THE DEVELOPMENT OP THE GENRE HEELLO IN MODERN SOMALI POETRY by John William Johnson ProQuest Number: 10672924 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10672924 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 RESUME Modern Somali poetry is manifested in the genre called heello. It is at once an expression and outgrowth of a new period of history, and a potentially strong influence on chan ing Somali society.- This thesis is an attempt to describe th development of this poetry, its structure and imagery, and th social and historical1 setting from which it arose. The characteristics of form and content of the heello ar from four major sources. Firstly, it is within a traditional group of genres, here called the Family of Miniature Genres, that the history of the modern poem begins, especially with t last miniature poem to develop: the belwo. Secondly, the modern poem has acquired characteristics from Somali classical poetry. Furthermore, it has borrowed” some features from abroad. And lastly, it has acquired some its structure from its own development through time- An hist ical approach^ beginning with the belwo, is a fruitful manner in which to view the question. Tiie belwo* begun in 1943/4-5 in the British Somaliland Protectorate by a man called Gabdi 1 Sinimo*, was the immediat forerunner to the heello. It was the product of a period of heightened change brought about by World War II, and it offer a new medium of expression. An immediate success with Somali youth and progressives urban populations, as well as with the new elite of the country,, it was opposed by morep conservative religious leaders and elders* The changes brought about by World War II helped' to deve op the belwo and change it into its next form, the heello For A, actually a * tacking together1 of many belwo into one large poem. Hargeysa, .'.emerging as an.: important administrative and cultural centre, became the focal area for this change. Political- and patriotic themes made their way into the text of the new poem and its form also altered drastically. The heello Form B, the next step of development, then became major tool for the new elite:, as cries for independence (us.ua! ly hidden in the imagery of the new poem) could be heard regu­ larly from the radio and’ from tape recorders in local tea shops. By the end of its first period of development in late 1954, the light belwo had been transformed into the very much longer heello and had adopted the traditional imagery of Soma! classical oral literature, as well as the user of musical instruments imported from abroad. In 1955* political events surrounding the transfer of pa of the British Somaliland Protectorate to Ethiopia led to pol ical protests from the Somalis and to the second period’ of th heello. With this period a new and concerted effort was made b; the new elite to attain independence, and their new geure^ of poetry had almost replaced traditional poetry in urban societ; With the coming of independence in 1960 came the third period of the heello. This period1, was characterized by the addition of new, matured ideas as themes in modern poetry. Anti-government poems, as well as ones debating the role of women in the new society, could be heard*. The use of the heello in the theatre and on the radio continued to drive it forward. Important, internal, political events found their expression in it, as well as the original hhd::still dominant theme of love. The heello continues to develop in Somalia today. TABLE OF CONTENTS RESUME 2 PREFACE 7 Chapter I: Introduction 13 THE SOCIAL CONTEXT (The Somali Way of Life, Traditional Ways of Life, The New Elite, Comparison of Traditional and Elite' Societies through Poetry) THE NATURE OF TRADITIONAL PASTORAL1ST POETRY (Characteristics of Structure, The Place of Poetry in Somali Society, The Oral Nature of Somali Poetry, Composition, Transmission, Performance, Preservation) THE HISTORICAL. DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN ORAL POETRY (The Family of Miniature Genres, The Belwo (1943/45- 48), The Heello: Period One (circa 1948-55)» The Heello: Period Two (Jan., 1955-July, 1960), The Heello: Period Three (July, 1960-Present), Charac­ teristics of the Heello: All Periods) Chapter II: The Family of Miniature Genres 37 THE NATURE OF THE FAMILY OF MINIATURE GENRES (Genres and Classification, Historical Evidence and Origins of the Genres, Structure of the Miniature Poem, Place of the Miniature Poem in Somali Society! THE POETRY OF THE MINIATURE FAMILY (The Introductory Formula, Diction of the Minia­ ture Poem, Imagery in the Miniature Poem, The Hidden Message, Concise Language, Panegyric Naming, Themes in Miniature Poetry) Chapter XII: The Emergence of the Belwo (circa 1943/45-48) 6 C THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (Restraint in British Involvement, The Big Change, Agents of Change, The Political Scene)) THE BELWa IS BOHN (Cabdi Sinimo, The Broken-Down Lorry, Success and Dispersion, Unsuccessful Resistance) THE POETRY OP THE BELWO (The Introductory Pormula, Imagery in the Belwo, Themes of the BelwoX Chapter IV: The Heello: Period One (circa 1948-Jan., 1955) 85 THE METAMORPHOSIS; BELWO TO HEELLO A (Early Tradition Changes, Musical Instruments and the Radio, The Heello, Porm A). THE MODERN POEM: HEELLO A TO HEELLO B (Cabdullaahi Qarshe, The Heello, Porm B) Chapter V: The Heello: Period Two (Jan., 1955“July, 1960) 1C THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (The Ethio-British Agreement of 1954-, Somali Reaction to the Border Shift, 'Jowhara Luula* and the Second Period, Pormation of the Walaalo Hargeysa) THE POETRY OP THE SECOND PERIOD (Structure, Themes) Chapter VI: The Heello: Period Three (July, 1960-Present) 11 THE HISTORICAL. BACKGROUND (Independence and Unity, Tribalism and Regionalism, Pan-Somaliam and Pan-Africanism, Somali Policy of Non-Alignment, Smooth Change of Government, A New Porm of Government! THE POETRY OP THE THIRD PERIOD (Structure, Themes) Chapter VII: Characteristics of the Heello:: All Periods 1€ THEMES COMMON TO ALL PERIODS (Love, Anti-Colonialism Themes, Patriotic Themes, Pan-Somalism Themes) STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS AND DEVELOPMENT COMMON TO ALL PERIODS (Refinement of Language and Musical Accompaniment, Imagery in the Heello, Positive Images, Negative Images, Mixed Images, Situational Imagery, Unified Imagery, Panegyric Naming, Other Devices) THE IMPACT OP MEDIA ON MODERN POETRY (Influence on Structure, Influence on Performance, Transmission and Preservation, Other Influences from Media) Chapter VIII: Conclusion THE INHERITANCE OP THE HEELLO (Inheritance from Classical. Poetry, Inheritance from the Miniature Poem, Borrowed Peatures, Intrinsic Development); PORCES BEHIND THE SUCCESS AND DEVELOPMENT OP MODERN POETRY (Changes in the Social Setting, The Use of New Media, Identification with Politics, Timing of the Belwo and Heello) NOTES BIBLIOGRAPHY GLOSSARY OP SOMALI PROPER NAMES PREFACE The poetry of Somalia is of great importance to the' dail lives of the people^ of that country; it is not peripheral as many societies, Modern poetry, like traditional poetry, commands a central role, in the lives of all Somalis- from clan elders to civil servants. Although mentioned in a few works 1 modern Somali poetry has not yet been described for western scholarship. Considering its central, role, X feel that this absence marks a blank space in the study of Somali oral art, which this thesis, I hope, will reduce in some measure. Research for the thesis was done while I was a volunteer in the United States Peace Corps in the Somali Republic (now called the Somali Democratic Republic) from June, 1966, until July, 1969- Much of the work was done, beginning in July, 196 under the direction of B.W. Andrzejewski, Reader in Cushitic Languages at the School of Oriental, and African Studies, University of London, He was in Somalia on a year's research leave and gave me valuable: help in the study of the structure of the Somali language. Although I had studied Somali orally since March, 1966, his assistance was essential for the specialized skill of the translation of texts. There are three sources of material, from which this thes is drawn:: poetry, interviews and published works. Most of th poetry was collected and translated by me and my informants, although a few of the poems — and this is noted when it occurs — are from the unpublished collection of Muusa Hh.I. Galaal, translated by him and edited by me and another former Peace Corps volunteer, Michael. Cushman Walsh. Observations o the development of modern poetry are made from the entire bod 2 of collected poems, although only a carefully selected set o examples appear in the text. These poems were obtained from tapes made for use on the radio stations: in Somalia^ as well from individuals who either recorded them on tape for me, or dictated them to me as I transcribed. Some of the transcrip­ tion was done by Cumar Aw Nuuhh who also carefully checked th entire collection for its accuracy in transcription. With the interviews and conversations I collected, Somal were themselves asked to comment on the development of their poetry, for there is a large body of oral history of art con­ cerning the development of modern poetry. Although the infor mation obtained in this manner cannot be final, general ideas and opinions on the direction of development can be obtained.