The African Presence in Late Ottoman Izmir and Beyond Michael Ferguson Department of History McGill University, Montreal August 2014 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy © Michael Ferguson 2014 Abstract This thesis explores the relatively unknown social and cultural history of enslaved and emancipated Africans and their descendants in Izmir. At the end of the nineteenth century, Izmir had the second-highest concentration of Africans in the Ottoman Empire’s northern tier (after Istanbul). This ballooning of Izmir’s African population was largely a result of the abolition of the slave trade. As an important port city situated on numerous trans-Mediterranean shipping routes, Izmir became the main site where the Ottoman state, backed by their British partners in abolition, decided to install rescued emancipated Africans. This study reveals that, though their labour played an important role in making late Ottoman Izmir a booming port city, by and large these emancipated Africans lived on the social and economic margins in Izmir. While they created a vital community at the city’s geographic and financial margins, their unique religious practices were perceived by some in the upper echelon of Ottoman society as “savagery” that should be suppressed. Unlike previous studies, this thesis extends into the early twentieth century and the policies of the new Turkish state, whose extreme form of nationalism worked to mute any social, cultural, and religious diversity within its borders. As a result, Africans in Izmir were silenced and their cultural practices ceased to be performed in public space. It also examines the recent weakening of Turkish nationalism and shows how it has helped the descendants of these enslaved Africans, known as Afro-Turks, to begin celebrating their unique heritage and identity. This study contributes to the historiographies on nineteenth-century Izmir and on slavery in the Ottoman Empire, as well as the growing body of scholarship uncovering the lives of non-elite groups in 1 Ottoman Empire whose contributions to the making of the late Ottoman world have been underrepresented in the prevailing literature. Resumé Cette thèse explore l'histoire sociale et culturelle relativement inconnu des esclaves et affranchis Africains ainsi que leurs descendants dans la ville d’Izmir. Elle soutient qu’à la fin du XIXe siècle, Izmir avait la deuxième plus forte concentration d'Africains dans la partie nord de l'Empire ottoman (après Istanbul). Ce grand nombre de population africaine était en grande partie due à l'abolition de la traite des esclaves. Importante ville portuaire située sur de nombreuses routes trans-méditerranéennes, Izmir était en effet devenu le site principal où l'Etat ottoman, soutenu par la Grande Bretagne qui fut son partenaire dans ses efforts abolitionistes, a décidé d'y installer les Africains nouvellement affranchis. L’étude révèle que dans l'ensemble, ces Africains émancipés vivaient sur les marges sociales et économiques de la ville. Elle montre aussi que leurs pratiques religieuses distincts ont été perçus par certains à l'échelon supérieur de la société ottomane comme de la «sauvagerie». Ceci étant dit, une étude détaillée de leur vie est très pertinente car leur contribution fut important pour rendre Izmir une ville portuaire très dynamique. Cette thèse explique aussi comment et pourquoi au début du XXè siècle, le nouvel Etat turc a adopté une forme de nationalisme extrême qui ne tolerait aucune diversité sociale, culturelle et religieuse au sein de ses frontières. Ceci a eu pour consequence que les Africains d’Izmir ainsi que leurs pratiques religieuses ont longtemps était réduit au silence. L’étude examine également le recent affaiblissement du nationalisme turc qui a permi aux descendants de 2 ces esclaves africains - connus sour le nom d’Afro-Turcs – de commencer à celebrer leur patrimoine culturelle et identité unique. Cette thèse contribute à l’historiographie d’Izmir et de l'esclavage dans l'Empire ottoman du XIXè siècle. Elle vient aussi s’ajouter au nombre croissant d’études qui tentent de mettre en lumière la vie des populations qui n’appartenaient pas à l’élite dans l’Empire et dont la contribution à la construction du monde Ottoman a jusque là été sous- représentée. 3 Table of Contents Abstract ……………………………………………………………………………….………1 Resumé…………………………………………………………………….……………….….2 Table of Contents……………………………………………………………………………..4 Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………….….……..5 Note on Place Names……………………...………………………………………….….........6 Note on Transliteration and Spelling…………………………………………….…..…........6 List of Abbreviations………………………………………………………………….………7 List of Figures…………..…………………………………………………………….………..8 List of Maps……………...…………………………………………………………….………9 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………10 Chapter 1 – Izmir in the late Ottoman Slave Trade…………………………………….......34 Chapter 2 – Africans living and working in Izmir post-emancipation…………………….71 Chapter 3 – Emancipated Africans in Izmir’s hinterland: agriculturalists and bandits....107 Chapter 4 – The Calf Festival…………………………………………………….…………..139 Chapter 5 -- Loss of Community, Silence, Resurgence (1880-2014)……………………….179 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….….216 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………………………...221 4 Acknowledgements This thesis would not have been possible without the support and help of many individuals. First and foremost, I would like to thank my supervisor Prof. Gwyn Campbell for supporting my research in African Slavery in the Ottoman Empire since 2008. I have benefitted greatly from the numerous conferences and presentations that have taken place at the Indian Ocean World Centre (IOWC). I am grateful to Prof. Tassos Anastassiadis for his support and frank discussions as a member of my thesis committee in recent years. I would also like to thank all the professors and support staff Department of History and Classics for helping me when needed. Outside of the McGill network, I would like to thank Prof. Anton Minkov for inspiring me to become a historian of the Ottoman Empire. I would also like to acknowledge the early support given to my work by Prof. Kenneth Cuno and Prof. Terrence Walz. I would also like to thank Prof. Yorgos Dedes for his help and encouragement. This dissertation was supported by two major grants: the Joseph Armand Bombardier PhD Fellowship from the Social Sciences and Research Council of Canada (SSHRC) and a fellowship from the Turkish Cultural Foundation. I am deeply grateful to these funding bodies for providing the resources necessary to undertake this study. This project benefited greatly from the help of the employees of the Ottoman Archives in Istanbul and the city archives in Izmir. I would also like to thank Mr. Mustafa Olpak and the Afro-Turk Cultural and Solidarity Association for their support in Izmir. Numerous friends, whether in Canada or Turkey, have helped with the development of this dissertation. They include, in no particular order, Gareth Edwards, Mark Sanagan, Facil Tesfaye, Emrah Şahin, Emre Ünlücayaklı, Efe Atabay and his family, and Ceyda Karamürsel. Lastly, and most importantly, I would like to thank those closest to me. First, to my parents, Daryl and Lese Ferguson, for believing in me since I began my graduate work in 2004. And to my fellow historian and partner Sarah Ghabrial, your kindness and patience kept me together and on track – I could not imagine going through this without you. Each in your own way, you have supported and helped me so much, thank you. 5 Note on Place Names In this thesis, I have chosen to use Izmir over Smyrna. This choice is pragmatic, in order to avoid the cumbersome nature of switching between Izmir and Smyrna which occurs in the sources. Note on Transliteration and Spelling In this dissertation, I have transliterated Ottoman Turkish terms using modern Turkish spelling for simplicity. Pronunciation of Turkish letters C, C = “j” as in jagged Ç, ç = “ch” as in chart Ğ, ğ = known as the soft g (unpronounced), lengthens the proceeding vowel. I, ı = dotless i, somewhere between “in” and eel” Ö,ö = same as the vowel sound in the French peu Ş,ş = “sh” as in shore Ü,ü = same as “u” in French tu *additionally, where the Turkish capital dotted İ occurs in the initial position of a word, it has been rendered into an I. For Arabic terms, I have used a simplified version of the McGill Institute of Islamic Studies transliteration system, omitting diacritical marks except for the ‘ayn and hamza. 6 List of Abbreviations ADKYDA - Afrikalılar Dayanışma, Kültür ve Yardımlaşma Derneği Arşivi [Afro-Turk Culture and Solidarity Association Archive], Izmir APKA – Ahmet Priştina Kent Arişivi [Ahmet Priştina City Archive], Izmir BOA – Basbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi [Prime Ministry’s Archives], Istanbul 7 List of Figures Figure I - Mekteb-i Sanayi of Izmir (approx. 1900)………………………………………..88 Figure II - “Turkish Women work with figs.” (post card, approx. 1900).................................99 Figure III - Postcard from Izmir depicting an African café waiter (dated 1912)…………….101 Figure IV - Izmir’s Port and Customs House, 1890………………………………………….102 Figure V - Fig Market in the Bazars of Izmir (approx. 1900)………………………………103 Figure VI - Postcard featuring a group of Zeybeks, with 2 Afro-Zeybeks………..…………130 Figure VII - “Grand Country coffee-shop at Aydın” - Theophilos Hatzimihail (1933)……...131 Figure VIII - Magnified portion of “Grand Country coffee-shop at Aydın.”…………………132 Figure IX -