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Struggling for Autonomy: the Dynamics of the Indigenous Women’S Movement in Mexico

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Struggling for Autonomy: the Dynamics of the Indigenous Women’S Movement in Mexico Struggling for Autonomy: The Dynamics of the Indigenous Women’s Movement in Mexico Anahi Morales Hudon Department of Sociology McGill University August 2013 Submitted to the Department of Sociology in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at McGill University. © Anahi Morales Hudon 2013 ABSTRACT This dissertation seeks to account for the consolidation of the indigenous women’s movement in Mexico. It examines the dynamics of this movement through a sub-national comparative analysis of three states—Chiapas, Oaxaca and Guerrero—that vary in terms of movement consolidation. While the indigenous women’s movement is consolidated in Oaxaca and Guerrero, it is not in Chiapas. Such variation is puzzling because Chiapas is the state where indigenous women leaders originally met and organized the first national encounters of indigenous women; we would have thus expected it to be the place where the movement is most consolidated. In order to explain this sub-national variation, this thesis combines an intersectional approach in feminist studies with the political process model in social movement studies. Its analysis stresses primarily two causal mechanisms: boundary making and brokerage. The creation of a collective identity is necessary for the consolidation of indigenous women’s movements. Indigenous women’s collective identity formation involves multiple negotiations of difference with and within the indigenous and feminist movements as well as the construction of symbolic boundaries between actors. However, boundary making is a necessary but not a sufficient condition. This dissertation argues that variation in the consolidation of the indigenous women’s movement at the state-level in Mexico derives from the form of brokerage established between indigenous women and other actors. Brokerage is conditioned by the intersection of structural relations based on gender, race, and class, and its particular form shapes the consolidation of movements. In the three cases under scrutiny here, brokerage takes two different forms: ‘non-mediated brokerage’ and ‘mediated brokerage.’ The former refers to situations where indigenous women are brokers themselves whereas the latter refers to situations where indigenous women are not the ones acting as brokers. Put differently, the former implies relational autonomy while the latter implies relational dependency. This dissertation claims that a shift from mediated to non-mediated brokerage—or from dependent to autonomous brokerage—greatly influenced the level of consolidation of the indigenous women’s movement in different states in Mexico. In the case of Chiapas, mediated brokerage prevented the state-level indigenous women’s movement from consolidating. In the cases of Oaxaca and Guerrero, non-mediated brokerage allowed state-level indigenous women’s movements to consolidate. In sum, the consolidation of indigenous women’s movements in Mexico has been possible where indigenous women were able to cease the mediation of other actors and become autonomous. Therefore, as long as indigenous women are not the ones voicing their claims and demands, as well as representing their movement, a consolidation at the state level is unlikely in states like Chiapas. The contributions of this dissertation are threefold. First, it offers at the empirical level a comparative analysis of the indigenous women’s movements of three sub-national states of Mexico, departing thus from previous studies focusing on local or national dynamics. Second, the combination of intersectionality with the political process model contributes to a better understanding of the complexities and consequences of collective identity formation. Finally, this dissertation contributes to the social movement literature by showing that we should not treat brokerage as an invariant mechanism, but instead, account for the different forms that it takes and trace the varying effects of these forms. Such detailed analysis will contribute to determining the extent to which brokerage is a robust mechanism, as leading social movement scholars like McAdam, Tarrow, and Tilly have claimed. 1 RÉSUMÉ Cette thèse vise à rendre compte de la consolidation du mouvement des femmes autochtones au Mexique. Elle examine les dynamiques de ce mouvement à travers une analyse comparative de la variation en termes de consolidation dans trois états sous nationaux, Chiapas, Oaxaca et Guerrero. Alors que le mouvement des femmes autochtones est consolidé à Oaxaca et Guerrero, il ne l’est pas au Chiapas. Cette variation est surprenante car c’est au Chiapas que les leaders femmes autochtones se sont initialement rencontrées et y ont organisé les premières rencontres nationales de femmes autochtones. Afin d’expliquer cette variation au niveau sous-national, cette thèse intègre une approche intersectionnelle des études féministes au modèle de processus politique dans les études des mouvements sociaux. L’analyse se centre principalement sur deux mécanismes causaux: la création des frontières et l’intermédiation. La création d’une identité collective est nécessaire pour la consolidation des mouvements de femmes autochtones. La formation de cette identité implique de multiples négociations de la différence avec et au sein des mouvements autochtones et féministes ainsi que la construction de frontières symboliques entre les acteurs. Toutefois, bien que la création de frontières soit nécessaire, elle n’est toutefois pas suffisante. Cette thèse soutient que la variation de la consolidation du mouvement des femmes autochtones au niveau sous national au Mexique provient de la forme d’intermédiation établie entre les femmes autochtones et d’autres acteurs. L’intermédiation est conditionnée par l’intersection des relations structurelles fondées sur le sexe, la race et la classe, ce qui façonne la consolidation des mouvements. Dans les trois cas analysés, l’intermédiation prend deux formes distinctes : ‘intermédiation directe’ et ‘intermédiation indirecte’. La première se réfère à des situations où les femmes autochtones sont celles qui assument l’intermédiation tandis que la seconde renvoie à des situations où les femmes autochtones ne sont pas celles qui agissent à titre de médiatrices. Autrement dit, dans le premier cas il y a une relation autonome tandis que le second cas implique une relation de dépendance. Cette thèse affirme que le passage d’une intermédiation indirecte à une intermédiation directe—ou encore de dépendante à autonome—influence le niveau de consolidation du mouvement des femmes autochtones dans les différents États du Mexique. Dans le cas du Chiapas, l’intermédiation indirecte a empêché la consolidation du mouvement de femmes autochtones. Dans les cas de Oaxaca et de Guerrero, l’intermédiation directe a permis la consolidation au niveau sous national. En somme, la consolidation des mouvements de femmes autochtones au Mexique a été possible où les femmes autochtones ont pu mettre fin à la dépendance envers d’autres acteurs et établir une forme autonome d’intermédiation. Par conséquent, tant que les femmes autochtones ne sont pas celles qui portent leurs demandes et qui représentent le mouvement, une consolidation est peu probable dans des états comme le Chiapas. Cette thèse a trois contributions. Premièrement, au niveau empirique elle propose une analyse comparative de mouvements de femmes autochtones dans trois états sous nationaux du Mexique, se distanciant ainsi des études précédentes centrées sur les dynamiques nationales ou locales. Deuxièmement, l’intégration de l’intersectionnalité au modèle du processus politique contribue à une meilleure compréhension de la complexité et des conséquences de la formation de l'identité collective. Enfin, cette thèse contribue à la littérature sur les mouvements sociaux en montrant que nous ne devrions pas traiter l’intermédiation comme un mécanisme invariable, mais plutôt en rendant compte des différentes formes qu’elle prend et en identifiant leurs effets distincts. Cette analyse détaillée contribuera à déterminer dans quelle mesure l’intermédiation est un mécanisme robuste, comme des chercheurs éminents tels que McAdam, Tarrow et Tilly l’ont soutenu. 2 CONTENTS Abstract 1 Résumé 2 Acknowledgments 5 List of Figures and Table 6 List of Acronyms 7 INTRODUCTION Indigenous women’s organizing at the sub-national level in Mexico 9 1 – Intersectionality in the study of social movements 20 Intersectionality 23 Feminist theories of intersectionality in the study of social movements 28 The political process model and collective identity 34 Processes and mechanisms from an intersectional perspective 39 The argument: Variation in the consolidation process 49 Research method 53 2 – The rise of indigenous movements in Mexico 65 Neoliberalism and multiculturalism in Mexico 67 The emergence of ethnic/indigenous identities 77 Indigenous women as new social actors in Mexico 83 Conclusion 101 3 – Looking for indigenous women’s organizing in Chiapas in the aftermath of the Zapatista movement 105 Political and historical context 110 Boundary making: the emergence of a new collective identity 122 Brokerage: mediated relations 138 Conclusion 158 4 – Reclaiming community: indigenous women of Oaxaca 161 Political and historical context 164 Boundary making: the emergence of a new collective identity 181 Brokerage: non-mediated relations 190 Conclusion 205 3 5 – Bridging the local to the national: indigenous women in Guerrero 209 Political and historical context 213 Boundary making: the emergence of a new
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