ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY

PRIMARY SOURCES

“The 13th Street Law School.” Before Brown: Heman Marion Sweatt, Thurgood Marshall, and the Long Road to Justice, University of Press, 2010.

This is an image of “the basement school” as referred to by Thurgood Marshall. The school was established to satisfy the order of Judge Archer, who later found the school to be “substantially equal” to the University of Texas Law School.

“African American Woman Hard at Work” Venable, Rose. The Civil Rights Movement: Journey to Freedom. Childs World, 2010.

This photo shows a black woman working very hard for little to no pay. Even after slavery was abolished, African-Americans were not treated equally or fairly, and they were not accepted as the free citizens they were supposed to be. One cause of this was the , which would have an impact on our nation for many years.

“Appeal Filed in Sweatt Case.” The Kilgore News Herald, 30 Sept. 1947, pp. 1–1.

This newspaper article was written about Heman Sweatt’s appeal to the Third Court of Civil Appeals. The publicity that Heman Sweatt received made him a hero to other African-Americans but a villain to those fighting against integration and equalization.

Benoit, Reese, and Dale Wainwright. “Interview with Former Texas Supreme Court Justice Dale Wainwright.” 10 Mar. 2020.

Dale Wainwright is a former Texas Supreme Court Justice. Justice Wainwright participated in a moot argument of Sweatt v. Painter in which he argued the case on behalf of Heman Sweatt, just as Thurgood Marshall did. In preparation, he thoroughly researched the Sweatt case, and the knowledge he shared greatly benefited my project. I enjoyed hearing his legal perspective on the case and its impact on the country today. Some of the segments from our video interview are included in my website.

Benoit, Reese, and Gary Lavergne. “Interview with the Author of Before Brown.” 29 Jan. 2020.

This interview was an invaluable experience. It allowed me to hear firsthand from someone who is an expert on Heman Sweatt and his life story and someone who has spent time with his family. I was able to ask him a few of the questions I had after researching and creating my project. I was able to video the interview and include some of the footage in my website.

Benoit, Reese, and Ward Farnsworth. “Interview with the Dean of the University of Texas School of Law.” 5 Dec. 2019.

This was another one of the most interesting parts of my research. I emailed the current dean of the University of Texas School of Law and asked him questions about the impact of Heman Sweatt and the Sweatt v. Painter decision on the law school. I also sought his thoughts about diversity at the school. He provided detailed answers, some of which I included on my historical impact page.

“Harlan, John Marshall.” Plessy v. Ferguson, Britannica, Washington, D.C., www.britannica.com/event/Plessy-v-Ferguson-1896.

This is an image of John Marshall Harlan. He was a Supreme Court Justice during the time of Plessy v. Ferguson and the sole dissenter in the decision. He believed that the Separate Car Act was unconstitutional.

“Heman Marion Sweatt About the Time of His Application to the UT Law School.” Before Brown: Heman Marion Sweatt, Thurgood Marshall, and the Long Road to Justice, University of Texas Press, 2010.

This is an image of Sweatt near the time of his application to the UT Law School. This set in place a chain of events that would eventually lead to a Supreme Court case.

“Heman Marion Sweatt as a Graduate of Jack Yates High School.” Before Brown: Heman Marion Sweatt, Thurgood Marshall, and the Long Road to Justice, University of Texas Press, 2010.

Heman Sweatt attended Jack Yates High School, which was segregated at the time. Later in his life, Sweatt would work to end school segregation, specifically in higher education.

“Heman Marion Sweatt As A Young Man.” Before Brown: Heman Marion Sweatt, Thurgood Marshall, and the Long Road to Justice, University of Texas Press, 2010.

The young student shown here is Heman Sweatt. This is before he began his struggle to gain admission to the University of Texas School of Law and before his fight to break the barrier of segregated education.

“Heman Marion Sweatt Speaking at a Rally.” Before Brown: Heman Marion Sweatt, Thurgood Marshall, and the Long Road to Justice, University of Texas Press, University of Texas at Austin, 2010.

This is a photograph of Heman Sweatt speaking at a rally. He became a famed speaker in support of equality for .

2 “Heman Marion Sweatt with an Unidentified Little Girl.” Before Brown: Heman Marion Sweatt, Thurgood Marshall, and the Long Road to Justice, University of Texas Press, 2010.

This image shows a young Heman Sweatt dressed nicely and standing next to a little girl. To me, this photo signifies Sweatt’s introverted but proper personality. His temperament and character influenced other people to respect him and gain an admiration for him, which helped his cause in trying to win the court case.

“Heman Marion Sweatt with His Family.” Before Brown: Heman Sweatt, Thurgood Marshall, and the Long Road to Justice, University of Texas Press, 2010.

This photo shows Heman Marion Sweatt with his wife, Ella Rose Sweatt, and his daughter, Hemella Sweatt.

“Heman Marion Sweatt.” Heman Marion Sweatt, Austin, Texas, 3 Feb. 2010, tcarchivesarchives.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/cah-hms.jpg.

This picture shows Heman Sweatt at his desk. This photograph depicts his determination to continue to work hard despite the negative comments from others and the health problems that he encountered.

“Heman Sweatt and Family At the Time of Application.” Before Brown: Heman Sweatt, Thurgood Marshall, and the Long Road to Justice, University of Texas Press, University of Texas at Austin, 2010.

This is an image of Heman Sweatt, Connie Sweatt (his wife), James Leonard Sweatt Sr. (his father), and Ella Rose Sweatt (his mother) at the time he applied to the University of Texas.

“Heman Sweatt Holding a Press Conference for the NAACP.” Sweatt, Heman Marion, Texas State Historical Association, Austin, Texas, 15 June 2010, s3.amazonaws.com/static.enotes.com/images/american- decades/adps_0001_0006_0_img1417.jpg.

This photo shows Sweatt’s involvement in the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), an organization that provided legal services—including that of Thurgood Marshall—for Sweatt.

3 “Heman Sweatt Standing in the Registration Line at the University of Texas.” Sweatt, Heman Marion, Texas State Historical Association, Austin, Texas, 15 June 2010, www.cah.utexas.edu/images/features/txbook/Heman-Sweatt.jpg.

This is a photograph of Heman Sweatt waiting in the registration line for the University of Texas Law School. The photo shows the racial differences between Sweatt and the other students. This dramatically depicts the courage that Sweatt had by going to an all- white school.

Hickman, R. C. “Thurgood Marshall and William Durham.” Before Brown: Heman Marion Sweatt, Thurgood Marshall, and the Long Road to Justice, University of Texas Press, University of Texas at Austin, 2010.

This is a photograph of Sweatt’s lawyer, William Durham, working with Thurgood Marshall, an attorney from the NAACP, who also worked on the Sweatt v. Painter case.

“James Leonard Sweatt, Sr. Heman Sweatt’s Father.” Before Brown: Heman Marion Sweatt, Thurgood Marshall, and the Long Road to Justice, University of Texas Press, 2010.

This is a photograph taken of Heman Marion Sweatt’s father, a man he admired greatly. James Leonard Sweatt encouraged his children to actively seek an education, and was a prominent role model for Sweatt. One of James Sweatt’s sons said that his father “always stressed the value of an education.” Another trait of his father that Sweatt took after and admired was his refusal to believe that black Americans were inferior to white Americans. He knew that his children could do anything that a white child could do. This sense of questioning the barriers set in place by society would be instilled in Heman Sweatt and would lead to a case in the Supreme Court: Sweatt v. Painter.

“Jim Crow Waiting Room.” The Jim Crow Era, www.thoughtco.com/what-is-jim-crow- 45387.

This is a photograph that depicts a black man standing near the entrance to a segregated waiting room. The image displays the effect that Jim Crow Laws had on America.

Jim Crow. Sold wholesale and retail by L. Deming, at the sign of the Barber’s pole Hanover St., Boston, and at Middlebury, Vt. Monographic. Online Text. Retrieved from the Library of Congress.

This is a song written about Jim Crow laws. It was derogatory towards black Americans.

4 Jim Crow. [London, new york & philadelphia: pub. by hodgson, 111 fleet street & turner & fisher; between 1835 and 1845?] Photograph. Retrieved from the Library of Congress.

This is a cartoon that shows an African American man in tattered clothes meant to signify Jim Crow, a fictional character intended to denigrate African Americans.

“Lawyers and Attorney General in a Conference with Judge Roy Archer.” Before Brown: Heman Marion Sweatt, Thurgood Marshall, and the Long Road to Justice, University of Texas Press, University of Texas in Austin, 2010.

Here, Thurgood Marshall, C.B. Bunkley, William Durham, Attorney General Price Daniel, and Judge Roy Archer have a conference during the Sweatt v. Painter trial in the District Court of Travis County, Texas.

Lyon, Danny. “Entrance to the City Cafe.” Memories of the Southern Civil Rights Movement, The University of North Carolina Press, 1992, pp. 103–103.

This photo shows the impact segregation had on restaurants. African Americans could not walk into the same entrance as white people. This image really spoke to me by conveying the truly different world it was during the Jim Crow Era in the South. These segregation rules and laws would set the stage for Heman Sweatt and his fight for integrated education.

Lyon, Danny. “Segregated Drinking Fountains in the County Courthouse in Albany, .” Memories of Southern Civil Rights Movement, The University of North Carolina Press, 1992, pp. 31–31.

This photo was placed in my Historical Context page on my website. It served to show what effect segregation had on society during the Civil Rights Movement. This photo also proves the point that blacks and white were not “.” The water fountains depicted here are nowhere close to equal in size or in ability. This “separate but equal” doctrine was questioned in Sweatt v. Painter.

“A Mother and Child Sit Outside of Supreme Court.” The Civil Rights Movement: Journey to Freedom, The Child’s World, Inc., 2002.

This is a photograph of Nettie Hunt explaining to her daughter Nickie that segregation has been declared unconstitutional by the decision in Brown v. Board of Education.

5 “Picture of Heman Sweatt Registering at the University of Texas at Austin Law School.” Sweatt, Heman Marion , Texas State Historical Association, 15 June 2010, texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth33840/m1/1/med_res/.

This is a photograph taken of Heman Sweatt registering as a student at the University of Texas Law School. This was an exciting day in history, as a large piece of the barrier against equality in education was broken in this moment.

Pitre, Merline. “Photograph, Lulu Belle Madison White.” WHITE, LULU BELLE MADISON, Texas State Historical Association, tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fwh75.

Lulu Belle Madison White played a major role in the chapter of the NAACP. She was searching for a candidate to represent this organization in court to fight against racial segregation (preferrably in higher education). She chose Heman Marion Sweatt as the plantiff, a decision that would change the picture of higher education for years to come.

Scherschel, Joe. Heman Sweatt On Campus. 1 Oct. 1950.

This is a photograph taken of Heman Sweatt walking the streets of the UT campus. I am sure he was feeling very grateful that he was admitted to the law school.

Scherschel, Joe. Heman Sweatt, an African American Mailman Who Has Registered at Texas University Law School. 1 Oct. 1950.

This is an image of Heman Sweatt on the UT campus. He had to undergo very harsh treatment from other students once he arrived because of his race.

Scherschel, Joseph. Heman Marion Sweatt in His First UT Law Class. 1 Sept. 1950.

Heman Sweatt, pictured here, is in his first class at the UT School of Law. I am sure it must have taken a lot of courage to enter that classroom for the first time as the first black student to be admitted to the school.

Scherschel, Joseph. Heman Marion Sweatt, after His First Law Class at UT. 1 Sept. 1950.

This photo was taken after Heman Sweatt had completed his first class at the University of Texas School of Law. Here he is depicted walking with a white student, which represents the integration that was brought about by the Supreme Court decision.

Supreme Court. Plessy v. Ferguson. 1896, www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/plessy.html.

I used this court case’s front page to lead the website viewer into my page discussing Plessy v. Ferguson. This was a major case in the United States. It set the stage for what

6 was to come with Heman Sweatt and his fight to be accepted into the University of Texas Law School. Plessy v. Ferguson confirmed and strengthened belief in the “separate but equal” doctrine. This doctrine influenced the court’s opinion on Heman Sweatt’s case and argument.

“Sweatt As A Mailman.” The Legacy of Sweatt v. Painter, 2018, www.tripsavvy.com/the- legacy-of-sweatt-v-painter-255016.

This is a photograph of Heman Sweatt working as a mailman. This occupation opened his eyes to the realities of racial inequality and showed him that discrimination would be found in all places unless it was ended. Working as a mailman led to Sweatt’s interest in law after he worked to file complaints about the unfair advantages given to white workers.

“Sweatt Case Awaits Its Turn For Argument in High Court.” Austin American- Statesman, 4 Apr. 1950, p. 25, www.newspapers.com/image/358085478.

This newspaper article was in the issue delivered on the day of Sweatt v. Painter’s appearance at the Supreme Court. It was sent out in Austin, Texas, where the University of Texas is located.

“T.S. Painter and Dudley K. Woodward.” Before Brown: Heman Marion Sweatt, Thurgood Marshall, and the Long Road to Justice, University of Texas Press, University of Texas at Austin, 2010.

This is a photo of T.S. Painter, the acting president of the University of Texas and the defendant in Sweatt v. Painter, shaking hands with Dudley K. Woodward, the chairman of the University of Texas board of regents and a major opponent of Heman Sweatt’s entry to the university.

“Thurgood Marshall, NAACP Special Counsel.” An Eyewitness History: The Civil Rights Movement, Facts on File, Inc., 1993.

This is an image of Thurgood Marshall as a young lawyer for the NAACP. He later served as a major part in the litigation of Sweatt v. Painter.

United States Reports. Sweatt v. Painter. Vol. 339, 5 June 1950, p. 629. Westlaw.

This is the opinion of the United States Supreme Court in the Sweatt v. Painter case. It decided that the education and opportunities offered at the separate law school instituted for African Americans were not equal to those offered at the University of Texas Law School.

7 SECONDARY SOURCES

Allen, Richard. “SWEATT, HEMAN MARION.” The Handbook of Texas Online| Texas State Historical Association (TSHA), Texas State Historical Association, 15 June 2010, tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/fsw23.

This website was a very helpful source in beginning my research. I read through this article to gain a basic understanding of the topic and Heman Sweatt’s life. One interesting thing about the website page was that it ended the article explaining the lasting impacts of Sweatt’s victory at the United States Supreme Court and the historical significance of his fight for educational equality.

Barret, John Q. “Teacher, Student, Ticket: John Frank, Leon Higginbotham, and One Afternoon at the Supreme Court--Not a Trifling Thing.” Yale Law and Policy Review, vol. 20, 2002, pp. 311–323.

This article was written about a teacher by the name of John Frank and his impact on one of his students, Leon Higginbotham. Frank took Higginbotham to the U.S. Supreme Court to hear the Sweatt v. Painter case. The article explains the impact that Thurgood Marshall’s oral argument had on Higginbotham and others. It also included interesting quotes from the oral argument of the case, which was helpful in creating my project.

“Dean Ward Farnsworth.” Ward Farnsworth, University of Texas, University of Texas at Austin, 2019, law.utexas.edu/faculty/ward-farnsworth/.

This is a photograph of Ward Farnsworth, the current Dean of the University of Texas Law School. I used this photo on my historical significance page when I was discussing the impact of Sweatt v. Painter on the University specifically.

George, Charles. “Jim Crow: An American Disgrace.” Life under the Jim Crow Laws, Lucent Books, 2000.

The introduction to this book was helpful in learning more about life before Heman Sweatt. It provided the “who, what, when, where, and why?” about Jim Crow laws.

“History of the University of Texas.” History | The University of Texas at Austin, www.utexas.edu/about/history.

This website gave a detailed description of the history of the University of Texas. It also included a section on Heman Sweatt, which was interesting to read.

8 Holley, Joe. “Third Ward Mailman Won Case for UT Law School Integration.” HoustonChronicle.com, Houston Chronicle, 24 Sept. 2016, www.houstonchronicle.com/news/columnists/native-texan/article/Third-Ward- mailman-won-case-for-UT-law-school-9242900.php#photo-10975741.

This website explains the case, focusing more on Sweatt and his perspective. I love the way that this article describes Sweatt, “a man that took a symbolic step towards civil rights,” a “trailblazer,” and “a man who changed the picture of higher education by his sacrifice.”

Lavergne, Gary M. Before Brown: Herman Marion Sweatt, Thurgood Marshall, and the Long Road to Justice. University Of Texas Press, 2010.

This book was a very useful source in researching my topic and creating my project. I read through the highlights of this book to gain an understanding of the topic as a whole. Before Brown tells the whole story of Heman Sweatt: from the historical background to the final impact of Sweatt v. Painter. Another helpful aspect to this book was the plethora of quotes that were included. They were beneficial additions to my website. Likewise, the book included pictures that I used in my website to help guide the viewer through each page and to tell the story through images instead of words. I thoroughly enjoyed reading this book as well as using it to help me research my topic and create my website.

Page, W. “SWEATT V. PAINTER.” The Handbook of Texas Online| Texas State Historical Association (TSHA), Texas State Historical Association, 15 June 2010, tshaonline.org/handbook/online/articles/jrs01.

This website provides a detailed explanation of the Sweatt v. Painter case. I used this source to learn more about the case in a narrow point of view, but the website also allowed me to understand the impact of this case in a broader spectrum.

“Reenactment of Sweatt v. Painter.” Historic Supreme Court Room, Texas State Capitol, Austin, Texas, 27 June 2014.

This video is a live reenactment of the Sweatt v. Painter argument presented by the Texas Supreme Court Historical Society. I watched this video to get a glimpse of what the arguments may have been like in the U.S. Supreme Court. It was interesting to see the argument that former Texas Supreme Court Justice Dale Wainwright (in the role of Thurgood Marshall) made for Heman Sweatt to be admitted to the UT Law School.

“The Seal of The University of Texas Carved in Limestone.” University of Texas History, University of Texas, Civitatiu, www.utexas.edu/about/history.

This shows the seal of the University of Texas, the school Heman Sweatt eventually attended. It says the latin words, “Disciplina, Praesidium, and Civitatis.” Translated to English this means, “Cultivated mind is the guardian genius of democracy.” This is the motto of UT.

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Sharp, Anne Wallace. A Dream Deferred: The Jim Crow Era. Lucent Books, A Part of Gale, Cengage Learning, 2005.

I knew that I wanted to include a historical context section about Jim Crow laws, and this book helped me gain a deeper understanding of these strict and cruel rules.

Venable, Rose. The Civil Rights Movement: Journey to Freedom. Child’s World, 2010.

This book provided me with pictures for my website and increased my knowledge about the historical context to my project.

“The Warren Court.” The Supreme Court, by William H. Rehnquist, Knopf, 2004, pp. 194– 194.

Former Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, William Rehnquist, authored this book. In it, he mentions Sweatt v. Painter as an example of a case that began to "chip away" at the "separate but equal" doctrine established in Plessy v. Ferguson. He explains that in refusing Sweatt's application, the University of Texas School of Law denied African-Americans equal protection under the 14th Amendment.

Wexler, Sanford. The Civil Rights Movement: An Eyewitness History. Facts on File, 1999.

This book was interesting to read because while it informed me on the historical background to my project, it also provided thought-provoking quotes from history.

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