Stratégies De Défense, De Conquête Ou De Victoire En Méditerranée

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Stratégies De Défense, De Conquête Ou De Victoire En Méditerranée STRATEGIES DE DEFENSE, DE CONQUETE OU DE VICTOIRE EN MEDITERRANEE DES TEXTES AUX ARCHITECTURES ET A L’AMENAGEMENT sous la direction d’Agnès Charpentier et de Michel Terrasse Tlemcen - 2011 A la mémoire de Léon Pressouyre et de Georges Tate Introduction La Méditerranée a marqué l’histoire en s’affirmant comme l’espace commun aux trois continents qui lui sont riverains : l’Afrique, l’Asie et l’Europe. Il s’est ainsi constitué autour du mare nostrum une aire de symbiose et d’affrontements qui ont généré échanges de culture mais aussi stratégies de défense, de conquête ou de victoire : les fortifications et les ensembles qu’elles enserrent appa- raissent à la fois comme les signes de rivalités en fin de compte fruc- tueuses et d’échanges techniques paradoxaux qu’elles contribuent à générer. Ce volume riche de quatorze contributions a choisi d’aborder l’analyse du phénomène en diachronie, des origines de la fortification aux défenses de l’âge moderne. Cette perspective est par elle même innovante. C’est sans doute au Moyen et au Proche-Orient anciens que nous parvenons à saisir les prodromes d’une architecture militaire et les formes urbanistiques naissantes que l’Asie lèguera au monde mé- diterranéen avec, par exemple, le cas de Mari, aujourd’hui en Syrie mais proche de l’Irak et ainsi mésopotamienne. Deux images des mil- lénaires les plus anciens traitent de cette première étape. Le second volet de ce livre aborde l’Antiquité tardive et l’apport de Byzance et des terres riveraines de la Méditerranée orien- tale au développement des formules médiévales. Il faut en effet souli- gner que nulle solution de continuité n’est décelable, par exemple de Byzance à l’Islam en Orient – ou des héritiers du monde latin à leurs successeurs musulmans en Occident – même si des évolutions et de régionalismes doivent être analysés ce que tentent de réaliser quatre enquêtes menées du règnes de l’empereur Justinien aux siècles du califat d’Occident. STRATEGIES DE DEFENSE ET DE VICTOIRE EN MEDITERRANEE Ce livre aborde aussi l’époque de la grande mutation qui fut celle de la réaction sunnite contre le chiisme et des affrontements qui entraînèrent une évolution très innovante de l’architecture — de la fortification en particulier — en Syrie comme dans le monde ibéro- maghrébin. On sent que du domaine qui fut celui des Saldjuqides et des Ayyoubides à celui des Almoravides et des Almohades, questions internes et âge du jihad et des croisades confrontés ont entraîné la recherche de stratégies renouvelées mais aussi le développement d’étonnantes symbioses. Le quatrième volet est consacré au bas Moyen Age. De nou- veaux modes d’occupation de l’espace, des ressorts inédits d’une forti- fication qui hésite entre essoufflement et renouveau, la part d’exigences esthétiques croissantes font de cette époque, mieux qu’un âge de transition, l’écho des derniers siècles de symbiose entre Sud et Nord comme entre Orient et Occident qui, au fond, continuent de par- tager la même histoire. Il n’en va pas de même à l’âge moderne où la conquête otto- mane tend à imposer de nouvelles formes à l’Occident islamisé tandis que le Maghreb extrême résiste et que la Péninsule ibérique ou la Si- cile affirment désormais leur appartenance à l’Europe chrétienne. Le dernier volet d cette étude a tenté d’illustrer les deux courants opposés perceptibles en Afrique septentrionale de Tunis aux pays du Sous. En faisant appel aux maîtres de la spécialité et à des cher- cheurs confirmés comme aux études de jeunes chercheurs qui livrent ici les résultats inédits de leurs premiers travaux, ce livre, nous l’espérons suscitera chez ses lecteurs le goût d’une Méditerranée dont leurs études pourraient enrichir l’avenir. Noureddine Ghouali Michel Terrasse Nous remercions très vivement le Professeur Philippe Conta- mine, de l’Institut, et Madame Christiane Villain-Gandossi, directeur de recherche au CNRS. pour la part qu’ils ont prise à la reflexion dont est issu ce livre. Nous tenons aussi à exprimer toute notre grati- tude à Madame Agnès Charpentier dont la culture et le dévouement ont permis que cet ouvrage soit réalisé. 10 AUX ORIGINES DE L’ARCHITECTURE MILITAIRE EN MESOPOTAMIE* Jean-Claude MARGUERON Ce sujet, très peu exploré à ce jour1, m’a semblé tout naturel- lement s’imposer lorsque j’ai appris le thème de ce colloque auquel on m’a demandé de prendre part. Mais je n’imaginais pas que la guerre allait se déchaîner une fois de plus dans le pays où, depuis un siècle et demi, l’archéologie tente de déchiffrer ses premières manifestations. Aussi, si je désire traiter aujourd’hui le sujet, c’est uniquement parce que diverses découvertes récentes m’ont engagé dans une réflexion qui a autant cherché à évaluer la nature de l’apport de l’archéologie * Mes remerciements vont à Pascal Butterlin pour les féconds échanges de vues que nous avons eus sur cette question et pour les informations qu’il m’a données. 1 Bien entendu des études ont été consacrées à l’art de la guerre (par exemple Y. Yadin, The art of Warfare in Biblical Lands, 1963, déjà ancien mais non remplacé) ; à l’occasion des pages sont consacrées à l’architecture militaire dans des volumes ency- clopédiques (ainsi A. Mazar « The Fortification of Cities in the Ancien Near East » p. 1523-1537 -avec bibliographie- in Civilizations of the Ancient Near-East, J. M. Sas- son (Ed. in chief), 4 vol., New York, Scribner 1995) ou dans des monographies por- tant sur l’architecture (ainsi l’excellent et toujours valable R. Naumann, Architektur Kleinasiens, Wasmuth, Tubingen 1971 ou The Architecture of Ancient Israel, A. Kempiski et R. Reich ed., Israel Exploration Society, Jerusalem, 1992). Des re- cherches ont parfois porté sur des points précis : Z. Herzog, Das Stadttor in Israel und den Nachbarländern, Ph. von Zabern, 1986 ; à noter que les études les plus nom- breuses portent sur Israël et que je ne peux les mentionner toutes ici. Mais aucune analyse approfondie ne me semble avoir été consacrée à une approche globale de l’architecture militaire orientale. STRATEGIES DE DEFENSE ET DE VICTOIRE EN MEDITERRANEE qu’à définir quelques-unes des caractéristiques des systèmes défensifs mis en place lors de la naissance des premières villes. Tout d’abord, concernant la guerre, l’archéologie ne peut nous transmettre, selon sa vocation profonde, que des traces matérielles de certaines des activités qui lui sont liées. On peut découvrir des armes hors de tout contexte guerrier – dans une maison, dans une tombe…-, parfois dans une réserve de type arsenal ou dans un système fortifié ; on peut retrouver aussi des bâtiments manifestement fortifiés –château forts, fortins, remparts de cités ; enfin, mais beaucoup plus rarement, on peut remettre au jour les restes d’un combat2. Certes, tout cela n’est pas négligeable et pourra même paraître à d’aucuns comme des sources riches d’enseignements ; de fait l’armement ou les remparts peuvent conduire à une interprétation des modes de combat ou des techniques de la guerre en usage à un certain moment. Mais le plus souvent, stratégies et tactiques, ruses et méthodes, moyens et objectifs ne sont accessibles à la connaissance que par l’écrit ; l’obstacle est donc de taille pour tout ce qui s’est passé avant la moitié du IIIe millé- naire et même longtemps après… Un autre aspect, à ne pas négliger dans une telle enquête, vient de ce que la matière a plus de facilité à enregistrer les aspects défen- sifs que le côté offensif de l’art de la guerre. Parce que l’on élève une palissade ou une muraille, que l’on creuse un fossé ou des tranchées, que l’on édifie des fortins ou des châteaux forts, on modèle la matière à ces systèmes : on lui donne une forme comme le potier modèle l’argile pour faire un pot. On prend le sol comme point de départ des aménagements et la trace de l’action subsiste : la pensée s’est alors imprimée dans la matière. Mais comment l’offensive qui est, par na- ture, mobilité et déplacement pourrait-elle faire de même ? Seule l’issue, heureuse ou malheureuse, d’une offensive peut laisser des traces sous la forme de destructions. Notons que l’époque moderne montre aussi qu’à côté du maintien, mais généralement à petite échelle et de façon ponctuelle, de systèmes défensifs matériels (chevaux de frise, fossés antichars et même le simple mur traditionnel…), les 2 On songe par exemple aux soldats romains et parthes gisant sous l’effondrement d’une tour sapée du rempart de Dura-Europos ou encore aux soldats retrouvés au pied des remparts de Ninive. 12 AUX ORIGINES DE L’ARCHITECTURE MILITAIRE EN MESOPOTAMIE vraies stratégies défensives ne trouvent plus de matérialisation sur le terrain puisqu’elles s’appuient sur des systèmes balistiques. L’archéologue du futur (s’il devait exister) sera bien dému- ni… mais celui du présent, pour sa part, ne peut guère avoir l’espoir de traiter la guerre dans sa globalité : il peut seulement envisager d’approfondir certains de ses aspects. Enfin, lorsque nous voulons, nous archéologues des périodes non historiques, définir un système défensif du passé, nous devons tenir compte de certaines traits implicites qui, de ce fait, ne s’imposent pas à la première lecture et limitent notre approche. D’abord, toute organisation matérielle de protection, parce qu’elle s’inscrit dans la matière, n’évolue pas, ou peu ; elle a fixé, au moment de son édification, des principes qui ont de la peine à se trans- former rapidement sans une reprise de la construction.
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