NOUNS
A. 'Common nouns'can be countable or uncountable.
a car; three cars (countable) some oil; music (uncountable)
Countable nouns like chair, idea can be used with a/an, and have plurals.
Uncountable nouns like water, intelligence CANT BE used with a/an, and have no plurals.
Some English nouns are uncountable, although they may have countable equivalents in other languages, e.g. ADVISE ( NOT NORMALY an advise )
eg. uncountable nouns ;:. accommodation, equipment, information, luggage, news. countable nouns used like uncountable :: idea , chance, difference, point, reason, difficulty ,question and change can be used with some, any and much, rather like uncountables.
NOTES different meanings/uses Some uncountable nouns can be countable with other meanings.
He lacks experience. I had one or tlvo strange experiences in Rome last year.
And some uncountable abstract nouns can be used with a/an when their reference is defined.
an extensive experience of tropical medicine. a knowledge of languages. making countable nouns uncountable Countable nouns can sometimes be used like uncountables if there is an idea of quantity or mass.
We've got another ten metres of wall to paint. making uncountable nouns countable With many uncountables, we use particular nouns to mean 'a piece of' or 'a certain amount of e.g. a bar of soap, a flash of lightning, a stroke of luck, a grain of rice, a piece of research. For other examples, see dictionary mixed singular and plural
group nouns In British English, singular words for groups of people and organizations. e.g. team, family, choir, government ,bank) are often used with plural verbs and pronouns.
My family are furious with me. They think I have let them down
This happens particularly when we are thinking about personal kinds of activity. Compare:
The team really want to win the cup this season. A rugby union team consists offfteen players. a number of, the majority of etc + plural noun have plural verbs and pronouns.
A number of people have criticised our decision.
The majority of his students are pleased with their courses. plural expressions of quantity are often treated as singular.
Thirty miles is a long way to run.
We often use a/an before adjective + plural expression of quantity.
I waited for a good two hours. We'll need another four tables.
Common fixed expressions with and arc often treated like singular nouns.
Toast and marmalade isn't enough for breakfast, in my opinion
singular noun, plural modifying expression When a singular noun is modified by a plural expression, the verb is normally singular.
A good knowledge of three languages is needed for the job one of; more than one Note these structures: One of my friends is getting married. (Not One of-::.-are . ..) More than one person is/are going to be disappointed. people doing/having the same thing To talk about several people each doing or having the same thing, we normally use a plural noun for the repeated idea. The students can use dictionaries. (more natural than ... a dictionary.) We almost always use plurals after possessives in this case. Tell the kids to blow their noses. (Nor ...their nose:) Six people lost their lives.
NOTES
After one of the ,., who etc singular and plural verbs are both common.
She’s one of the few women who has/have climbed Everest in winter.
After any/none/neither/either of, singular or plural verbs are possible.
None of my friends know(s) where I am. subject and complement If a verb is a long distance from the subject, people sometimes make it agree with a following complement instead of the subject, but this is not generally considered correct. Compare:
The biggest problem is the holiday dates. (Nor . are the..)
The most interesting thing on television last weelg in my own opinion, was/were the tennis championships. (Was is more correct.)
A plural verb is, however, common in structures beginning What.
What we need is/are more people like Jeannie. countries Plural names of countries have singular verbs. The United States is coming out of recession. here's etc In informal speech we often use here's, there\ and where\before a plural noun. Here’s your gloves. There's two policemen outside. Where's those letters?
NOUN + NOUN OR PREPOSITION STRUCTURE
Revise the basics. A noun + noun phrase is often simply like a single noun which happens to have two parts. Common short combinations are often written without a space. Compare: Iight headlight ceiling light cloth washcloth table cloth The first noun is often like an object (of a verb or preposition). It is normally singular, even if it has a plural meaning. a shoe shop = 'a shop that sells shoes' a toothbrush = 'a brush for teeth' a war film = 'a film about war'
Remember: the first noun describes the second, not the other way round. A rqce horse is a kind of horse; a horse race is a kind of race. Chocolate milk is milk; milk chocolate is chocolate. noun + noun + noun ... Three or more nouns can be combined. This is often done in newspaper headlines to save space. business administration course. DRUGS BOSS ARREST DRAMA. measurement expressions We often use noun + noun in expressions of measurement beginning with a number. We put a hyphen (-) between the number and the measure. less common combinations: noun + noun not used The noun + noun structure is mostly used for very common well-known combinations. For less common combinations, we prefer other structures - for example a preposition phrase. Compare: the kitchen table (a common kind of table) a table for the prizes (not a prize table) road signs signs of tiredness (Not tiredness signs) a love letter a letter from the insurance company a history book a book about George Washington
NOTES how much/many We don’t normally use noun + noun in expressions that say how much/many of something we are talking about. a piece of paper a bunch of flowers a blade of grass
Note the difference between a beer bottle, a matchbox etc (containers), and a bottle of beer, a box of matches etc (containers with their contents). noun + noun or possessive structure We don't normally use noun + noun to talk about particular people or organisations and their possessions or actions. Instead we use a possessive structure my father\ house the President’s arrival first noun plural In a few noun + noun combinations, the first noun is plural. antiques dealer sports car drugs problem This is especially the case when the first noun is mainly or only used in the plural, or has a different meaning in the singular. accounts department customs officer clothes shop glasses case savings account arms trade possessive structure or other structures basics: forms Singular possessive nouns end in 's, plural possessives end in s', irregular plural possessives end in 's. my sister's husband my parents' house my children's school
Names ending in -s sometimes have a possessive in s', especially in classical and literary references, but 's is more common.
Sophocles'plays Dickens'novels James'suncle.
A phrase of several words can have a possessive form.
Ioe and Ann's children the man in the downstairs Jlat s dog
Several nouns can be joined by possessives.
Iane's mother's bank manager's daughter belonging characteristics: possessive or preposition structure We use the possessive structure most often to talk about something that belongs to, or is a characteristic of a person, group, organisation, country or animal. The first noun is often like a subject. my boss's car (My boss has a car.) Ann's idea (Ann had an idea.) Mary's kindness (Mary has been kind.) The cat's milk (The cat drinks the milk.) NOTES Time expressions often use possessive structures. yesterday's news last Saturday's match this evening's programmes
Possessives are also possible in expressions saying how long something lasts. a day's journey three weeks'holiday four months' notice at the doctor's etc In some common expressions, the second noun is left out.
I've been at the doctor's (surgery). I'II see you at Pat's (house).
The names of many shops and businesses have this structure, often with no apostrophe.
Smith’s or smiths Harrods Barclays
Instead of a complex possessive we may prefer a preposition structure. the son of the man we met in Borneo RATHERTHAN the man we met in Borneo's son
nouns for activities: using have, make, do etc
1.English often uses nouns to refer to actions. These nouns often have the same form as verbs: for example a swim, a wash, a guess. They are especially common in an informal style, and are often introduced by general-purpose'verbs like have, take, make, give, go for, especially when we are talking about casual or unsystematic activity.
I like to have a swim every day. I'm going to have a wash.
I don't know, but I'lI have/make a guess.
I'll have a think and get back to you. (informal BrE)
Just take a look at yourself. If it won't start, give it a kick 2 Go for is common with nouns for physical activity
Let’s go for a walk. I always go for a long run on Sundays 3 We can use -fug forms in a similar way after do, usually with a determiner like some, any etc
I need to do some tidying. I do a bit of painting in my spare time.
a note on gender: he, she or it? animals Pet animals are usually he/him/his or she/her andwho rather than it/its/which.
Can you fnd the cat and put him out? She had an old dog, Susie, who always slept on her bed. countries In modern English, countries are most often it(s), though she/her is also common.
Canada has decided to increase its/her trade with Russia.
Boats are it(s) for most people, but may be she/her for people who work with them.
I arrived too late for the ferry and missed it. Abandon ship - shei sinking!
Cars and other vehicles are it(s) except for some devoted owners.
The man who sold it to me said it had only done 20,000 miles. Now that I've put the new engine in, she goes like a bomb. positions and jobs In modern usage, people often prefer to avoid specifically masculine or feminine names for positions and jobs.
She has just been elected chair of the committee. (preferred to chairman)
Ann wants to work as a flight attendant. (preferred to air hostess/stewardess)
A poet I like is Wendy Cope. (preferred to poetess) he or she We can use singular they/them/their to avoid clumsy sequences of he or she, him or her etc.
If a would-be tourist wishes to apply for a visa, they should take their passport to the local consulate (Simpler than ... he or she should take his or her passport ...) structures after nouns complements Many nouns, especially abstract nouns, can have complements which complete their meaning. Preposition structures, infinitives and that-clauses are common. your criticism of the plan. a desire for more involvement the need to close our Scottish branch a wish to change a feeling that something was wrong his belief that he is always right
For the prepositions used after particular nouns,
If an infinitive has its own subject, we use a structure with for .
There\ no need for you to stay. They had a plan for me to study medicine.
-ing forms Prepositional complements may include -ing forms. the advantages of being single their pleasure in working together kinds of complement Some nouns can have more than one kind of complement. the need to find investors the need for more investment the reason for the changes no reason to get angry the reason why I Ieft.
But not all nouns can have all kinds of complement. the thought of retiring ( BUT NOT the thought to retire ) preposition + conjunction A preposition may be followed by a conjunction.
We discussed the question of whether there was a needfor more investment.
We had a discussion about how to improve communications.
But prepositions are not followed directly by that-clauses news of his plans news that he was leaving Note that related nouns, verbs and adjectives may have different kinds of complement.
I haye no intention ofresigning. I do not intend to resign. a discussion about finance We discussed finance. emphasis on quality control They emphasised quality control. pride in his work proud of his work
personal pronouns
Revise the basics After be, we normally use object pronouns: me,her etc. I, she etc are possible, but they are very formal and unusual.
'Hello. It's me.' 'Which is your sister?' 'That's her in the blue dress.'
Me, her etc are also normal in informal short answers and similar structures.
'We're goinghome early.' 'Me too.' 'Who said that?' 'Her.'
In a more formal style, we prefer f etc + auxiliary in short answers etc. 'I am too.' / 'So am I.' 'She did.' as, than, except, buf (meaning 'except') The grammar is similar after cs and than.
You're nearly as tired as me. I think I sing better than her.
Less informal: .. . as I am. ... than she does.
And we always use me,her etc after except and but. Everybody was in time except us. I'II go out with anybody but him.
It was me/I that ... After It is/was etc, there are two possibilities.
It's me that's responsible. (informal) It is I who am responsible. (very formal) A more neutral alternative is I am the one who/that is ... double subjects and objects It is usual, and considered more polite, to mention oneself last in a double subject or object.
You and I need to talk. (more normal than I and you .. .) I've got tickets for you and me. (more polite than ... for me and you.) In informal speech, me, her etc are often used in double subjects (especially me). lohn and me saw a great Jilm last night.
I is also used quite often in double objects. Between you and I, I don't think we're getting anywhere.
These uses of l and me etc do not occur in formal writing. Many people feel they are incorrect in speech (especially l in double objects), though they are common in standard usage.
NOTES noun + pronoun In written English and formal speech, one subject is enough: we dont repeat a noun with a pronoun. My parents are retired now. However, structures like this are possible in conversation. identifying Remember that we use it, this or that when we name people. 'Who\ the woman in red?' 'It's Claire Lewis. (on the phone) Hi, this is Mike. Isn't that Dr Andrews?
Adjectives can be used with pronouns in a few fixed expressions. Cleveryou! Luckyyou!
We, us and you can be used before nouns. We women know things that you men will never understand. What's the government doingfor us workers, then?
He who ... etc These structures are unusual in modern English. The person who takes the risk should get the profit.
reflexives (myself etc); each other / one another
Revise the basics Reflexives have two uses:
1. for an object that is the same person or thing as the subject
He talks to himself the whole time. The computer switches itself of after half an hour. 2. for emphasis: to say'that person/thing and nobody/nothing else
I got a letter from the Minister himself. The restaurant itself is beautful, but the food isn't much good' Remember the difference between -selves and each other. They write to each other every week. One another can be used instead of each other. Thete is no important difference
English and other languages Note that some verbs (e.g.shave, hurry) are reflexive in some languages, but not in English unless there is a special reason. Compare:.
After prepositions, we use personal pronouns unless reflexives are really necessary. She always takes her dog with her when she goes out. But He's deeply in love with himself.
NOTES possessives Reflexives have no possessive forms. Instead, we use my own etc. 'Do you need a taxi ?' 'No, thanks, I'Il use my own car.
But each other / one another have possessives. The twins often wear each other's clothes. elegant' reflexives Sometimes reflexives are used instead of personal pronouns simply because people feel they sound good: more eiegant, or important, or polite. This shouldn't be difficult for a clever person like yourself. 'Who's going to be there?' 'Gary, Rosanne and myself Some people feel this usage is incorrect; it is better to avoid it in formal writing.
In itselfis a useful expression for contrasting theory and practice. There's nothing wrong with the ides in itself; it just won't work in our situation. subjects Each other I One another are not normally used as subjects, but this sometimes happens in an informal style.
They listened carefully to what each other said. (More normal: They each listened carefully to what the other said.) get Note the use of get + past participle in some structures which have a reflexive kind of meaning, especially in an informal style. I can get washed, shaved and dressed in five minutes if I'm really in a hurry' They got married in the village church. I always get lost when I go walking in the mountains adjectives and adverbs comparative structures older than more reliable than the biggest most unusual as much as less interesting than the least effective more and more conjunctions, prepositions, adjectives and adverbs as everybody expected like a bird different from the same as so easy such a fool rather poor quite remark able very late too early cool enough a lot not much howfast? adjective or adverb? friendly etc A few words ending in -ly are normally adjectives, not adverbs. Examples: costly, cowardly, deadly, friendly, likely,lively,lonely, lovely, silly, ugly, unlikely.
There are no adverbs friendly/friendlily etc; the ideas have to be expressed differently.
She smiled in a friendly way. or She gave a friendly smile. ( NOT she smiled friendly)
Daily, weekly, monthly, yearly and early canbe both adjectives and adverbs. adjective complements Adjectives are used after link verbs (e.g. be, seem, sound,feel), because they describe the subject rather than an action.
That sounds right (Not that sounfd rightly) I felt angry
This can happen after other verbs, when we describe the subject or object, not the action. Compare: He fell awkwardly and twisted his shoulder. He fell unconscious on the floor. I painted the wall badly. I painted the wall white special cases. Some adjective forms are used informally as adverbs, and some common adverbs have two forms with different uses
He talks real funny. How high can you jump? We think very highly of her. adjectives: order
This is a complicated (and not very important) point. There is a lot of variation in usage; general tendencies are as follows. For fuller information, consult a comprehensive grammar.
Adjectives (and nouns used like adjectives) for colour, origin/place, material and purpose go in that order before nouns. Other words come before these.
OTHER COLOUR ORIGIN/PLACE MATERIAL PURPOSE a big green Italian glass flower cheap brown leather football
Opinions often come before descriptions boring old books a sweet little girl cool new clothes
First, next and last usually come before numbers and few. the first three weeks (MORE Normal THEN /he three frst weeks) the first few miles the next six lessons my last two holidays
Note: And is used with adjectives before a noun if we are talking about difierent parts of something, or if we are saying that something belongs to different categories. a green and black dress a national and international problem
After a noun, and is normal before the last of two or more adjectives. He was like a winter’S day: short, dark and dirty position of adjectives
Most adjectives can go either before a noun or after a link verb like be, seem, look. But some usually only go in one of these places. mainly before nouns elder and eldest, old (= 'having lasted a long time'), little (especially in British English) and live (='not dead'). Compare: . my elder sister is a piIot 'She’s three years older than me. She's a very old friend. (Nor THE same as She's very old. She might be quite young.)
Intensifying (emphasising) adjectives complete, mere, sheer, total etc normally only go before
He is mere child. It was a total failure. mainly after linkverbs afloat, afraid, alight, alike, alive, alone, asleep, awake. Compare: The baby’s asleep. A sleeping baby. She was afraid. A frightened woman.
WeII and ill are most common after link verbs. Compare:
I'm not feeling well. He’s a very healthy man. Her mother's ill. It must be hard to spend your life looking after a sick person.
Complex adjective phrases usually come after nouns, most often in relative clauses. We need people (who are) prepared to travel.
But we can split expressions beginning with diferent, similar, the same, next,Iast, first, second etc, dfficult, easy and comparatives and superlatives' different ideas from yours the next train to arrive an easy problem to solve
NOTES fixed phrases In a few fixed phrases (mostly titles) the adjective follows the noun. Secretary General court martial (= 'military court') Poet Laureate President Elect Attorney General God Almighty! Note also the order in six feet tall, two years old etc; something nice, nothing new etc' participles used as adjectives
When we use –ing forms as adjectives, they are called' present participles We can also use past participles (e.g. closed, broken) as adjectives. (The names 'present' and 'past' participle are misleading; the forms have no particular time reference.)
I imagined that I was a falling leaf. Will you glue this broken chair?
Compound adjectives can be made with participles. We use hlphens (-) before nouns. quick-growing trees home-made cake a recently-built house
Note the word order in these compound adjectives when the participle has an object.
French- speaking Canadians very or (very) much When a past participle is used as an adjective (often to talk about feelings and reactions), we can emphasise it with very. a very frightened animal. She looked very surprised. When the word is part of a passive verb, we prefer much or very much.
He's much imitated by other writers. Britain’s trade position has been very much weakened by inflation.
The difference between the two structures is not always clear, and it is often necessary to consult a good dictionary to see how particular past participles are used.
NOTES the problems discussed etc Not all past participles can be used as adjectives. But note the common use of a past participle after a noun.
I didn't understand the problems discussed. The people questioned were all released, active past participles Past participles used as adjectives normally have a passive meaning. A broken chair is a chair that has been broken. But there are some exceptions - for example, an escaped prisoner is a prisoner who has escaped, Other exceptions: a retired general/teacher etc a fallen leaf/tree etc a vanished civilisation etc a collapsed building/lung etc developed countries etc advanced students etc a grown-up son etc faded colours etc increased activity etc swollen ankles etc
Some active past participles are only used in compounds, or after be. Examples the recently-arrived train a well-read woman a much-travelled man Where are you camped? Those days are gone. short-haired etc-ed can also be added to nouns to make compound adjectives like short-haired, long-sighted. adjectives without nouns well-known social groups We can use the + adjective to talk in general about some commonly recognised groups of people. the young the old the rich the poor the sick the disabled the blind the deaf the mentally ill the homeless the unemployed the dead
These expressions are plural the blind means 'blind people in general'. Compare:
Perhaps the deaf have more problems in mainstream education than the blind. Some blind people have guide dogs I read to the blind woman upstairs most evenings. I was at school with a blind boy.
The expressions don't have possessives
In the country of the blind, the one-eyed man is king.
We can't use all adjectives like this: we don’t say the selfish or the mean,. The structure is also used with nationality words ending in -ch, -sh and - ese. The Irish have a great musical tradition. but The Brazilians speak Portuguese.
Note: A very few singular adjectives are used without nouns to talk about individuals. The body of the deceased (= 'the dead person') was found in the river' The accused refused to answer questions. Smith and jewell jointly received the prize, though in fact the former did the majority of the work and the latter contributed very little. structures after adjectives complements Many adjectives can have complements which complete their meaning. Preposition structures, infinitives and that-clauses are common. critical of the plan. anxious to succeed sure that she was right -ing forms Prepositional complements may include -ing forms. angry about having to stop kinds of complement Some adjectives can have more than one kind of complement. happy about the decision happy to be home proud of being Scottish proud to know you ready for breakfast ready to stop
Too and enough + adjective often have infinitive complements.
He’s too old to change. Andy’s not good enough to play in goal.
If an infinitive has its own subject, we use a structure with for
I'm ready for Mr Ellis to give me his report. This is too heavy for one person to lift. adverb position (1)
Adverb position depends on the tlpe of adverb, and some adverbs can go in more than one position.Usage in this area is complicated; general tendencies are as follows. For fuller information, consult a comprehensive reference grammar or usage guide.
Connecting adverbs and comment adverbs usually come at the beginning of a clause. Connecting adverbs join a clause to what came before; comment adverbs give the speaker's opinion. Then they went home. Next, we need to look at costs. However, lames disagreed. Stupidly, I forgot to thank Maggie. Fortunately nobody noticed the mistake.
Maybe and perhaps also usually come at the beginning. Maybe you're right. Perhaps we should think again.
Focusing (emphasising) adverbs most often go with the verb if they emphasise words later in the sentence. They're even open today. I've only been here a month. But they can also go before the words that they emphasise. They're open even today. I've been here only a month.
Expressions that say how, where and when most often go at the end; usually in that order. They played brilliantly in Coventry on Saturday. Pam works in London on Wednesdays
We do not normally put these adverbs between a verb and its object. You speak japanese very well. Let's discuss the budget now.
NOTES
Adverbs of place and time can go at the beginning for emphasis. In Germany they do things quite diferently. On Monday I'll be back home.
After verbs of movement, we often put an expression of place first. They went outsiile slowly. adverb position (2): with the verb
Adverbs that go in mid-position, with the verb, mostly express indefinite frequency (e.g. always, often), certainty (e.g. definitely, probably) or completeness (e.g. partly, completely). Their exact position is usually:
- before one-word verbs - after the first auxiliary in more complex verbs - after am, are, is, was and were even if these are not auxiliaries.
I completely forgot to phone Maggie. Annie has ilefinitely decided to leave. They should never have been invited. John is usually at home in the evenings. withnot Adverbs can come before or after not, depending on the meaning. Compare: I don't really like her. (mild dislike) I really don't like her. (strong dislike) She does not always welcome visitors. He’s probably not at home. emphatic position These adverbs can often be put earlier when verbs are emphasised. He has certainly forgotten. (normal) He certainly HAS forgotten (emphatic)
NOTES other positions Some adverbs of indefinite frequency can also go at the beginning of sentences (e.g. often, occasionally, sometimes).
Sometimes I wonder what it! all about. Occasionally we have a weekend at home. This is not possible with always and never except in imperatives. He always forgets. Adverbs never normally separate the verb from the object. We ofien speak Spanish at home. companson: as ... as adverbs with as .. . as We can use various adverbial expressions before as . .. as and not as/so . . . as. just as happy nearly as big not nearly as/so intelligent not quite as/so cheap nothing like as/so interesting every bit as good almost as bad almost exactly as cold half as wide twice as long three times as heavy dropping as The first as is sometimes dropped, especially in a poetic style. When thus he had spoken, the hot sun was setting, The streets of Laredo grew cold as the clay. (American folk song)
NOTES
As much/many as can suggest a large amount or number. His paintings can sell for as much as half a million dollars. There are as many as 50 students in some of the classes. Not so much as can be used when we say what is the real point. It was not sa much his appearance that I liked as his personality. Not so much as can also be used critically in the sense of 'not even'. She didn't so much as say 'Thank you'. infinitives When we use as . .. as with infinitives, we sometimes drop fo from the second. It’s as easy to do it now as (to) Ieave it tiII tomorrow.
-er and -esf or more and most?
Two-syllable adjectives ending in -y have comparatives and superlatives in -ier, est. happy - happier - happiest easy - easier – easiest
Some others can also have -er and -esf, especially those ending with unstressed syllables. narrow - narrower - narrowest simple - simpler - simplest clever - cleverer - cleverest quiet - quieter – quietest
With adjectives ending in -ing, -ful, -ed and -/ess, and some others, the structure wilh more and most is the usual or only possibility. tiring - more tiring - most tiring hopeful - more hopeful - most hopful
To find the normal forms for a particular two-syllable adjective, check in a good dictionary. longer adjectives with -er, -esf Common adjectives llke unhappy, untidy (the opposites of two-syllable adjectives ending in -7) can have forms in -er, -est. She\ looking unhappier / more unhappy. He\ the untidiest / most untidy child!
Some compound adjectives can also have two forms. more good-Iooking or better-Iooking most well-known OR best-known
Note:
One-syllable adjectives sometimes have more ard most: for example, when a comparative is not followed directly by than. The road's getting steadily steeper / more steep. And when we say that one description is more accurate than another, we use more. It’s more red than orange. Most is sometimes used in a formal style with long or short adjectives to mean 'veryl That's most kind of you.
Real, right, wrong and like always have more and most. You couldn't be more fight He’s more like his mother than his father.
Comparative adverbs normally have more and most, except for one-syllable adverbs like fast, soon, and early. more slowly but faster, sooner, earlier double comparative structures more and more We can use double comparatives to say that something is changing. It's getting darker and darker. She drove more and more slowly the ... the We use this structure with comparatives to say that things change or vary together. Note the word order (in both halves): the + comparative + subject + verb. The older I get, the happier I am. The more dangerous it is, the more I like it. The more money he makes, the more he spends. The more I study, the less I learn.
In longer sentences, that is sometimes put before the first verb. The more information that comes in, the more confused the picture is. more about comparatives the cleverer students We sometimes use comparatives to mean 'relativelyl 'more than the average Comparatives make a less clear and narrow selection than superlatives. Compare: We've started a special class for the cleverer students. The cleverest students are two girls from York. This use is common in advertising to make things sound less definite or more subtle. Less expensive clothes for the fuller figure. (nicer than 'cheap clothes for fat people') the faster of the two When a group has only two members, we sometimes use a comparative with a superlative meaning. Both cars perform well, but the XG2SL is the faster of the two. Some people feel that a superlative is incorrect in this case.
Note: all the etc with comparatives In some fixed expressions, all the + comparative means 'even more because of that 'We can stay an extra three days.' 'All the better.' 'Susie isn't eating this evening.' 'Good. All the more for us.' Any the, none the and so much the are used in similar ways. I listened to every thing he said, but ended up none the wiser. 'Jake doesn't want to go on holiday with us.' 'So much the worse for him.'
more about superlatives superlatives without the We sometimes drop the when superlative adjectives and determiners are used without nouns, and before superlative adverbs. Which of you three is (the) strongest? The person who eats (the) fastest gets (the) most.
And we dont use the when we are contrasting somebody or something with him/her/itself in other situations. Compare: He’s the nicest of my three uncles. He's nicest when he's had a few drinks. ) England is most beautiful in spring.
Note the use of infinitives after superlatives. the youngest person to climb Everest the first man to run a mile in four minutes much, far etc with comparatives and superlatives
To say how much better, older, bigger, more etc, we can use for example much, far, very much, any, no, rather, a little, even, a bit (informal), a lot (informal), lots, (informal). jamie is much/far older than me. Greek is very much more difficult than Spanish. We'll need rather more money than that. Can you speak a bit more slowly? Today’s even hotter than yesterday. This car uses a lot less petrol than the old one. Is your mother any better? I'll be no longer than five minutes. We've had far fewer accidents since they lowered the speed limit.
Before a plural noun, we use many more, not much more. You'Il have many more opportunities in the future.
Before superlatives, we can use for example much, by far, quite (meaning 'absolutely'), almost, practically, nearly and easily.
This is much the most expensive of them all. She’s by far the youngest. He\ quite the most stupid man I've ever met l'm nearly the oldest in the firm. This is easily the worst film I've seen in my life . Note also very + superlative. Their house is the very nicest in the street. 300g of your very best butter, please. much in affirmative sentences?
much as quantifier Much can be a quantifier before a noun . In this case, much is unusual in affirmative sentences except in a formal style. Compare: We haven't had much rain recently . Do you get much junk mail? Much time has been spent discussing these questions. (formal) but We've got a lot of milk to use up.
However, much is normal in affirmative sentences after so, too and as. She's caused so much trouble. Those kids get too much money. You can take as much as you want. much as adverb As an adverb, much is also unusual in affirmative sentences. Compare: I didn't enjoy the film much. How much do you worry about the future? We walked a lot when we were on holiday.
However, very much is common in affirmative sentences, particularly when expressing personal reactions. I very much like your new hairstyle. You've helped us very much. Thank you very much.
Note that very much never normally separates the verb from the object. We very much appreciate your help. or We appreciate your help very much.
Before comparatives and superlatives, much is normal in affirmative sentences. I'm feeling much better today. This is much the worst book I've read all year. such and so
Such is used before (adjective +) noun. A/An comes after such. such an idiot such a long way such good food such boring lectures
So is used before an adjective alone, an adverb or a quantifier. They're so stupid. I'm glad you're doing so well. She's got so many shoes!
We cant put such or so after a determiner. We stayed in their house, which is so beautiful. so long a wait etc In a formal style, we can use so before adjective + a/an + noun. I was not expecting so long a wait. (Less formal: . .. such a long wait.) The same structure is possible with as, too and how. They gave us as nice a time as they could. It was too difficult a question' How big a budget does your department need? This structure is only possible with noun phrases beginning a/an. (NOT so perfect performance or too cold soup OR how regular support) like and as similarity: like or as We can use both words to say that things are similar. Like is a preposition, used before a noun or pronoun. The whole experience was like a dream. They're not like us. As is a conjunction, used before subject + verb or a prepositional expression.
They left as they came, without a word. ln Britain, as in many countries, ...
Note the common expressions as I said, as you know, as you see, as usual, as before. In informal speech (but less often in writing), many people use like as a conjunction. Nobody knows him like I do. Like I said, everything\ OK.
Also in informal speech, like is now commonly used to mean 'as if. She was eating fudge like her life depended on it. jobs and functions: as We use as, not like, to talk about jobs, functions and roles. I'm working as a driver. (Nor ... like a drive) Don't use your plate as an ashtray. Compare: As your boss, I must congratulate you. (I am your boss.) Like your boss, I must congratulate you. (We both congratulate you.)
thank you guys channel; on telegram t.me/sanctum_english facebook: https://www.facebook.com/sanctumenglish you also visit us https://www.governmentadda.com www.sanctumenglish.in 10. Identifying, nurturing and (a)/ developing an employee’s talent is (b)/ among the most Day 1 important task (c)/ of Human Resource Development department. (d)/ NE Error Spotting 1. Noun, 11. All this financial institution (a)/ should be 2. Pronoun, registered with (b)/ Reserve Bank of India to 3. Adjective, make sure (c)/ that they function properly. 4. Adverb (d)/ NE
Find out the error in each of the following 12. Each business activities (a)/ provides sentences, if any, if there is no error ,your employment (b)/ to people who would (c)/ answer is no error. otherwise be unemployed. (d)/ NE
1. You know it well that your success in life 13. After a complaint was filed, (a)/ police teams depends not on my advice but on somebody was given the photograph (b)/ of the else. No error. accused from the CCTV footage (c)/ recorded at the hotel. (d)/ NE 2. The life of the rich is not in many ways as peaceful as that of the poor’s. No error. 14. The government has signed (a)/ a memorandum of understanding with (b)/ 3. The teacher said to us that one ought to the company to set up (c)/ a plant in the work hard in order to attain one goal. No state. (d)/ NE error. 15. In the forthcoming elections (a)/ every man and woman (b)/ must vote for the candidate 4. He did not know even the name of scientist (c)/ of their choice. (d)/ No error (e) who discovered the laws of the earth gravitational force. No error. 16. If you absent from (a)/ college your name likely (b)/ to be struck off the rolls. (c)/ No error 5. It is very (a) / difficult to chase (b) / a huge score (c) / in the second inning (d) / No 17. One should make (a)/ his best efforts if (b)/ error (e). one wishes to achieve (c)/ success in this organisation. (d)/ No error (e)
6. In spite of having received (a)/ all the 18. The principal decided to (a)/ sanction any necessary data (b)/ he did not take any money (b)/ that was required for (c)/ decision (c)/ because of extraneous reasons. completing the project (d)/ No error (e)/ (d)/ NE 19. The working capacity of a man (a)/ can be 7. The neglect of women (a)/ costs the world measured with its potentiality (b)/ and (b)/ a great deal both in (c)/ economic and attitude at the same time, (c)/ we cannot in social terms. (d)/ NE ignore the importance of age. (d)/ No error (e) 8. The success of the project (a)/ depends on how (b)/ much efforts each (c)/ team 20. As compared with (a)/ last year, the member puts in. (d)/ No Error production (b)/ of this factory (c)/ is not satisfactory. (d)/ No error (e) 9. On a number of occasions, (a)/ we had noticed that (b)/ those two employees (c)/ 21. In a democratic society each (a)/ voter has a were often in a state of confused. (d)/ No (b)/ responsibility to cast their vote (c)/ in Error the election process. (d)/ No error (e)
9982019963 Gopal pura, Jaipur Page 1 of 5 www.sanctumenglish.in 22. All the parties (a)/ whose Presidents were 34. Whenever you speak (a)/ take care that (b)/ asked to resign (b)/ were involved in (c)/ other are not hurt (c)/ by your words. (d)/ anti-national activities. (d)/ No error (e) No error (e)
23. Whenever is the matter (a)/ I shall do this 35. He has in (a)/ his possession a (b)/ price work, (b)/ because I have to expose (c)/ my collection of very old coins (c)/ and some working capacity at any cost. (d)/ No error ancient paintings. (d)/ No error. (e) (e) 36. All renew licences may (a)/ be collected from (b)/ the cashier’s counter after (c)/ paying 24. We think education, health (a)/ experience the fees. (d)/ No error and those sorts of things (b)/ are generally 37. All said and done (a)/ it is the basic values the main benefits for (c)/ modern tour and that (b)/ are most importance and (c)/ help travel. (d)/ No error (e) you in the long run. (d)/ No error (e)/ 38. We have been trying (a)/ to eradicate 25. After toiling very hard over a long (a)/ period poverty (b)/ but our efforts have got (c)/ project, my friend found (b)/ he had hardly only limit success. (d)/ No error (e) made (c)/ no profit at all. (d)/ No error (e) 39. No station on (a)/ this sector of the railway (b)/ is as modern and clean (c)/ as this 26. One of his greatest contributions (a)/ to station is. (d)/ No error (e) social reform (b)/ was their movement for 40. After he had read the two first chapters (a)/ (c)/ eradication of child marriages. (d)/ No of the novel (b)/ he felt like reading (c)/ the error (e) novel at one sitting. (d)/ No error 41. Although he is my bosom friend, (a)/ I 27. India began (a)/ his nuclear energy (b)/ cannot ask him for (b)/ money without any programme during (c)/ the late fifties (d)/ (c)/ vividly reason. (d)/ No error No error 42. The girl sang (a)/ few songs (b)/ to entertain the guests (c)/ but the guests were not 28. Meetings were held with unions (a)/ to pleased. (d)/ No error tackle indiscipline, (b)/ and with customers 43. He realised that (a)/ he had committed a (d)/ to understand its needs. (d)/ No error mistake (b)/ in accepting a packet (c)/ from (e) an unidentify person. (d)/ No error 44. The pirated (a)/ technology has not only 29. These firms which (a)/ are the main (b)/ created (b)/ strategic dangers but also suppliers of electronic (c)/ components in damaged (c)/ economy interests. (d)/ No India. (d)/ No error (e) error 45. Louis Armstrong was (a)/ one of the most 30. Senior citizens prefer (a)/ banks which (b)/ influence (b)/ and believed (c)/ of all jazz branches are located (c)/ near their homes. artists. (d)/ No error (d)/ No error (e) 46. The famous orator President Roosevelt (a)/ was in power (b)/ longest than (c)/ anybody 31. These companies have been asked (a)/ to else. (d)/ No error furnish their financial details (b)/ and 47. I am absolute confident (a)/ that we are information about (c)/ it board members. going (b)/ to move forward (c)/ strongly. (d)/ (d)/ No error NE 48. Your machine would not have (a)/ given you 32. Road developers unable to (a)/ finish their so much trouble (b)/ if you had (c)/ projects (b)/ on time will not be (c)/ maintained it proper. (d)/ NE awarded new ones. (d)/ No error (e) 49. I wrote yesterday a letter (a)/ with the view to (b)/ reminding her of her (c)/ selection in 33. Each one of (a)/ us goes to (b)/ purchase our team. (d)/ NE items for (c)/ our own use. (d)/ No error (e) 50. You will fail (a)/ in the examination (b)/ unless you (c)/ work hardly. (d)/ NE
9982019963 Gopal pura, Jaipur Page 2 of 5 www.sanctumenglish.in Police Team = Singular noun Answers & Explanations 14. No Error
1. But on somebody else’s 15. D. Of his choice Success depends on somebody. Every + Singular pronoun No !! It depends on somebody else’s advice. 16. If you absent yourself We don’t use advice two times, if it’s already After verbs like absent, enjoy, avail, used earlier. introduce, express, hurt, blame, sacrifice – if the sentence doesn’t contain a direct 2. In Degrees. There are three ways to use object, we will use reflexive pronoun that is possession the self pattern of the given noun. a. ‘s b. of structure for non living c. that of 17. One should make one’s here the writer has already used “that of” Remember structure. Remove ‘s from poor. One – one’s One of them – his/her 3. possessive pronoun of one is one’s Answer is – to attain one’s goal 18. B. Sanction some money And two points to remember with one In positive sentences – some a. one – one’s In negative sentences – any b. one of them – his/her 19. B. With his potentiality 4. Earth’s gravitational force The antecedent is man. So pronoun will be singular. Here we must show relation. Possession will be used. 20. B. As Compared with that of last year
5. In the second innings Here we’ll need possession. The word innings is always used in plural. Other such words are Last year’s production - Series - Species We don’t use ‘s with last year.
6. No Error So That of last year. 7. No Error Because here We’re comparing production of this year 8. How much effort with last year. Effort is used as abstract noun here. So remove the s. 21. C. His vote 9. In a state of confusion Correct noun is confusion Antecedent is Each voter For Each, we’ll use singular pronoun 10. C. most important tasks
11. All these financial institutions 22. No Error
All + Plural Noun 23. A. Whatever is the matter Uses of relative pronoun 12. Each business activity What – describe When – time Each + Singular Noun Where – place Which – selection & Choice 13. Police teams were Here we are describing the matter. So what Police teams + Plural verb will be used. Police = Plural Noun
9982019963 Gopal pura, Jaipur Page 3 of 5 www.sanctumenglish.in 33. D. His own use 24. B. These sort of things Antecedent is Each one Use of those is wrong here So singular pronoun These – closeness 34. C. Others Those – distance Others = noun 25. D. Any profit at all Other = adjective Positive sentence – some Negative sentence – any So noun is needed and others will be used Hardly is a negative word. So sentence is negative. 35. C. Precious collection
Other negative words Precious is right adjective Scarcely, barely, merely, rarely Few, little, very few, very little 36. A. All renewed licenses 26. C. His movement Renew = verb Antecedent = one of To make it adjective One of = his/her Use present participle – ing form Or 27. B. Its Past participle – 3rd form India – its/her Past participle is appropriate here
28. D. Their needs 37. C. Most important Adjective needed. Noun is given. Antecedent is customers Change the Noun into adjective form Customers is plural Noun = importance And for plural – their Adjective = important
29. A. Remove which 38. D. Limited success
Read the sentence without which and you’ll Past participle as adjective understand that there is no need of a relative pronoun here. Remember 3rd form and ing form of a verb can be used 30. B. Whose Branches as an adjective and These forms are called participles Possessive case will be used. And remember how the three forms of who 39. A. No other station are used. When we compare then this is the right Who = he structure. Whom – him Whose – his 40. A. First two chapters
Or Remember Structure = cardinal + ordinal + Noun Of which branches is also possible Examples 31. D. Their Board Members - First three players - Last five boys Antecedent is companies 41. D. Vivid reason So plural pronoun Adjective + Noun Adverb + Adjective + Noun 32. A. Road developers who are unable Here first structure is used Read the sentence well and you will realize that there should be a relative pronoun Vividly = adverb, vivid = adjective
9982019963 Gopal pura, Jaipur Page 4 of 5 www.sanctumenglish.in 42. B. A few songs
She sang some songs so there was something for the audience to dislike. A few = positive, very small in number Few = negative The few = fixed number Very few = negative
43. D. Unidentified person
Adjective + noun Past participle + Noun
44. D. Economic interests
Economy = noun Economic = adjective
Remember From economy, we can make two adjective 1. economic = related to economy 2. economical = to spend less, frugal Make sure you use the right adjective. Here in this sentence, it’s related to economy. So economic is right adjective
45. B. Influenced and believed
Past participle as adjective
46. C. Longer than
Comparative degree
47. A. Absolutely confident
Confident = adjective Adverb + adjective Absolutely = adverb
48. D. Properly
Here the adverb is modifying the verb maintaining. To modify a verb we use adverb. Proper is adjective. Properly is adverb.
49. A. I wrote a letter yesterday.
Correct position of the adverb. Yesterday will be used in the end.
50. D. Work Hard
Hard is the right adverb Hardly = unlikely 9982019963 Gopal pura, Jaipur Page 5 of 5