'Little B Japanese Am in WOI

On February 16, 1960 a special agent of the Fe Beach, California, home.. a $1,000 fine assessed aga "Toots," along with her sis sisters), were found guilty escaping from the Trinidal Billie and Flo received t $1,000 fines while Tsuruk year sentence and the $1,( in the Federal ReformatoI The agent described Tsuru • feelings that the governme to be such a great length ( The Shitara sisters' arres conspiracy to commit trea Colorado during World \\ Japanese-American sisters on trial for treason" news file photo nation during the war. 7 1 Accompanying text reads: among individuals, groups "ACME TELEPHOTO NEW YORK BUREAU ACME TELEPHOTO in an atmosphere of cultur JAPANESE-AMERICAN SISTERS ON TRIAL FOR TREASON Southeastern Colorado his DENVER, Col. -- The death penalty may be imposed upon these three California-born Japanese sisters if they are convicted of treason in thier current trial here. The three, Mrs. The government, media, a Billie Shitara Tanigoshi (walking), Mrs. Florence Shivze Otani (upper left), and Mrs Tsuro other nonwhite people of "Toots" Wallace (below) are charged with having aided two German prisoners of war, Corporals Heinrich Haider and Herman August Loescher to escape from a Trinidad, Col., internment camp last October. The Germans are witnesses in the current trial. Robert Koehler has an MA in Cull SEE PRESS WIRES in Mexican American Studies frol Divinity School and is currently cc Credit "Acme Telephoto" blr 8/8/44 NY Bureau": United Press International ethnic history, Japanese American i

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'Little Benedict Arnolds in Skirts': Japanese American Women and Treason in World War II Colorado!

By Robert Koehler

On February 16, 1960, fifty-year-old Tsuruko Endo Wallace met a special agent of the Federal Bureau of Investigation at her Long Beach, California, home. The agent came to request Mrs. Wallace pay a $1,000 fine assessed against her in 1944. 2 Mrs. Wallace, nicknamed "Toots," along with her sisters Billie and Florence or "Flo" (the Shitara sisters), were found guilty of aiding two German prisoners of war in escaping from the Trinidad, Colorado, prisoner of war camp in 1943. Billie and Flo received twenty-month federal prison sentences and $1,000 fines while Tsuruko, the supposed ringleader, received a two­ year sentence and the $1,000 fine. 3 Tsuruko served eighteen-months in the Federal Reformatory for Women at Alderson, West Virginia.4 The agent described Tsuruko expressing "considerable surprise and ill feelings that the government should come to her after what she termed to be such a great length of time."5 Tsuruko promptly paid the fine. 6 The Shitara sisters' arrest and trial for treason, and conviction for conspiracy to commit treason, was the first, and only, treason trial in Colorado during WorId War II and only the third treason trial in the photo nation during the war. 7 The Shitara story is a history of allegiances among individuals, groups ofpeople, and the American nation surfacing rELEPHOTO in an atmosphere of cultural conflict. These loyalty conflicts permeate lliASON Southeastern Colorado history and explain social relations in the region. upon these three California-born :urrent trial here. The three, Mrs. The government, media, and American public labeled the Shitaras, and Otani (upper left), and Mrs Tsuro other nonwhite people of Southeastern Colorado, disloyal, based on ~ two German prisoners of war, ~ to escape from a Trinidad, Col., s in the current trial. Robert Koehler has an M.A. in Cultural Anthropology from Colorado State University, an M.A. in Mexican American Studies from San Jose State University, and an M.T.S. from Harvard Divinity School and is currently completing a PhD. His research interest includes Colorado's ~ Press International ethnic history, Japanese American internment, and Wilburite Quakerism.

13 their race and ignored their loyalty to the United States. States required disloyalty to Allegiance is loyalty, or the obligation ofloyalty, given by individuals loyalty to the U.S. that mighl and groups of people to a nation, sovereign, or cause. Allegiance is to Japan or, more often, 10) also a tie that binds individuals and groups of people to a government, American loyalty to the U. in return for the protection and benefits that government provides life. Japanese American loy; them. Loyalty, the basis of allegiance, is the "willing and practical and policies of relocation, such thorough-going devotion of a person to a cause,,,g nation, or sovereign. them "enemy aliens." In 0 Loyalty manifests itself in action and has an intense emotional tone.9 the U.S. required disavowinl Loyalty is both internal, or personal, and external, or socially acted upon, placed upon them. By gi\ and noticeable to individuals in their thoughts and observable to others joining the military and wo in their outward actions. lO Loyalty is "among the noblest of virtues... war effort, Japanese Americ and disloyalty the basest of crimes."l! When loyalty becomes action, that sought to label them disl it transforms into allegiance. Harnessed loyalty fosters an allegiance was on restricting individu that is a more intense and purposefully acted upon bond than loyalty. American society outside tb Individuals often give their loyalty freely and receive rewards, such as the relocation centers to join physical protection, in return. Loyalties with reward are "expressed farms, they were rejecting tl as constructive, adaptable, positive acts of support."!2 When loyalties and rejecting the War Reloc occur through coercion, they involve punishing processes such as the as disloyal. loss of autonomy in an individual's choices and selection of actions. Finally, Japanese Americ They are restricted in their actions by the limits placed on them by those Japanese culture. Japanese. whom they have given their loyalty. Loyalties with punishing aspects American culture and shUl are rigid, involve defensive behavior, and can change to disloyalty Americans expected people more rapidly than loyalties with rewards. 13 When disloyalty becomes dress as "Americans," eat AI action, allegiances shift among competing individuals, peoples, and to embrace American cultur nations. Political scientist Martin Grodzins claims that society "rests who identified with Japane! upon loyalties: upon attitudes and actions directed at supporting groups, practicing Buddhism, were ideas, and institutions...Loyalties are a part of every individual's life" culture and fully assimill and organize the individual's existence. !4 assimilation was impossible According to Grodzins, loyalty to the American nation during World and media focused on Japan, War II had four possible meanings, or disloyalties, specific to Japanese but also nationality, was cen Americans. First, loyalty to the United States required that Japanese Americans in American so Americans relinquish their demand for equal status in American corresponding disloyalty, ex society. To do so, Grodzins argues that Japanese Americans had to is applicable to other nonwh express disloyalty to their demand for equal status and citizenship in gave their loyalty to the U.S U.S. society. Japanese Americans had to accept secondary citizenship demand for equal treatment a without complaint. Second, Japanese American loyalty to the United to their families' and peop

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nited States. States required disloyalty to family. Japanese Americans had to express loyalty, given by individuals loyalty to the U.S. that might be in stark contrast to their parents' loyalty ~n, or cause. Allegiance is to Japan or, more often, loyalty to Japanese culture. Third, Japanese of people to a government, American loyalty to the U.S. required disloyalty to relocation center that government provides life. Japanese American loyalty to the U. S. required their not accepting le "willing and practical and policies of relocation, such as Americanization programs that labeled ause,,,g nation, or sovereign. them "enemy aliens." In other words, Japanese American loyalty to an intense emotional tone. 9 the U.S. required disavowing the very labels the government and public emal, or socially acted upon, placed upon them. By giving their allegiance to the U.S., through hts and observable to others joining the military and working on farms and in factories to aid the )ng the noblest of virtues ... war effort, Japanese Americans were disloyal to the relocation centers ilen loyalty becomes action, that sought to label them disloyal. Relocation centers' ideological focus oyalty fosters an allegiance was on restricting individuals labeled disloyal from participating in ted upon bond than loyalty. American society outside the centers. When Japanese Americans left Lnd receive rewards, such as the relocation centers to join the military or to work in factories and on with reward are "expressed farms, they were rejecting the notion of their being disloyal to the U.S. 'support."12 When loyalties and rejecting the War Relocation Authority's (WRA) labeling of them shing processes such as the as disloyal. :es and selection of actions. Finally, Japanese American loyalty to the U.S. required disloyalty to nits placed on them by those Japanese culture. Japanese Americans had to wholeheartedly embrace llties with punishing aspects American culture and shun anything related to Japanese culture. IS d can change to disloyalty Americans expected people of Japanese ancestry to become Christian, I When disloyalty becomes dress as "Americans," eat American-style food, speak only English, and g individuals, peoples, and to embrace American culture without complaint. Japanese Americans 1S claims that society "rests who identified with Japanese culture, such as speaking Japanese and irected at supporting groups, practicing Buddhism, were supposed to turn their backs on Japanese :1 of every individual's life" culture and fully assimilate into American culture. However, assimilation was impossible because the American government, public, nerican nation during World and media focused on Japanese Americans as Japanese. Not only race, lyalties, specific to Japanese but also nationality, was central to World War II discourse on Japanese tates required that Japanese Americans in American society. Grodzins' concept of loyalty and equal status in American corresponding disloyalty, except for disloyalty to relocation center life, Japanese Americans had to is applicable to other nonwhite people of Southeastern Colorado. They ml status and citizenship in gave their loyalty to the U.S. but found they had to be disloyal to their Lccept secondary citizenship demand for equal treatment and citizenship in American society, disloyal erican loyalty to the United to their families' and people, and disloyal to their people's cultural

15 heritage. Historical analysis of Southeastern Colorado has neglected and history now haunt the la examining the dramas of allegiances, or loyalty and disloyalty, played desolate farmland. Empty ho out in periods of intense cultural conflict in the region. pits, bulldoze the houses, all The Shitara story dispels the belief that Southeastern Colorado is histories decompose, forgottt devoid of history and opens a door to understanding the region's rich are battling a malaise over 1 history of cultural conflict in which themes of personal, group, and the bright lights of Denver i national allegiance are deeply intertwined and recurring. These themes Colorado returns to frontier are not new undercurrents in Southeastern Colorado history, or national crops up. The empty spaces history, but part of the essential fabric of those histories. History is grave and forgotten. It is tim composed of stories of allegiances made and broken among nations, to understand why America c peoples, and individuals. History is the tale of how and why nations, the social atmosphere that Ie peoples, and individuals gave their loyalty, or were disloyal, to other The Shitara sisters' story nations, peoples, and individuals. The stories of allegiances made and made and broken in Southei allegiances broken is the story of American history, of Southeastern Southeastern Colorado over Colorado history, and of the Shitara sisters. The Shitara sisters' story and shattered in a climate of 18~ is one of many buried and forgotten allegiance stories of Southeastern Bent's Fort, built in the Colorado and the history of that region must undergo exhumation. a creation of, allegiances c: Allegiance stories developed in a region of once thriving small people, Indian tribes, gove towns and parched farmlands of the dry, barren, wind-swept plains groups. The reprehensible of Southeastern Colorado that now have bleak neighborhoods thinly 150 innocent Cheyenne, An dotted with abandoned homes and farmhouses. These skeletons 100m and children was the resul over the landscape like ghosts of once prosperous days. The population the Cheyenne and Arapaho declined dramatically over the past fifty years, so many towns no longer and white individuals repre operate gas stations, restaurants, or grocery stores. Tourists quickly allegiances and cultural conl sto~ drive through towns, once "gas station communities" where motorists history resurface in the stopped to fill their cars' thirsty gas tanks and purchase snacks, on their trial for aiding two Germ way to more populated destinations. Tourist attractions with histories Trinidad, Colorado Prisone: elaborately portrayed in television and film, such as the gunslinger The Shitarasisters' arres streets of Dodge City, Kansas, and its infamous Boot Hill, lure them to the United States, the An away from the bleak dusty streets of Southeastern Colorado. German soldiers they purp The barren plains are returning Southeastern Colorado to frontier emphasized allegiances ml status in number of people and appearance of the landscape. Houses also by the German POW and farms give way to a returning desolateness in which weeds and coverage of allegiances IT sagebrush copiously sprout in the once well-ploughed and irrigated fields Bureau of Investigation til and in the expanding cracks of the deserted sidewalks and abandoned files shows the FBI was 0 driveways. Abandoned houses, once occupied by families, dreams, Shitara sisters and the Gerr

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5tern Colorado has neglected and history now haunt the landscape and pose a fire hazard to the dry oyalty and disloyalty, played desolate farmland. Empty houses await burial by farmers who dig large .n the region. pits, bulldoze the houses, and bury the remains. Both memories and hat Southeastern Colorado is histories decompose, forgotten in shallow graves. Residents claim they .derstanding the region's rich are battling a malaise over the plains that lure sons and daughters to mes of personal, group, and the bright lights of Denver and Colorado Springs. 16 As Southeastern and recurring. These themes Colorado returns to frontier status, the question of the region's history Colorado history, or national crops up. The empty spaces tell a story that has been bulldozed into a ,f those histories. History is grave and forgotten. It is time to exhume, examine, and study that story ~ and broken among nations, to understand why America decided to bury the story and to understand tale of how and why nations, the social atmosphere that led to the burial of these allegiance stories. ty, or were disloyal, to other The Shitara sisters' story continues the recurring tale of allegiances >ries of allegiances made and made and broken in Southeastern Colorado. The dry barren plains of ican history, of Southeastern Southeastern Colorado overflow with a history of allegiances formed rs. The Shitara sisters' story and shattered in a climate of cultural conflict. Southeastern Colorado's :iance stories of Southeastern Bent's Fort, built in the 1830s by the Bent brothers, created, and was 1st undergo exhumation. a creation of, allegiances among individuals with Mexico, Mexican gion of once thriving small people, Indian tribes, governments, and with individuals from these " barren, wind-swept plains groups. The reprehensible 1864 Sand Creek massacre of more than bleak neighborhoods thinly 150 innocent Cheyenne, Arapaho, white, and mixed-race men, women, )Uses. These skeletons loom and children was the result of allegiances made and broken among iperous days. The population the Cheyenne and Arapaho, individual Indians, the U.S. government, ars, so many towns no longer and white individuals representing the government. These currents of ~ry stores. Tourists quickly allegiances and cultural conflict in Southeastern Colorado and American 'mmunities" where motorists history resurface in the story of the Shitara sisters' 1944 Denver treason llld purchase snacks, on their trial for aiding two German prisoners-of-war in escaping from the nst attractions with histories Trinidad, Colorado Prisoner of War camp. Hm, such as the gunslinger The Shitarasisters' arrestand trial placed into questiontheirallegiance llmous Boot Hill, lure them to the United States, the American people, Japanese Americans, and the eastern Colorado. German soldiers they purportedly aided. Media coverage of the trial eastern Colorado to frontier emphasized allegiances made and broken not only by the sisters, but e of the landscape. Houses also by the German POWs. Obscured by the sensationalized media lteness in which weeds and coverage of allegiances made and broken lay the forgotten Federal ploughed and irrigated fields Bureau of Investigation files. An exhumation of these long neglected :d sidewalks and abandoned files shows the FBI was obsessed not only with the allegiances of the :upied by families, dreams, Shitara sisters and the German POWs, but obsessed with the allegiances

17 of the police officers who arrested the POWs and of the reporters and only to join the expanding U. one ofthe Denver newspapers, the Rocky Mountain News, that covered from Mexico, to the Republi, the trial. Nearly all actors in this drama of allegiances had their loyalty need for allegiances to be m, to the U.S., the FBI, and the American people questioned. The Shitara The region had a rich his drama of allegiances took place on a stage of cultural conflict involving made and broken long before issues of race, nationality, and gender. The sisters' allegiances were began. Approximately seve particularly suspect in the eyes of the FBI, the newspapers, and the Fort, built in either 1834 or American public because of their ancestry. The Shitara's Japanese and Indian peoples and cultu ancestry alone was proof to the nation, as it was for all Japanese Charles and William Bent an Americans, oftheir being Japanese, and therefore disloyal enemy aliens. the lucrative Santa Fe merch This illustrates the complexity ofallegiances. Japanese Americans were Company.21 Charles Bent 1 overwhelmingly U.S. citizens who gave their allegiance to the U.S., married the Cheyenne Owl' while at the same time, America saw them as the enemy. Japanese lucrative allegiances with M Americans could not prove their allegiance to the U.S. no matter how William's marriage formed, many Japanese American soldiers died in the war effort or how many peoples. Cerain St. Vrain, " worked in factories and on farms supporting the war effort and living Bent, who declined Mexic under more severe restrictions than non-Japanese Americans. landowners through their loy The Shitara sisters' gender was another factor in the questioning of Mexico's Governor ofthe N their allegiances. The newspapers and prosecutor argued the women Bent and Cerain St. Vrain in were disloyal to their husbands and engaged in sex, hence adultery, with land grants totaling over se German prisoners of war, though there is no proof that any sex took brother Marcellin, and Willi place. They were disloyal women because they had engaged in sexual George, would join the reo, affairs with enemies of the American people. The sisters were traitors St. Vrains were French nobl to the nation and to their husbands. Furthermore, the newspapers and and as punishment for their; prosecutor claimed the women were weak in resisting the German major Indian trading post an POWs' wooing. The sisters' race, nationality, and gender were central was then the western U.S. in their conviction for conspiracy to commit treason. Colonel Stephen WattsKear The Shitara sisters' story began at the Granada Relocation Center American War.27 The creati for Japanese American internment during World War II. The Granada negotiating the cultural con Center, known as Camp Amache, was located on the southern fringes of we cannot know for sure, it the small town ofGranada, Colorado. The Center was a few miles south U.S. military to use the fort ofthe Arkansas River, the border between Mexico and the U.S. until the allegiance to the U.S. end of the Mexican-American War with the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Themes of allegiance 1 Hidalgo. 17 Therefore, the Center was located in what was once Mexico Both the Bents and Shitru and claimed by the Republic of Texas (1836-1845). Rebellious Texans periods when the region w, reneged on their allegiance to Mexico and won independence in 1836 encountered conflict amor

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IWS and of the reporters and only to join the expanding U.S.A. in 1845. 18 Texans' allegiance shifted 'vlountain News, that covered from Mexico, to the Republic of Texas, to the U.S.A., emphasizing the ~ allegiances had their loyalty need for allegiances to be malleable during cultural conflict. )ple questioned. The Shitara The region had a rich history of cultural conflict and of allegiances ofcultural conflict involving made and broken long before World War II and the Shitara sisters' story ['he sisters' allegiances were began. Approximately seventy-five miles west of Amache is Bent's BI, the newspapers, and the Fort, built in either 1834 or 1836. 19 At the fort, American, Mexican, ry. The Shitara's Japanese and Indian peoples and cultures mixed.20 The fort was the brainchild of as it was for all Japanese Charles and William Bent and Cerain St. Vrain, who became partners in :refore disloyal enemy aliens. the lucrative Santa Fe merchant trade, and formed the Bent & St. Vrain ~s. Japanese Americans were Company.21 Charles Bent married a Mexican woman22 and William their allegiance to the U.S., married the Cheyenne Owl Woman. 23 Charles Bent's marriage created ~m as the enemy. Japanese lucrative allegiances with Mexican trading partners and Mexico while :e to the u.s. no matter how William's marriage formed allegiances with Indian trading partners and the war effort or how many peoples. Cerain St. Vrain, who became a Mexican citizen, and Charles ing the war effort and living Bent, who declined Mexican citizenship, became major Southwest panese Americans. landowners through their loyalties to, and alliance with, Manuel Armijo, r factor in the questioning of Mexico's Governor ofthe New Mexico territory. Armijo aided Charles 'osecutor argued the women Bent and Cerain St. Vrain in accumulating the rights to one-sixth oftwo :l in sex, hence adultery, with land grants totaling over seven million acres.24 Years later, Cerain's no proof that any sex took brother Marcellin, and William Bent's half Cheyenne sons Robert and ~ they had engaged in sexual George, would join the renamed Bent, St. Vrain & Company.25 The lIe. The sisters were traitors St. Vrains were French noblemen driven from France by the revolution ermore, the newspapers and and as punishment for their allegiance to the King.26 The fort became a ik: in resisting the German major Indian trading post and merchant route between Mexico and what ity, and gender were central was then the western U.S. Bent's Fort served as a staging ground for It treason. Colonel Stephen Watts Kearney's Army ofthe West during the Mexican Granada Relocation Center American War. 27 The creation of diverse allegiances aided the Bents in World War II. The Granada negotiating the cultural conflicts of Southeastern Colorado. Although ~d on the southern fringes of we cannot know for sure, it seems the Bents and St. Vrain allowed the ~enter was a few miles south U.S. military to use the fort during the war against Mexico to show their 1exico and the U.S. until the allegiance to the U.S. ~ 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Themes of allegiance bind the Bents and Shitara sisters together. :d in what was once Mexico Both the Bents and Shitaras lived in Southeastern Colorado during >-1845). Rebellious Texans periods when the region was culturally and racially diverse. The Bents won independence in 1836 encountered conflict among, and between, whites, the varied Indian

19 populations, Mexicans, and in their relationships with these groups rewards for demonstrating hi! and the u.s. government. The Shitaras encountered conflicts between massacre so outraged the na white Americans and Japanese Americans and the manner in which the and a military commission he government, American public, and media responded to conflicts, such "Colorado's greatest military as the government's World War II internment policies for Japanese and unseated Its. governor. "33 Americans and the media's stereotyping of Japanese Americans as by Captains Silas S. Soule ar enemy aliens. The Bents and Shitaras formed loyalties and allegiances allegiance to commanding 0 in difficult political and social climates in which their actions and weapons during the massaCl

allegiances were continually under question because of their race or Cramer protested the attack 4 the race of those to whom they gave their allegiance. The government and Chivington threatened S( labeled the Bents and Shitaras disloyal when labeling individuals the massacre,35 while Chivin~ and groups of people the Bents and Shitaras gave their allegiance to Cramer charged that Chivinl "disloyal." The Bents were disloyal to the U.S. because they befriended Because ofhis testimony aga enemies ofthe nation, Indians and Mexicans. The Shitaras were disloyal hearing, Soule was shortly tt. because they befriended enemies of the nation, German prisoners of was the Provost Marshal.38 : war, and disloyal due to their Japanese ancestry. At the same time, of Soule's assassins, Charle: the Bents and Shitaras could never prove their allegiance to the U. S. escape, an unknown individt The Bents and Shitaras could continually expend their energy claiming room. 39 Though we cannot k allegiance to the U.S. but no matter how strong the authenticity of their punishment for his disloyalt) claims, the government and nation would not accept that authenticity or Echoes from themes ofall their claims of loyalty as valid. The Bent's Indian and Mexican wives in the Shitara sisters' story. and mixed-blood children were visible symbols of their disloyalty to Chief Black Kettle, who atte: the nation as was the Shitaras' race a visible symbol oftheir disloyalty. his people and whites, raised However, there are more stories of allegiance in Southeastern camp in a failed attempt to t Colorado thatresonatewiththe Shitarastory. ForexampIe, approximately of the U.S. flag that flew ov 45 miles northwest of Granada is the Sand Creek Massacre site. The internment center in Southe massacre was one of the most brutal events in American history.28 and massacre took place un< In 1864, while Union General William Tecumseh Sherman was Greenwood had given the fl: marching to Atlanta in a bloody war of allegiances between North and no harm would ever come tc South,29 Colonel Chivington, a Methodist Episcopal preacher,30 and over his camp and the flag v the First Colorado U.S. Volunteer Cavalry were brutally slaying more Black Kettle attached a SIr than one hundred and fifty Cheyenne and Arapaho, mixed blood, and waved the flags back and fc white men, women, and children in a surprise attack near Big Sandy under the flags telling them 1 Creek. 31 Colonel Chivington believed the attack would demonstrate his hurt them." 40 Chivington's· allegiance to the Union, elevate him to Brigadier General, and serve Cheyenne, Arapaho, mixed as a "stepping stone for a seat in Congress."32 Chivington expected and Cramer watched in hor

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ltionships with these groups rewards for demonstrating his allegiance to the Union. Nevertheless, the ncountered conflicts between massacre so outraged the nation that two congressional investigations ; and the manner in which the and a military commission hearing were held resulting in the disgrace of l responded to conflicts, such "Colorado's greatest military hero (Chivington) in the eyes ofthe nation, mment policies for Japanese and unseated its governor."33 Reports to high-ranking military officers ~ of Japanese Americans as by Captains Silas S. Soule and Joseph A Cramer, who disavowed their med loyalties and allegiances allegiance to commanding officer Chivington and refused to fire their : in which their actions and weapons during the massacre, led to the investigations.34 Soule and tion because of their race or Cramer protested the attack on "peaceful Indians" before the massacre 'allegiance. The government and Chivington threatened Soule with hanging for refusing to fire during I when labeling individuals the massacre,35 while Chivington saw Soule as "an enemy and a threat."36 aras gave their allegiance to Cramer charged that Chivington "should be hung" for the massacre.37 U.S. because they befriended Because ofhis testimony against Chivington at the military commission lS. The Shitaras were disloyal hearing, Soule was shortly thereafter gunned down in Denver where he nation, Gennan prisoners of was the Provost MarshaP8 Lieutenant James D. Cannon captured one ancestry. At the same time, of Soule's assassins, Charles A Savier, who later escaped. After the ;: their allegiance to the U.S. escape, an unknown individual poisoned Cannon, who died in his hotel expend their energy claiming room. 39 Though we cannot know for certain, it seems Soule's death was trong the authenticity of their punishment for his disloyalty to Chivington and loyalty to the U.S. not accept that authenticity or Echoes from themes ofallegiance atthe Sand Creekmassacre resonate 's Indian and Mexican wives in the Shitara sisters' story. During the massacre, Southern Cheyenne ymbols of their disloyalty to Chief Black Kettle, who attempted for years to maintain peace between lIe symbol of their disloyalty. his people and whites, raised a U.S. flag on the longest lodge pole in the ~ allegiance in Southeastern camp in a failed attempt to end the massacre. The flag is reminiscent r. Forexample,approximately of the U.S. flag that flew over Camp Amache, the Japanese American ld Creek Massacre site. The internment center in Southeastern Colorado. Injustices of internment vents in American history.28 and massacre took place under both flags. Indian Commissioner AB. n Tecumseh Sherman was Greenwood had given the flag to Black Kettle telling Black Kettle that llegiances between North and no harm would ever come to him or his people as long as the flag flew st Episcopal preacher,30 and over his camp and the flag would be "respected as a symbol of peace." y were brutally slaying more Black Kettle attached a smaller white flag beneath Old Glory. He I Arapaho, mixed blood, and waved the flags back and forth and encouraged his people to join him 'Prise attack near Big Sandy under the flags telling them to not "be afraid, that the soldiers would not attack would demonstrate his hurt them." 40 Chivington's Volunteers continued to fire on the helpless ~rigadier General, and serve Cheyenne, Arapaho, mixed-bloods, and whites while Captains Soule ~SS."32 Chivington expected and Cramer watched in horror. Black Kettle survived, as did his son­

21 in-law George Bent (son of William Bent), only to die at the Washita lead to Indian defeat and ful River in November 1868, at the hands of General George Armstrong cooperation with the U.S. A Custer's 7th Cavalry.41 George Bent was so beloved by Black Kettle He had a difficult decision t that Black Kettle gave his allegiance to George and took "him into his to his people or to the U.S lodge to guide him as he would his own son."42 Three ofWilliam Bent's soldiers rewarded One-Eye mixed-blood children, staying with their mother's friends and relatives Creek,47 Significantly, One at the camp during the time ofthe massacre, survived.43 Black Kettle's Woman) who married John attempt to show his people's allegiance to the U.S. was in vain, as was Ameo'ne Amache and the I the Shitara sisters' attempts to show their allegiance eighty years later. became the first Commissi< Many years before the Sand Creek massacre, Cheyenne subchief State legislator. Present-d. One-Eye (know as Och-I-Nee and as Lone Bear) saved the life of Camp Amache, where the S William Bent when he had a serious throat infection. Bent came to These stories of allegiar trust One-Eye to such an extent that One-Eye was the only person in the empty spaces of Sout allowed to treat the Bent family's illnesses. One-Eye even treated the the Sand Creek massacre ir illnesses of George Bent when he was a child.44 Loyalties between the twentieth-century with t] the men became allegiances through acts of devotion to each other. three Japanese American sis William gave his allegiance to One-Eye because One-Eye had saved buried except for one para~ him and his son. These actions demonstrated One-Eye's dedication to Prisoners ofWar in Americ the Bents and William reciprocated by putting into action his loyalty to and treason in Ann Howard One-Eye and the Cheyenne. William attempted to talk Chivington out fictional recount of life in , of war with the Cheyenne. "For the sake of his mixed-blood children story is an archaeological di, and the Cheyenne people" he tried to convince Chivington that "the within Southeastern Colora< war the army now waged against the Cheyennes was wrong and must After the December 7, be stopped." Chivington ignored William's pleas and "voiced his U.S. government, public, ar opposition to racial mixing and said that Bent was nothing but a lowly ancestry might be potential 'squawman. "'45 One-Eye turned traitor to his people and to William fears led to public and con~ when he gave his allegiance to the U.S. Army. He agreed to be a spy a program to limit the mO\ for the U.S. military for "$125.00 and a month ofrations."46 One-Eye Because of these growin~ was a "trusted member ofthe Council ofForty" and reported to the U.S. signed Executive Order 90( soldiers on warrior movements. One-Eye made his decision to change Lieutenant General John L. allegiances during a stressful period of cultural conflict. and to remove people from One-Eye found himself in a difficult social and political climate of Executive Order 9066, in which Indians sought varied strategies for their survival and that of "enemy alien problem" in 1 their people. We do not know the reason why One-Eye betrayed his Roosevelt signed Executiv 1 people, but we can surmise a possible explanation. One-Eye may have Authority (WRA) to impler given his allegiance to the U.S. because he believed war would only Americans from restricted;

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t), only to die at the Washita lead to Indian defeat and further suffering. One-Eye may have chosen f General George Annstrong cooperation with the U.S. Army to save his life and the lives of others. ; so beloved by Black Kettle He had a difficult decision to make and whether he gave his allegiance reorge and took "him into his to his people or to the U.S., the result was the same. Chivington's 11."42 Three ofWilliam Bent's soldiers rewarded One-Eye for his allegiance by killing him at Sand nother's friends and relatives Creek.47 Significantly, One-Eye was the father of Ameo'ne (Walking re, survived.43 Black Kettle's Woman) who married John Prowers in 1861 and took the Indian name I the U.S. was in vain, as was Ameo'ne Amache and the English name Amy Prowers. John Prowers allegiance eighty years later. became the first Commissioner of Bent County and a Territorial and nassacre, Cheyenne subchief State legislator. Present-day Prowers County includes Granada and ,one Bear) saved the life of Camp Amache, where the Shitara sisters' story began. 'Oat infection. Bent came to These stories of allegiance and cultural conflict, oft-buried houses ne-Eye was the only person in the empty spaces of Southeastern Colorado history, do not end with ~s. One-Eye even treated the the Sand Creek massacre in 1864. Stories of allegiance continue into i child.44 Loyalties between the twentieth-century with the World War II Denver treason trial of the :s of devotion to each other. three Japanese American sisters, the Shitaras. Their story has remained because One-Eye had saved buried except for one paragraph in historian Arnold Krammer's Nazi 'ated One-Eye's dedication to Prisoners of War in America48 and a brief mention of Japanese women tting into action his loyalty to and treason in Ann Howard Creel's The Magic of Ordinary Days,49 a :mpted to talk Chivington out fictional recount of life in World War II Southeastern Colorado. This : of his mixed-blood children story is an archaeological dig that uncovers a story, a house, buried deep mvince Chivington that "the within Southeastern Colorado's forgotten history. ~yennes was wrong and must After the December 7, 1941, Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the ,am's pleas and "voiced his U.S. government, public, and media feared that Americans of Japanese Bent was nothing but a lowly ancestry might be potential saboteurs and disloyal to the U.S. 50 These to his people and to William fears led to public and congressional calls for the government to enact \rmy. He agreed to be a spy a program to limit the movement of Americans of Japanese ancestry. nonth of rations."46 One-Eye Because of these growing concerns, President Franklin Roosevelt 'orty" and reported to the U.S. signed Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, authorizing Army : made his decision to change Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt to establish restricted military areas [tural conflict. and to remove people from their homes in those areas. 51 Upon issuance : social and political climate of Executive Order 9066, the already heightened concern over the for their survival and that of "enemy alien problem" in the nation increased.52 On March 18, 1942, n why One-Eye betrayed his Roosevelt signed Executive Order 9102, creating the War Relocation >lanation. One-Eye may have Authority (WRA) to implement evacuation, forced removal ofJapanese he believed war would only Americans from restricted areas. Executive Order 9102 resulted in the

23 military removing all individuals of Japanese ancestry from the West illustrates how the U.S. ren Coast.53 Japanese Americans had to abandon their homes and businesses Americans full citizenship. and the army shipped them by heavily guarded trains to assembly Approximately ten thOl centers. The best known assembly center was at the Santa Anita Shitaras, were forcibly relc horse track where Japanese Americans lived in horse stalls converted one of ten centers for Japar for human dwelling. 54 A few months later, Japanese Americans were desolate areas of the West, shipped by train to one often relocation centers. Trains to Granada took parcels of real estate."68 1 three days and Japanese Americans generally could not leave the trains peaceful internment camps, at any time. Armed military guards rode on top of each train car and of fear, frustration, anger guards surrounded train depots at each stop.55 The manner in which the The government implemen military implemented the Executive Orders illustrates the army's belief Japanese Americans aboU' that Japanese Americans were disloyal. Neither Executive Order 9066 educated Japanese America nor Executive Order 9102 made any mention ofrace or ethnicity.56 ofJapanese Americans had 1 In June 1943, Lieutenant General DeWitt claimed Japanese knew. The sisters remained American "loyalties were unknown" and "the continued presence of a internees because they delil large, unassimilated, tightly knit racial group, bound to an enemy nation Amache," until the War ReI by strong ties of race, culture, custom and religion along a frontier in 1943. The government· vulnerable to attack constituted a menace which had to be dealt with."57 the centers to work in agl DeWitt also claimed that since there was no evidence of sabotage by locations, and began enlistil Japanese Americans that alone was proof that Japanese Americans February 1943.71 The all-Ja were saboteurs.58 DeWitt, and other military leaders, believed Japanese Tearn would demonstrate Americans were biding their time until an opportune moment arose to the highest casualty rate of engage in sabotage.59 More than two-thirds of Japanese Americans, The government rewarded 1 such as the Shitaras, were U.S. citizens and the majority had never awarding the 442nd the mosl been to Japan, were not members of a "Japanese" religion, and had no Approval to leave the I ties to Japan or Japanese culture except through Japanese ancestry.60 requirements. Male and The only country they knew was the U.S., to which they pledged questionnaire in which the t their allegiance. Only 6,128 of the approximately 120,000 Japanese 27 and 28: "Are you willinl Americans forcibly removed to War Relocation Centers renounced their States, in combat duty, v U.S. citizenship61 and asked to return to Japan. 62 Japanese Americans unqualified allegiance to t1 such as Gordon Hirabayashi,63 Minoru Yasui,M and Fred Korematsu65 any form of allegiance to 1 challenged the legality of the Executive Orders, forced removal, and government, power, or orga internment in relocation centers, and claimed they were loyal citizens, questions was required for but the U.S. Supreme Court affirmed the constitutionality of exclusion relocation centers to work. and internment.66 Japanese Americans gave their allegiance to a nation the person was disloyal that promised the rights of citizenship, but the very act of relocation service.73 Japanese Americ

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lese ancestry from the West illustrates how the U.S. reneged on that promise and denied Japanese mtheir homes and businesses Americans full citizenship. guarded trains to assembly Approximately ten thousand Japanese Americans, including the Iter was at the Santa Anita Shitaras, were forcibly relocated to the Granada Relocation Center, ved in horse stalls converted one of ten centers for Japanese American internment located in bleak :r, Japanese Anlericans were desolate areas of the Western U.S.67 often referred to as "worthless ilters. Trains to Granada took parcels of real estate."68 The Granada Center was one of the most lIly could not leave the trains peaceful internment camps, but at best, the camp had an atmosphere on top of each train car and of fear, frustration, anger, resentment, and physical discomfort. 69 ).55 The manner in which the The government implemented "Americanization" programs to teach 'S illustrates the anny's belief Japanese Americans about American culture.70 The government [either Executive Order 9066 educated Japanese Americans about the country in which the majority lon ofrace or ethnicity.56 of Japanese Americans had been born and the only country the majority DeWitt claimed Japanese knew. The sisters remained at the center, renamed "Camp Amache" by "the continued presence of a internees because they delighted in the legend of the "Indian princess up, bound to an enemy nation Amache," until the War Relocation Authority altered internment policy Il1d religion along a frontier in 1943. The government then allowed Japanese Americans to leave which had to be dealt with. "57 the centers to work in agriculture and industry in approved "safe" no evidence of sabotage by locations, and began enlisting Japanese Americans into the military in of that Japanese Americans February 1943. 71 The all-Japanese American 442nd Regimental Combat ry leaders, believed Japanese Team would demonstrate their allegiance to the U.S. by suffering l opportune moment arose to the highest casualty rate of any American regiment in World War II. irds of Japanese Anlericans, The government rewarded the 442nd for their allegiance to the U.S. by and the majority had never awarding the 442nd the most decorations of any unit in the war.72 panese" religion, and had no Approval to leave the camps hinged upon internees meeting two through Japanese ancestry.60 requirements. Male and female internees had to complete a long 1.8., to which they pledged questionnaire in which the two most important questions were numbers 'Oximately 120,000 Japanese 27 and 28: "Are you willing to serve in the armed forces of the United ation Centers renounced their States, in combat duty, wherever ordered?" and "Will you swear apan.62 Japanese Americans unqualified allegiance to the United States of America and...forswear asui,64 and Fred Korematsu65 any form of allegiance to the Japanese emperor, or any other foreign Orders, forced removal, and government, power, or organization?" Answering "yes" to both loyalty ned they were loyal citizens, questions was required for military service and clearance to leave the ~onstitutionality of exclusion relocation centers to work. A "no" answer to either question indicated Ie their allegiance to a nation the person was disloyal and ineligible for relocation or military ut the very act of relocation service. 73 Japanese American men and women had to answer "yes" to

25 both questions. Though women could not serve as combatants, they Mound, New Mexico. 83 " were encouraged to serve in the Women's Army Corps (WAC) as Loescher three photos: two typists and stenographers. Still, Japanese American women were the with Haider.84 Haider and only American women required to agree to be combatants. Answering Mexico Police Chief Nol "yes" to the allegiance questions was not the only requirement for those Albert H. Hathaway, and desiring work in industry or on farms outside the centers. drinking beer at the Three The War Relocation Authority required that internees have a job Haider and Loescher told t and housing before exiting the centers. The Shitara sisters answered we are going to Los Ange "Yes" to the loyalty questions. The sisters pledged their allegiance to Hofmann, Eckold, and Ba the U.S. The WRA then found them employment on the Winger Farm Office at Raton, New M outside Trinidad, Colorado, near a German prisoner-of-war camp.74 The capture.87 A significant p sisters accepted the work assignment because they desired to prove their the escape was German PC allegiance to the U.S. by working on the farm. In 1944, Toots would Hofmann was a Chilea tell the Rocky Mountain News. "We wanted to help national defense­ his German father. While That's why we were working on a farm near Trinidad."75 Ironically, the arrested and imprisoned hi government placed the sisters, Japanese Americans the nation perceived Hofmann, under duress, ga as enemy aliens and as disloyal, in close proximity to captured enemy Army. Hofmann reported soldiers. The sisters worked alongside German POWs assigned to the the Shitara sisters' involve farm. 76 The government's assignment of the Shitaras to the Winger sisters may have gone unn farm would have surprising consequences. ofHaider and Loescher's fi On October 18, 1943, the U.S. Army notified the FBI that six German gave the FBI details on s prisoners escaped from the Trinidad POW camp.77 The prisoners: had built several months 1 Heinrich Bente, Julio E. Hoffman, Heinz Eckold, Heinrich Haider, tunnel was one hundred an Hermann Loescher, and Martin Bazkes, "could have escaped October wide, extending from one eleventh, twelfth or fourteenth," though they were not discovered sixty-five feet beyond the th 78 missing until October 18 • Heinrich Haider and Hermann Loescher installed electric lighting it gave varying dates for their escape, ranging from October l4th79 to about the tunnel at least tw th October 16 •80 The men escaped through a hole in the barbed-wire fence authorities ignored his infc surrounding the camp.8} Haider and Loescher had become acquainted from the camp between S with the Shitara sisters while working on the Winger farm. Haider of the POWs used the tull admitted he was not on the Trinidad "work crew" assigned to the farm, going under the camp's ba but answered with another man's name who did not want to work on the In reporting to the FJ farm. Loescher sent notes to the sisters asking them for help in escaping was disloyal to Germany and Haider claimed to have talked with the women about aiding their his allegiance to the FBI escape.82 The POWs claimed the women gave them clothing, food, road difficult allegiance decisic maps, and picked them up outside Trinidad and drove them to Wagon few options. The Chilean

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>t serve as combatants, they Mound, New Mexico.83 When the men and women parted, Toots gave l'S Army Corps (WAC) as Loescher three photos: two ofPOW Bazkes with Billie and one ofToots American women were the with Haider. 84 Haider and Loescher were captured by Las Vegas, New ) be combatants. Answering Mexico Police Chief Nolan Utz, New Mexico State Police Captain le only requirement for those Albert H. Hathaway, and an unidentified FBI agent while casually tde the centers. drinking beer at the Three Moon Tavern in Watrous, New Mexico. 85 ed that internees have a job Haider and Loescher told the arresting officers "We are Canadians, and [he Shitara sisters answered we are going to Los Angeles" before admitting their identity.86 Bente, 'S pledged their allegiance to Hofmann, Eckold, and Bazkes voluntarily surrendered to the Sheriffs loyment on the Winger Farm Office at Raton, New Mexico shortly after Haider and Loescher's prisoner-of-war camp.74 The capture.87 A significant player in the Shitara sisters' arrest for aiding lse they desired to prove their the escape was German POW Julio Hofmann. farm. In 1944, Toots would Hofmann was a Chilean national who visited Germany in 1938 with ed to help national defense­ his German father. While in Germany, Hofmann claimed the Gestapo if Trinidad."75 Ironically, the arrested and imprisoned him until he agreed to join the German Army. nericans the nation perceived Hofmann, under duress, gave his allegiance to Germany and the German proximity to captured enemy Army. Hofmann reported to the FBI on the details of the escapes and erman paws assigned to the the Shitara sisters' involvement with Haider and Loescher. The Shitara f the Shitaras to the Winger sisters may have gone unnoticed if Hofmann had not informed the FBI ofHaider and Loescher's friendship with the Shitaras. In total, Hofmann tified the FBI that six German gave the FBI details on six escapes and on an escape tunnel paws )W camp.?? The prisoners: had built several months prior to Haider and Loescher's escape. The lZ Eckold, Heinrich Haider, tunnel was one hundred and fifty feet long, five feet deep, and three feet 'could have escaped October wide, extending from one of the officer's compounds to approximately I they were not discovered sixty-five feet beyond the fence surrounding the camp. The paws had lider and Hermann Loescher installed electric lighting in the tunnel. 88 Hofmann told camp authorities ~ing from October l4th79 to about the tunnel at least two months prior to October 15, 1943, but camp hole in the barbed-wire fence authorities ignored his information. 89 While there were eleven escapes :cher had become acquainted from the camp between Sept. 5, 1943 and November 17, 1943, none n the Winger farm. Haider of the paws used the tunnel in their escapes.90 Hofmann escaped by Ie crew" assigned to the farm, going under the camp's barbed-wire fence, as did other escapees.91 o did not want to work on the In reporting to the FBI about the escapes and tunnel, Hofmann :ing them for help in escaping was disloyal to Germany and the Trinidad German paws and gave lle women about aiding their his allegiance to the FBI and the U.S. However, Hofmann made his ave them clothing, food, road difficult allegiance decisions in a climate in which he had no allies and ld and drove them to Wagon few options. The Chilean Hofmann was neither German nor American.

27 The Gestapo forced Hofmann to serve in the German Army and as result the International Red ero of coercion; Hofmann became a prisoner of war in a camp in a foreign take every opportunity to land. Hofmann was a foreigner in Germany forced into a foreign army Loescher initially argued 1 (German) and then captured and sent to a foreign nation (the US.A.) and and out of their duty as S( imprisoned with foreigners (German paWs) by foreigners (Americans). escaped to return to Germ~ Hofmann gave his loyalty to whoever could benefit him the most. He refused to sign statements' became a German soldier to survive, and we can speculate that he gave would imply doubt as to th( his allegiance to the FBI and US. to survive in the POW camp among followed a general protoC( Germans paws that may have been hostile toward him. According to attempt escape and, thereb~ the FBI, Hofmann felt "bitter against the Germans, and feels no loyalty requirement to attempt esc toward them, and as a consequence had proved a valuable informant in prisoner escapes from the 1 this case."92 Hofmann requested the FBI "intercede for him in order that Less fit men generally he not be returned to Germany at the end of the war, in view of the fact were serving in the oversee that he fears some form of reprisal on account of his having furnished to escape from POW camp the above information."93 Hofmann, like One-Eye, shifted allegiances by the ease with which esc, to gain personal benefits. Hofmann and One-Eye sought to improve and Loescher, often workel their chances for survival and freedom. Nevertheless, the government and from which escape was seems to have used Hofmann and One-Eye for the information they planning. Sixty-five pen could provide and expressed little concern for their safety. The US. under, or over POW camp Army murdered One-Eye during the Sand Creek Massacre and there is work sites. 101 Haider and no record that the FBI did more than move Hofmann to another POW barbed-wire fence and thei: camp. Hofmann is an important player in the Shitara allegiance story Loescher later escaped fron 103 because of the information he provided on the tunnel and on the ability on June 4, 1944 and was of paws to escape from the Trinidad POW camp at will. Escapes from Apparently, Haider and Lc the POW camp were relatively easy and did not require outside help. Trinidad POW camp withol The aid purportedly given by the Shitara sisters to Haider and Loescher The Shitara sisters' ail was insignificant. in Haider and Loescher's ( According to Historian Arnold Krammer, Axis prisoner escapes arrest and police captured t] from American POW camps during World War II were "generally reasonable to believe that if! motivated by factors far less sinister than the compulsion to rape, to Germany, and to fight ag pillage, or sabotage."94 To show their allegiance to their country, intent in leaving the countr: soldiers were to resist their captors and attempt escape. Prisoners had a $11.50 on them and denied 1 legal right to attempt escape provided for under the Geneva Convention The FBI could not determil of 192995 and could not face criminal charges for escape attempts. 96 money but the prisoners cla Soldiers' oaths of service encouraged them to resist their captors and brought it into the POW can escape.97 The German government told prisoners, through offices of the prosecution "not to rna

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\ Ie German Army and as result the International Red Cross and the American War Department, "to )f war in a camp in a foreign take every opportunity to escape."98 After their capture, Haider and :ly forced into a foreign army Loescher initially argued they escaped out of allegiance to Germany )reign nation (the U.S.A.) and and out of their duty as soldiers, though they would later argue they s) by foreigners (Americans). escaped to return to Germany to fight the Nazis. Haider and Loescher lid benefit him the most. He refused to sign statements "demanded of criminals and such documents we can speculate that he gave would imply doubt as to their honor as soldiers."99 Haider and Loescher ive in the POW camp among followed a general protocol of war that required prisoners of war to lIe toward him. According to attempt escape and, thereby, prove their allegiance to their nation. The 3ermans, and feels no loyalty requirement to attempt escape, however, does not explain the ease of roved a valuable informant in prisoner escapes from the Trinidad POW camp. 'intercede for him in order that Less fit men generally guarded American POW camps as fit men ofthe war, in view of the fact were serving in the overseas military. This encouraged Axis prisoners count of his having furnished to escape from POW camps. Prisoners were further tempted to escape :One-Eye, shifted allegiances by the ease with which escape was possible. Prisoners, such as Haider I One-Eye sought to improve and Loescher, often worked on agricultural sites with little supervision Nevertheless, the government and from which escape was simple. 100 Escapes rarely involved elaborate Eye for the information they planning. Sixty-five percent of escapes were by getting through, :rn for their safety. The U.S. under, or over POW camp fences and thirty percent by simply leaving f Creek Massacre and there is work sites. 101 Haider and Loescher escaped by cutting a hole in the ,ve Hofmann to another POW barbed-wire fence and their escape went unnoticed for several days. 102 in the Shitara allegiance story Loescher later escaped from the Camp Campbell, Kentucky POW camp 103 104 n the tunnel and on the ability on June 4, 1944 and was recaptured by the army on June 15, 1944. Wcamp at will. Escapes from Apparently, Haider and Loescher could have easily escaped from the l did not require outside help. Trinidad POW camp without the aid of the Shitara sisters. sisters to Haider and Loescher The Shitara sisters' aid seems to have been of little importance in Haider and Loescher's escape. Haider and Loescher did not resist mmer, Axis prisoner escapes arrest and police captured them casually drinking beer in a tavern. It is 'orId War II were "generally reasonable to believe that iftheir motivation for escaping were allegiance han the compulsion to rape, to Germany, and to fight against the Allies, they would have been more : allegiance to their country, intent in leaving the country. When arrested, Haider and Loescher had tempt escape. Prisoners had a $11.50 on them and denied that the Shitara sisters gave them any money. under the Geneva Convention The FBI could not determine where Haider and Loescher obtained the :harges for escape attempts.96 money but the prisoners claimed they found the money and secretively tern to resist their captors and brought it into the POW camp. Before the trial began, the FBI informed prisoners, through offices of the prosecution "not to make any reference to the money which they

29 said they had smuggled into their prison camp."105 The FBI did not The sisters, though the want the Trinidad camp security to look more inept in the media than the media they did not aic shown by the numerous and well-publicized escapes. Even Toots, in was to the U.S. "We are lli an interview with the Rocky Mountain News during the treason trial, "The husband ofone ofmy claimed, "German prisoners have been escaping right and left from overseas, and a brother of the camp at Trinidad. I suppose we're to be held responsible for those induction physical examina escapes, tOO."106 Loescher not only did not connect the Shitaras to the the Shitara story, Black K money but also defended them during the trial. during the Sand Creek Mas~ Loescher demonstrated his allegiance to the Shitara sisters by of Southeastern Colorado r attempting to intervene in their punishment. Significantly, Loescher sent given to the U.S. during pei a letter to Judge J. Foster Symes "requesting leniency for the Japanese Black Kettle nor the Shitan women."107 Loescher offered, "to accept for them any punishment Haider and Loescher's cla which might be given them in a trial of their case." Loescher "felt that against Germany would alsl he and Haider were much guiltier than they ... and felt that the Japanese The prisoners claimed subjects, who in his opinion were less guilty than he, should not have to the Nazis. During the tria pay for their offense."108 Loescher wrote: Denver Post as "bespectac1l Sir! As you now have got my statement I profit by professed their hatred of ~ the opportunity to give the following to your notice: Haider professed he was "a When my comrade Haider spoke to the two Japanese underground, beaten, abuse women (Toots and Billie) for the first time about our camp, from which he was m escape plans they both objected vividly. "There is no be drafted into the army."112 good in escaping for you," they said. "Wait for the war's statement that I escaped frorr end; be patient; keep your health; don't play with your back and fight for Germany. life," was their advice. They pointed out a lot of dangers or Czechoslovakian Legion and circumstances making a flight nearly impossible. know that if the Nazis shoul< But being regardless resolved to realize the escapade the Gestapo arrested him 01 we tried to persuade the women. We had to take many Austria, after he signed "a p troubles by words and by letter to change their mind. against Hitler."113 Haider v. Finally we succeeded. I think it therefore reasonable to camp on November 17, 19, consider us the more guilty part, not the seduced women. until captured in North Afric Without our urgent persuasions they would never have time. 114 agreed. Please regard that matter of fact! The thought of Loescher's argument diJ our helpers being punished is a very bitter one. Is there "was no longer a soldier. ~ really no way for us to milder a possible penalty or to and a man is no longer a Sl take any influence to the verdict? Haider and Loescher proch: I commend this affair to your generosity. against Germany and their 0 Hermann Loescher109

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m camp."IOS The FBI did not The sisters, though they did not testify during the trial, swore to ( more inept in the media than the media they did not aid the prisoners' escape and their allegiance cized escapes. Even Toots, in was to the US. "We are not disloyal," Toots said after the conviction, News during the treason trial, "The husband of one of my sisters is in the United States Army, serving 1 escaping right and left from overseas, and a brother of ours has his notice to report for his pre­ to be held responsible for those induction physical examination."11O Approximately eighty years before not connect the Shitaras to the the Shitara story, Black Kettle proclaimed his allegiance to the U.S. le trial. during the Sand Creek Massacre. These stories from the desolate plains lllce to the Shitara sisters by of Southeastern Colorado resonate with similar themes of allegiances ~nt. Significantly, Loescher sent given to the US. during periods of cultural conflict. However, neither ~sting leniency for the Japanese Black Kettle nor the Shitaras had their allegiance to the US. accepted. cept for them any punishment Haider and Loescher's claims of allegiance to the American cause 'their case," Loescher "felt that against Germany would also fail. they...and felt that the Japanese The prisoners claimed they escaped to return to Europe to fight ;Uilty than he, should not have to the Nazis. During the trial, Haider and Loescher, described by The te: Denver Post as "bespectacled Germans" and as "two Nazi supermen," my statement I profit by professed their hatred of Nazis. III According to The Denver Post, 111owing to your notice: Haider professed he was "a bitter anti-Nazi, a member of the Austrian )ke to the two Japanese underground, beaten, abused and kicked in a German concentration the first time about our camp, from which he was mysteriously, and unexplainably, released to :d vividly. "There is no be drafted into the army."112 Haider told the prosecutor, "I object to the said. "Wait for the war's statement that I escaped from the Trinidad prison camp so that I might go lth; don't play with your back and fight for Germany. I escaped so that I might join the Austrian .inted out a lot of dangers or Czechoslovakian Legion and fight against the Hitler gang. For I flight nearly impossible. know that ifthe Nazis should win, I would be hanged." Haider claimed to realize the escapade the Gestapo arrested him on November 17, 1938, in his native Linz, n, We had to take many Austria, after he signed "a paper calling upon our countrymen to arise er to change their mind. against Hitler."'13 Haider was released from a German concentration it therefore reasonable to camp on November 17, 1940, and then served in the German Army :, not the seduced women. until captured in North Africa in May 1943, after being wounded a third s they would never have time. 114 er offact! The thought of Loescher's argument differed from Haider's in that he argued he l very bitter one. Is there "was no longer a soldier. You take his arms and his company away ~ a possible penalty or to and a man is no longer a soldier, but one who cries for freedom."lls ;t? Haider and Loescher proclaimed allegiance to the Allies in the war lur generosity. against Germany and their only desire in escaping was to fight against Hermann Loeschert09

31 "the Nazis." This put into question the validity of the treason charge "had instructed that all proSt against the Shitaras. If the defense could have presented Haider and the time being."121 The "S1 Loescher as escaping to join the Allied cause, then the sisters would repatriation exchanges with have been aiding the war effort and not treasonous. Defense Attorney time the Spanish Embassy v Kenneth Robinson argued, "the theory of treason is not possible under Japanese nationals in the Un the circumstances, in view ofthe fact that the three women merely were on whether they would agrl releasing prisoners to fight against an enemy of the United States."116 The Denver Post, the trial c The aid the sisters may have given Haider and Loescher in escaping Gripsholm had not left Jap: does not alone explain the sisters' conviction for conspiracy to commit exchanged between the Uni1 treason. before the Gripsholm reach The sisters' conviction was not only due to their aiding in the POWs' hands. To try this case, in tha escape, but their enemy alien identity. Relocation increased public which the American govern sentiment that individuals ofJapanese descent, ofwhich more than two­ arrest of the Shitaras did nc thirds were American citizens, were potential saboteurs. Americans neutral port and the U.S. A did not differentiate between Japanese Americans and the Japanese the not interfere with prisoner Allies were fighting in the Pacific. As a result, the public perceived arrest would interfere with, Japanese Americans as disloyal enemy aliens. The sisters came under the indicates the sisters, who VI jurisdiction of the U.S. Alien Enemy control unit after leaving the camp in the U.S., were viewed b~ to work on the Winger Farm. ll7 After Haider and Loescher's escape, Americans. Like Black Ket1 the FBI forced the Shitara sisters to return to Camp Amache in October earlier, they could not be ") 1943, while the U.S. Attorney's office sought a secret indictment. I 18 The their race, enemy alien lab U.S. Alien Enemy control unit kept track ofthe sisters and asked the FBI their conspiracy conviction. to send any information or "subversive implication on the part either of The FBI officially arres alien Japanese or of Americans of Japanese ancestry who have been them with suspicion ofcons] released under War Relocation Authority procedures."119 Contradicting Their trial, as previously n the U.S. Alien Enemy control unit, Amache Camp Director James United States during World Lindley said all individuals of Japanese ancestry released to work in during the war. The trial n the Trinidad area "were found to be loyal" before charges were brought Americans in U.S. history. against the sisters. 12o The government had to clear up one major issue one of the most extraordina before the sisters' trial began. it has attracted national int The U.S. State Department delayed the arrest and trial of the sisters War II,126 but because of th while negotiating prisoner exchanges with Japan. Japan would return the anti-Nazi element, and 1 captive American soldiers to the U.S. in exchange for Japanese and the most unusual."127 The Japanese American internees who sought repatriation to Japan. These changed their story thougl individuals ofJapanese ancestry gave their allegiance to Japan often due against the sisters was sev to bitterness from the relocation experience. The U.S. Attorney General of Haider and Loescher a

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he validity of the treason charge "had instructed that all prosecutions of Japanese subjects be held up for :ould have presented Haider and the time being."12! The "State Department was trying to effect more ed cause, then the sisters would repatriation exchanges with the Japanese government and at the present ot treasonous. Defense Attorney time the Spanish Embassy was conducting a survey of the treatment of y of treason is not possible under Japanese nationals in the United States in order that Japan might decide hat the three women merely were on whether they would agree to further exchanges." 122 According to l enemy of the United States.""6 The Denver Post, the trial delay occurred because "the exchange ship hider and Loescher in escaping Gripsholm had not left Japan with the last group of Americans to be iviction for conspiracy to commit exchanged between the United States and the Nipponese. It was weeks before the Gripsholm reached a neutral port, and came into American y due to their aiding in the POWs' hands. To try this case, in that period, was fraught with dangers-dangers ty. Relocation increased public which the American government did not wish to face."123 The official descent, ofwhich more than two­ arrest of the Shitaras did not take place until the Gripsholm reached a potential saboteurs. Americans neutral port and the U.S. Attorney General was sure the arrest would ~ Americans and the Japanese the not interfere with prisoner exchanges. The belief that the Shitaras' As a result, the public perceived arrest would interfere with American and Japanese prisoner exchanges aliens. The sisters came under the indicates the sisters, who were American citizens and had lived only :ontrol unit after leaving the camp in the U.S., were viewed by the government as "Japanese" and not as ~r Haider and Loescher's escape, Americans. Like Black Kettle, One-Eye, and even Amache eighty years tum to Camp Amache in October earlier, they could not be "American" due to their race. Once arrested, sought a secret indictment.! 18 The their race, enemy alien label, and gender would be central factors in .ck ofthe sisters and asked the FBI their conspiracy conviction. e implication on the part either of The FBI officially arrested the sisters on May 9, 1944,124 charging apanese ancestry who have been them with suspicion ofconspiracy to commit treason and with treason. 125 rity procedures."1l9 Contradicting Their trial, as previously mentioned, was the third for treason in the Amache Camp Director James United States during World War II and the first, and only, in Colorado ese ancestry released to work in during the war. The trial represented the first treason trial of Japanese Iyal" before charges were brought Americans in U.S. history. The Denver Post proclaimed the trial " ... it had to clear up one major issue one of the most extraordinary cases ever tried in American history, and it has attracted national interest. It is the third treason trial of World :d the arrest and trial of the sisters War II,126 but because of the Japanese-American aspect and because of . with Japan. Japan would return the anti-Nazi element, and the legal problem this inspires, it is certainly S. in exchange for Japanese and the most unusual."127 The sisters denied aiding the escape and never Jght repatriation to Japan. These changed their story though they refused to testify.128 Key evidence their allegiance to Japan often due against the sisters was several Conoco maps found in the possession ience. The U.S. Attorney General of Haider and Loescher at the time of their arrest. FBI fingerprint

33 analysts found Billie's and Toots's fingerprints on a Conoco map of in the court of public opini California-Nevada. 129 However, fingerprint analysis showed more than sensationalizing coverage ( half a dozen FBI agents' fingerprints on the same map. 130 Furthermore, They placed "Jap" in nearly the German POWs entered and exited the Shitara house on the Winger to the sisters' "Oriental" all farm at their own free will and according to Winger, the German POWs Mountain News described tl had "free reign" to go wherever they wanted. 131 Again, Haider did not "sharp black eyes."I40 Wi have a work assignment on the Winger farm but answered to another the object of racial voyeur man's name when the work crew went to the farm each day and he, or Rocky Mountain News desc Loescher, could have taken the maps from the Shitara house without Dame tackle than an evacu the sisters' knowledge. Billie's and Toots's fingerprints would have William's racial features gi been on the maps if the POWs took them from the Shitara house. The that William stand so the jury overlooked this alternative possibility of how Billie's and Toots's audiences "were surprised t fingerprints came to be on the maps. The FBI files and court records Oriental cast is lacking in I do not indicate why the jury overlooked this alternative or if the as having "Anglo-Saxon bl composition of the jury and their possible prejudices factored in the with his physical features b sisters' conviction. member, but I know Negro A jury of the Shitara sisters' peers took little time in reaching a of the country tOO."I44 Toc verdict. The jury consisted of, according to the Rocky Mountain News, conjecture. "12 average men."132 "Only one of those called said he was prejudiced Toots's first husband, ~ "against the Japanese as such" and was dismissed from jury service. 133 Toots remarried to Virgil The Denver Post described the jury as "twelve typical American and the court and newspaJ citizens selected to pass upon the fate of the three Japanese American of a Japanese woman and a women on trial."134 The jury consisted of all white men, and seven Virgil's marriage to a Japar jury members had relatives in the U.S. Army.135 The jury acquitted the dramatized the courtroom sisters of treason, but convicted them of conspiracy to commit treason, public's perception ofthe v and Judge Symes sentenced Billie and Flo to twenty-months in prison The newspapers height and a $1,000 fine while Toots, the alleged ringleader,136 received a two­ the relationship between tl year prison sentence and a $1,000 fine. Each ofthe women had a child, called the relationship bet" so Toots asked Judge Symes ifshe could serve the sentence ofone ofher claimed the women were l sisters, in addition to her own sentence, so that at least one sister would District Attorney Ivor O. 1 be free to look after their children. 137 Toots displayed her allegiance the German POWs were" to her sisters by the request. Judge Symes denied the request. 138 The now about to tell, even thm jury alone is not responsible for the conviction. The media played a whom they made love go to major role in sensationalizing the trial and representing the women to courtroom descriptions of the public, and possibly to the jury, as disloyal. disloyal to their husbands. The Denver Post and Rocky Mountain News convicted the women he searched Haider: one of

34 ingerprints on a Conoco map of in the court of public opinion and contributed to the guilty verdict by :rprint analysis showed more than sensationalizing coverage of the arrest and trial to titillate the public. ::m the same map.130 Furthennore, They placed "Jap" in nearly all news headlines and continually referred .the Shitara house on the Winger to the sisters' "Oriental" and "Japanese" physical features. The Rocky ng to Winger, the Gennan POWs Mountain News described the sisters as "young Oriental women"139 with wanted. 131 Again, Haider did not "sharp black eyes."140 William Tanigoshi, Billie's husband, became ;er farm but answered to another the object of racial voyeurism and speculation. During the trial, the It to the fann each day and he, or Rocky Mountain News described William as looking "more like a Notre , from the Shitara house without Dame tackle than an evacuee of Japanese ancestry."141 Speculation on Toots's fingerprints would have William's racial features gained center stage when the court requested lem from the Shitara house. The that William stand so the audience could see him. The courtroom )ility of how Billie's and Toots's audiences "were surprised that Tanigoshi is of Japanese ancestry, as the The FBI files and court records Oriental cast is lacking in his rugged face."142 William was described ooked this alternative or if the as having "Anglo-Saxon blood."143 William reacted to the fascination Issible prejudices factored in the with his physical features by stating, "It's tough to be a racial minority member, but I know Negro soldiers are having a hard time in some parts :rs took little time in reaching a of the country tOO."I44 Toots's husband also became a focus of racial ing to the Rocky Mountain News, conjecture. ose called said he was prejudiced Toots's first husband, Tom Endo, a fishennan, was lost at sea but as dismissed from jury service. 133 Toots remarried to Virgil Cleo Wallace. 145 Virgil was a white man, y as "twelve typical American and the court and newspapers were fascinated with the intennarriage : of the three Japanese American of a Japanese woman and a white man. 146 The newspapers implied that ted of all white men, and seven Virgil's marriage to a Japanese woman was "suspect." The newspapers . Army.135 The jury acquitted the dramatized the courtroom racialization of the trial and fed into the of conspiracy to commit treason, public's perception of the women as enemy aliens incapable ofloyalty. 1 Flo to twenty-months in prison The newspapers heightened the sensationalization by focusing on ged ringleader, 136 received a two­ the relationship between the women and prisoners. The prosecutors . Each ofthe women had a child, called the relationship between the women and prisoners "sexual," and ld serve the sentence ofone ofher claimed the women were unfaithful to their husbands. Assistant U.S. ~, so that at least one sister would District Attorney Ivor O. Wingram's opening statement detailed how Toots displayed her allegiance the Gennan POWs were "men who 'kissed' and, having kissed, were ,ymes denied the request. 138 The now about to tell, even though the telling might mean that the women to ::onviction. The media played a whom they made love go to the gallows." 147 The newspapers embellished 1and representing the women to courtroom descriptions of the women as not only unfaithful, but also disloyal. disloyal to their husbands. Police Chief Utz found three photos when ztain News convicted the women he searched Haider: one of Toots with Heinrich Haider and two photos

35 148 of Billie with Martin Bazkes. The newspapers published the innocent arrest of the photographs. photographs of the Germans hugging the women and with their arms "if anything had been take! around them. The photos first appeared in The Denver Post on October the negative."l60 Utz "had l 24, 1943, and referred to the photos in the news story as "petting parties" Hathaway upon finding th and "the German and lap girl are shown wrapped in each other's to keep them for themseh arms, engaging in a kissing fest."149 "Snapshots that formed part of the investigating FBI agent the investigation showed these young women in warm and cooperative local Las Vegas newspaper, embrace with the Nazi non-coms."150 On August 8, 1944, The Denver individual embracing a lapa Post referred to the photos as showing "passionate love making."151 The the Denver POSt."162 Chief1 Denver Post claimed, "These pictures...were printed in the Post and crossed, inasmuch as the Edi started the investigation which resulted in the trial."152 They used the had forwarded these photog caption "Allies in Arms"153 and headlines such as "Love Tryst Photos Utz originally gave the phOl Introduced in Denver Treason Trial"154 and "German Prisoners Spooned Optic editor got hold ofther With lap Girls in Trinidad"155 to exaggerate courtroom events. Toots Utz said, "He did not reali denied there was any "lovemaking" between the sisters and the POWs. military standpoint, and ha~ She argued the photos were made in fun and that "Yes, I stood beside in giving the pictures to his one of the Germans and he put his arm around me, but I don't see any investigating FBI agent de harm in that."156 The newspaper referred to the sisters as "girls," though cooperative."166 Neverthele Billie was 32 years old, Flo was 33 years old, and Toots 34 years old. wary of the law enforcemel1 Large city newspapers across the country sensationalized the case, but and notified the El Paso Spe< their coverage was more limited. The Washington Post referred to the favorable comments concen case as a "'Little Axis' Drama Near Colorado Camp" and the photos as you to personally discuss wi "love scenes."157 The newspapers supplied the public with racialized and handling ofthe case.... The sexualized portrayals ofenemy aliens who were disloyal to their country be particularly cautious in and their husbands. Federal jury trials did not require sequestering, so these officers to prevent a • jurors most likely read newspaper accounts of the trial and it is likely and Hathaway's allegiance that these accounts influenced the verdict. 158 The government not only even though Hathaway reas questioned the sisters' allegiances during the trial, but the allegiances of the U.S. Navy. 168 The FBI v the police officers who arrested Haider and Loescher. allegiance, but in the alle~ An interesting aspect of the FBI investigation into the arrest of News 'reporters during the t Haider and Loescher was the FBI's questioning of the allegiances of The FBI questioned the Las Vegas, New Mexico Police Chief Nolan Utz and New Mexico News' reporters during thl State Patrolman Albert H. Hathaway. Chief Utz searched Haider and advised the bureau that dUril Loescher and found three photographs ofwhich one showed Toots with during the cross examinatio 159 Heinrich Haider and the two of Billie with Martin Bazkes. Utz did is testifying for the Govern not inform the unidentified FBI agent present at the escaped POWs substance he explained it We

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,ewspapers published the innocent arrest of the photographs. In fact, the agent asked Utz and Hathaway ~ the women and with their arms "if anything had been taken from the prisoners" and they replied "in ~d in The Denver Post on October the negative."16o Utz "had determined that he and State Police Officer the news story as "petting parties" Hathaway upon finding the photographs in question" had "decided shown wrapped in each other's to keep them for themselves."161 Chief Utz subsequently informed "Snapshots that formed part of the investigating FBI agent that a friend of his on the Daily Optic, a women in warm and cooperative local Las Vegas newspaper, "asked him for the picture ofthe unknown On August 8, 1944, The Denver individual embracing a Japanese girl, which subsequently was printed in ."passionate love making."151 The the Denver Post." 162 ChiefUtz advised the agent "he had been double­ ~s ...were printed in the Post and crossed, inasmuch as the Editor ofthe Daily Optic, Mr. Walter T. Vivian, ed in the trial."152 They used the had forwarded these photographs to the Denver Post for publication. 163" lines such as "Love Tryst Photos Utz originally gave the photographs to a friend and somehow the Daily

4 and "German Prisoners Spooned Optic editor got hold ofthem and sent the photos to The Denver Post. 164 ggerate courtroom events. Toots Utz said, "He did not realize the significance of the pictures from a letween the sisters and the POWs. military standpoint, and had he known of the consequences of his act fun and that "Yes, I stood beside in giving the pictures to his friend he would not have done so. "165 The m around me, but I don't see any investigating FBI agent described Utz and Hathaway as "extremely red to the sisters as "girls," though cooperative."166 Nevertheless, FBI Director John Edgar Hoover was rears old, and Toots 34 years old. wary ofthe law enforcement officials' allegiance to the FBI and nation mtry sensationalized the case, but and notified the EI Paso Special Agent in Charge (SAC), "Inview ofyour e Washington Post referred to the favorable comments concerning these officers, authorization is given to ~olorado Camp" and the photos as you to personally discuss with them their actions in connection with the Jlied the public with racialized and handling ofthe case.... The bureau is still ofthe opinion that you should who were disloyal to their country be particularly cautious in your future dealings and associations with Is did not require sequestering, so these officers to prevent a recurrence of the instant situation."167 Utz :counts of the trial and it is likely and Hathaway'S allegiance to the FBI and U.S. remained questionable :dict. 158 The government not only even though Hathaway reasserted his allegiance to the U.S. by joining lng the trial, but the allegiances of the U.S. Navy. 168 The FBI was not only interested in the police officers' ~r and Loescher. allegiance, but in the allegiances of the Rocky Mountain News and I investigation into the arrest of News' reporters during the trial questioning of the allegiances of The FBI questioned the loyalty of the Rocky Mountain News and ief Nolan Utz and New Mexico News' reporters during the Shitara trial. FBI agent RP. Kraemer . Chief Utz searched Haider and advised the bureau that during the trial, on August 9, 1944, "an attorney, s ofwhich one showed Toots with during the cross examination of one of the German prisons of war who 159 e with Martin Bazkes. Utz did is testifying for the Government, asked him what the Gestapo was. In :nt present at the escaped POWs substance he explained it was'something like the FBI, but more brutal. '

37 However, the press which is covering this trial almost verbatim today of the jury, were they true reports that he remarked it was 'something like the FBI, but not quite traitors-little Benedict At as brutal. "'169 Hoover demanded to know if the statement was correct or if the Rocky Mountain News intentionally misstated the prisoner's After the trial "Judge ~ words to represent the FBI in a negative light. 170 The quotation was he wanted to emphasize tl correct in the Rocky Mountain News when checked against the court and had received an impart reporter's transcription of court proceedings. U.S. Attorney Thomas and Black Kettle, the Shi J. Morrissey and the court reporter "expressed the opinion that Haider government and the nation was very confused and excited, and that he undoubtedly mis-stated himself."171 Morrissey was convinced that what Haider actually meant they claimed allegiance to . to say, "was that the FBI and the Gestapo were similar in that they are have been. During times 0 engaged in intelligence work, but that the Gestapo was more brutal than their loyalty questioned bU1 the FBI."l72 FBI Agent R.P. Kraemer was not convinced and informed never prove their loyalty 1 Hoover that, "From the manner in which the Rocky Mountain News these periods of obsession handled the reporting of the trial of this case, there is some doubt in and whites who intermarri, my mind as to the sincerity of the expressed friendship of this paper for disloyal. During World " the Bureau." Kraemer noted, "The Bureau may be assured that I shall reached a furor that miff< watch this matter very closely and take all proper steps to protect the witch hunts of the 1950s, bureau's interests so far as this newspaper is concerned. It is observed of disloyalty as the Bents that one of the articles gives the by-line of JACK FOSTER, whereas race, intermarriage with no] the others are not signed. Efforts will be made to obtain necessary nonwhite people, and publ information concerning FOSTER and his feelings for the Bureau."l71 of their loyalties prevented After the Rocky Mountain News reverified the quotation, the issue of the eyes of the nation. Denial c News' allegiance was resolved and never again mentioned in FBI letters their being American becal and memorandums. 174 The final day of the sisters' trial was the most nation of an individual's al dramatic and illustrated the centrality of allegiances in the case. and acknowledgment of inc On the final day of the trial, prosecuting attorney Morrissey held up disloyal and an enemy aliet the photo of Toots and Haider and argued the women betrayed the U.S. and the Bent brothers, rerr and gave their love, their allegiance, to the German paws. Morrissey subjected to social and polit stated, "It is, I say, the old, old story of woman. It is the things that the complicated choices the passeth understanding. They are the way ofthe bird in the air, the way realities they lived. In myri, of the serpent upon the rock, the way of a ship at sea-and the way of predecessors of the dry wi a man with a maid."175 Morrissey argued, "Love-Love! Fie on love! history are similar to and d I say these women are traitors-traitors! I say fie on love and fie on their allegiance to the U.S., sympathy. These were married women. Ifthis be American love, God them as traitors. However help us-God help our democracy."176 Morrissey concluded, "These Southeastern Colorado coul women-these traitors...were not true to their husbands nor, gentlemen government, and people a(

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g this trial almost verbatim today of the jury, were they true to the United States of America. Traitors, ething like the FBI, but not quite traitors-little Benedict Arnolds in skirts."177 mow if the statement was correct CONCLUSION ntionally misstated the prisoner's 170 After the trial "Judge Symes remarked, after passing sentence, that ative light. The quotation was he wanted to emphasize that the Japanese sisters are American sisters ~ when checked against the court and had received an impartial trial."178 However, like the Bent brothers :eedings. U.S. Attorney Thomas and Black Kettle, the Shitara sisters could not be Americans. The expressed the opinion that Haider government and the nation treated them as disloyal no matter how often i that he undoubtedly mis-stated they claimed allegiance to the U.S. or how earnest their allegiance may d that what Haider actually meant have been. During times of cultural conflict all people seemed to have !itapo were similar in that they are their loyalty questioned but the Shitaras, Bents, and Black Kettle could :the Gestapo was more brutal than never prove their loyalty to the U.S. like white individuals. During r was not convinced and informed these periods of obsession with allegiances, men and women of color ~hich the Rocky Mountain News and whites who intermarried with people of color, were perceived as this case, there is some doubt in disloyal. During World War II, when the obsession with allegiances >ressed friendship of this paper for reached a furor that mirrored the oncoming McCarthy communist 3ureau may be assured that I shall ake all proper steps to protect the witch hunts of the 1950s, Japanese Americans were the focal point paper is concerned. It is observed of disloyalty as the Bents and Black Kettle were in their era. Their ·line of JACK FOSTER, whereas race, intermarriage with nonwhites, mixed race children, allegiances to ,vill be made to obtain necessary nonwhite people, and public, government, and media misperceptions ld his feelings for the Bureau."173 of their loyalties prevented them from being loyal Americans in the i.fied the quotation, the issue ofthe eyes of the nation. Denial of their allegiance to the U.S. was denial of ~ver again mentioned in FBI letters their being American because citizenship requires acceptance by the , of the sisters' trial was the most nation of an individual's allegiance. Without the nation's acceptance , of allegiances in the case. and acknowledgment of individual's allegiance the individual remains ~cuting attorney Morrissey held up disloyal and an enemy alien. The sisters, like Black Kettle, One-Eye, gued the women betrayed the U.S. and the Bent brothers, remained disloyal enemy aliens. They were to the German paws. Morrissey subjected to social and political forces that denied them allegiance, and y of woman. It is the things that the complicated choices they made allowed them to mediate the harsh way of the bird in the air, the way realities they lived. In myriad ways, the Shitara sisters and their disloyal { of a ship at sea-and the way of predecessors of the dry windswept plains of Southeastern Colorado gued, "Love-Love! Fie on love! history are similar to and different from Benedict Arnold. They gave tors! I say fie on love and fie on their allegiance to the U.S., like Benedict Arnold, and the nation saw en. If this be American love, God them as traitors. However, unlike Benedict Arnold, these traitors of '176 Morrissey concluded, "These Southeastern Colorado could never have the acceptance of the nation, e to their husbands nor, gentlemen government, and people accorded Benedict Arnold because of their

39 race and the allegiances they made with Indians, Mexicans, and other Endnotes nonwhite people. The Shitara sisters, "little Benedict Arnolds in skirts," could not be This article would not have b traitors because America never accepted them as American and the nation Jared Orsi of the Colorado Sta never accorded them the honor and hero status given Benedict Arnold 2 U.S. Department of Justice ["l before he purportedly betrayed the embryonic nation. The Shitaras, Bent hereafter], Interview Report, 1 1960, Bureau File #LA 93-191 brothers, Black Kettle, One-Eye, and Amache lived in Southeastern PA request" hereafter]. Colorado during periods of cultural conflict and contestation. They 3 United States District Court formed allegiances to mediate these cultural conflicts, but the American Florence Shine Otani, Tsuruk government and people viewed their allegiances as disloyalty. The 4 Letter from Wanda M. Hunt, ( public, government, and media convicted the sisters of conspiracy to to Author, Dec. 19,2005. commit treason based on misperceptions of their loyalties. The Shitara 5 USDOJ, FBI, Interview Repor sisters, like the individuals in prior Southeastern Colorado allegiance 6 USDOJ, FBI, Ascertaining Fi stories, could not win. The government sentenced the Shitaras to prison TEW file, FOIfPA request. for their alleged disloyalty while U.S. soldiers murdered One-Eye and 7 n.a., "Jap Treason Trial Starts. Black Kettle. William Bent, out ofloyalty to the Cheyenne and Arapaho, 8 John H. Schaar, Loyalty in Am attempted to mediate with the army to protect them but failed. These 9 Ibid., 3. loyalty conflicts permeate Southeastern Colorado history and explain 10 Ibid., 4 the complex social relations that pervade the region's history. The 11 Ibid., v. buried history of Southeastern Colorado possesses a myriad of "little 12 HaroldGuetzkow,"TheAdapt Benedict Arnolds" and through examining their stories, the region's in G.N.D. Evan, ed., Allegia; history of conflict and cultural contestation is exhumed. 1969),174. 13 Ibid. 14 Morton Grodzins, The Loyal Treason (Chicago, 1956),5-6. 15 Ibid.. 105-131. 16 Robert Sanchez, "Plains Gro Denver and the West section. 17 David Lavender, "Bent's Fo Fogelberg, eds., Western VoiCt 18 Ibid., 196. 19 Ibid., 195. 20 Stephen G. Hyslop, Bound) Conquest, 1806-1848 (Norm~ 21 Lavender, "Bent's Fort and N 22 Ibid., 197.

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ndians, Mexicans, and other Endnotes nolds in skirts," could not be This article would not have been possible without the valuable insights offered by Dr. :m as American and the nation Jared Orsi of the Colorado State University History Department. ;tatus given Benedict Arnold 2 U.S. Department of Justice ["USDOJ" hereafter], Federal Bureau ofInvestigations ["FBI" [lic nation. The Shitaras, Bent hereafter], Interview Report, Tsuruko Endo Wallace file ['TEW file" hereafter], Feb. 18, nache lived in Southeastern 1960, Bureau File #LA 93-1918, Freedom ofInformation and Privacy Acts Request ["FOIl PArequest" hereafter]. [lict and contestation. They 3 United States District Court ["USDC" hereafter], Judgment and Commitment papers, al conflicts, but the American Florence Shivze Otani, Tsuruko Wallace, and Billie Shitara Tanigoshi, Aug. 18, 1944. egiances as disloyalty. The 4 Letter from Wanda M. Hunt, Chief, FOIlPA Section, USDOJ, Federal Bureau of Prisons, l the sisters of conspiracy to to Author, Dec. 19,2005. )f their loyalties. The Shitara 5 USDOJ, FBI, Interview Report, TEW file, Feb. 18, 1960. ~eastern Colorado allegiance 6 USDOJ, FBI, Ascertaining Financial Ability, Bureau File # 93-21948, April 25, 1960, ntenced the Shitaras to prison TEW file, FOI/PA request. diers murdered One-Eye and 7 n.a., "Jap Treason Trial Starts Here Today," Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 7, 1944. to the Cheyenne and Arapaho, 8 John H. Schaar, Loyalty in America (Westport, CN: Greenwood Press, 1982 [1957]),3. otect them but failed. These 9 Ibid., 3. :olorado history and explain 10 Ibid., 4 e the region's history. The 11 Ibid.. v. possesses a myriad of "little 12 Harold Guetzkow, "The Adaptiveness of Loyalty Depends Upon the Nature of the Source," llg their stories, the region's in G.ND. Evan, ed., Allegiance in America: The Case of the Loyalists (Reading, MA, n is exhumed. 1969), 174. 13 Ibid. 14 Morton Grodzins, The Loyal and the Disloyal: Social Boundaries of Patriotism and Treason (Chicago, 1956),5-6. 15 Ibid., 105-131. 16 Robert Sanchez, "Plains Grow More Lonesome," The Denver Post, March 16, 2006, Denver and the West section. 17 David Lavender, "Bent's Fort and Manifest Destiny," in Steven Grinstead and Ben Fogelberg, eds., Western Voices: 125 Years ofColorado Writing (Golden, CO, 2004),185. 18 Ibid., 196. 19 Ibid., 195. 20 Stephen G. Hyslop, Bound for Santa Fe: The Road to New Mexico and the American Conquest, 1806-1848 (Norman, OK, 2002). 225. 21 Lavender, "Bent's Fort and Manifest Destiny," Ibid., 194 and 195. 22 Ibid., 197.

41 23 David Fridtjof Halaas and Andrew E. Masich, Haljbreed: The Remarkable True Story of 52 Miller Freeman, testimony hef( George Bent-Caught Between the Worlds ofthe Indian and the White Man (Cambridge, Defense Migration, Washingtol MA, 2004), 23. General), testimony before tI Defense Migration, Washingtc 24 Lavender, "Bent's Fort and Manifest Destiny," 199. Without Trial: Japanese Ameri 25 Ibid., 195. 53 Grapes, Japanese American In 26 Ibid., 193. 54 Robert Harvey, Amache: The 5 27 Ibid., 202-203. World War II (New York, 2004 28 Jerome A. Greene, Washita: The U.S. Army and the Southern Cheyenne. 1867-1869 55 Ibid., 72-73. (Norman, OK, 2004), 4. 56 Jerry Kang, "Thinking Throug 29 Gary L. Roberts and David Fridtjof, "Written in Blood: The Soule-Cramer Sand Creek T. Nakanishig, eds., Asian Ami Massacre Letters," in Steven Grinstead and Ben Fogelberg, eds., Western Voices: 125 57 Lieutenant General John L. Years of-Colorado Writing (Golden, CO, 2004), 320. Washington, D.C., June 5, 19, 30 Halaas and Masich, Haljbreed, 120. West Coast, 1942, Washington 31 Roberts and Fridtjof, Washita, 321 and 322. 58 Jerry Stanley,! Am an Americl 32 Ibid., 323. 65. Peter Irons, ed., Justice L r Cases (Middletown, CN, 1989 33 Ibid. 34 Ibid., 321, 325, and 327. 59 Ibid. Roger Daniels, Concentration 35 Ibid., 324 and 325. 60 \ York, 1972), 104. 36 Halaas and Masich,Haljbreed, 147. •\ 61 This number includes Japam 37 Roberts and Fridtjof, Washita, 324. t prohibited from becoming m

38 Ibid., 320. 1I deliberately excluded Asians I 39 Ibid., 335. I congress allowed Chinese irnr ~ naturalization of Filipinos an< 40 Greene, Washita, 26 and Thorn Hatch, Black Kettle: The Cheyenne Chief Who Sought r I would naturalization be possi Peace but Found War (Hoboken, NJ, 2004),147 and 156. [ ! Daniels, Prisoners Without Tn 41 Ibid.. 2. 88. 42 Halaas and Masich, Haljbreed, 109. 62 Diane Yancey, Life in a Japan 43 Lavender, "Bent's Fort and Manifest Destiny," 204. 63 Hirabayashi v. United States, 44 Halaas and Masich, Haljbreed, 44. 64 Yasui v. United States, 320 U. 45 Ibid., 121. 65 Korematsu v. United States, 3 46 Greene, Washita, 145 and 164. 66 Kang, "Thinking Through Int 47 Ibid., 164. 67 Peter Irons, Justice Delayed, 48 Arnold Krammer, Nazi Prisoners ofWar in America (New York, 1996). 128. 68 Michi Nishiura Weglyn, Yeal 49 Ann Howard Creel, The Magic ofOrdinary Days (New York, 2001) Camps (Seattle, 1996),84. 50 Walter Lippman, "The Fifth Column on the Coast," Los Angeles Times, Feb. 12,1942. 69 Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farm California, 1919-1982 (Ithac 51 Grapes, Bryan J., ed. Japanese American Internment Camps (San Diego, 2001),191. Michael L. Cooper, Fighting for Honor: Japanese Americans and World War II (New 70 Francis McCollum Feeley, A York, 2000), 7-8. Science and the Japanese A"

42 \

fbreed: The Remarkable True Story of 52 Miller Freeman, testimony before the U.S. House Select Committee Investigating National dian and the White Man (Cambridge, Defense Migration, Washington, D.c., Feb. 21 ,23, 1942. Earl Warren (CaliforniaAttorney General), testimony before the U.S. House Select Committee Investigating National Defense Migration, Washington, D.C., Feb. 21, 23, 1942. Tetsuden Kashima, Judgment Without Trial: Japanese American Imprisonment During World War 1/ (Seattle, 2003). 53 Grapes, Japanese American Internment Camps, 191. 54 Robert Harvey, Amache: The Story ofJapanese American Internment in Colorado During World War 1/ (New York, 2004), 41-42. the Southern Cheyenne, 1867-1869 55 Ibid., 72-73. 56 Jerry Kang, "Thinking Through Internment: 12/7 and 9/11," in Russell C. Leong and Don ,lood: The Soule-Cramer Sand Creek T. Nakanishig, eds., Asian Americans on War and Peace (Los Angeles, 2002), 56. ·ogelberg, eds., Western Voices: 125 J. 57 Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt to Chief of Staff, U.S. Army, War Department, Washington, D.C., June 5, 1943 in DeWitt, Final Report: Japanese Evacuation from the West Coast, 1942, Washington, D.C., 1943, vii. 58 Jerry Stanley, I Am an American: A True Story ofJapanese Internment (New York, 1994), 65. Peter Irons, ed., Justice Delayed: The Record of the Japanese American Internment Cases (Middletown, CN, 1989), 17. 59 Ibid. 60 Roger Daniels, Concentration Camps U.S.: Japanese Americans and World War 1/ (New York, 1972), 104. 61 This number includes Japanese not born in the United States and, therefore, legally prohibited from becoming naturalized U.S. citizens. The Naturalization Act of 1870 deliberately excluded Asians from those who could be naturalized citizens. In 1943, congress allowed Chinese immigrants to become naturalized. In 1946, congress allowed naturalization of Filipinos and Asian Indians. Not until the 1952 McCarran-Walter Act Ie: The Cheyenne Chief Who Sought would naturalization be possible for all Asians including Japanese immigrants. Roger d 156. Daniels, Prisoners Without Trial: Japanese Americans in World War II (New York, 1993), 88. 62 Diane Yancey, Life in a Japanese American Internment Camp (San Diego, 1998), 84. 63 Hirabayashi v. United States, 320 U.S. 81 (1943). 64 Yasui v. United States, 320 U.S. 115-<1943). 65 Korematsu v. United States, 323 U.S. 214 (1944). 66 Kang, "Thinking Through Internment," 56. 67 Peter Irons, Justice Delayed, 105. I (New York, 1996), 128. 68 Michi Nishiura Weglyn, Years of Infamy: The Untold Story of America's Concentration ~ew York, 2001) Camps (Seattle, 1996),84. Los Angeles Times, Feb. 12, 1942. 69 Valerie J. Matsumoto, Farming the Home Place: A Japanese American Community in California, 1919-1982 (Ithaca, 1983), 120. ~ent Camps (San Diego, 200l), 191. ~ Americans and World War 1/ (New 70 Francis McCollum Feeley, America's Concentration Camps During World War 1/: Social Science and the Japanese American Internment (New Orleans, 1999), 17-38.

43 71 Jerry Stanley, I Am an American, 65. Peter Irons, Justice Delayed, 66. Erica Harth, ed., 87 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum f Last Witnesses: Reflections on the Wartime Internment ofJapanese Americans (New York, Hoover, Nov. 10, 1943, TEW f 2001),284. 88 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SA 72 Stanley, I Am an American, 65. Peter Irons, Justice Delayed, 195. Wendy Ng, Japanese Hoover, Nov. 9,1943, TEW fil American Internment During World War II: A History and Reference Guide (Westport, 89 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum fr CN,2002). Nov. 10, 1943, TEW file, FOIIJ 73 Stanley, I Am an American, 67. Wendy Ng, Japanese American Internment During World USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SP War II. Yancey, Life in a Japanese American Internment Camp, 78. Hoover, Nov. 9,1943, TEW fil 74 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Special Agent in Charge 90 USDOJ, FBI, Special Messa: ["SAC" hereafter] Denver. TEW file: Japanese Evacuee Granted Leave from a War Roosevelt's Special Assistant 1­ Relocation Center, July 26, 1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request. 91 Ibid. 75 n.a., "Three Jap-U.S. Sisters Aren't Traitors But Loyal Americans, Eldest Says," Rocky 92 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum fr, Mountain News, May 11, 1944. Edgar Hoover, Nov. 9,1943, T 76 "Jury Quickly Chosen in Denver Treason Trial of Jap Women," The Denver Post, August 93 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum fr 7,1944. Nov. 10,1943, TEW file, FOIl 77 USDOJ, FBI, Memo from FBI Denver to Directors El Paso, Oklahoma City, Dallas, 94 Arnold Krammer, Nazi Prisonl San Antonio, Kansas City, Salt Lake City, and Denver, Oct. 18, 1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request. 95 Ibid. 78 USDOJ, FBI, Memo from FBI EI Paso to Directors Denver, Oklahoma City, Dallas, San 96 n.a., "3 U.S. -Jap Sisters Faci Antonio, Kansas City, Phoenix, and Salt Lake City Denver, Oct. 19, 1943, TEW file, FOIl May 10,1944,5. PA request, and Memorandum for the Attorney General from FBI Director John Edgar 97 Ibid. Hoover, Oct. 23, 1943. 98 Ibid., 115-116. 79 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Agent D.M. Ladd to FBI Director John Edgar 99 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum j Hoover, Nov. 10, 1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1. Hoover, Nov. 10, 1943, TEW j 80 USDOJ. FBI, Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Assistant Attorney General USDOJ, FBI, Case File # 100­ Tom C. Clark, Nov. 6,1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request, 3. 100 Ibid., 116. 81 Ibid., 14 and "Jury Quickly Chosen in Denver Treason Trial of Jap Women," The Denver Post, Aug. 7, 1944. 101 Ibid., 120. 82 Ibid. 102 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum' Hoover, Nov. 10, 1943, TEW I 83 Ibid. and USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI Denver Nicholson to Director and SAC EI Paso, Nov. 3, 1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 3. 103 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File numbel 84 Ibid., 18. 104 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File numbel 85 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to SAC EI Paso, Oct. 29, 105 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI 1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request and "Jury Quickly Chosen in Denver Treason Trial of Jap PA request.

Women," The Denver Post, Aug. 7, 1944. n.a., "Two Fugitives Nazi Prisoners Caught at 106 n.a., "Three Jap-U.S. Sisters J Watrous, N.M.," The Denver Post, Oct. 19, 1943, n.p. USDOJ, FBI, Case File number Mountain News, May II, 19~ 100-3198, Nov. 3,1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request, 1-14,12. 107 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum f 86 n.a., "Two Fugitives Nazi Prisoners Caught at Watrous, N.M.," The Denver Post, Oct. 19, general Tom C. Clark, Nov. I~ 1943, n.p. 108 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from D Hoover, Nov. 9, 1943, TEW fi

44

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ustice Delayed, 66. Erica Harth, ed., 87 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Agent D.M. Ladd to FBI Director John Edgar nt ofJapanese Americans (New York, Hoover, Nov. 10.1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1. 88 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SAC Denver GA. Nicholson to FBI Director John Edgar .Delayed, 195. Wendy Ng, Japanese Hoover, Nov. 9,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1-2, 1. rory and Reference Guide (Westport, 89 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Attorney General, Nov. 10. 1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request. e American Internment During World USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SAC Denver GA. Nicholson to FBI Director John Edgar ment Camp, 78. Hoover, Nov. 9, 1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request, 1-2, 1. r Hoover to Special Agent in Charge 90 USDOJ, FBI, Special Message from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to President lvacuee Granted Leave from a War Roosevelt's Special Assistant Harry L. Hopkins, Nov. 17.1943, TEW file, FOIlPArequest. .request. 91 Ibid. 3yal Americans, Eldest Says," Rocky 92 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from Denver FBI SAC G.A. Nicholson to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Nov. 9, 1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request. lp Women," The Denver Post, August 93 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Attorney General, Nov. 10,1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request. lrs El Paso, Oklahoma City, Dallas, 94 Arnold Krammer, Nazi Prisoners of War in America, 115. ver, Oct. 18,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA 95 Ibid. : Denver, Oklahoma City, Dallas, San 96 n.a.. "3 U.S. -Jap Sisters Facing Treason trial in Aid to Nazis." Rocky Mountain News, )enver, Oct. 19, 1943,TEWfile, FOIl May 10.1944,5. meral from FBI Director John Edgar 97 Ibid. 98 Ibid., 115-116. L Ladd to FBI Director John Edgar 99 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Agent D.M. Ladd to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Nov. 10, 1943, TEW file. FOIlPArequest, 3. Hoover to Assistant Attorney General USDOJ, FBI, Case File # 100-3674. Oct. 30, 1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1-32,3. .est,3. 100 Ibid., 116. ion Trial of Jap Women," The Denver 101 Ibid., 120. 102 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Agent D.M. Ladd to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Nov. 10,1943, TEW file, FOIlPArequest, 3. :holson to Director and SAC El Paso, 103 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File number 100-3674, June 6,1944, TEW file, FOIIPArequest, 1-7,2. 104 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File number 100-3674, July 7.1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1-4,2.

if Hoover to SAC El Paso, Oct. 29, 105 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI, L.B. Nichols to M.A. Jones, May 8, 1944, TEW file, FOIl :hosen in Denver Treason Trial of Jap PArequest. 10 Fugitives Nazi Prisoners Caught at 106 n.a., "Three Jap-U.S. Sisters Aren't Traitors But Loyal Americans, Eldest Says," Rocky p. USDOJ, FBI, Case File number Mountain News, May 11, 1944. 1-14,12. 107 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Assistant Attorney lUS, N.M.," The Denver Post, Oct. 19, general Tom C. Clark, Nov. 15,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request. 108 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from Denver SAC G.A. Nicholson to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Nov. 9, 1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request.

45 109 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from Hermann Loescher to Judge 1. Foster Symes, Nov. 5, 1944, 129 USDOJ, FBI, Special Messa! TEW file, FOIlPA request. USDC, Letter from Hermann Loescher to Judge J. Foster November 25,1943, TEW filt Symes, Nov. 5,1944. USDOJ, FBI, FBI Fingerprinl 110 n.a., " 3 U.S.-Jap Sisters Aren't Traitors But Loyal Americans, Eldest Says," Rocky FOl/PA request. Mountain News, May 11,1944,1. USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI 111 n.a., "German Says Jap Girls Wanted To Help Allies," The Denver Post, Aug. 8, 1944, 1 Tom C. Clark, Nov. 29, 1943, and 3. 130 USDOJ, FB I, Letter from FBI 112 Ibid. TEW file, FOliPA request. 113 Ibid. 131 Jack Foster, "Treason Trial r:: Mountain News, Aug. 14,194 114 Ibid. 132 n.a., "German's Testimony St 115 Ibid. 1944,5 and 18. 116 n.a., "German's Testimony Stuns Treason Trial Court," Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 8, 1944,5 and 18. 133 Ibid. 134 n.a., "Jury Quickly Chosen ir 117 USDC, FBI, Alien Enemy Control Unit, Memorandum from Alien Enemy Control Unit Aug. 7,1944,1 and 5. Director Edward J. Ennis to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Oct. 29,1943, TEW file, FOl/PA request. 135 Ibid. 118 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from J.K. Mumford to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Dec. 136 n.a., "Jap Girls Given Terms in 8, 1943, TEW file, FOl/PA request. 1 and 5. 119 USDOJ, FBI, Alien Enemy Control Unit, Memorandum from Alien Enemy Control Unit 137 n.a., "3 Jap Sisters Sentenced i Director Edward J. Ennis to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Oct. 29,1943, TEW file, n.a., "3 U.S. -Jap Sisters Faci FOl/PA request. May 10,1944,5. 120 USDOJ, FBI, Alien Enemy Control Unit, Memorandum from Alien Enemy Control Unit 138 Ibid. Director Edward 1. Ennis to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Oct. 29, 1943, TEW file, 139 n.a., "3 U.S. -Jap Sisters Fad FOl/PA request. May 10,1944,5. JackFoster 121 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI FL Welch to Mr. Ladd, Jan. 8, 1944, TEW file, Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 9 FOIlPA request. 140 n.a., "Mate of Jap Woman Ace USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Denver SAC, Jan. 8, 1944. News, May 12,1944, n.p. TEW file, FOIlPA request. 141 Ibid. 122 Ibid. 142 Jack Foster, "Three Jap-U.S. S 123 n.a., "Three Jap Girls Convicted of Plot to Commit Treason," The Denver Post, Aug. 11, Mountain News, Aug. 12, 19~ 1944,1 and 3. None of Jap-U.S. Sisters Testil

124 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from Duffey to FBI Denver, May 9,1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request. 143 Jack Foster, "Three Jap-U.S. ~ Mountain News, Aug. 12, 194< 125 USDOJ, FBI, FBI Teletype, May 3, 1944, TEW file, FOl/PA request. 144 Jack Foster, "Treason Trial D USDOJ, FBI, File number 100-3674, May 12,1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request. Mountain News, 5 and 14. 126 n.a., "Jury Quickly Chosen in Denver Treason Trial of Jap Women," The Denver Post, 145 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File numbe Aug. 7,1944,1 and 5. 2. n.a., "3 U.S.-Jap Sisters Fa 127 n.a., "German's Testimony Stuns Treason Trial Court," Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 8, May 10,1944,5. 1944,5 and 18. 128 USDOJ, FBI, Case File Number 100-3674, Nov. 17,1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request.

46 ~

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,\

Jdge J. Foster Symes, Nov. 5, 1944, 129 USDOJ, FBI, Special Message from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to SAC Denver, ermann Loescher to Judge J. Foster November 25,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request. USDOJ, FBI, FBI Fingerprint Report number 100-238592-20, Nov. 22, 1943, TEW file. ral Americans, Eldest Says;' Rocky FOI/PA request. USDOJ, FBI. Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Assistant Attorney General s," The Denver Post, Aug. 8,1944,1 Tom C. Clark, Nov. 29,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request. 130 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to SAC Denver, Nov. 27,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request. 131 Jack Foster, "Treason Trial Defense Closes: None of Jap-U.S. Sisters Testifies," Rocky Mountain News. Aug. 14, 1944,5 and 14. 132 n.a., "German's Testimony Stuns Treason Trial Court," Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 8, 1944,5 and 18. uft," Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 8, 133 Ibid. dum from Alien Enemy Control Unit 134 n.a.. "Jury Quickly Chosen in Denver Treason Trial of Jap Women," The Denver Post, Aug. 7, 1944,1 and 5. gar Hoover, Oct. 29, 1943, TEW file, 135 Ibid. :;'}3I Director John Edgar Hoover, Dec. 136 n.a., "Jap Girls Given Terms in Prison and $1 ,000 Fines," The Denver Post, Aug. 18,1944, 1 and 5. Idum from Alien Enemy Control Unit 137 n.a., "3 Jap Sisters Sentenced in Treason Plot," Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 12.1944, n.p. gar Hoover, Oct. 29, 1943, TEW file, n.a., "3 U.S. -Jap Sisters Facing Treason Trial in Aid to Nazis," Rocky Mountain News, May 10, 1944,5. Idum from Alien Enemy Control Unit 138 Ibid. gar Hoover, Oct. 29, 1943, TEW file, 139 n.a.. "3 U.S. -Jap Sisters Facing Treason Trial in Aid to Nazis," Rocky Mountain News, May 10,1944,5. Jack Foster, "Love Tryst Photos Introduced in Denver Treason Trial," to Mr. Ladd, Jan. 8, 1944, TEW file, Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 9, 1944,5 and 11. 140 n.a., "Mate of Jap Woman Accused as Traitor Says He'll Stick By Her," Rocky Mountain Hoover to Denver SAC, Jan. 8, 1944, News, May 12, 1944, n.p. 141 Ibid. 142 Jack Foster, "Three Jap-U.S. Sisters Convicted of Plotting Treason to Ask Retrial;' Rocky Treason," The Denver Post, Aug. 11, Mountain News, Aug. 12, 1944,5 and 18. Jack Foster, "Treason Trial Defense Closes: None of Jap-U.S. Sisters Testifies," Rocky Mountain News, 5 and 14. ay 9,1944, TEW file, FOI/PA request. 143 Jack Foster, "Three Jap-U.S. Sisters Convicted of Plotting Treason to Ask Retrial, Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 12, 1944,5 and 18. , FOIIPA request. , TEW file, FOIlPA request. 144 Jack Foster, "Treason Trial Defense Closes: None of Jap-U.S. Sisters Testifies," Rocky Mountain News. 5 and 14. al of Jap Women," The Denver Post, 145 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File number 100-3674, Oct. 25,1942, TEW file, FOI/PA request. 1-7, 2. n.a., "3 U.S.-Jap Sisters Facing Treason trial in Aid to Nazis," Rocky Mountain News, uft," Rocky Mountain News, Aug. 8, May 10, 1944,5.

,1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request.

47 146 USDOJ, FBI, Individual Record Tsuruko Wallace, Oct. 25, 1942, TEW file, FOI/PA 163 Ibid. request. 164 Ibid., 3. 147 n.a., "Jury Quickly Chosen in Treason Trial of Jap Women, The Denver Post. Aug. 7, 165 Ibid., 4. 1944, I and 5. 166 Ibid. 148 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SAC GA. Nicholson to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Dec. 167 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI 27,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request. 1943, TEW file. FOI/PA reque 149 n.a., "Gennan Prisoners Spooned with Jap Girls in Trinidad," The Denver Post, Oct. 24, 168 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File number 1943,3. 169 USDOJ. FBI, Memorandum fi 150 n.a., "3 U.S.-Jap Sisters Facing Treason Trial in Aid to Nazis," Rocky Mountain News, file, FOI/PA request. May 10, 1944,5 and 7. USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum fi 151 n.a., "Gennan Says Jap Girls Wanted To Help Allies," The Denver Post, Aug. 8, 1944, 1 Aug. 10, 1944, TEW file, FOL and 3. Testimony Stuns Treason Trial 152 n.a., "Jury Quickly Chosen in Denver Treason Trial of Jap Women. The Denver Post, Aug. 170 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum fi 7,1944,1 and 5. Communications Section, Aug 153 Ibid. 171 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SAC 154 Jack Foster, "Love Tryst Photos Introduced in Denver Treason Trial," Rocky Mountain FBI Director John Edgar Hom News, Aug. 9, 1944,5 and 11. 172 Ibid., 1. 155 n.a., "Gennan Prisoners Spooned with Jap Girls in Trinidad," The Denver Post, Oct. 24, 173 Ibid.,4. See also: USDOJ,FB 1943,3. Edgar Hoover, Aug. 12,1944, 156 n.a., "3 Jap-U.S. Sisters Aren't Traitors But Loyal Americans, Eldest Says," Rocky USDOJ, FBI, Letter from R. H. Mountain News, May 11, 1944, n.p. 12, 1944, TEW file, FOIlPA regl 157 n.a., "5 Jap Women held in Probe of Nazi Prisoners' 'Petting,'" The Washington Post, USDOJ, FBI, Letter from JP. M Morning Edition, Oct. 28, 1943, n.p. USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI I: 158 William C. Mathes and Edward J. DeVitt, Federal Jury Practice and Instructions: Civil 1944, TEW file, FOIIPA reque and Criminal (St. Paul, MN, 1965). 174 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum fro 159 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from EI Paso, Texas SAC D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Nov. 4,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1-4,1. See also: USDOJ, FBI, Letter 175 n.a., "Jap Girl's Fate Put Up to from EI Paso, Texas SAC D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Nov. 4,1943, Aug. 10, 1944, 1 and 4. TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1-4. n.a., "German Prisoners Spooned with Jap Girls in 176 Ibid. Trinidad," The Denver Post, Oct. 24,1943,3. 177 Ibid. USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FL. Welch to Mr. Ladd , Nov. 6, 1943, TEW file, FOIl 178 n.a., "Jap Girls Given Terms in PA request, 1-4. 1944,1 and 5. USDOJ, FBI, Letter from EI Paso, Texas SAC D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Dec. 2,1943, TEW file, FOIlPA request. 160 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from EI Paso. Texas SAC D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover. Nov. 4, 1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request, 1-4, I. See also: USDOJ, FBI, Letter from EI Paso, Texas SAC D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Nov. 4, 1943. TEW file, FOIIPA request, 1-4, 3. 161 Ibid.. 2. 162 Ibid.

48

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lce, Oct. 25, 1942, TEW file, FOIlPA 163 Ibid. 164 Ibid .. 3. Jap Women, The Denver Post, Aug. 7, 165 Ibid., 4. 166 Ibid. I) FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Dec. 167 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to EI Paso SAC, Dec. 28, 1943, TEW file, FOI/PA request. in Trinidad," The Denver Post, Oct. 24, 168 USDOJ, FBI, FBI File number 100-3198, Oct. 25,1942, TEW file, FOIlPArequest, 1-3,3. 169 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from J.K. Mumford to FBI D.M. Ladd, Aug. 8, 1944, TEW I Aid to Nazis," Rocky Mountain News, file, FOIlPA request. USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI D.M. Ladd to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Hies," The Denver Post, Aug. 8, 1944, 1 Aug. 10,1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request. The quote appeared in n.a., "German's Testimony Stuns Treason Trial Court." Rocky Mountains News, Aug. 8, 1944,5 and 18. ial of Jap Women, The Denver Post,Aug. 170 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to USDOJ Communications Section, Aug. 11, 1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request. 171 USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SAC R.P. Kramer to FBI Assistant Director D.M. Ladd and Denver Treason Trial," Rocky Mountain FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Aug. 11,1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request, 1-4, 1. 172 Ibid., 1. : in Trinidad," The Denver Post, Oct. 24, 173 Ibid.,4. See also: USDOJ, FBI, Letter from SAC R.P. Kramer to FBI Director John Edgar Hoover, Aug. 12, 1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request. ~oyal Americans, Eldest Says," Rocky USDOJ, FBI, Letter from R. H. Cunningham to FBI Assistant Director D.M. Ladd, Aug. 12, 1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request. ioners' 'Petting,''' The Washington Post, USDOJ. FBI, Letter from J.P. Mohr to Mr. Glavin, no date, TEW file, FOIIPArequest. USDOJ, FBI, Letter from FBI Director John Edgar Hoover to Denver SAC,Aug. 31, Tal Jury Practice and Instructions: Civil 1944, TEW file, FOIIPA request. 174 USDOJ, FBI, Memorandum from L.B. Nichols, Aug. 16, 1944, TEW file, FOIlPA request. D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar st, 1-4, 1. See also: USDOJ, FBI, Letter 175 n.a., "Jap Girl's Fate Put Up to Jury as Treason Arguments End," The Denver Post, irector John Edgar Hoover, Nov. 4,1943, Aug. 10, 1944, I and 4. iill Prisoners Spooned with Jap Girls in 176 Ibid. 177 Ibid. ) Mr. Ladd ,Nov. 6,1943, TEW file, FOIl 178 n.a., "Jap Girls Given Terms in Prison and $1,000 Fines," The Denver Post, Aug. 18, 1944.1 and 5. D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar t. D. A. Bryce to FBI Director John Edgar ~st, 1-4, 1. See also: USDOJ, FBI, Letter lirector John Edgar Hoover, Nov. 4,1943,

49