Prof.Prof. BrunoBruno PierriPierri HistoryHistory ofof ItalianItalian ForeignForeign policypolicy

GiolittiGiolitti ’’ss ItalyItaly andand thethe ItaloItalo--TurkishTurkish WarWar AprilApril 8th,8th, 20142014 RelationsRelations withwith AustriaAustria--HungaryHungary

ò ResumptionResumption ofof irredentistirredentist feelingfeeling duedue toto unjustunjust treatmenttreatment ofof ItalianItalian minoritiesminorities inin HabsburgHabsburg EmpireEmpire ò AustroAustro--RussianRussian ententeentente ofof BalkansBalkans duedue toto:: 1) AustrianAustrian determinationdetermination toto preventprevent ItalianItalian ingerenceingerence inin BalkansBalkans 2) RussiaRussia committedcommitted inin FarFar EastEast –– warwar lostlost againstagainst JapanJapan 3) 19031903 AustroAustro--RussianRussian programmeprogramme forfor reformsreforms inin Macedonia,Macedonia, togethertogether withwith TurkishTurkish officersofficers ò ItalianItalian fearsfears ofof extensionextension ofof AustrianAustrian influenceinfluence onon AlbaniaAlbania

AustroAustro--RussianRussian EntenteEntente

òò OctOct 1904:1904: PactPact ofof NeutralityNeutrality inin casecase oneone ofof thethe twotwo involvedinvolved inin warwar againstagainst otherother powerpower alonealone andand withoutwithout anyany provockationprovockation òò ViennaVienna predictedpredicted possibilitypossibility ofof warwar againstagainst ItalyItaly òò RussiaRussia safeguardedsafeguarded herselfherself towardstowards WestWest whilewhile atat warwar withwith JapanJapan,, alliedallied withwith UKUK òò ItalianItalian GovtGovt doesdoes notnot receivereceive anyany communicationcommunication aboutabout pactpact withwith RussiaRussia EntenteEntente CordialeCordiale

òò GermanyGermany dislikeddisliked ItalianItalian diplomacydiplomacy sincesince ItalyItaly waswas tryingtrying toto rapproachrapproach FranceFrance òò BerlinBerlin aimedaimed atat keepingkeeping intactintact TripleTriple AllianceAlliance asas aa challengechallenge andand defencedefence againstagainst AngloAnglo--FrenchFrench EntenteEntente CordialeCordiale 19041904 òò ColonialColonial controversiescontroversies sortedsorted out:out: BritainBritain freefree handhand inin EgyptEgypt ,, FranceFrance freefree handhand inin MoroccoMorocco FrancoFranco--BritishBritish DeclarationDeclaration,, 19041904

ò His Britannic Majesty' s Government declare that they have no intention of altering the political status of Egypt ò The Government of the French Republic declare that they will not obstruct the action of Great Britain in that country ò The Government of the French Republic declare that they have no intention of altering the political status of Morocco ò His Britannic Majesty' s Government recognise that it appartains to France to preserve order in that country, and to provide assistance for the purpose of all administrative , economic , financial , and military reforms ò They declare that they will not obstruct the action taken by France for this purpose , provided that such action shall leave intact the rights which Great Britain , in virtue of treaties , conventions , and usage , enjoys in Morocco SecretSecret ArticlesArticles

ò His Britannic Majesty's Government have no present intention of proposing to the Powers any changes in the system of the Capitulations, or in the judicial organisation of Egypt. ò In the event of their considering it desirable to introduce in E gypt reforms tending to assimilate the Egyptian legislative system to that in force in other civilised Countries, the Government of th e French Republic will not refuse to entertain any such proposals, on the understanding that His Britannic Majesty's Government will agree to entertain the suggestions that the Government of the French Republic may have to make to them with a view of introducing similar reforms in Morocco. ò The two Governments agree that a certain extent of Moorish territory adjacent to Melilla , Ceuta , and other presides should, whenever the Sultan ceases to exercise authority over it, come within the sphere of influence of Spain, and that the administra tion of the coast from Melilla as far as, but not including, the heights on the right bank of the Sebou shall be entrusted to Spain. FirstFirst MorocconMoroccon CrisisCrisis

ò ExpansionExpansion ofof FrenchFrench spheresphere ofof influenceinfluence onon MoroccoMorocco ò ThisThis waswas inin contrastcontrast withwith MadridMadrid ConventionConvention 1880,1880, claimingclaiming equalequal rightsrights inin thethe areaarea forfor allall contractingcontracting partiesparties ò WilliamWilliam IIII inin TangeriTangeri 31.03.190531.03.1905 toto defenddefend GermanGerman tradingtrading interestsinterests :: defencedefence ofof openopen doordoor ò KaiserKaiser ’’ss landinglanding provockedprovocked moremore resentmentresentment inin LondonLondon thanthan inin ParisParis ò NoNo oneone wantedwanted toto fightfight againstagainst mostmost powerfulpowerful armyarmy inin EuropeEurope:: negotiatednegotiated solutionsolution idealideal forfor everyoneeveryone MadridMadrid ConventionConvention

ò InternationalInternational conferenceconference summonedsummoned inin MadridMadrid inin summersummer 18801880 workedworked outout aa universaluniversal conventionconvention onon thethe capitulationcapitulation systemsystem inin MoroccoMorocco ò BesidesBesides capitulationscapitulations ,, EuropeansEuropeans pressedpressed forfor thethe rightright toto buybuy landland andand ownown realreal estateestate inin MoroccoMorocco ò MadridMadrid ConventionConvention grantedgranted thisthis rightright toto allall thethe capitulationcapitulation PowersPowers ofof EuropeEurope

ConferenceConference ofof AlgecirasAlgeciras

ò EndEnd ofof crisiscrisis JanJan 19061906 ò FranceFrance diddid everythingeverything toto aimaim asas muchmuch asas possibilepossibile atat thethe ideaidea ofof protectorateprotectorate onon MoroccoMorocco ò ItalyItaly inin aa difficultdifficult position,position, sincesince sheshe hadhad stipulatedstipulated contractscontracts withwith FranceFrance ((MoroccoMorocco andand LibyaLibya),), besidebeside thosethose sheshe alreadyalready hadhad withwith TripleTriple AllianceAlliance ò AgreementAgreement providedprovided internationalinternational managementmanagement ofof policepolice,, financefinance,, taxationtaxation system,system, publicpublic worksworks andand servicesservices ofof MoroccoMorocco throughthrough FranceFrance RenewalRenewal ofof TripleTriple AllianceAlliance

òò 19071907 renewalrenewal necessarynecessary toto avoidavoid warwar ItalyItaly--AustriaAustria:: eithereither warwar oror alliancealliance òò ItalyItaly reachedreached colonialcolonial andand commercialcommercial agreementsagreements withwith FranceFrance,, RussiaRussia andand BritainBritain onon EasternEastern Africa:Africa: goodgood relationsrelations withwith EntenteEntente PowersPowers AngloAnglo--RussianRussian EntenteEntente 19071907

ò TheThe GovernmentsGovernments ofof GreatGreat BritainBritain andand RussiaRussia mutuallymutually engageengage toto respectrespect thethe integrityintegrity andand independenceindependence ofof Persia,Persia, asas wellwell asas thethe permanentpermanent establishmentestablishment ofof equalequal advantagesadvantages forfor thethe tradetrade andand industryindustry ofof allall otherother nationsnations ò Russia,Russia, onon herher part,part, engagesengages notnot toto oppose,oppose, withoutwithout previousprevious arrangementarrangement withwith GreatGreat Britain,Britain, thethe grantgrant ofof anyany ConcessionsConcessions whateverwhatever toto BritishBritish subjectssubjects inin thethe regionsregions ofof PersiaPersia ò GreatGreat BritainBritain undertakesundertakes aa similarsimilar engagementengagement asas regardsregards thethe grantgrant ofof ConcessionsConcessions toto RussianRussian subjectssubjects ò BritishBritish OilOil companycompany hadhad acquiredacquired concessionconcession inin 1901:1901: oiloil discovereddiscovered inin 19081908

BosnianBosnian CrisisCrisis

ò 1908 Bosnia -Herzegovina annexed to Habsburg Empire ò Bulgaria declared independence from Ottoman Empire ò Formally Bosnia -Herzegovina was still part of Ottoman Empire, though Austrian Protectorate ò Serbia could still hope to join her territory to that of Bosnia ò German hostility towards Russia implied an attempt of reconciliation with Britain and France : 9 feb 1909 agreement through which Germany recognised French political supremacy on Morocco , while France committed not to harm German economic interests in same area ò Vienna reached agreement for recognition of annexation of Bosnia -Herzegovina , but Serbia did not accept it ò German Ultimatum to Russia, which thus accepted annexation of Bosnia -Herzegovina

ItalianItalian PositionPosition

ò Austria -Italy Talks : «[...] Tittoni has not hesitated to precisely declare me that Bosnia -Herzegovina belonged to us and that we had Italy ’s signature for our right on these provinces . [...] the Triple Alliance Treaty was stipulated four years later the occupation and clearly says that territorial compensations should be gained only if one or the other of the contracting parties temporarily or definitively occupied a Turkish country » ò Aehrenthal ’s interpretation excluded that annexation of Bosnia -Herzegovina had been an “occupation ” (since the province had already been occupied ), thus Italy had no right to any compensation in case of annexation ò Tittoni wanted dissolution of Turkish Empire in favour of national States , in order to avoid expansion of Turkish influence ò On the day of the annexation , Tittoni said that Italy could quietly wait for events and that the Govt could show to people that they had deserved their confidence . Instead , when public opinion in Italy came to know that there was no concession to Italy a sense of frustration spread AccordsAccords ofof RacconigiRacconigi 19091909

ò Triple Alliance allies did not know anything about this Pact ò Russia and italy aimed at undermining Austrian expansion in the Balkans ò Before outbreak of WWI, in order to expand her own influence in Balkans , Italy pursued three strategies : A) Policy of compensations , since there is always Triple Alliance B) Policy of nationality C) Imperialistic or partition policy ò Italo -Russian Agreements : 1) Preservation of status quo in Balkans 2) If this impossibile, implementation of nationality principle 3) No agreement in the East without informing each other 4) Safeguarding of mutual interests in Straits and Tripolitania SecondSecond MoroccanMoroccan CrisisCrisis

ò Giorge V: «To tell the truth , the French in Morocco did not do any dissimilar from what the British had done in Egypt . [ …] the only thing to do was accepting the fait accompl ì of the occupation and find a compromise with France on trading guarantees ». ò 1 July 1911: German warship Panther docked in Agadir Bay ò Threat to British trade in Atlantic : British reaction ò Crisis worsened due to Berlin ’s claim of French Congo as an exchange of renunciation to interests in Morocco ò With this crisis , London completed process of rapproachment to Paris ò 4 nov 1911: agreement through which France had free hand in Morocco and Germany received from French two strips of land useful for trade along rivers Congo and Ubangi

ItaloItalo--TurkishTurkish WarWar

ò FranceFrance andand BritainBritain controlledcontrolled NorthNorth AfricaAfrica ò TheThe diedie waswas castcast forfor ItalyItaly :: occupationoccupation ofof LibyaLibya ò EconomicEconomic penetrationpenetration inin progressprogress forfor yearsyears ò CostantinopleCostantinople damagesdamages ItalianItalian projectsprojects andand favoursfavours GermanGerman tradingtrading ò FranceFrance temptedtempted toto extendextend herher influenceinfluence alongalong wholewhole AfricanAfrican coastcoast ò ItalianItalian occupationoccupation becamebecame ““urgenturgent ”” ò ItalianItalian alliesallies andand friendsfriends fearedfeared thatthat ItaloItalo-- TurkishTurkish warwar couldcould furtherfurther undermineundermine TurkishTurkish Empire,Empire, thusthus favouringfavouring formationformation ofof nationalnational StatesStates influencedinfluenced byby Russia:Russia: betterbetter toto cedecede territoryterritory throughthrough negotiationsnegotiations

ItaloItalo--TurkishTurkish WarWar

ò Declaration of war 29.09.1911 ò Austria started to think of prehemptive war against Italy ò Austria censured military operations in Adriatic in order to prevent sailing of Turkish ships (better to localise conflict ) ò As a matter of fact , no action taken to stop conflict - neutrality necessary to gain Italian friendship ò Occupation of Dodecanese Islands (Apr 1912) worried Austria in view of conflict closer to Turkish coast ò France and Britain aimed at Mediterranean entente with Italy ò Balkan complications : Spring 1912 Alliance Serbia -Bulgaria - Greece -Montenegro ò 8.10.1912: war on Turkey ò 18.10.1912 Peace of Lausanne and cession of Libya to Italy : great powers ’ immediate recognition ò Renewal of Triple Alliance without extension to Mediterranean