE) there are three possibilities in: In AmE this verb is also used intransitively as an imperative: Enjoy!, equivalent to'Bon appitit'. [b] Feel is semi-reflexive in a complex-transitive construction 141, but nonreflexive in copular use [51: would have noticed the change. She always/elt (herself) a stranger in their house. you yoursbLp {wounded by his remarks.) 141 Shefelt cold. [51 The latter repetition of the pronoun (you yourself) is avoided, however, [c] In complex-transitive complementation ($/'16.46/j), the coreferential item is the noun phrase that is object of the finite verb clause and subject of the nonfinite verbclause: outside the subject position (cf 6.4f). The hosts really want us to enjoy ourselues. The constructions in which the 'semi-emphatic' reflexive occurs are the Nobody insisted on your sacrificingyourselj: following : 360 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 361

(i) After the prepositions like, than, (as . . .) as, but (Jor), except Uor), and as (nuclear) stress. Unlike basic reflexive pronouns, they may have positional for (cf 9.7fn: mobility: For someone like melmyself; this is a big surprise. Imyslit~wouldn't take any NGT~c~. Except for us/ourselves, the whole village was asleep. I wouldn't take any Ndrice myS.kLF. According to the manager, no one works as hard as him(se1f). Mysk~~,I wouldn't take any ~d~iceof her. Sandra's sister is even taller than her(se&). No composer enjoyed a better family background than Mozart. Like Here the meaning of the pronoun is 'speaking personally'. In other contexts, the pronoun has a meaning better captured by the paraphrase and nobody him(selfl, both his father and sister were remarkable musicians. 'X else': Guerrero's friends made their peace with the gang. As for him(self), there was little he could do but await the inevitable bullet in his back. Do you mean that you spoke to the Pope himsd~~? A: Who told you that Jill was leaving? B: She hers^^^ told me. (ii) When a reflexive pronoun (particularly a 1st person pronoun) is coordinated with another phrase: Sometimes there is an explicit contrast between the referent and some other thing or person: ' They have never invited Margaret and melmyselfto dinner. This is a great tribute to the Scout Movement, and to you/yoursev I'd prefer you to do the jobyoursE~qrather than to leave it to Tony. as its leader. On the positioning of the emphatic reflexive pronoun, cf18.39f. In this construction, the reflexive pronoun is not limited to 'object territory' I (cf 6.5); it can replace a subjective pronoun: Note [a] Emphatic reflexives with cataphoric reference are generally literary in tone: Himsera fervent believer, Newman was nonetheless able to sympathize with those who . . . My sister and Ilmyselfwent sailing yesterday. [b] Emphatic reflexives sometimes occur sentence-init~allyin rather mannered or literary uses: Myselfis thus and so, and will continue thus and so. (Bellow) Oneselfdid not die; that, like the very quiddity ofothemess, was for others. (Burgess) Note [a] Unlike the prepositional phrases of (a) above, many prepositional phrases expressing a spatial (or temporal) relationship require the objective personal pronoun rather than the reflexive pronoun, in spite of coreference with the subject: Possessive pronouns He looked about him. She pushed the cart injiont ofher. I 124 She liked habing her grandchildren around her. They carried some food with them. Determinative and independent possessives Have you any money on you? We have the whole day before W. She had her fiance beside her. 6.29 Possessive pronouns consist traditionally of two series: the first, 'weak' set of A possible explanation of this (historically older) use of the personal pronoun instead of the possessive pronouns has a determinative function (cf 5.12fn, while the compound form in -selfis that the personal pronoun is not normally in semantic contrast with second, 'strong' set has an independent function as a noun phrase (cf 5.124): any other pronoun, and therefore needs no emphasis: *Have you any,money on me? DETERMINATIVE: my our your his her its their The objective ford is normally unstressed, so that the stress is thrown onto the preposition. In INDEPENDENT: mine ours yours his hers (its) theirs some cases the projloun may in fact be omitted altdgether : Pat felt a sinking sensation inside (her). As the genitive forms of personal pronouns (cf 6.2), the possessive pronouns The reflexive pronoun, on the other hand, will usually (except in the case of inherently reflexive behave very much like the corresponding genitive noun constructions, and verbs like pride oneself; cf6.25(a)) imply a contrast between coreference to the subject and they have already been illustrated in that connection (cf 5.1 17ff). reference to something else. [b] In the following metaphorical use of the preposition, the reflexive pronoun is required: But whereas the genitive noun does not change its form in moving from determinative to independent function, five of the possessive pronouns She was besidi with rage, (*t~'/j change by the addition of a consonant (either In/ or /z/) to the determinative (c* 'She placed the attach6 case beside her'.) form : [C] For phonological reasons, sequences like her herselfwould be avoided by many speakers. Compare restrictionson verb sequences such as be being (3.73). my /ma~/-, mine /marn/ Id] In some dialects of English, especially Irish English, reflexive pronouns are common in your /j~:~/-+yours /j3:'z/, our -+ ours, her + hers, their + theirs expressions like: Is herselfin? ['Is the lady of the house in?] His already ends in /z/ and therefore does not add a further sibilant; compare Also in more general use we find, eg: [l] and [la]: I went to see Mary and John but there was only himselfat home. She was, he knew, a very good secretary and always loyal to hinrselj: This is MP bike and that is is bike. [l] This bike is M~NEand that is is. [l4 Emphatic use 1. Rs is extremely rare in independent function (but cf Note [a]): 6.28 Reflexive pronouns in emphatic use occur in apposition and have heavy *The collar is its. l' 362 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 563

One reason for this gap is that the pronoun ir is very rarely stressed (cf 6.16), Elsewhere own emphasizes coreference between the possessive and the and this conflicts with the phonological status of the independent possessive, subject of the clause: which is always stressed. Another and related reason seems to be that there is rarely semantic motivation for an independent nonpersonal possessive Sam cooks his own dinner every evening. ['cooks dinner for himself'] [l] pronoun. But whereas the reflexive pronoun is often obligatory where coreference with Parallel to the independent genitive, the independent possessive can occur the subject is intended, the addition of own to the possessive is optional. as any of the following nominal elements: subject, object, complement, or Thus, in [la], his could corefer to Sam, but it could also refer to someone quite prepositional complement. But it is particularly common in complement different: function. Compare: Sam cooks his dinner every evening. [lal DETERMINATIVE INDEPENDENT Mary's Mary's. Similarly, [2] is ambiguous according to whether their corefers to the Housing my daughter's book The book is Associations or to people : her 1 hers. The Housing Associations are encouraging people to buy The independent possessive in other functions generally has a quasi-elliptical their houses. t21 role, replacing a noun phrase with a determinative possessive: But only the second interpretation, the 'reflexive' one, is possible with: mine. If you need a bicycle, I'll lend you The Housing Associations are encouraging people to buy my bicycle. their own houses. L24 It also occurs regularly as prepositional complement in the 'post-genitive' In its turn, own can be intensified by the adverb very: construction described in 5.126: Do you like this cake? It's my uery own recipe. ['a recipe I made I have been talking to afriend ofyours. ['one of your friends'] up myself'] [3l A : Do you know Wagner's operas? B : No, the only opera of his I've seen is 'lohengrin'. The independent genitive cannot combine with own: *yours own, *mine own; instead, own added to the determinative possessive can serve as an 125 Note [a] Independent its may occasionally be found in parallel constructions, such as: independent noun phrase: History has Irslessons and fiction has ITS. She knew the accident was either her husband's fault or the car's: it turned out to be The recipe is my (very) own. L34 not HIS but ITS. Floyd sometimes plays other musicians' arrangements, but his own are [b] Like genitives and ol-constructions (c/ 5.1 15). constructions with possessive pronouns can be much better. amb~guous,eg: my in Giue me back my photograph may have at least three interpretations: Iown , In a similar way, the combination your own, her own, etc can follow of in a 'post-genitive': taken of me [c] Note the following expressions where thee/-construction, rather than the possessive, is used: I'd love to have a home of my (uery)own. ['a home which belongs to me and nobody else'] We're resigning from the firm, and starting a business of our (very)own.

I don't trust the iikes ofhim. Note [a] Own can also occur with a genitive noun: This will be rhe death of me. You must try these cookies: it's Jill's (very) own recipe. Own cannot cooccur, however, with an indefinite determiner. Compare: your own car? Have you got a car ofyour own? I*an own car? Possessives and the 'emphatic determinative own' [b] Unlike many other languages, English uses possessives to refer to parts of the body and 6.30 The possessive cannot be accompanied by any modifiers or determiners, personal belongings, as well as in a number of related expressions: own'. He stood at the door with his hat in his hand. except for the 'emphatic determinative Just as the emphatic reflexive Mary has broken her leg. pronoun (cf 6.28) intensifies the meaning of a personal pronoun, so own Don't lose your balance. intensifies the meaning of a possessive pronoun. For example, my own carries They have changed their minds again! the force of 'mine and nobody else's' in: The definite article is, however, required in: She took me by the Iiand. This book doesn't belong to the library - it's my own copy. For a discussion of this use of the, cf5.35. 364 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 365

Reciprocal pronouns Each other and one another resemble reflexive pronouns in that they cannot 6.31 The RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS each other and one another are related to the be used naturally in subject position. Instead of [l], [la] is preferred: reflexive pronouns in that they can be said to express a 'two-way reflexive ?The twins wanted to know what each other werelwas doing. [l] relationship' (cf 13.46, 13.60). Yet there are important differences between Each of the twins wanted to know what the other was doing. [l4 reflexive and reciprocal pronouns. Compare: There appears to be no such constraint on reciprocals as subject in nonfinite REFLEXIVE PRONOUN RECIPROCAL PRONOUN verb clauses: Adam and Eve blamed themselves. Adam and Eve blamed each other. ['Adam blamed himself, ['Adam blamed Eve, The twins wanted each other to be present at all times. and Eve blamed herself.'] and Eve blamed Adam.'] However, the rule which excludes occurrence in subject position holds not Other examples of typical functions of reciprocal pronouns: only for independent pronominal use but also for genitival reciprocals in subject noun phrases. The reciprocals must have coreference with antecedent All the children trust one another. phrases which have some other genitiveor possessive modification. Compare: The party leaders promised to give each other their support. Meg and Bill are very fond of each other. *Each other's letters ?The letters to each other were delivered by a servant. Each other and one another are both written as word sequences, but it is better Their letters to each other 1 to treat them as compound pronouns rather than as combinations of two pronouns. At the same time, they correspond to the correlative use of each Note [a] The plural genitive forms 'each others'and *one anothers'are not used (although these forms . . . other and one . . . another (cf 6.58) in sentences such as: sometimes occur as erroneous spellings of each other's and one onotlter's). [b] The reciprocal pronouns are rather infrequent items. In the million-word Brown corpus of They each blamed the other. printed AmE, for example, there are only 114 instances of each other and 45 instances of one The passengers disembarked one after another. another. The reciprocal pronouns have the genitive forms each other's and one '- another's: Relative pronouns 126 6.32 Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses, eg: each other's The students can borrow The book which you ordered last month has arrived. one another's }books. 111 J In [l], the relative pronoun which introduces the relative clause which you There is no difference in the use of the two pronouns each other and one ordered last month. Relative pronouns differ from personal pronouns in that another. Although in prescriptive tradition, each other is sometimes preferred the element which contains or comprises the relative pronoun is always for reference to ;two and one another to more than two, this distinction seems placed at the beginning of the clause, whether it is subject, complement, to have little foundation in usage. here is, however, a stylistic difference adverbial, postmodifier, prepositional complement, or object (as in [l]). between the two reciprocals in that each other is more common in informal Compare the position of it as object: style and one another in more formal contexts. Unlike the reflexive pronouns, the reciprocals can corefer only to plural The book has arrived. You ordered it last month. [l4 noun phrases (qr noun phrases that have a plural quality), since reciprocity Relative pronouns resemble personal pronouns in that they have presupposes more than one participant: coreference to an antecedent (cf 6.15). In [l], the antecedent of which is book. himself: Here, as in most relative clauses, the antecedent is the preceding part of the Bill shaved noun phrase in which the relative clause functions as postmodifier:

With verbs like embrace, meet, and kiss, which are reciprocal and I [the book [which you ordered last month]] symmetrical in character (c.13.60), the reciprocal pronoun is optional : Unlike personal pronouns, relative pronouns have the double role of referring Anna and Bob met each other in Cairo. to the antecedent (which determines gender selection, eg: wholwhich) and of = Anna and Bob met in Cairo. functioning as all of, or part of, an element in the relative clause (which determines the case form for those items that have case distinction, eg: who/ With verbs which are not necessarily symmetrical, the reciprocal pronoun is whom). Further details of relative clause formation are given in 17.10ff. required in order to express reciprocity: Anna and Bob wrote letters to each other. 1 Restrictive and nonrestrictive # Anna and Bob wrote letters. 6.33 The semantic relation between the clause and its antecedent may be either 366 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 367

restrictive or nonrestrictive, and this is the basis of an important distinction The lady whose daughter you met is Mrs Brown. 111 between RESTR~~IVEand NONRESTRICTIVE relative clauses. The house whose roof was damaged has now been repaired. [2] Restrictive relative clauses are closely connected to their antecedent or head prosodically, and denote a limitation on the reference of the antecedent, Nevertheless relative clauses such as that of [2] are quite frequently attested. eg : If a speaker or writer wishes to avoid the use of whose with nonpersonal reference, this can be done, often with some awkwardness, by using of which This is not something that would disturb me A~rway. (cf 17.14): Nonrestrictive clauses are parenthetic comments which usually describe, but The do not further define, the antecedent, eg: {the roof of which They operated like poli~icianslwho notoriously have no sense of humour Note [a] Whose cannot always besubstituted for of 111hicl1or Qlvhonr. When theofphrase functions as at ALL^. an adverbial, there is no parallel with the genitive [3], but other consiructions are available, eg The differences between restrictive and nonrestrictive relative clauses will [3al:. be further discussed in 17.13f. For the present, we only need to mention this *The poem whose Ion! speaking. . . l31 The poem of lvhich lanr speaki~lg. . .. [h] difference in order, to indicate how it affects the choice of relative pronoun, [b] Which can have a personal noun phrase as its antecedent when the head is a complement as appears in Table 6.33: with the role of characterization (cf 10.20 and the parallel use of if, 6.17 Note [b]): They accused him of being a traitor, {*:::} he was. Table 6.33 Relative pronouns . , I I I In restrictive relative clauses, that is used in a similar function; ( RESTRICTIVE 1 NONRESTRICTIVE 1 She's not the brilliant dancer ( ) she used to be. personal nonpersonal personal nonpersonal {*fl Compare the exclamatory construction with identificatory that: SUBJECTIVE CASE who that that l I Fool that I was! ['I was such a fool'] l l In none of these sentences could who be used. which [c] If the antecedent contains a mixture of personal and nonpersonal elements, that can he used whom 1vhic11 127 OBJECTIVE CASE thal that whom as a pronoun which is 'neutral' with respect to who and which: zero zero The generals complained that the Defence Department had not sent the extra men and equipment that they needed. GENmVE CASE whose

Who and whom Wh-pronouns, that, and zero 6.35 In many ways the opposition between who and whom does not parallel the 6.34 Relative pronouns include two series: " subjective/objective distinction in the personal pronouns. Whom is largely (a) wh-pronouns: who, whom, whose, which restricted to formal style, and can be avoided altogether in informal style, (b) that and zero through the use of who, that, or zero. It seems odd that the pronoun whom is decidedly 'marked' in relation to Compare: who, while elsewhere, with Ilme, shelher, etc, the objective form is the 'unmarked' choice (cf 6.4). The best way of accounting for this seems to be to I'd like to see the car that you bought last week. return to the concept of 'subject territory' (cf 6.5), which was defined, for colloquial English, simply as the position preceding the verb, ie the customary ric:l position of the subject. In relative clauses, because of the fronting of the wh- (Zero is indicated by '( )'.) Neither series has number or person contrast. element, this is the only position of the relative pronoun, whether it is However, the wh-series has gender contrast between personal who and functioning as subject, object, or some other element. Hence, in informal nonpersonal which, and case contrast between subjective who, objective English, there is a tendency to avoid whom altogether, and to replace it by whom, and genitive whose. the subjective form who. In formal style, on the other hand, the tendency is As Table 6.33 shows, whose - unlike who and whom - can have personal to use whom in accordance with the traditional prescriptive rule that who is reference (cf 5.1 17), as in [l], and also nonpersonal reference, as in [2], the form for subject and subject complement functions, and whom is the form although there is a certain reluctance to use whose for nonpersonal for other functions. When the relative pronoun is object, we meet all the antecedents : following possibilities : 368 - Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 369

5.14), and we shall discuss the use of both types of interrogative word This is a person { you should know. together, ie the following items: PRONOUN FUNCTION : who whom whose what which ( ) DETERMINATIVE FUNCTION : whose what which If the relative pronoun is a prepositional complement, we meet yet a further possibility, that of the preposition followed by whom: Who, whom, and whose are subjective, objective, and genitive case forms respectively, and have personal gender. The other interrogatives are not to whom you spoke. distinctive for case or gender. Note in particular that, unlike relative which, whom interrogative which can be used not only with nonpersonal but also with This is the person 1;: ] you spoke to. personal reference: ( 1 RELATIVE : However, the further theoretical possibility does not occur, namely who following the preposition: INTORROGATIVE: {$:h} is your favourite author? *This is theperson to who you spoke. Inmeaning, however, interrogative who and which differ, who being indefinite The reason is that there is a stylistic incompatibility between the and which definite, as explained in 6.37. preposition + relative pronoun construction (to whom), which is rather formal, and the use of who rather than whom as prepositional complement Indefinite and definite interrogatives (who . . . to), which is informal. 6.37 There are two groups of interrogatives: those with INDEFINITE and those with Thus the behaviour of who and whom, which would otherwise appear DEFINITE reference. irregular and puzzling, can be explained in terms of the different notions of case operating in formal and in informal usage. (a) Interrogative pronouns referring to persons: INDEFINITE: Who is your favourite conductor? Note [a] The hypercorrect use of whom is common in examplesof pushdown relative clauses (c/17.63) DEFINITE: Which is your favourite conductor? (Von Karajan or 128 such as this: Stokowsky?) *The Ambassador, whom we hope will arrive at 10 am., . . . Here the relative pronoun is the subject of willarrive but is felt to be in object territoly in relation (b) Interrogative pronouns not referring to persons: to we hope embedded in the relative clause (cj: We hope that she wi// arrive at I0 a.m.). On the other hand, no hypercorrection is involved in the following: INDEFINITE: What's the name of this tune? The Ambassador, whom we expect to arrive at 10 am., . . . DEFINITE: Which do you prefer? (Classical or popular music?) This is evident, again, if we compare the relative clause with a corresponding construction with a personal pronoun (cf 6.38 Note [b]): (c) Interrogative determiners with personal nouns: We expect her io arrive at 10 a.m. INDEFINITE: What conductor do you like best? The following example represents a case where the hypercorrection has been institutionalized, DEFINITE: Which conductor do you like best? (Von Karajan or and where in fact there is no alternative relative pronoun: Here is Captain Morse than whom there is no braver soldier. Stokowsky?) [bl The relative pronouns discussed above have been those used in adnominal relative clauses (d) Interrogative determiners with nonpersonal nouns: (cf 17.9). We should briefly mention here also the pronouns what, whatever, whichever, and whoever, which are used to introduce nominal relative clauses (cf15.8L 17.12). eg: INDEFINITE: What newspaper do you read? You can do whateueryou like. rthat which you like'] DEFINITE: Which newspaper do you read? (The Times or The [C] Very occasionally nonrestrictive relative clauses are introduced by the relative determiner Guardian?) which, rather than by a relative pronoun (cf 17.24): We arrived at noon, by which time the demonstration was over. In these pairs, which implies that the choice is made from a limited number Again, nominal relative clauses permit a different set of determiners: which, whichever, whatever of alternatives which exist in the context of discussion. The alternatives may (cf 15.8fi, eg: You should wear whichever dresssuits you best. be made explicit (as they are by the words in parentheses in the above examples), or they may be implicit. Thus a speaker who asks the question [l] assumes that there is a definite set of dictionaries from which a choice can be made : Interrogative pronouns 6.36 These are formally identical with the wh-series of relative Dronouns. but have Which is the best English dictionary? a different function. They correspond closely to interrogative determiners (cf l l A person looking at an old photograph may say Which is you?, asking for the 370 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 371

identification of one member of the definite set of persons in the picture. appropriate answer (even though ships are typically referred to as she; Sometimes the relevant definite set is indicated by a following of-phrase, as cf 5.111 Note): in [2] : A : Whose funnel was damaged? B: *That ship's. Which of the threegirls is the oldest? [2] f l Note [a] Who has both singular and plural reference, but when neither is explicit in the linguistic Note [a] The definite meaning of which is reflected in the fact that the definite article could not be context, singular concord is the unmarked term. Thus, even though several voices are heard omitted from [2] above: outside, the natural question will be Who's there? rather than ?* Who're there? 'Which ofthreegirls . . .? [b] When ~vhooccurs in noninitial position in clause structure (cf l1 .l9), theobjective use of avho [bl In this and in the following sections, we illustraF the interrogative pronouns by their use in is acceptable colloquially even after a preposition: direct questions. However, they can equally well occur in subordinate II~/Z-interrogativeclauses. History is written about ~vho? Who sleeps ~vrtlrwho? Compare [3] and [3al: In contrast to these, there is a tendency towards hypercorrection in the replacement of who by ~vlronrin noninitial position: What wasshe wearirg.71 don't remember. 131 I don't remember ~vlrorshe ~vaswenrirrp. .13al . A: Janet was at the party. B: (?)lane1 whom? [c] The indefinite interrogatives what, bldo, and ~vlrosecan be postmodified by else (6'7.69): What else?, Who else? [d] We can select who or lvlrat rather than a,lrich even in cases where the number of alternatives is strictly limited by the context: What and which Who/ Which do you like best -your father or your mother? 6.39 What and which can also occur in prepositional complements with the What/ Which will it be - tea or coffee? preposition either in initial or in final (deferred) position; but with an initial Conversely, which can be used when there is no limited set of alternatives from which a choice is preposition, the construction is formal and rather rare: made : After all, which American has not heard of someone who, a few days after his or her annual What are you talking about? [l] check-up, suffered a heart attack? On what is he lecturing? (formal) [lal Which (girl) are you talking about? 121 Who, whom, and whose On which of the topics is he lecturing? (formal) [W 6.38 b he interrogative determiners what and which can be personalor nonpersonal: What has a wide range of use, either as a determiner or as a pronoun, and

candidate will you vote for? either with personal or with nonpersonal reference: 129 are you in favour of? A : What's vour address? B : (It's). . 18 Revnolds Close. What nationality is she? But the interrogative pronouns who and whom are personal only: ) B: (She's) Finnish. What is her nationalitv?-, Who told you where I was? Who(m) do you admire most? A: what date is it? B: (It's) the 15th of March. In objective use, who is informal and whom is formal. The distinction is A: What's the time? B : (It's) five o'clock. parallel to that; between who and whom as relative pronouns (cf 6.35). A: What is he doing? B : (He's) mending the phone. Similarly, interrogative whom functions like relative whom, except that A: What was the concert like? B: (It was)excellent. interrogative whom strikes most people as even more formal than relative When it refers to a person, however, what as a pronoun is limited to questions whom. about profession, role, status, etc. Contrast: As a prepositional complement, only whom can normally follow the preposition, as in [l], whereas both who and whom can take initial position, A : What's her husband? as in [la], leaving the preposition deferred at the end of the clause (cf 9.6): B : He's a film director. A : Which is her husband? For whom is she working? (BUT NOT: *For who is she working?) [l] B: He's the man on the right smoking a pipe. Who(m) is she working for? [lal A: Who is her husband? As the possessive form of who, whose can occur in either a determinative B: He's Paul Jones, the famous art critic. function, as in [Z], or an independent function, as in [Za] (cf 5.124): In this last function in [3], what elicits an identificatory noun phrase as Whose jacket is this? [2] complement, and so it is the interrogative counterpart of relative which Whose is this jacket? 124 (cf6.34 Note [b]) and of the personal pronoun it (cf6.17 Note [b]) in corresponding contexts. But, unlike relative whose, interrogative whose cannot have nonpersonal reference. For example, we can say That ship's funnel was damaged, but we Note Interrogative pronouns do not accept modification or determination, except for the occurrence cannot ask a question with whose for which That ship's would be an of intensifyingpostmodifiers Whatever.. .?, Wlrooricarth . . .?(cf 11.14 Notelbl). 372 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 373

Demonstrative pronouns which would be an insult (as if the person indicated is not human), we would 6.40 The demonstrative pronouns this, that, these, and those exactly match the have to say [3a]: form of the four demonstrative determiners (cf 5.14). With the demonstra- tive~,as with the interrogatives, we shall find it convenient to consider ?Is she going to marry THAT? [31 together the uses of the determiners and of the pronouns. Is she going to marry arman an? [W The demonstratives have number contrast in both determiners and Instead of [4] we would have to say [4a]: pronouns. They also have a contrast between 'near' and 'distant' reference: *Come and meet these over here. Table 6.40 Demonstrative pronouns Come and meet thesepeople over here.

SINGULAR PLURAL An exception to this is the introductory use of a demonstrative pronoun as subject of a clause; in this position the pronoun can have both personal and 'NEAR' REFERENCE this (student) these (students) nonpersonal reference: 'DISTANT' REFERENCE that (student) those (students) This is Mrs Jones. [introducing an acquaintance] That's my stepmother. [pointing to a photograph] Like the definite article and the personal pronouns, demonstratives have Are these the students who have registered? [pointing to a list of names] definite meaning, and therefore their reference depends on the context shared This is Sid. Is that Geoff? [on the telephone] by speakerlwriter and hearerlreader. Also, in the same way, their use may be considered under the headings of SITUATIONAL reference (reference to the Note That refers to degree or measurement in contexts such as: extralinguistic situation), ANAPHORIC reference (coreference to an earlier part l My brother is six feet tall, but yours must be even taller than that. ['taller than six feet'] of the discourse), and CATAPHORIC reference (coreference to a later part of In spite of appearances, therefore, such examples are not exceptions to the rule that, as a the discourse). As before, we will call the part of the text to which coreference I! pronoun, that does not have personal reference (except in subject position; cf 12.19). is made the ANTECEDENT. First, however, let us consider the purely grammatical aspects of the demonstratives. .. Modification and determination 6.42 ' The demonstrative pronouns are limited as to determination and modifica- 130 Number and gender tion. Like the demonstrative determiners (cf 5.14), they can be preceded by 6.41 The singular demonstratives this and thar are used for both count and predeterminers, but the of-construction is often preferred: noncount meaning: AN (onthis is mine. Could you give me haK(of) that? This water is too cold. That is stale. {room} {E:~} Would you like both (of)these? All (onthose are sold. Both the singular and the plural pronouns can be used as pro-forms as substitutes for a!noun phrase (cf 12.19): ' They are sometimes postmodified by place adverbials: these over here, etc. They can also be postmodified by restrictive relative clauses and other This chair is more comfortable than that. [= that chair] [l] restrictive modifiers: Those apples are sweeter than these. [= these apples] L21 Those who trv hard deserve to succeed. [l]. . The same meaning is conveyed by the demonstrative followed by one(s) {;ic;} we saw (cf6.55): those that These watches are more expensive than in New York. [2] This chair is more comfortable than that one. [lal Those apples are sweeter than these ones. Pal upsets me mast is his manner. In addition, the pronouns can refer to some unspecified object(s): I Come and have a look at this. ['this thing, this substance', etc] Of these, those is personal ['the people'] in [l], and nonpersonal in [2], like Have you heard this? ['this piece of news, this joke', etc] that in [3]. In fact, thar which . . . is rare and formal, and is generally replaced Leave that alone! ['that thing, that machine', etc] by what. Can I borrow these? ['these books, these screwdrivers', etc] There is no personal singular *that who . . ., but other constructions are used instead, eg: anyone who . . ., the person who . . . ;he who . . . and she wlio But especially in this use, the pronouns are nonpersonal. Thus instead of [3], . . . are archaic (cf 6.20). 374 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 3'75

Note [a] On the use of that and those as substitute forms ('the one, the ones'), as in the following There were these three men . . . example, cJ'12.19: Then I saw this girl . . . The song by Schubert is more tuneful than that by Britten. I was walking home when this man came up to me and said . . . [b] The determiner those loses its deictic quality (cf 6.43) in cases like 141 where it is an emphatic Uncharacteristically this introduces new information here, instead, of referring back to shared equivalent of cataphoric the (cJ'5.32): information, as is usual. One sign is the occurrence of this as a focus of a clause with existential Those menlories which we acquire in early childhood rarely lose their vividness. W there (cJ'l8.44fl) in a typical beginning of a joke, eg: There was this manlplace . . . [bl On'the other hand, that/thos~are used informally to 'point back' in a vague way to some Situational reference shared experience: 6.43 When the demonstratives refer to the extralinguistic situation, they are often I used to enjoy those enormous hotel breakfasts. It gives you that great feeling of clean air and open spaces. ['the feeling we all know about'] compared with other DEICTIC or 'pointing' items, which also contrast in terms of 'near' and 'distant' reference: here - there, now - then, today - yesterday/tomorrow, etc Anaphoric and cataphoric reference 6.44 The anaphoric and cataphoric uses of the demonstratives are extensions of In the simplest cases, this and that contrast in terms of the nearness of the their situational use. referent to the speaker: ANAPHORIC: This is my friend Charlie Brown. [introducing someone] I hear you disliked his latest novel. 1 read his first novel, and that was That is my friend Charlie Brown. [pointing out someone in a crowd] boring, too. The measurement of spatial proximity is a matter of psychological rather He asked for his brown raincoat, insisting that this was his usual coat than real distance. It can easily be extended to the more abstract sphere of during the winter months. time : CATAPHORIC this morning ['the morning of today'] He told the story like this: 'Once upon a time . . .' [l] that morning ['the morning of a day some time ago'] The 'near' demonstratives thislthese can have both anaphoric and It can be extended to an even more abstract and subjective level of cataphoric reference, while the 'distant' demonstratives that/tlzose can have interpretation: I only anaphoric reference. The following is therefore decidedly odd (but cf 131 Note [a]) : Have you ieen this report on smoking? ['the one I have recently been thinking about'] [l] ?He told the story like that: 'Once upon a time . . .' Pal Have you seen that report on smoking? The antecedent of a demonstrative may be either a noun phrase or a larger ['the one I was looking at some time ago'] L21 segment of discourse, viz a clause, sentence, or sequence of sentences. We In practice, howper, [l] and [2] could occur in the same situation, the only call this larger segment a 'sentential antecedent': difference being the speaker's subjective concept of 'nearness'. They will probably win the match. That will please my mother. In reference to time, this is typically associated with 'what is before us', Many years ago their wives quarrelled over some trivial matter, long and that with 'what is behind us'. Hence with reference to days and months, forgotten. But one word led to another, and the quarrel developed this Friday or this September means 'the FridayISeptember to come' (cf 9.40). into a permanent rupture between them. That's why the two men Also, a person about to demonstrate some skill, such as using a can opener, never visit each other's houses. could say [3], but after the demonstration is finished, [4] would be more This should interest you, if you're keen on boxing. The world appropriate : heavyweight championship is going to be held in Chicago next June, This is how you do it. so you should be able to watch it there live. That's how you do it. Anaphoric and cataphoric reference can also be illustrated with demonstra- Another extension of the nearldistant polarity is for that to imply dislike tive determiners: or disapproval : I longed to play the piano when I was a child; but in those daysmy Janet is coming. I hope she doesn't bring that husband of hers. parents could not afford an instrument. She's awful, that Mabel. These language options are open to our students: Spanish, French, and German. Note [a] In this connection, notice a familiar use (considered nonstandard by some speakers) of thi.~/ these to introduce some new thing or person into a narrative: Note [a] In very limited contexts, eg in expressions of indignation, that can be used cataphorically: 376 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 377

What do you th~nkof TII~T!Bob smashes up my car, and then expects me to pay for the Table 6.45 Major indefinite pronouns and determiners repairs. [b] Such as a pro-form is similar to the demonstratives. It can have anaphoric reference both as a pronoun and as a predeterminer: NIJMEJER FUNCTION personal nonpersonal NONCOUNT in of taking an aunt (if such I I 1-1 I No one his senses would dream innocent maiden exist) to Seneca's Medea. It is doubtful, indeed. if such plays should be performed at all on the modem stage. P. . . if innocen~n~aidoz aunts exist'], ['. . . if plays sztclt as Sertecak Medea . . .'.l [I1 (it (. .)) all In [l], suclt occurs first as a pronoun and second as a predeterminer. In [2], such has a whole . sentence as its antecedent, and could be replaced by this or that with virtually no change of I singular I each I meanine: every If officialdom makes mistakes, officialdomdeserves to suffer. Such, at least, was Mr determiner 1 Boyd's opinion. 1.71 each t-, 1 The anaphoric pronoun such can also &cur after indefinite determiners such as all, Jra: and many (cf5.15 Note) in rather rare and restricted use: pronoun (they (. . .)) all/both there will surely not be ma~zysuclz. plural Some reactions to the proposal may be hostile, but ?we can afford to ignore any sucl~. [3] determiner all/both { *no such have yet been reported. I I As [3] shows, the acceptability of this construction varies according to the determiner which pmnOun something precedes such. For the unacceptable *no such, postmodification of none by such is an acceptable p singular 1 zzo:y1 1 alternative: I / I I determiner I a(n) some . . . but mmxsucl~(L:] yet been reported. I pronoun and / some I 1 plural determiner anyone Indefinite pronouns pronoun The remaining classes of pronouns are termed INDEFINITE:they lack the element of definiteness which is found in the personal, reflexive, possessive, either 132 determiner any and demonstrative pronouns, and to some extent also in the wh-pronouns. Although they are themselves indefinite, however, these pronouns can ally sometimes combine with elements of definite meaning, such as the definite determiner article: the ones, the few, the other, etc. The indefinite pronouns are, in a logical sense, QUANTITATIVE: they have universal or partitive meaning, and ( "5, l nothing I correspond clo?ely to determiners of the same or of similar form (cf 5.14). See pronoun Table 6.45 opposite for a list of the mairones. I m 1 singular I Compound pronouns F: pronoun and neither The indefinite pronouns divide into two main categories according to their determiner morphology and their syntactic behaviour. The COMPOUND PRONOUNS are lil plural pronoun none those which are composed of two morphemes, viz a determiner morpheme I I I every-, some-, any-, or no-, and a nominal morpheme -one, -body, or -thing. The remaining indefinite pronouns belong to a category which we shall call OF-PRONOUNS,because they can be followed by a partitive oFphrase: many (of), some (on,etc. The compound pronouns in Table 6.46a opposite are divided into four Table 6.46a Compound pronouns classes (universal, assertive, nonassertive, and negative) corresponding to - the four classes in Table 6.45. NONPERSONAL REFERENCE The twelve compound pronouns are perfectly regular in their formation, the only anomalies being the spelling of no one as two words, and the UNIVERSAL euerything pronunciation of nothing with the vowel /A/ rather than /au/. ASSERTIVE something The pairs of pronouns with personal reference (eg: everybody, everyone) anyone anything NEGATIVE llobod~ no one ttothinp are equivalent in function and meaning but the pronouns in -one are regarded 378 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 379

as more elegant than those in -body. All the compound pronouns are singular, Every 'one of us will be present. and have concord with a singular verb even though notionally they may We played several matches against the visitors, but unfortunately lost denote more than one thing or person: every 'one. To emphasize the all-inclusive meaning, single is inserted: '(We lost) every over eighteen now has a vote. Everyone single one'. I tried everything but nothing works. Unlike every 'one, which has both personal and nonpersonal reference, the compound pronoun 'everyone (with stress on the first syllable) can refer only was telling me you've been to America. to persons: Someone I want {'eUeryO" to feel at home. Has {anyoneanybody ] got anything to say? 'everybody) To the compound pronouns of personal gender we can add the singular Theie was at the office. {::%} genitive ending S: On the use of the plural in coreference to compound pronouns (eg: Everybody This will put everyone's mind at rest. has their offdays), cf 10.43. Could you borrow anybody's overcoat? There's somebody's glove on the floor. Note [a] The frequencies of compound pronouns with any-, every-. and some- that have personal It was absolutely nobody's fault. reference are as follows in the LOB and Brown corpora of printed BrE and AmE. respectively: A postmodifier else can be added to the compound pronouns. Its meaning Table 6.46b Frequencies of compound pronouns with any-, every-, and sonre- is illustrated by these paraphrases (cf 7.69):

BrE AmE everyone 'else ['every other person'] nobody 'else ['no other person'] anybody 32 42 anything 'else ['any other thing']

anyone 141 140 133 The genitive ending is added to else, and not to the pronoun itself (cf 'group everybody 33 72 genitive', 5.123): ewryone 106 94 I must be drinking someone else's coffee. somebody 27 57 (NOT:*someone's else coffee) someone 117 94 His hair is longer than anybody else's. (NOT:*anybody's else) The table shows thAt in both corpora, the compounds in -one are consistently more frequent than the corresponding compounds in -body; but also that compounds in -body are more In addition, the compound pronoun can be postmodified freely by normal frequent, and compounds in -one are less frequent, in AmE than in BrE. restrictive noun-phrase postmodifiers (cf 17.9fn, such as prepositional [b] The compound pronouns are pronounced with initial stress, and are thereby minimally phrases and relative clauses: distinct in speech from combinations of a determiner and an independent word body, one, or thing. We must be careful, therefore, to distinguish pronouns from the superficially similar somebody I know something for dinner sequences of determiner + head: the pronoun 'noonefrom no'one, as in no 'oneanswer ['no single everyone (that) you meet anything madeof silver answer']; the pronoun 'eoeryonefrom every 'one. as in every 'one o/tlle students; and the pronoun 'everybody ['any person'] from every 'body,as in Every (human)body needs vitamins. The compound pronouns cannot be premodified by adjectives (*new nothing), but instead, adjectival modification is added after the pronoun (cf 17.57): somebody very tall 6.47 The compound pronouns are the least problematic of the indefinite pronouns, nothing new since they behave in general like noun phrases of very general meaning: something nicefor dinner anyone kinder and more considerate than Janice everybody, everyone ['all people'] everything ['all things', 'all matter'] There is no pronoun corresponding to the universal singular determiner Of-pronouns every. In nominal functions, the determiner combines with the pronoun one 6.48 The remaining indefinite pronouns, here called OF-PRONOUNS (cf Table 6.48 (with the stress pattern every 'one or 'every 'one): 1 over page) are distinguished by the following characteristics: 380 Pronouns and.numerals Pronouns 381

(a) They can be followed by a partitive o$phrase: category, we shall draw attention to parallels between pronouns and determiners. Some of us were tired and hungry. The relation of universal pronouns to their determiners is shown in Table (b) They can be used as substitutes for noun phrases or other nominal 6.49. The compound pronouns everyone, everybody, and everything have constructions: already been discussed (cf 6.46f). Many children learn to read quite quickly, but some [= some children] Table 6.49 Universal pronouns need special instruction. COUNT NONCOUNT On the classification of pronouns as substitutes, cf 12.108 (c) They are all (with the exception of none) identical in form to the personal nonpersonal nonpersonal corresponding determiner (cf 5.14). everybody everything Table 6.48 Indefinite pronouns which take the partitive of-construction . pronoun all SINGULAR all (?euerythitg) COUNT NONCOUNT each singular plural singular determiner :E.:) boylpen UNIVERSAL all (of) all (of) all (of) all ((of) the (6.49-5 1) each (of) both (of) pronoun and furniture) PLURAL determiner fth) ((OF)the bo~s/~ens) ASSERTIVE (i) some some (of) some (of) some (of) (6.52) ------AN and both (ii) multal many (of) much (of) 6.50 ,Allis used with plural nouns for quantities of more than two, and both is used (6.53) more (of) more (of) - with plural nouns for quantities of two only (dual number): 134 --_--_------most (of) most (00 I The club is open to people of both sexes and allnationalities. (iii) paucal ~few(of) a little (of) (6.53) fewer/less (of) less (of) Both (of) hisparents died young. fewestlleast (of) least (on AN(of) the children were working hard. (iv) one one (of) (ones) When aN and both are followed by a determiner such as the (but not by the (6.54-56) , zero article: *all of boys), there is a choice between the insertion of of and its omission: NONASSERTIVE any (on a& (of) any (OS) (6.59-61) either (of) Both (of) the boys want to become football players. A1l(Of) NEGATIVE none (of) none (of) none (of) I (6.62) neither (of) few (of) little (of) Technically, allor both is a pronoun when followed by of, and a predeterminer when followed by another determiner (cf 5.15fn. All, unlike both, can also be followed by a singular count noun, as in [l], or Note All the ojlpronouns can be interpreted as substitutes; but in addition, some of them can be used by a noncount noun, as in [2]: without the of-constructionto refer to people in general. The following famous quotations from earlier English illustrate this use, which today is somewhat literary and archaic: His action was condemned by all (of) the civilized world. [l1 Many are called, butfew are chosen. [S! Matthew's Gospel] All (of) that money you gave them has been spent. Some are born great, some achieve greatness, and some have greatness thrust upon them. 121 [Shakespeare, Twelfth Night] Before a singular count noun, however, all is somewhat formal, and is In each case the meaning can he elucidated by insertingpeople:some = 'some people', etc. frequently replaced by a construction with whole as an adjective or noun: The whole (of the) civilized world denounced the invasion. Universal pronouns Similarly, both the boys can be replaced by the two boys or both boys. 6.49 Our plan now is to look at each of the categories of compound pronouns and Unless followed by the of-phrase, all and both follow a personal pronoun of-pronouns in turn, beginning with the UNIVBRSAL pronouns. With each rather than precede it: 382 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 383

Ewry good teacher studies his subject carefully. Each 1 114 (On the use of his in [la], cf 6.9.) All, each; and every one can also be equivalent in a pronominal function, When UN,both, and each (cf 5.16) are postposed in this way, and apply to the except that each (unlike every one and UN) can refer to just two people or subject, they appear in the position of a medial adverb (cf8.16). According things: to the rules for adverb placement, this means that they occur immediately Several cars arrived. after the subject if there is nooperator [3], otherwise after the operator [4,5]: Each (one)of them was mud-stained. 121 Every one of them was mud-stained. 124 They {z:~~}won their matches. Allof them were mud-stained. [2bI IJ we v } {fast asleep.} There is also a noticeable difference between [3] and [3a, 3b]: both working. All (of)the girls 131 The villages haw {;:!h] been destroyed. Each oneof the girls received a magnificent prize. 134 Every one of the girls 1 13bl As [5] shows, the postposed universal pronoun may also occur after a While [3] might mean that the girls shared a single prize, [3a] and [3b] both nonpronominal noun phrase as subject. In other positions in the sentence, mean that there were as many prizes as girls. Note that each as a pronoun [4] however, the postposed pronoun occurs immediately after its head, and the is equivalent to each as a determiner followed by one [4a], and to each as a head can only be a personal pronoun: determiner followed by a noun [4b]: Each of the states They told { "the"' men ]{G}to wait. each Each state 135 Note [a] Used alone, allcan be equivalent toewrytl~ing: Note [a] The distributive use of each is further discussed in reference to coordination in 13.61. On is not lost. concord with each, cf 10.37 Note [bl. grything) [b] All of the quantitative pronouns have a distributive use (cf 10.47), as in (51; usually the plural In this sense, all can be preceded by a possessive pronoun: has the same meaning and is preferred to the singular, as in (5aI: He gave his all. ['everything he had'] AN the children have their own bicycle. Is] [b] Allcan be premodified by degree adverbials and by modifiers of negative implication: nearly All the children have their own bicj~cles. ['one bicycle for each'] [Sal all, (not)quifeall, npt all, by no means all, etc. [C] Both is intrinsically definite, and in this differs from the cardinal numeral two, even when it is not followed by the definite article: Assertive pronouns hereyes were closed. g::] eyeswere closed. Thestatements containing two do not make sense when applied to an individual person, because The some series they imply that there are more than two eyes in question. But determiner + unstressed two + 6.52 The term ASSERTIVE applies to pronouns and determiners which are associated noun can be used in: with 'assertive territory' rather than 'nonassertive territory' (cf 2.53fn. The Her two eyes were like saucers. clearest case of this distinction is to be found in the contrast between some Compare also: and any, and between their corresponding compound pronouns somebody, the/my/these two boys It was just the two of us. anybody, etc (cf 6.46). Some as a determiner [l, 21 and as a pronoun [la, 2a] occurs most typically with plural and noncount nouns: Each and every 6.51 Words like each, every, and the compounds with every- can be termed Some roNs have been eaten. DISTRIBUTIVE, because they pick out the members of a set singly, rather than Some bread has been eaten. considering them in the mass. They are therefore singular in number. Apart Some (of the rolls) have been eaten. from this difference, each and every as determiners are often equivalent to Some (of the bread) has been eaten. all: In these examples, some as a plural form contrasts with one, which is singular All good teachers study their subject carefully. [l] (cf 6.54fl): 384 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 385

many good ideas. One of the rolls has been eaten. *Some} But as a determiner, some also occurs with singular count nouns, especially temporal nouns : As postdeterminer and substitute pronoun, many can be preceded by the "Some'day, I'll tell you a great secret. ['one'day'] definite article: They've been staying in the village for 'some "time. the many dangers we face With other singular nouns, some is less usual, and has the meaning 'a certain' The quantifier is followed in this construction by a restrictive relative clause; or 'some. . . or other': the quantifier itself, however, has the meaning of a nonrestrictive modifier, Did you see some strange man (or other) looking over the hedge? so that [3] can be paraphrased as [3a]: I hear that some rare animal (or other) has escaped from the zoo. I am well aware of the many dangers (that) we face. PI The addition of or other underlines the indefinite or 'unknown' quality of the 1 am well aware of the dangers we face -and there are many referent. of them. [3al Some offollowed by a singular count noun is used in a partitive sense: These quantifiers are gradable, and can be accompanied by degree adverbs Some of the loaf has been eaten. ['part of the loaf'] such as very, too, so, as, enough. Notice that quite precedes the indefinite article in quite afew ['a considerable number'], but that very follows it in a Note [a] On some as a substitute pronoun, cf 12.17f. veryfew : [b] Orofhercan also be added tocompounds beginning withsome-: It's time you got somebody or other to help you. A :Have you seen (very)many houses for sale? [C] Especially in AmE, some is strongly stressed with a singular count noun in exclamatory sentences such as: Yes, I've seen quite a few. That was "some'meal! ['a very good meal'] (very informal) B: { (BUT NOT: *quite many, *quite several) [d] On unstressed same in comparison with zero article, c/ 5.39f. No, I've seen only a veryfew. There are also comparative and superlative forms as shown in Table 6.53. As Multal and paucal quantifiers . 136 6.53 The multal and paucal group of pronouns, with their matching postdetermi- ners (cf5.23), are antonyms with a similar distribution. Many ['a large Table 6.53 Comparative and superlative forms of multal and paucal quantifiers number'] contrasts with afew ['a small number'], and much ['a large amount'] contrasts with a little ['a small amount']: MULTAL PAUCAL I know {7 } people in Boston. count noncount count noncount ABSOLUTE many much a few a little (aimy friends) were there. ~' A few fewer COMPARATIVE more less (less) I have eaten itooa littlemuch] (of the food). feivest SUPERLATIVE most least Much has,been said about the cost of medicine. (least) Much and, to a lesser extent, many have acquired some nonassertive force (cf10.61 Note [bl), with the result that they are rarely used, at least in informal English, without some negative or interrogative implication. in the case of determiner function (cf 5.24), there are prescriptive objections Sentences like [l] are uncharacteristic of modern idiomatic English, and against the use of less and least with plural nouns. Yet they are widely used there is a preference for open-class quantifiers such as a great deal (of),as in in informal English. Hence alongside fewer changes and Iess noise, the table [la]: allows for the possibility of Iess changes. Examples: There used to be more women than men in the country, We have endured ?:::fit deal, [ but now there are Similarly, rather than [2] with many, informal English shows a preference for less. [?a] withplenty of and a lot of (cf 5.25): Most of us enjoy reading. 386 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 387

The is optionally added to most in the sense 'the greatest number (of)' One. . . another or one. the other is used with reference to more than two: (cf 7.84): another. In this constituency, the Labour Party often polls (the)most votes, and We overtook one car after the Tory Party (the)fewest/least. But this time, the Tories had more I've been busy with one thing or another. success than usual. There is an adverbial use of these correlatives in the construction one + Note [a] We keep aferv and a little distinct fromferv and little, which are dealt with in 6.62. preposition + another [l] or, more usually, preposition + the reciprocal [bl Many, likeferv (cf6.62), has a predicative use ['numerous'] in formal and literary English pronoun one another [la], or one + preposition the other [l b]: (cf 5.23 Notelc]): + His sins were many, and his friends werefirv. one with another. (literary) They talked [C] The absolute forms mony/mucl~and oJiw/a little can precede the comparative forms more, { with one another. /ewer, and less in the comparison of different totals or amounts: She stacked the books one on top of the other. [lbl /' -ny {zr](aPiles) \ We have had this year than last year. On the use of one meaning 'a certain' before a name, eg: one Chorlie Brown, cf 5.63 Note [bl. a few more -. Note &h less (rain) J

One (b) Substitute one 6.55 The substitute pronoun one has the plural ones, and is used as a substitute for (a) Numerical one a count noun, or for an equivalent nominal expression (cf 12.15f): 6.54 One in its numerical sense fits into the list of indefinite pronouns at this point; but it is a versatile word with a number of different functions, which can A : I'm looking for a book on grammar. B : Is this the one you mean? ['the book on grammar'] conveniently be considered together. Three types of pronoun one can be A: Yes, I'd like a drink, but just a small one. ['a small drink'] distinguished morphologically: ..

B: I thought you preferred large ones. ['large drinks'] 137 Substitute one can be easily combined with determiners and modifiers: (a) NUMERICAL ONE (b) sues~rrrneONE (C) GENERIC ONE those ones I like the old one in the kitchen one, one's, onesey However, it is only exceptionally that one immediately follows the indefinite Fig 6.54 Three types of the pronoun one article: a one. One alone is used as a substitute for a/an + noun: I'm having a drink. Would you like one too? ['a drink'] The cardinal; numeral one is, natural& enough, singular and count. It is Note [a] A one as a numeral can occur when one is used as a noun: invariable, but can occur, like other cardinals, either as a determiner or as I couldn't make out whether the number was a seven or a one. ['a number one'] the head of a noun phrase: [b] The indefinite article with one is also heard more widely in casual speech, as in [I], in the sense of exclamatory 'a single one'; and, as in [Z], in coy nonstandard usage in the sense of 'an DETERMINATIVE FUNCTION HEAD FUNCTION amusing person': (the) boy/pen one of the boys/pens I had lots of pencils, and now I haven't got a one! [l1 You are a one! L21 One can be the stressed equivalent of the indefinite article (cf 5.38), and is also the singular equivalent of the indefinite pronoun some in a context like (c) Generic one this : 6.56 Generic one occurs chiefly in the singular and with personal gender. It has the genitive one's and the reflexive oneself(cf 6.23). The meaning of generic I've made some cakes. Would you L~KE{y:~~] (of them)? one is 'people in general', often with particular reference to the speaker, eg: One also occurs in contrast to theother or another in correlative constructions. I like to dress nicely. It gives one confidence. [l] One (or the one). . . rhe other is used with reference to two: The use of generic one is chiefly formal, and is often replaced colloquially by I saw two suspicious-looking men. (The) one went this way, you (cf 6.21): the other that. think they would run a later bus than that! [21 One of his eyes is better than the other. You'd 388 Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 389

In AmE, the coreferential use of one (or genitive one's or reflexive oneself) Others is used in an absolute sense in: is characteristically formal, helhislhimselfbeingpreferred in regular usage: We should be considerate to others. ['other people generally'] One must be careful about one's investments. (esp BrE) his investments.

Several (wf my friends) attended the conference. 138 I have several books on folklore. The genitive of another and other is rare when the reference is general: I've had enough (of your tantrums/misbehaviour). *another's Tom is enough of a sportsman to accept defeat gladly. She has { anotherpersonl} coat. There is enough (of the) water to last several weeks. somebody else's Several is always plural, and indicates a number slightly greater than a few. problems. Enough contrasts with too littleand toofiw (cf 15.73). Asdeterminer, it usually We are not interested in occurs in frontiof the head noun, but can also (rarely) follow it: But with narrower reference: ' enough food There was' to last a whole year. the other's bag. [two people] { food enough } Each looked {the others' bags. [several people] Note Half, normally a iredeterminer, as in haua loo/; hauan hour (65.16). also occurs occasionally Note Other and another tend to occur as the second item in correlative combinations (cJ'6.31, 6.54). as a postdeterminyr: a haNlooL a Ira/Shour. eg: sonrepeople. . . oders, the one . . . theother, each . . . other, o1re. . . other, anotlrcr. Other and another 6-56 Other as apostdeterminer follows the other determiners, including quantifiers and (sometimes) numerals (cf 5.20m: Nonassertive pronouns all the other women that other colour several other trees 6.59 In addition to the compound pronouns anybody, anyone, and anything, there her other sister many other ideas two other letters are two nonassertive of-pronouns any and either. With reference to the distinction (made in 2.53B between assertive and nonassertive forms, we As a pronoun, it can follow the same wide range of determiners; it also occurs can see that there is a parallel between assertive some and nonassertive any: in a plural form others: Assertive : Some people comp!ained, but others were more tolerant. Pam bought some apples. Where are all the others? ['people, books', etc] Nonassertive, interrogative, positive: I have one sock, but I've lost the other (one). Did Pam buy any apples? 390 - Pronouns and numerals Pronouns 391

Nonassertive, interrogative, negative: If someone were to drop a match here, the house would be on fire in Didn't Pam buy any apples? two minutes. Nonassertive, negative: But what if somebody decides to break the rules? Pam didn't buy any apples. W ill somebody please open the door? Besides not, the negative forms whose scope favoirs nonassertive forms Why don't you ask some other question? include for example the following (cf 10.60fl: Note The primary difference between some and any is that some is specific, though unspecified, while (a) Words negative in form: never, no, neither, nor any is nonspecific (c/ 10.60). (b) Words negative in meaning: (i) the adverbs and determiners hardly, little,few, only, seldom, etc (ii) the 'implied negatives' just, before;.fail, prevent; reluctant, hard, Any and either dlficult, etc; and comparisons with too 6.61 Any is distinguished from either in representing a choice between three or Compare the following assertive/nonassertive pairs of sentences: more, while either limits the choice to two; thus either, like both (cf 6.50) and neither (cf 6.62), has dual meaning. This difference obtains whether the Jean will always manage to do something useful. determiner or the pronoun is used: Jean will never manage to do anything useful. any of my relatives haven't written to about the marriage. There was a good chance somebody would come. - I either ofmy parents There was little chance anybody would come. anypait of the roof? John was eager to read some (of the) books. Can see {either end of the tunnel? { was too lazy to read sty (of the) books. Any is also used for plural and noncount phrases: Have you seen any (of the) men working on this site?

Don't spill any ((ofthe)wine). 139 Some and any $cries 6.60 The main 'superficial' markers of nonassertion are negative, interrogative, On concord of verbs and pronouns with any, cf 10.42. and conditional clauses, but it is the underlying or basic meaning of the Any in its stressed form occurs in 'assertive territory' with the meaning 'it whole sentence which ultimately conditions the choice of the some or the any doesn't matter whichlwholwhat'. This is uncommon except (a) where the series (cf 10.61). For example, in sentence [l], the basic meaning is negative clause contains a modal auxiliary (especially will, can, or may), or (b) where and nonassertive, as appears in the paraphrase [la]: the noun phrase introduced by any contains restrictive postmodification fes~eciallva relative clause): Freud contkibuted more than anyone~tothe understanding of dreads. [l] He will eat any kind of vegetables. Nobody contributed as much to the understanding of dreams Any dog might bite a child if teased. as Freud. [W Any offer would be better than this. I advise you to accept any offer you receive. Conversely, some is often used in negative, interrogative, and conditional sentences, wheh the basic meaning is assertive ('positive orientation', The compound pronouns anybody, anyone, and anything are similarly used: cf 11.6): He wiN eat anything. somebody Anyone who tells lies is punished. Did {anybody telephone last night? ] And a parallel use of either, where the hearer is offered a choice between two, The difference between these last two can be explained in terms of different is exemplified in: presuppositions: somebody rather suggests that the speaker expected a You can ask either of us to help you. telephone call, whereas anybody does not. In making an invitation or an Eitherof the other offers would be preferable to this. offer, it is for the same reason polite to presuppose an acceptance: The following sentences illustrate yet another superficially assertive use of Would you likesome wine? any : The following sentences illustrate further the use of the some series in Please return any overdue books to the library. superficially nonassertive contexts: We are grateful for any aid the public can give. 392 Pronouns and numerals Numerals 393

The meaning of any is nonassertive here in that its force is conditional: Numerals 'overdue books, if there are any'; 'aid, if any can be given'. Cardinal and ordinal numerals Note Any and its compounds can be intensified by the postmodifier at all: Numerals have both open-class and closed-class characteristics (~1'2.42). Any offer at all would be better than this. They can function either as determinatives or as heads in the noun phrase. The numeral system of cardinals (one, two, etc) and ordinals (Frst, second, etc) will be clear from Table 6.63 below: Negative pronouns 6.62 Corresponding to the negative determiners no and neither, the negative 0 nought, zero pronouns are the of-pronouns none and neither, and the compound pronouns l one 1st first nobody, no one, and nothing (cf 6.46). In addition,few and little, although not 2 two 2nd second morphologically negative, are negative in meaning and in syntactic 3 three 3rd third behaviour. Examples are: 4 four 4th fourth 5 five 5th fifth I have received no urgent message(s). 6 six 6th sixth 7 seven 7th seventh None (of the students) thashave] failed. 8 eight 8th eighth 9 nine 9th ninth 10 ten 10th tenth I l eleven I lth eleventh That's none of your business! 12 twelve 12th twelfth 13 thirteen 13th thirteenth I said nothing about it. 14 fourteen 14th fourteenth 15 fifteen 15th fifteenth Nobody has sent an apology so far. No one 16 sixteen 16th sixteenth l 140 17 seventeen 17th- seventeenth Neither differs ,from no and none as either differs from any: it is restricted to a 18 eighteen 18th eighteenth set of two people or things, while none applies to three or more entities, and 19 nineteen 19th nineteenth no to any number. 20 twenty 20th twentieth Few and little, as distinct from a few and a little (cf 6.53), are negative 21 twenty-one 21st twenty-first quantifiers corresponding to many and much : 22 twenty-two 22nd twenty-second 23 twenty-three 23rd twenty-third There werefew visitors at the exhibition. ['not many visitors'] 24 twenty-four 24th twenty-fourth Few of the animals will survive the winter. ['not many of the animals'] 25 twenty-five 25th twenty-fifth They have &any supporters, while we have few. 26 twenty-six 26th twenty-sixth There was little enthusiasm for the project. ['not much enthusiasm'] 27 twenty-seven 27th twenty-seventh Little of the original building remains today. ['not much'] 28 twenty-eight 28th twenty-eighth They have plenty of money, but we have comparatively little. 29 twenty-nine 29th twenty-ninth 30 thirty 30th thirtieth Few and little mybe used attributively following the and also predicatively: 40 forty 40th fortieth l What we have is but little. the little money I have left 50 fifty 50th fiftieth 60th sixtieth the few friends he has 60 sixty His faults arefew. 70 seventy 70th seventieth In the attributive construction, few follows a determiner such as the, those, 80 eighty 80th eightieth and what. The predicative construction is rather literary. 90 ninety 90th ninetieth 100 alone hundred 100th (one) hundredth Note [a] On the choice of singular and plural concord with no, neither, none, etc. cf 10.42. 101 alone hundred and one lOlst (one) hundred and first [b] The relation between the negative and the nonassertive forms, eg the equivalenceof I have 102 alone hundred and two 102nd (one) hundred and second noneand Ihaven'tany, is discussed in 10.58. 1,000 alone thousand 1,000th (one) thousandth [c] The negative quantifiersfe~vand little can be intensified by wry, extremely, etc: 1,001 alone thousand (and) one 1,001st (one) thousand and first extremelyfew (visitors) wry little (food) 2,000 two thousand 2,000th two thousandth No, none, and the compound negative pronouns, on the other hand, can be intensified by the 10.000 ten thousand 10,000th ten thousandth postmodifieis at all and what(so)ever (cf also 10.62): none at all, nothing at all, etc: 100,000 alone hundred thousand 100,000th (one) hundred thousandth A: Did she have an excuse for being late? B: Naneat all/wlrat(so)euer. 1,000,000 alone million 1.000,OOOth (one) niillionth 394 Pronouns and numerals Numerals 395

Note [a] One thousond niillion (1,000,000,000) is called one billiotr in the American system of Today is thefourteenth (day) (of July). numeration. In the UK, billion has traditionall; been used for 1,000,000,000,000 (IO"), This is the best (runner) of them all. corresponding to one trillion in the US. However, the American usage where billion = 109 is now often used also in the UK by people who are ignorant of the double meaning of the word. It is Note [a] Unlike the change of -y to -iets) in nouns (cf5.81) and verbs (cf3.10). the change from not used by scientists, engineers, and mathematicians ,according to. the British Standards cardinals ending in -y to ordinals ending in -ie(th), adds a syllable. Compare: Institution, which recommends that the use of billion, together with the equally ambiguous sixty the sixties I's~kstlzl- the sixtieth /'s1kstla8/ trillion (IO1'or 10") and quodrillio~t(10" or 10'8), should be avoided. - [b] Numerals in word-form between 21 and 99 (except the multiples of ten) are hyphenated: [b] The convention for separating the thousands in writing varies. In finance it is still normal to twle~tiy-one,eighty-six, etc (on written fractions, cf 6.67). Small numerals - variously taken as use a comma in the UK, eg: f50,000.However, since the comma is used to indicate the decimal under 20 or under 100 -are usually spelled as words in connected writing. Even large numerals point in most non-English-speakingcountries, the comma is often avoided also in English, as it are spelled out at the beginnings of sentences. would cause confusion. In science and engineering a space is used, eg: 50000, and there are [c] The sign 0 is frequently read as /n~:t/,especially in BrE, where itis spelt nouglit. In AmE zero signs that this practice (which accords with the recommendation of the International /'zrarau/ is more commonly used. In both varieties, zero is normal in scientific contexts and also Organization'for Standardization) is beginning to be accepted for money as well, eg: f3 982. for temperature: It's five degrees below zero. Oh /au/ is most frequent in reading out large sequences such as telephone and house numbers: Extension 5076 'five 011 seven six' (James Bond) 007 'doubleoh seven' 6.64 The typographical distinctions in the table draw attention to the fact that When one is not talking about number values but quantities, there is a wide range of expressions, cardinal numerals for I to 13, and 20,30,50,100,1000, etc are unsystematic, eg: and have to be learned as individual items. Cardinal numerals from 14 to 99 Italy won 4-0. 'four nil', 'four (to) nothing' [football] are largely systematic, since they are formed by adding endings to the other It's Georgiaover Alabama, 7-0. 'seven zip' [AmE sports reporting] numbers. There are two sets of such derivative numerals: 14 to 19 are formed The score is 30-0. 'thirty low'[racket sports] Also expressions with the pronouns no and none are used (cf6.62), eg: by the ending -teen; 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90 are formed by the ending -ty. We had five lectures last week but none this week. Compare the series: There will be two lessons tomorrow but no lesson on Tuesday. [d] Note the following informal ways of indicating approximate numbers: six - six'teen - 'sixty seven seven'teen 'seventy sonre eighty people [some unstressed] - - 8O-oddpeopl~[BUT NOT: :85-0dd people] 1

Note however the spelling shift in: ['about eighty'] 141 four - fouiteen - 'forty 80 or so people agoodeighty people ['at least 80'1 Note also the pionunciation and spelling changes in: An example of approximate time: five /a11 - fifteen /I/ - 'fifty /I/ I'll be there eightish. ['about eight o'clock'] Ordinal numerals for 1 to 3 are unsystematic:first, second, third. The rest are formed by adding -th to the cardinal numerals. (But note the change in five -$$h.) Cardinal numerals ending in -jl change to -ie before -th:

four - fourth fourteen - fourteenth forty - fortieth Hundred, thousand, million five - fifth fifteen - fifteenth fifty - fiftieth 6.65 With hundred, thousand, and million, one has an unstressed variant a (cf5.38): six - sixth, sixteen - sixteenth sixty - sixtieth $100 is read as 'one (or a) hundred dollars' Both cardinaliand ordinal numerals can function like pronouns [l-41 or like postdeterminers [5-61: However, only one can be used after another numeral [l], and usually in the low year dates [2]: Five is an odd number. There are nine (of them). 1, is read as thousand [,y}hundred. [l] I was the tenth on the list. { } She was onlyfive. ['five years old'] 169 BC is read as 'one hundred (and) sixty-nine BC' [2] There are 57 people on board. . He referred to the Fifth Amendment. Since one is a numeral, it can be preceded by a determiner: On the appositive use in numberfive,page nine, etc, cf 17.88 Note. thelalrhat 100 ('one hundred') metre race The ordinals in pronominal use are usually preceded by the definite article Hundred, thousand, and million are used both as numerals, as in [3], and as [7], and thus resemble superlatives with ellipted heads [8]: quantity nouns with plural -S and followed by of (cf 5.89), as in [4] and [5]: 396 Pronouns and numerals Numerals 397

Ten million viewers saw the title fight on TV. PI Hyphens are not used with the indefinite article: thus one-third but a third. Millions (ofpeople) are starving. L41 Note the different read forms for 2 and j in premodification: Hundreds of thousands (ofpeople) are homeless. [S1 a three-quarter majority a two-thirds majority In technical contexts, thousand is sometimes abbreviated k and million m: Compare : That's a job which pays $25k. alone hundredth of a second.. [= h] $25m 'twenty-five million dollars' He won the race by alone two hundredth of a second. [= -&l He got three hundredths of the money. [= h] Dates The point at which integers cease and decimal fractions begin is indicated 6.66 We always read year dates as hundreds: by a period (soinetimes raised above the linein BrE). In decimal fractions, 'nineteen eighty-five' the whole numerals are read out in the usual way ('seventy-one', etc), but the in 1985 'nineteen hundred and eighty-five' (formal) numerals to the right of the decimal point are read out as single digits ('five I*'one thousand nine hundred and eighty-five' three', etc): in the 1600s 'sixteen hundreds' 71.53 'seventy-one point five three' Other examples: l 0.426 {:E:~~~}point four two six' in the 17th century 'seventeenth century' in the 1980s read (but rarely written) as: 'nineteen'eighties' (CS:in the Note South African English follows the practice in most Continental European languages of writing early eighties; a woman in her (early/mid/late)thirties; a girl in her decimal fractions with a comma (and reading it as'comma') instead of a period: earlylmidllate teens) 1.2% 'one comma two per cent* Day and month are usually indicated thus: 7(th) February or February 7(th) read as 'the seventh of February', Mathematical symbols 'February the seventh', also 'February seven', or 'February seventh' 6.68 Small numerals are usually spelled out, as it is not usual to introduce I 142 In date abbreviations, numerals are normally separated by an oblique, or mathematical symbols into ordinary writing; but such symbols as the a period : following are normally flanked only by numerals, not words: = 'equals' + 'plus' - 'minus' X 'times' or 'multiplied by' Both could beused for '7(th) February 1982' (BrE) or 'July 2(nd), 1982' s 'divided by' J 'the (square) root of' (AmE). Numerals in tbbreviations for times of day contain a colon (esp AmE) or Thus: a period (BrE),!as in: \, 6:30 or 6.30 'six-thirty' or 'half past six' would be read as 'seventeen minus the square root of nine, plus sixty-five over five, minus four times three, equals fifteen'. (Mathematical symbols make the relationships unambiguous.) Fractions On concord in expressions like '2 and 2 is/are 4', cf 10.37 Note [e]. 6.67 Vulgar fractioniare written and read thus: 4 'alone half' j 'two-thirds' + 'alone third' 'seven-eighths' Currency statements f 'alone quarter' 33 'three and three-quarters' 6.69 The dollar sign (8) and the pound sign (f) are written before the numeral but 'eight over seventy-six' said after the numeral: ) 'alone fifth' 'eight seventy-sixths' $475 'four hundred (and) seventy-five dollars' Hyphens are often used, particularly in premodification: f7.3m 'seven point three million pounds' a three-quarter mile; three(-)quarters of a mile burths is a less common The abbreviations p, for both singular penny and plural pence (c/5.90), and c, alternative to quarters here] for cent(s), are written solid after the numeral: \ \