The Military and Kenya's Big Four Agenda: the Case Of

THE MILITARY AND KENYA’S BIG FOUR AGENDA: THE CASE OF

INFRASTRUCTURE

ERICK JOHN ODUOR

UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY - AFRICA

SUMMER 2019

THE MILITARY AND KENYA’S BIG FOUR AGENDA: THE CASE OF

INFRASTRUCTURE

ERICK JOHN ODUOR

UNITED STATES INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY - AFRICA

A Thesis Submitted to the School of Arts & Science in Partial Fulfilment of the

Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in International Relations.

SUMMER 2019

STUDENT’S DECLARATION

I, the undersigned, declare that this is my original work and has not been submitted to any other college or university other than the United States International University - Africa for academic credit.

Signed: ...... Date: ......

ERICK JOHN ODUOR (654907)

STUDENT

This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as university supervisor.

Signed: …………………………………… Date: ………………………….

MR. GEORGE KABONGAH

SUPERVISOR

Signed: …………………………………… Date: ………………………….

PROF. MARTIN NJOROGE

DEAN, SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES AND SOCIAL SCIENCES

Signed: …………………………………… Date: ………………………….

AMBASSADOR PROF. RUTHIE RONO

DEPUTY VICE CHANCELLOR ACADEMIC AND STUDENT AFFAIRS

All rights reserved. No part of this dissertation report may be photocopied, recorded or otherwise reproduced, stored in retrieval system or transmitted in any electronic or mechanical means without prior permission of USIU-A or the author.

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ABSTRACT

The Big Four Agenda are Kenya’s President, Uhuru Kenyatta, development agenda from 2018 to 2022 focused on raising the standard of living of Kenyans and promoting a strong, inclusive, economic growth in line with Vision 2030 of Kenya. This paper studied the Role of the Kenya

Military in the Achievement of Kenya’s Big Four Agenda with a primary focus on enhancing infrastructure.

The primary purpose of any military is National Defence. A State’s military in the past was charged with the responsibility of protecting the State from external aggression and in most cases, it was against other states. Globalization has brought about new dimensions of threats, mainly considered Human Centric threats to security that requires a paradigm shift in the way they are handled. This means that the military is presently tasked to engage in activities that are considered a deviation from the traditional roles that it was accustomed to.

In this study, an analysis of opportunities for Kenya Military to participate in economic development, assessment of the role that Kenya Military has played in the past in enhancing infrastructural development and identification of opportunities, in particular infrastructure development, that are there in Kenya and would largely enable the realization of Kenya’s Big

Four Agenda.

It was established that the military possesses considerable capability for rapid response and may therefore be called upon to assist in the event of disaster response. Following this study, it is recommended that that the government should engage the military more by increasing the mandate of KDF to encompass infrastructure development.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I gladly acknowledge United States International University - Africa for offering me the opportunity to carry out this study. My sincere gratitude goes to Mr George Kabongah for his personal authority and encouragement in the study. I feel indebted to the USIU - Africa Staff who supported me in the preparation and binding of the paper. My thanks to the School of

Humanities, USIU-Africa for imparting the basic knowledge and direction in the field of

International Relations. Special thanks to my supervisor, Mr George Kabongah, for his guidance without which the work would have been more difficult. Special thanks to my wife,

Mercy, children Jeremy and Lucas for their unwavering support. Finally, I thank all the other persons who helped me with one thing or the other to facilitate this study, accept my appreciation.

DEDICATION

To my mum Ruth Achieng Odero, my lovely wife Mercy Gatwiri Kieni, and Sons Jeremy

Chavivi Oduor and Lucas Seth Oduor.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

STUDENT’S DECLARATION ...... II

ABSTRACT ...... IV

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... V

DEDICATION ...... VI

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... VII

LIST OF TABLES ...... X

LIST OF FIGURES ...... XI

MAPS ...... XII

LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS ...... XIII

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... XIV

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1

1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 7

1.3 Overall Objective ...... 8

1.4 Specific Objectives ...... 8

1.5 Research Questions ...... 9

1.6 Justification of the Study ...... 9

1.7 Scope ...... 11

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1.8 Limitations ...... 13

1.9 Assumptions ...... 13

LITERATURE REVIEW...... 14

2.1 Introduction ...... 14

2.2 Military and Economic Development ...... 14

2.3 Military and Infrastructure Development ...... 21

2.4 Military Involvement in Infrastructure Development towards realization of the Big

Four Agenda ...... 22

2.5 Ethiopian Defence Industrial Base ...... 23

2.6 Singapore Defence Industries ...... 26

2.7 Philippines Defence Industry ...... 29

2.8 Summary of Literature and Gaps Identified ...... 32

2.9 Theoretical Framework ...... 33

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 36

3.1 Introduction ...... 36

3.2 Study Area ...... 36

3.3 Research design ...... 36

3.4 Sampling Procedure and Size ...... 37

3.5 Data Collection and Tools ...... 38

3.6 Quality Control Criteria for handling Qualitative Data ...... 39

3.7 Data Analysis and Tools ...... 40

3.8 Ethical considerations ...... 43

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FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ...... 45

4.1 Introduction ...... 45

4.2 Military and Economic Development ...... 47

4.3 Military and Infrastructure Development ...... 52

4.4 Military Involvement in Infrastructure Development Towards Realization of the Big

Four Agenda ...... 54

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 67

5.1 Introduction ...... 67

5.2 Summary of the findings ...... 68

5.3 Recommendations ...... 69

5.4 Conclusion ...... 71

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 72

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE 1-1: THE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IMPLEMENTATION TECHNICAL

COMMITTEE. SOURCE: EXECUTIVE ORDER NO. 1 OF 2019 FRAMEWORK FOR

COORDINATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES AND PROJECTS ...... 5

TABLE 4-1 MILITARY EXPENDITURE BY COUNTRY AS PERCENTAGE OF GROSS

DOMESTIC PRODUCT, 2000-2018 (SOURCE: SIPRI 2019) ...... 56

TABLE 4-2 MILITARY EXPENDITURE BY COUNTRY, IN MILLIONS OF US$ AT

CURRENT PRICES AND EXCHANGE RATES, 2000-2018 (SOURCE: SIPRI) ...... 57

TABLE 4-3 PROFILE COMPARISON OF COUNTRIES UNDER CASE STUDY ...... 60

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE 3-1 DATA ANALYSIS IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH ...... 41

FIGURE 4-1 THE KENYA ARMY MANDATE AND STRATEGY ...... 46

FIGURE 4-2 LEVELS OF FUNCTION ...... 47

FIGURE 4-3 SPECTRUM OF KENYA ARMY CORP OF ENGINEERS OPERATIONS .51

FIGURE 4-4 MILITARY EXPENDITURE AS PERCENTAGE OF GROSS DOMESTIC

PRODUCT, 2000-2018 ...... 58

FIGURE 4-5 MILITARY EXPENDITURE IN MILLIONS OF US$ AT CURRENT PRICES

AND EXCHANGE RATES, 2000-2018 ...... 59

MAPS

MAP 1-1 MAP OF` KENYA SOURCE

(HTTP://WWW.THEGLOBALDISPATCHES.COM/WP-

CONTENT/UPLOADS/2013/04/MAP-OF-KENYA.JPG, 2019) ...... 12

MAP 2-1 MAP OF ETHIOPIA SOURCE:

(HTTPS://WWW.MAPSLAND.COM/MAPS/AFRICA/ETHIOPIA/LARGE-PHYSICAL-

MAP-OF-ETHIOPIA-WITH-ROADS-CITIES-AND-AIRPORTS-SMALL.JPG, N.D.) .....23

MAP 2-2 MAP OF SINGAPORE SOURCE: (SINGAPORE - GEOGRAPHY AND MAPS,

2019) ...... 26

MAP 2-3 MAP OF PHILIPPINES SOURCE: (THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT AUSTIN,

2019) ...... 30

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LIST OF PHOTOGRAPHS

PHOTOGRAPH 2-1 GRAND ETHIOPIAN RENAISSANCE DAM (SOURCE: CNN) .....25

PHOTOGRAPH 4-1 CHIEF OF DEFENCE FORCES INSPECTING BRIDGE IN NAROK

...... 52

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AFP Armed Forces of Philippines

ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations

DARPA Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency

DAVEC Defence Aviation Engineering Complex

DEFTEC Defence Forces Technical College

DIB Defence Industrial Base

DOD Department of Defence

EEPCO Ethiopian Electric Power Corporation

EPC Engineering, Procurement and Construction

FAA Federal Aviation Administration

FDI Foreign Direct Investments

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GERD Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam

GSB General Support Bridging

GTP Growth and Transformation Plan

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HMTEC Hibret Machine Tools Engineering Complex

IBEA Imperial British East Africa

KACE Kenya Army Corp of Engineers

KACT Kenya Army Corp of Transport

KAR Kings African Rifles

KDF Kenya Defence Forces

KDFA Kenya Defence Forces Act

KDF-FPF Kenya Defence Forces Food Processing Factory

KNBS Kenya National Bureau of Statistics

LCU Landing Craft Utility

LDCs Least Developed Countries

MACA Military Aid to Civil Authority

MDAs Ministries, Departments and Agencies

MIC Military Industrial Complex

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

PAF Philippine Air Fore

PADC Philippine Aerospace Defence Company

ROWPU Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit

SAGAs Semi-Autonomous Government Agencies

SIPRI Stockholm International Peace Research Institute

SMEs Small and Medium Sized Enterprises

SRDP Self-Reliant Defence Posture

SOCE School of Combat Engineering

UHC Universal Health Coverage

WDS Water Drilling Squadron

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

The former President of the Republic of Kenya, Mwai Kibaki, in the year 2008 launched

Vision 2030 as a mechanism for fast tracking transformation of “Kenya into an industrialised middle-income country by the year 2030” (https://vision2030.go.ke/about-vision-2030/,

2007). Kenya’s Vision 2030 happens to be the blueprint document for the long-term development for the country, and as it is, happens to get motivation from aspirations to provide the citizens with a better society come the year 2030. The vision is basically “a national long- term development blueprint to create a globally competitive and prosperous nation with a high quality of life by 2030, that aims to transform Kenya into a newly industrializing, middle- income country providing a high quality of life to all its citizens by 2030 in a clean and secure environment.” Vision 2030 focuses on four pillars, namely the Economic and Macro Pillar,

Social Pillar, Political Pillar, and Foundations for the Pillars.

The Economic and Macro Pillar focuses on six priority sectors that are seen as critical in raising Kenya’s Gross Domestic Product to around ten percent in the years to come. According to (Economic & Macro Pillar | Kenya Vision 2030, 2019) sectors under the Economic and

Macro Pillar are “Tourism, Agriculture and Livestock, Wholesale and Retail, Trade,

Manufacturing, Financial Services, Business Process Offshoring and IT-Enabled Services.”

According to (Social Pillar | Kenya Vision 2030, 2019) the Social Pillar, “Investing in the

People of Kenya” aims to “improve the quality of life for all Kenyans by targeting a cross- section of human and social welfare projects and programs as a basis of transformation in eight key social sectors, namely Education and Training, Health, Water and Sanitation,

Environment, Housing and Urbanization and Gender, Youth, Sports and Culture, as well as making special provisions for Kenyans with various disabilities and previously marginalized communities.”

The Political Pillar, “Moving to the Future as one Nation”, is a democratic political system that is issue based, people-centred, result-oriented and accountable to the public. This particular vision aims to unite all citizens as one nation irrespective of socio-economic status, race, religion, gender or any socially constructed status (Political Pillar | Kenya Vision 2030,

2019).

During Jamhuri Day celebrations of 12 December 2017, the President of the Republic of

Kenya outlined a plan that he termed ‘The Big Four Agenda’, which would guide the country’s development agenda from 2018 to 2022. The primary focus of this intervention strategy by the government is on the basic needs that remain critical in raising the standard of living of

Kenyans and promoting a strong, inclusive, economic growth in line with the vision 2030 of

Kenya.

The government has since sort to fast track the country’s vision through a 5-year development plan under four key pillars of manufacturing under Economic and Macro Pillar of Vision 2030, affordable housing under Social Pillar of Vision 2030, Universal Health Coverage under

Social Pillar of Vision 2030 and Food Security under Economic Pillar of Vision 2030. Under manufacturing, the government intends to raise manufacturing sector contribution to GDP

from eight to fifteen percent. At the same time, it wants to achieve top 50 rank in the World

Bank’s Ease of Doing Business Global Index, create 1,000,000 new jobs in the manufacturing sector and as well achieve five times increase in Foreign Direct Investments (FDI).

When it comes to affordable housing pillar, the government intends to work towards 500,000 affordable new houses for Kenyan families across the 47 counties, reduce the cost of home ownership by fifty percent and create 300,000 new jobs in the construction sector. All this should come with an increased contribution to GDP by a hundred percent from the construction sector and reduced low income housing gap by sixty percent.

Under the Universal Health Coverage Pillar, the government aspires to ensure one hundred percent Universal Health Coverage (UHC) by actualizing one hundred percent cost subsidy on essential health services and by reducing medical out-of-pocket expenses by fifty-four percent as a percentage of household expenditure.

With Food security, according to the government Big Four Agenda Framework, the government “aspires to reach a hundred percent food and nutrition security by a thirty-four percent increase in the average daily income of farmers, twenty-seven percent reduction in malnutrition among children under 5 years of age, create 1,000 Agro-processing SMEs and

600,000 new jobs, fifty percent reduction in the number of food insecure Kenyans, forty-eight percent increase in Agriculture Sector contribution to GDP and a forty-seven percent reduction in the cost of food as a percentage of income.”

As a result of this declaration and affirmation by the government with subsequent issuance of

Executive Order No. 1 of 2019 on “Framework for co-ordination and Implementation of

National Government Development Programmes and Projects” dated 21 January, 2019 by the

Executive office of the President of Kenya citing the need to foster greater co-ordination and harmonization in the Implementation of National Government Development Programmes and

Projects under the Medium Term Plan III with a focus on the Big Four Agenda, all ministries, departments and institutions were called upon to align their activities in line with this particular Executive Order. This particular Executive order sought to depoliticize the implementation process by “establishing implementing and coordinating committees at various levels: The National Development Implementation and Communication Cabinet

Committee; The National Development Implementation Technical Committee; Eight

Regional Development Implementation Coordination Committees; and Forty-Seven County

Development Implementation Coordination Committees.”

Table 1 show the National Development Implementation Committee and from its composition, priority or tasking is given to Ministries of Interior, Energy, ICT, Planning,

Devolution, Health, Crop Development, Industrialization, Lands and Physical Planning,

Infrastructure, Transport, and Housing and Urban Development. The Principal Secretary of

Defence, and others not listed can only be co-opted as need be and this can only be an indication that such ministries are not explicitly tasked in matters of development, and by extension the Big Four Agenda.

Table 1-1: The National Development Implementation Technical Committee. Source:

Executive Order No. 1 of 2019 Framework for Coordination and Implementation of National

Government Development Programmes and Projects

THE NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT IMPLEMENTATION TECHNICAL COMMITTEE

Composition Functions

Chairperson

Principal Secretary for Interior and 1. Receive and deliberate on the

Coordination of National Government reports from the Regional Development

Implementation Co-ordination Committee Vice-Chairperson and any other relevant MDAs, SAGAs or

Principal Secretary for The National entities.

Treasury 2. Receive and deliberate on the

Members reports received from the County Co-

ordination Committees.  Principal Secretary for Energy

3. Monitor, verify and evaluate the  Principal Secretary for ICT progress of National Government

 Principal Secretary for Planning Programmes and Projects with the Region.

 Principal Secretary for Devolution 4. Identify and suggest solutions for

bottlenecks that hinder the implementation  Principal Secretary for Health of National Government Development

 Principal Secretary for Crop Programmes and Projects within the Region.

Development 5. Manage relationships between all

 Principal Secretary for MDAs and SAGAs who have operations

Industrialization within the Region.

 Principal Secretary for Lands and 6. Prepare bi-weekly progress reports

Physical Planning to the National Development

Implementation Technical Committee on  Principal Secretary for Infrastructure the implementation status of National

 Principal Secretary for Transport Government Development Programmes and

Projects within the Region.  Principal Secretary for Housing and

Urban Development 7. Advise the National Development

Implementation Technical Committee on  Solicitor-General identified priority National Government

 Any other Principal Secretary may be Development Programmes and Projects

co-opted as the need arises within the Region.

8. Secure the infrastructure,

equipment and personnel involved in or

required for the implementation of National

Government Programmes and Projects

within the Region.

For the realization of this particular plan, a committed sector of the economy should be tasked to spearhead the agendas and their accompanying pillars just so that there is some level of accountability, responsibility and transparency in the implementation process. This study started from the backdrop that there were strong reasons to believe that the military has attributes to act as an enabler of development. Bautista (1985) notes that in Germany for instance, a large number of non-commissioned officers was trained who worked in the German

Steel Mills Industries as foremen, while in the United States, the corps of Engineers played crucial role in achieving the entire development in the west (Pye, 1961). This study thus began with the proposition that military involvement in Big Four Agenda offered significant advantage for the ultimate attainment of the Big Four Agenda.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

The Kenya Military Defence White Paper outlines the National Economic Development

Activities that the military can engage in such as construction of dams, drilling of boreholes, vertical and horizontal construction of buildings, roads and bridges, as well as assisting in medical services. The Defence White Paper also mentions the capabilities of the Kenya

Defence Forces that can be directly applied to economic development including, Maritime resources, Medical, Air, Transport and Kenya Army Corps of Engineers geared towards improvement of social infrastructure, nurturing peace, reduction of poverty and addressing destructive cultures such as cattle rustling (Defence White Paper, 2019). Apart from this, the proportion of Military Expenditure to GDP stands at above 4 per cent which is quite high in comparison to other MDAs. The military has also in the recent past undergone modernization hence equipping the forces with modern state of the art equipment.

Despite these capabilities, the military remains underutilised when it comes to development, and in particular infrastructure development in Kenya explained by absence of the Principal

Secretary of Defence in the National Development Implementation Committee of the Big Four

Agenda and other past development plans. This paper proposes that military involvement and active role in Big Four Agenda is a precipice of success and that military of Kenya needs to be more involved in matters develop within the country. The military has the capability of using its assets, without the need of additional budget, which offers it significant advantage to enhance development.

1.3 Overall Objective

The overall objective of this study is to demonstrate the role of military in the development of a country.

1.4 Specific Objectives

The Specific Objectives of this Study are:

a. To analyse opportunities for Kenya Military to participate in economic development

as presently constituted.

b. To assess the role that Kenya Military has in the past played in enhancing

infrastructural development.

c. To analyse opportunities for Kenya Military involvement in infrastructure

development towards realization of the Big four agenda particularly in enhancing

infrastructure.

1.5 Research Questions

a. What has been the role of other militaries in the world in industrial development within

their states?

b. What are the desirable attributes of the Military that could enhance infrastructure

development?

c. What determines effective industrial role for the military?

d. What are the prospects for Kenya Military involvement in infrastructure development?

1.6 Justification of the Study

The military expenditures have increased worldwide and will continue to increase against outcry that economic and social needs are being neglected. Traditionally, the relationship between defence and economic growth has been posed in terms of a guns-versus-butter debate in that any spending on defence is seen as diverting resources from the economic sector. It has been argued and illustrations formulated that depict a positive relationship between defence spending and economic growth.

The Government of Kenya has since called upon all ministries, departments and institutions to align their projects and programs towards realization of the Big Four agenda. The mission of the Kenya Defence Forces, as stipulated in both the Kenya Constitution 2010 and the Kenya

Defence Forces Act, 2012, is ultimately defence of the State and external aggression. The

Kenya Military is mandated to protect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Republic of Kenya as its primary role. Other roles are to assist or when called upon, to cooperate with

other civil authorities, in such situations of emergency or disaster, as was experienced in Kilifi floods as well as restore peace in any part of Kenya affected by unrest or instability as has been seen where Kenya has experienced terrorist attacks. The Big Four agenda does not touch on the role of military directly and that is why this paper will seek to understand whether the military can contribute in any way towards the Big Four Agenda, particularly on matters of infrastructure development.

Proponents against military spending believe that reduction of military spending will lead to a “peace dividend”, arising out of reallocation of military spending to other economic uses.

Those in favour of military spending argue that any reduction or cut in military expenditure is likely to come with some penalties as certain areas become either ungoverned or beyond the reach of security provided by military (Dunne, 2000). This paper sought to examine the contribution that the military could possibly have on the economy by restructuring its program towards achieving industrialisation using the very same resources it currently has.

The Big Four Agenda mentioned are deliberate Government Intervention Strategies to correct market failures or to provide public goods, and this paper looked to understand how best the state can do this by tapping on the resources held by the military and how the defence industrial base can be utilized to induce economic growth of a country. The short time duration required to address the Big Four Agenda requires additional non-conventional interventions such as the mobilization of all MDAs, including the Kenya Military.

By so doing, this research helped to understand the role of Kenya Military in infrastructure development while contributing to the body of knowledge in development and peace studies.

The recommendations made in the end will inform government policies and be utilized in

coming up with strategies on how best the military can be put into use to bring about economic growth as a result of defence industrialization, innovation and infrastructure development.

1.7 Scope

This study primarily focussed on Kenya while seeking to understand the relationship between defence spending and economic growth. When it comes to understanding the role of militaries on industrial development. This study investigated other countries in Africa, Europe, America and Asia in order to be able to see prospects for Kenya military in defence industrialization.

The data available on SIPRI’s website covers the period 1949 – 2017, and this study was constrained within that time scope.

Kenya is located in East Africa with a coastline along the Indian Ocean. It has forty-seven counties and a total area of 582,650 square kilometres of which 569,14 square kilometres is land coverage and the remaining 11,227 square kilometres is covered by water. The capital city being Nairobi. Kalukwakerith mountain in Turkana county is the northernmost point, the tripoint with Ethiopia and Somalia in Mandera County is the easternmost point, the point where the border with Tanzania enters the Indian Ocean in Kwale County is the Southernmost point, while the westernmost point is at Port Victoria in Busia County.

World Bank recently noted that “Kenya has made significant political, structural and economic reforms that have largely driven sustained economic growth, social development and political gains over the past decade.” The August 2010 Constitution ushered in a new era of devolution that. Some good effort put by Kenya has enabled the country to some Millennium

Development Goals (MDGs) targets which include narrowing of the gender gaps in education, free primary school education, and reduced child mortality. Kenya has followed through by

devolving healthcare and providing free maternal health care at all public health facilities which has in turn helped in improving the health care services. Kenya prides itself when it comes to growing youthful population. A large percentage of workforce is considered highly skilled and the infrastructure greatly improved as to foster further economic development

(https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/kenya/overview, 2019).

The President in December 2017 borrowed from the country’s long-term development plan to focus on short time development plan which he called the “Big Four Agenda”. The priority areas of the agenda would focus in Manufacturing, Universal Health Coverage, Affordable

Housing and Food Security.

Map 1-1 Map of` Kenya Source (http://www.theglobaldispatches.com/wp-

content/uploads/2013/04/Map-of-Kenya.jpg, 2019)

1.8 Limitations

Some materials and documents were highly classified in the target countries, hence the researcher to a large extent relied on open source information available on the web including books and journals.

It was not also possible for the researcher to travel to target countries of study to collect valuable data. The researcher therefore relied on archived data and viewed videos available on the web to have an understanding of the reality on ground.

There is growing evidence that important amounts of security expenditure do not enter the accounts or budgets of developing countries, this posed a great limitation for this study.

This being a self-financed project, the extent and depth of study was limited to only so much available funds. The time available to conduct an in-depth analysis was limited.

1.9 Assumptions

Assumption was made that the respondents were honest and truthful while providing information used in this study. This study also assumed that the data retrieved from websites for analysis were credible and reliable.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

This section on Literature Review presents a comprehensive review of published work, journals, master’s theses, government publications, books and other reports gotten from the library.

A Review of Literature ensured that important variables were identified early enough at the beginning of this research and at the same time that pitfalls and other problematic areas are either ignored or solved in the best way possible. This exercise will also help in that it will prevent waste of resources in terms of time and effort in doing something that has already been researched exhaustively before. By conducting literature review, the basis of this qualitative research will be formed, as it will help trace origins and progress of problem and as well predict where all this is headed in the future. Most important of all, literature review will enable this research get a deep understanding of the problem in question and as well guide in formulating a theoretical framework relevant to this study.

2.2 Military and Economic Development

Janowitz (2017) notes that the image of the professional soldier as seen by the civilian, remains firmly rooted in the past. The professional soldier remains dynamic and is largely transformed by his style of life, technology, daily tasks and his aspirations. The political public remains uniformed and tend to have an outdated and blurred conception of the military

establishment. Sociological concepts can be used to analyze the officer corps as a professional body. The professional resulting from prolonged training, leads to the acquisition of skills which enable one to make specialized services. With this with, a group identity is developed by the professional body, and a system of internal administration arises. Samuel Huntington speaks of three essential elements in military professionalism: Expertise, Responsibility and

Corporateness.

Huntington (2008) addresses the military effectiveness and civilian control. A similar perspective is taken by Janowitz (1960). Civil-military relations are seen as an important variable by Huntington who further argues that the nature of this civil-military relation has an important impact on military effectiveness. Janowitz however is not clear in his discussion and his assessment of what constitutes an effective military vis a vis civil military relation has not been brought out clearly. In the Soldier and the State, Huntington makes an assumption that an equilibrium called objective civilian control can be defined and with this equilibrium comes civilian control and security is maximized (Huntington, 2008).

To Huntington once again, officership is strongest as it approaches the professional ideal. At the professional ideal, it is effective and if it falls short of the ideal it becomes defective. An officer corps is professional to the extent that it possesses the qualities of corporateness, responsibility and expertise. Arising from these three traits is civilian control and the distancing from politics by the professional military.

Huntington argues that military organizations are shaped by two imperatives: functional imperatives which are special characteristics of military organizations that come as a result of the organization's needs to be capable of defending the state against external threats; and

societal imperatives which emanate from the ideologies, institutions and social forces that are dominant in society. These two imperatives are of great importance when trying to understand how a state's military institution may be affected by these two imperatives. (Eliasson, 2008).

Huntington's basic formulation when he looks at military effectiveness as a product of civil- military relations is that most effective militaries are produced if the established civil-military relation little delves into the affairs of the military institutions thus they are able to operate in accordance with some universal and constant functional imperative. The challenge that comes with this is the superiority of this type of professional military remains in doubt. (Eliasson,

2008).

The area of concern of Janowitz in his books, Professional Soldier in part overlaps with those addressed by Huntington. In similarity, they both look at civilian control, and the ability of the military to fulfil its responsibilities providing the state's security needs (Janowitz, 2017).

Just like, Huntington, Janowitz argues that reliance on how we create an entirely an apolitical military for the purpose of ensuring civilian control is farfetched in that it becomes unavoidable that at some point, the military institution turns to a political pressure group in resemblance and this should not be a cause of alarm in so far as the military remains responsive to civilian authority. The possibility of having a more legislative oversight and increase of civilian control to lower cadres of the military organizations are simply some other ways that

Janowitz proposes to be used in ensuring civilian control. He also proposes to have increased civilian participation in professional education of officers (Eliasson, 2008).

Article 241 of the Constitution of Kenya 2010 establishes the Kenya Defence Forces, comprised of the three services of Army, Air Force and Navy. This Article mandates the

military with the “responsibility of defence and protection of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of the Republic. In addition, the Kenya Defence Forces shall assist and cooperate with other authorities in situations of emergency or disaster, and report to the National

Assembly whenever deployed in such circumstances; and may be deployed to restore peace in any part of Kenya affected by unrest or instability only with the approval of the National

Assembly.”

Article 6 of The Kenya Defence Forces Act (KDFA) 2012 in under article 241 of the

Constitution of Kenya further gives the composition of the Defence forces as comprising the regular force, the reserve force and the cadet force.

Article 7 of KDFA gives the determination of the strength of Defence forces, stating that the

“it shall consist of such maximum number of members as shall be determined by the National

Security Council, and that there shall be established such units and formations in the Defence forces as the President may, in consultation with the Defence Council, determine.”

Benoit (1973) conducted a study that foreign aid receipts, investment rates, growth rates and other variables for some forty-four least developed countries in the period 1950-1965 and in his findings established that countries spending heavily on their militaries had the most rapid growth rate, while those spending less had the lowest growth rates (Benoit, 1978).

D’Agostino et al. study the effects of military spending on the economy by exploiting the

SIPRI extended dataset using empirical methods. They cite earlier surveys of Dunne and

Smith which had concluded that their empirical regularity was short and hence absence of any significant positive effect of military spending. In their work, D’Agostino et al. reference the work of Dunne and Tian which found that of the 168 studies done since 1973, economic

growth was adversely affected by military spending in forty-four per cent of cross-country studies and thirty-one percent of case studies, while it is mentioned that only twenty percent of the studies recorded positive results, while results remained unclear in forty percent of the studies. D’Agostino et al. also reference the work of Altekin and Levine that by method of meta-analysis using primary data covering 1960-1990 established a positive combined effect on military spending while the least developed having no indication of negative effect.

D’Agostino et al. develop an empirical model to characterize many “broad principles with an optimal government size that maximizes economic growth” and conclude that having an extended dataset is of value and economic growth is negatively affected by military spending.

Dunne (2000) in his work mentions three forms of econometric studies; one is the single equation analyses. The second are studies adopting simultaneous equation systems and the last one is studies which use macro econometric. He also mentions that diversified literature has been written focusing on the opportunity cost of government spending on military instead of investing in other forms of public welfare goods. Considering all these types of econometric studies, Dunne (2000) concludes that there is insignificant negative effect on economic growth as a result of military spending.

While citing the work of Smith and Smith (1990) and in summary form, Dunne (2000) summarises the particular channel in which military expenditure may influence economic growth into the following categories: Resource allocation and mobilization, organization of production, social-political structure and external relations.

1. Resource Allocation and Mobilization: Resources can be diverted from investment

and other welfare projects to take care of military requirements. The opposite is

also possible where strong states can actually utilize military expenditure to create

demand, mobilize resources and improve infrastructure (Dunne, 2000).

2. Organization of Production: Establishment of Defence Industrial Base can greatly

enhance development and modernization. The military sector creates and enabling

environment for training and inventions to take place by becoming actual end users

of most commodities created. The military can equally create technical expertise

that remains unresponsive to the needs of the economy (Dunne, 2000).

3. Socio-Political Structure: Military institutions create a secure environment for the

economy to actually flourish. The sense of state security establishes a strong state

where opposition and worker resistance can be put on check. Too much military

involvement can be precipice for disaster also (Dunne, 2000).

4. External Relations: Spending on military creates strong military institutions which

remain responsive to threats emanating from outside the state. Military power,

remains key element of state power. A country that is strong militarily helps

command respect in the international sphere. States which depend much on

external aid to fund their militaries can fuel internal conflict.

The impact that military spending has on economic development has been investigated in many literatures and been noted to theoretically operate in a number of ways. Dunne (2000) in his part identifies the mains channels that military spending has on economic development as labour, capital, external relations and demand.

Many developing countries experience challenges in developing substantial skilled and

educated labour force with the capability of meeting the needs of the developing economy.

Military can, with this regard, have both positive and negative effects. Military worldwide have training institutions where soldiers are trained in technical and administrative skills. The skills acquired during military service can be of substantial use to the economy once the soldier gets back to civilian life on completion of active service. It can be noted, that the time and money of creating skilled technical personnel may be a lot and the military remains one of the institutions that can be patient enough to put much funds in lengthy training of its personnel. Military is negatively blamed of taking most of the limited skilled labour and other valuable resources from the civilian industrial sector thus modernizing the military more in comparison with other sectors of the economy.

Government spending on military is said to have positive or negative effects. Funding the military from taxes can be a form of saving for the future. Any present increases and subsequent reductions in future is seen as saving propensities. In developing countries, it might be difficult to substantially increase taxation just for the purpose of funding the militaries. High level inflation can result in reduced savings. Any spending on the military is seen as an opportunity cost to education, health and other social amenities. The military can however have some positive effect if it engages in economic development by for instance developing infrastructure and engaging in activities of poverty eradication in communities.

A country’s balance of payment is affected much if it only procures arms abroad and received minimal aids in terms of arms. Importation of arms in many developing countries is strenuous to the tax payer in that it becomes expensive to maintain the balance of payment. A strong military, on the other hand stimulates foreign direct investments by creating a conducive environment where individuals can engage in economic activities and foreign aid can be

channelled to the country.

Dunne notes that military spending remains a common form of government spending and this has the effect on aggregate demand which can have increased output. As has been discussed, a strong military creates conditions for development to take-off. A disciplined work force and reduced intra-state conflicts promotes development.

2.3 Military and Infrastructure Development

The period following the end of cold war in the 1990s brought about a changed strategic environment saw reduction in global military spending. Many developing countries have thus been presented with the opportunity to reduce their military spending which has equally come with reduced tensions and superpower involvement in regional conflicts. The emergence of

‘New wars’ has however seen some countries increasing their expenditures. Dunne argues that this reduced expenditure on military releases resources that can be put into constructive use of solving Human Security challenges experienced in present day world such as poverty, economic issues, and environmental degradation.

According to Musyimi (2015), military has been used to spur development in many countries and notably mentions the U.S. where military technology such as semiconductors and nanotechnology, has on several occasions been adopted for civilian use. Musyimi (2015) also mentions that People’s Liberation army (PLA) of China “exemplifies military participation in the manufacturing sector.” In Africa, he notes that in Egypt, the military has been involved in manufacture of laptops, televisions, refrigerators, bottled water, medical equipment and is engaging in exploitation of wind power technology. He also mentions Namibia, Ethiopia,

Sudan, Senegal, Uganda, and South Africa as countries in Africa with active military involvement in activities directly fostering economic growth (Musyimi, 2005).

In his study, Musyimi (2015) notes that “there is no much documentation on the direct contribution of the Kenyan military in national development, with the only available data being that obtained from the Kenya Ordinance Factory Corporation (KOFC) website.” KOFC manufactures military hardware under license from FN HERSTAL of Belgium and a wide range of domestic products including farm produce, bottled water, bakery products and flour milling as value addition of the farm produce.

2.4 Military Involvement in Infrastructure Development towards realization of

the Big Four Agenda

Musyimi (2015) conducts a comparative study of Kenya and South Africa on the role of military in development and acknowledges that the resources in military are still underutilized with regard to their utilization towards economic growth. According to Musyimi (2005), “the military industry, if allowed to prosper, will likely have a spin-off effect on other industries, and hence spur economic growth.” He notes that involvement of all public and private institutions is pivotal in enhancing economic growth and that a similar concept has been successfully utilized in countries like Israel, China and Turkey.

The Constitution of Kenya 2010 fails to assign the military any roles when it comes to construction and maintenance of infrastructure projects in cooperation with civilian agencies.

Juma (2013) argues that the military should be mobilized for infrastructure projects. Kibicho

(2005) in his thesis noted that the Transport Battalion, Medical corps, Kenya Air Force,

Maritime Resources and Kenya Army Corps of Engineers as some of the capabilities of the

Kenya Armed Forces that can be directly applied to poverty alleviation and economic development (Kibicho, 2005).

Kibicho (2005) also mentions the emerging roles of the military as comprising issues to deal with peacekeeping, provision of humanitarian and disaster relief, and involvement in civic activities to improve the living standards of the public. He finds it imperative that the roles of

Kenya Military should be redefined to encompass the upcoming areas of concern.

2.5 Ethiopian Defence Industrial Base

Ethiopia is a country situated in the n the Horn of Africa with a total area of 1,127,127 square kilometres, of which 1,119,683 square kilometres is land and the remaining 7,444km2 is covered by water. The countries that borders Ethiopia are Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia, Sudan,

South Sudan, and Kenya.

Map 2-1 Map of Ethiopia Source: (https://www.mapsland.com/maps/africa/ethiopia/large-

physical-map-of-ethiopia-with-roads-cities-and-airports-small.jpg, 2019)

Ethiopia Defence Industrial Base started in 1953. This was when the first Industrial Complex was opened; Emperor Haile Selassie Ammunition Factory. Ethiopia paid considerable attention to the development of a domestic industrial base during the Derg Regime (1974-

1991). Momentum was in place to ensure that Ethiopia became an economy where heavy armoured vehicles were both produced and overhauled. Another complex, Bishoftu Complex, was established in 1987. The Debrezeit, as Bishoftu is also known, is an Air force complex that also overhauls MIG fighting jets. Ethiopia has in the past received tremendous support from North Korea and even constructed a shipyard which produces wooden-hulled and steel- hulled crafts. This military relationship between Ethiopia and North Korea continued even during the era of EPRDF, as North Korea is seen to extend support to the Government by for instance strengthening the Gafat complex in Debrezeit and the munitions factory in Ambo

(Magazine for Ethiopian, Art, Culture and Lifestyle, 2019).

Ethiopians shifted their full attention to install peace, democracy and development after the year 1991. This explains the enormous reduction in Ethiopia’s military expenditure for the sake of development and poverty eradication. Ethiopian defence industry capability that can be identified are Hibret Machine Tools Engineering Complex (HMTEC) that was established in 1953 to produce medium weapons for the Ethiopian National Defence Force. It also produces items for civilian such as hand tools, hospital beds, aluminium saddles, and household and office furniture. The Gafat Armament Engineering Complex which produces a wide range of infantry equipment. Other industrial capabilities are Homicho Ammunition

Engineering Complex (HAEC), Bishoftu Motorization Engineering Complex which repairs and overhaul centre for heavy armament, tanks and military vehicles, Dejen Aviation

Engineering Complex (DAVEC) serving as a centre for overhauling military aircraft,

Nazareth Canvas and Garment Factory and Metals & Engineering Corp, METEC which designs, manufactures, upgrades and maintains different products including overhaul of combat aircraft and helicopters, tanks, vehicles and weapons.

The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) is a project owned by Ethiopian Electric

Power Corporation (EEPCO) and happens to be one of Ethiopia’s success stories where the military has been involved at top level management. Construction of the GERD commenced in 2011 by the Salini Construttori (Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam Project, Benishangul-

Gumuz, 2019).

photograph 2-1 Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (Source: CNN)

The main saddle dam is expected to have a capacity of 6,000MW, create reservoirs capable of holding seventy-four billion cubic metres of water. The dam is also expected to handle flood

up to a certain capacity, reduce alluvium in Sudan and also facilitate irrigation of new agricultural lands.

2.6 Singapore Defence Industries

Singapore is a country in Asia comprising of a main island and several other smaller islands and islets located between Malaysia and Indonesia. The three major geographical regions found in Singapore are the central hilly region, the west and southwestern regions (Singapore

- Geography and Maps | Goway Travel, 2019).

Through land reclamation, the Singapore territory has expanded much increasing from

581.5km2 in the 1960s to 704km2 currently, and could potentially grow by another 100km2.

Map 2-2 Map of Singapore Source: (Singapore - Geography and Maps, 2019)

During the latter half of the 1960s, Singapore underwent a profound politico-military transformation. The military build-up was impressive by any standards (Buchanan, 1972). The

Defence Industries of Singapore came into being in 1960s. The government at that time saw it necessary that the country should needed to reduce reliance on foreign countries to equip its defence forces during wartime. In October, 1965 the Prime Minister called for the creation of a Territorial Army of at least 10,000 volunteers by the end of the decade, to meet any internal or external threat to security. In 1967, defence expenditure absorbed 7% of the national budget; the allocation more than doubled to 16% in 1968; in the following year a quarter of the budget went to defence, and by 1970 the proportion had jumped to 33% (Buchanan, 1972).

The government established three government-owned corporations by 1975 that were used to assemble, design small arms, military aircraft and naval vessels. Singapore government efforts saw it marketing its weapons to other foreign countries by 1979. As a way of supplementing locally owned corporations, there were other foreign owned industrial complexes engaged in production of military hardware. The government at this time had offered incentives to these companies as a way of promoting employment in these technology industries and in return help in lowering the production costs for these firms (Pike, 2019).

Pike (2019) points out to the fact that “the three divisions of the state-owned and -operated

Singapore Technology Corporation continued to produce ammunition, weapons and army vehicles for use by the army even in 1989. These three divisions equally engaged in research and development. They as well modified foreign military materiels to fit the needs of their own army. The first division, Chartered Industries, established in 1967 produced various ammunition calibres like the 5.56mm, 7.62mm and 12.7mm used for pistols, rifles and

machine guns respectively. This division also produced rounds for mortars, armour piercing rounds and artillery bombs. This first division is seen to begin production of M16 rifles in

1970”.

Come 1976, the first division obtained rights from Britain that enabled them to start producing

SAR-80 rifles and between 1980 and 1989, over 100,000 SAR-80s were produced.

The second division came into being in 1973 and mandated to design and produce mortars and 155mm howitzers for the army. Singapore partnered with a Finnish manufacturer to produce 60mm, 81mm and 120mm artillery ammunition. A variant of Israeli M68, FH-88 was produced also with the assistance of Israeli firm, Soltam Limited. (Pike, 2019).

The third division was established in 1971. This division is seen to modify various trucks such as three-ton Mercedes and AMX-13 tank to meet the specifications of its own military. This division also managed to modify Armoured Personnel Carriers (APCs) and fitted them with weapons and missile launchers (Pike, 2019).

Singapore established the Singapore Aerospace Corporation in 1981 and comprised of four state-owned divisions. These divisions were mandated with the assembly of foreign-produced trainer aircraft for the air force and the overhaul and maintenance of various types of military aircraft, aircraft engines, and avionics equipment. According to Pike (2019), “The division charged with maintenance managed to assemble the SIAI-Marchetti S-211 trainer aircraft for the air force, refurbished A-4S Skyhawk fighter aircraft and performed maintenance of C-130 transport aircraft for both the Singapore and United States air forces. This divisions even went

further to upgrade their capabilities by manufacturing aircraft parts as well as offering their maintenance services to the civilian world.”

Singapore also established a state-owned Singapore Shipbuilding and Engineering Company which managed to obtain shipbuilding technology from West Germany. It in the period 1974-

1975 managed to construct four TNC-45 missile-equipped gunboats for its own navy. It goes further to construct three TNC-45s for the Thai navy in 1976 and 1977 with the same specifications as the ones it constructed for its own navy. These vessels had the same armament as the TNC-45s produced for the Singapore navy. This corporation further enters into an agreement with the government of India in 1986 for joint construction of six TNC-45s for the Indian Coast Guard and as per the agreement, two of these TNC-45 craft were to be built in Singapore and four in India. Come 1989 Singapore Shipbuilding and Engineering manages to construct its first corvettes which is used by its own navy. The design of this corvette was obtained from its Singapore ally, West Germany (Pike, 2019).

In the period 1983-1987, Singapore exports of military hardware to other countries increased tremendously and totalled US$311 million making Singapore to rank fifteen in terms of exporter of military hardware to third world countries according to SIPRI.

2.7 Philippines Defence Industry

The Philippines is a Country in South-East Asia in the Western Pacific comprising more than seven thousand islands. The Philippines remains dynamic with regard to its economic growth and comprises a globally recognized competitive workforce.

Map 2-3 Map of Philippines Source: (The University of Texas at Austin, 2019)

The Philippine Republic, immediately after attaining independence from the United States, faced threats from insurgents and separatist groups. Just like other Defence Forces where

National Defence Act provides for the external defence orientation of the Armed Forces, the

Philippine military has always been tasked in internal affairs, as for instance, fighting insurgents and separatist groups. The situation in Philippines has not been an exception where the military has occasionally been required to provide assistance in maintenance of law and order and has consequently been involved in development activities of the nation.

Several companies in Philippines manufacture mortars, small arms, and ammunition. Others still are engaged in the manufacture of combat radios. Notable is the fact that the Philippines

has the capacity to construct landing craft utility of which to date, they have managed to construct a ship that displaces five hundred and seventy tons.

The Philippine Air Force (PAF) in the 1980s started its own indigenous aircraft programs with the first program being a single-engine trainer plane capable of being armed. It was basically use for counterinsurgency. A subsequent program was for the construction of light utility helicopter named the "Hummingbird."

According to www.globalsecurity.org, “Philippines adopted as Self-Reliant Defence Posture

(SRDP) program in 1974 where the development of a domestic defence industry was defined as the country’s prime objective. Defence officials contracted SRDP projects with the government arsenal and local manufacturers, encouraging the use of indigenous raw materials and production capacity. Local production of small arms, radios, and assorted ammunition were some of the projects that were initiated during the time. An M-16A1 rifle was manufactured under license of an American Company named Colt Industries. SRDP not only increased Philippine self-reliance, but also cut costs, provided jobs, and saved much-needed foreign-exchange funds.”

The 1998 Philippines White Defence Paper noted that defence “Self-Reliance was only attainable when foreign procurement is combined with technology transfer, in the short term, and the subsequent establishment of a domestic defence industry capable of supporting the armed forces in the long term.” A period of initial provision of repair and maintenance support in the local defence industry, followed with indepth investment in research and development can help upgrade the capabilities of the local industry to even manufacture of defence products.

SRDP programs put into great emphasis projects which the country had comparative advantages and avoided those which economic viability were not easily tenable in achieving defence self-reliance. The benefits of local defence industry, developing from Self-Reliant

Defence Posture programs, are for instance provision of employment opportunities and building of an industrial base for economic growth.

2.8 Summary of Literature and Gaps Identified

Reviewing the literature, it is of great importance to treat military expenditure trends with lots of care in that “there are numerous problems with the data in terms of definitions, coverage, accuracy which make it particularly difficult to use figures for comparison across country, or to aggregate to larger groups” (Dunne, 2000). There exists a gap on investigating Kenya’s military expenditure with this regard and this is the focus of the proposed study. Dunne (2000) made a contribution by “providing a survey of the studies of economic effects of military expenditure and the economics of disarmament and conversion for developing countries in general.” The proposed study seeks to study the economic effects of Kenya.

The study conducted by Benoit in 1973 used data from 1950-1965 during the period of cold war. Evidently so much has changed and one cannot possibly rely on a study conducted so long ago. This proposed study will use recent data for Kenya, utilizing the method that was used by Benoit.

Musyimi (2015) mentioned countries where there is active military involvement in activities that facilitate economic growth: USA, Egypt, Namibia, Ethiopia, Senegal, Uganda, Nigeria,

Tanzania. The actual contribution in terms of contribution to GDP is however missing. This proposed study will conduct a case study of Ethiopia and Singapore which are well known

successful models of developmental states and see their proportion of military expenditure and contribution of its activities to the overall GDP of their countries.

Kibicho (2005) in his thesis primarily focused on the roles of Kenya Armed Forces in poverty eradication. This proposed study seeks to investigate the role of Kenya Military in infrastructure development, which can be an enabling factor in poverty eradication and subsequently contribute to the general economic growth of the country.

2.9 Theoretical Framework

It is noted that there are many possible patterns of civil-military relations that provide different answers the appropriate role of the military in a given set up, the amount of civil control necessary and the effectiveness of the military instrument produced by civil-military relations at any one particular moment.

2.9.1 Keynesian Approach

The Keynesian Approach model suggests that “the expansion of government spending below full employment would increase investment, income, employment and hence higher rates of economic growth. It is also suggested that military spending may lead to higher economic growth through positive spill over effects. The state is seen as proactive and believed to use its military spending as an aspect of state spending capable of increasing out through the so- called multiplier effects in the presence of ineffective aggregate demand. With this regard, spending on military results in increased capacity utilization, increased profits and subsequently to increased investment and growth” (Dunne, 2000).

Failure to consider supply side issues, leading many researchers to include explicit production

functions in their Keynesian model has seen this approach being criticised.

2.9.2 Neoclassical Approach

The aspects of this approach are “military spending, financed by taxes or borrowing, which crowds out private investment and reduces growth. The diversion of resources from productive government projects, for instance education and health, is seen to bring about huge opportunity costs, despite the fact that there may be security benefits to the economy as a result of government spending on military.”

This approach sees the state as a rational actor capable of balancing between the opportunity costs and security benefits of military spending for the purpose of maximizing a “well-defined national interest reflected in a societal social function. Military expenditure can be treated as the pure public good and the economic effects on military expenditure will be determined by its opportunity cost, the trade-off between it and other spending” (Dunne, 2000).

The Neoclassical approach is criticised for not having the advantage of allowing the development of consistent formal models for empirical analysis. It is ahistorical and concentrates much on the supply side while ignoring the demand side. This approach also largely ignores the internal role of the military and military interests. All these aspects that this approach ignores are to a large extent very relevant in developing economies (Dunne,

2000).

2.9.3 Marxist Approach

The role of military spending according to this approach is seen as both important and contradictory. One strand of this approach has provided that the “only theory in which military

spending is both important in itself and an integral component of the theoretical analysis, the under consumptionist approach. The under consumptionist approach sees military expenditure as important in overcoming realisation crises and allows for the absorption of surplus without increasing wages and so maintaining profits” (Dunne, 2000).

According to Dunne (2000), “no other form of government spending can fulfil this role. This approach is criticised for its limited application in explaining aspects to only the developed economies.”

2.9.4 Institutional Liberalist Approach

Radical Liberal approach is combined with a Keynesian perspective. It however “focuses on the way in which high military spending can lead to industrial inefficiencies and to the development of a powerful interest group composed of individuals, firms and organizations who benefit from defence spending, usually referred to as the military industrial complex

(MIC). The MIC increases military expenditure through internal pressure within the state even when there is no threat to justify such expenditures” (Dunne, 2000).

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This section describes actions that were taken during the investigation of research problems.

It outlines the specific procedures used to identify, select, process, and analyse information applied to assist in better understanding of the research problem, answering the research questions thereby, allowing the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability. It provides information on study area, research design, sampling techniques, data collection and data analysis methods used in conducting research.

3.2 Study Area

This study primarily focused on Kenya Military. Comparison was made with Ethiopia,

Singapore and Philippines.

3.3 Research design

Creswell (2008) identifies four forms of philosophical worldviews in research: “Post positivism, social constructivism, participatory and pragmatism” (Wilson, 1996). This study adopted the social constructivists’ view where an assumption that individuals seek understanding of the world in which they live and work is held. A qualitative research was adopted for this study. Qualitative research involves studies that uses words to describe a phenomenon, rather that attempting to quantify results through statistical means as is the case

in quantitative research. Qualitative studies involve interviews and observations without formal measurement. A case study, which is an in-depth examination of one person or county or event is a form of qualitative research.

Secondary data and Case studies were used in this regard. The data collected in a qualitative study includes more than words. Attitudes, feelings, vocal and facial expressions are involved.

The data which may comprise of historical documents and memoranda, field notes from observations, a wide variety of records and interview transcripts, are treated to rigorous ongoing analysis.

The Data Collection, Coding and Data Analysis process were blended throughout the period of conducting this research. This approach enables the researcher to be flexible enough as should there have been the need of changing the line of inquiry and delve in-depth in an area where more information is available and data seen to be relevant to the study.

3.4 Sampling Procedure and Size

This study used purposive sampling, a non-probability sampling method where elements selected for the sample were chosen by the judgement of the researcher. The researcher’s judgement was used to select the respondents then picks only those who meet the purpose of this study. This sampling method is appropriate as there are only limited number of primary data sources who can contribute to the study.

“Theoretical sampling”, was used to select the case sites of the study. With this regard,

Singapore and Ethiopia which are known to have employed developmental model of state development were chosen for this study.

3.5 Data Collection and Tools

This refers to how this study obtained empirical data used to answer the research questions.

3.5.1 Military in Development

Documentary data, photographs, videotapes and films are some of the data collection methods that were used in this study. The Kenya Ministry of Defence, Defence White Paper, Mashujaa journals, Service Commanders’ directives were key documentary data sources.

To build on this study, the researcher used military spending data from the Stockholm

International Peace Research Institute (SIPRI) dataset. The SIPRI dataset included

“government spending on military forces and activities including salaries, benefits, operational expenses, arms and equipment purchases, military construction, research and development, central administration, and command and support” (SIPRI Military

Expenditure).

“The Penn World Table is a database with information on relative levels of income, output and productivity, covering 182 countries between 1950 and 2014” (Groningen Growth and

Development Centre). These two databases enabled the researcher to accurately compare and analyse a country’s military spending to its economic growth.

3.5.2 Military and Infrastructure Development

This objective was best answered by conducting an analysis of existing government policy documents. This study relied on government pronouncements and proceedings, statistics and records from reliable agencies like Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS), policy

documents, Executive Orders and written research papers in order to achieve this particular objective.

3.5.3 Military Involvement in Infrastructure Development and Realization of the Big Four

Agenda

Documents were assessed in order to get data pertaining to this objective. A document with this regard refers to any written material other than a record that was not prepared specifically in response to some requests from the researcher. Documents included institutional memoranda and reports, census publications, government pronouncements and proceedings, diaries and innumerable other written, visual and pictorial sources in different forms. This study analysed the plans and projects under vision 2030 and through comparative case studies of militaries from other countries identified gaps where Kenya Military can actually fill towards general realization of the Big Four Agenda.

3.6 Quality Control Criteria for handling Qualitative Data

3.6.1 Validity

The following strategies were used in ensuring validity:

a. Triangulation of data, where data was collected through multiple sources to

include document analysis, photographs and videos.

b. Long term and repeated analysis of documents and data sources.

3.6.2 Authenticity

Authenticity refers to genuine and truthful source of collected data. This research ensured that

documents being consulted were genuine and of utmost integrity. At the same time, the researcher was sure of the identity of the interviewees and their qualifications. The researcher ensured authenticity of documents by scrutinizing them and confirming that they are not falsified and further authenticated the authorship.

3.6.3 Credibility

Credibility refers to the component of data source where the source can be said to be believable. For data or source to be credible, it must be trustworthy and must have come from subject matter expert. The researcher ascertained that the documents and data sources consulted were not distorted in any way whatsoever and that the documents were not produced or reproduced as a way of misleading the researcher and research process. This study ignored reporters’ comments and opinions on events and occurrences, and concentrated on only factual press statements and interviews when interrogating media publications.

3.6.4 Meaning

Meaning, as pertains this research, aspect of data being clear and capable of being comprehended. This study augmented documentary data by holding interviews with few key informants, that is, people who are familiar with and knowledgeable about matters national development and the military.

3.7 Data Analysis and Tools

Ongoing data analysis took place throughout the study. Data preparation, which included editing, coding and data entry, to enhance data accuracy were conducted after data collection.

The initial data analysis according to Miles and Hubermann framework “entailed

identification involved noting patterns in the subjective data while also observing similarities and differences between individual narratives.” The Miles and Hubermann framework, which is consistent with the interpretivist theory for qualitative data analysis, was used. This approach provided a systematic approach to collecting, organizing and analysing the collected data.

The Data analysis process remains crucial, especially when it is conducted as the data is collected as it helps arrange the data to bring out meaning. Continuous process of data analysis also helps provide a feedback on where more data should be gathered. Abstracting and comparing are intellectual tools that are very key in conceptual analysis. An overview of the data analysis process is seen on figure 3.1.

Figure 3-1 Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

3.7.1 Military and Economic Development

Continuous data analysis for themes was conducted using the Miles and Hubermann framework.

3.7.2 Military and Infrastructure Development

The Data Analysis and Data Collection Processes overlapped allowing adjustment of the data to be collected based on the results of data analysis. This allowed for decision to be made on whether to continue with data collection and which particular areas needed more focussing.

Data analysis was done in two stages as outlined by Bhattacherjee (2012) and these are “in the first stage (within-case analysis), the researcher examined emergent concepts separately for each case site and patterns between these concepts facilitated the generation of an initial theory of the problem of interest. The second stage conducted cross-case analysis where the researcher looked for concepts that were similar and patterns between different case sites, while ignoring differences that may have culminated in wrong conclusions.” Such patterns were used to validate the initial theory.

3.7.3 Military Involvement in Infrastructure Development Towards Realization of the Big

Four Agenda

The process of data analysis sought to filter out unnecessary data, identify patterns emanating from the processed documentary data in order to help in proper description of the research findings. Data from the various existing documentary data were arranged with one theme focusing on the social production of the document, starting with how the document came into being. It needs to be pointed out that all documentary sources of data come from human

activity and interaction and brought into being through a given thought process and interrogation of facts (Punch, 2014).

Documentary data were arranged in themes concerning direct analysis of texts for meaning, in particular to establish whether they are truthful or erroneous in any way. This analysis focused on the deeper meaning of the texts. The Researcher also applied the different theoretical perspectives under Literature Review to the analysis of literature just so that this particular objective could be achieved.

The documentary data were also analysed according to the theme of social organization in terms of how they were written, read, authors, purpose and occasions when the documents were drafted. Texts were analysed for deeper underlying meaning in order to bring out the various theoretical perspectives.

3.8 Ethical considerations

Social Research comes with many associated ethical dilemmas. Out of the principles of ethics of social research identifies by Stuart (2008), this study was guided by the following (Stuart,

2008):

a. Integrity and Quality in Research Process and work.

b. The confidentiality of sensitive information. This research involved information that

had varied levels of classification;

Every other social research requires consent, permission to access sensitive and confidential information, as well as other ethical issues. This study sought clarity from military authority

on material that could be used in this research and classified information was left out. The study ensured that informed consent was obtained from participants. This entailed providing full information about the research including the reasons the particular respondents were chosen to participate. Participants' privacy, confidentiality and anonymity was granted.

Similarly, permission was sought from all security agencies for access to stored or archived material and documents useful to the study. All agencies were assured that findings would only be used appropriately, as would their reporting and dissemination.

CHAPTER FOUR

FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter discusses and reviews the results and analysis of the qualitative data and the results of the qualitative findings of the study. The findings are also discussed in light of other previous research findings and available literature in order to identify similarities and differences between this study and previous ones. The purpose of this study was to demonstrate the role of military in the development of a country.

The specific objectives of this study were:

a. To analyse opportunities for Kenya Military to participate in economic development

as presently constituted.

b. To assess the role that Kenya Military has in the past played in enhancing

infrastructural development.

c. To analyse opportunities for Kenya Military involvement in infrastructure

development towards realization of the Big four agenda particularly in enhancing

infrastructure.

The army is the land defence component of the armed forces and therefore is provided with the necessary resources to achieve its set objectives in line with the national defence plans.

Expenditure of resources must therefore conform to the Department of Defence (DOD) and

other national priorities. The demands made by the army should be rational, adequate,

appropriate and affordable in relation to economic and threat realities.

The roles and tasks emanating from the mission of the army are as shown in figure 4-1 and

the levels of function are shown in fig 4-2.

KENYA ARMY MANDATE AND STRATEGY

SECONDARY COLLATERAL PRIMARY FUNCTION FUNCTION FUNCTIONS

To neutralize any To neutralize any military 1. Preservation of Life, Health military threat against threat against the and or property. sovereignty and territorial the sovereignty and territorial integrity of integrity of Kenya and her 2. Provisions of essential Kenya and her people people services.

3. Disaster response and management.

4. Support to any state THE LAND BATTLE department for socio- economic development of the community

OFFENSIVE DEFENSIVE OPERATIONS OPERATIONS

Figure 4-1 The Kenya Army Mandate and Strategy

The Kenya Army is mandated to protect the state against land based external aggression. As

seen from figure 4-1, the mandate is not limited to protection, but also encompasses other

roles, herewith referred to as collateral functions, which would enhance preservation of life,

health and property, provision of essential services, disaster response and management and

also support to any state department for socio- economic development of the community.

GOVERNMENT

Strategy Finance Long

DATA Military DEPT/ MINISTRY OF Intelligence Research INPUTS Advice DEFENCE

Military Planning POLICY The Military Budget Procurement Administration Human and Material

Resources ARMY NAVY AIR FORCE HQ

Operational Administration Control Control

Logistic Ops Plans COMMAND Training Man Management

FORMATION AND Short Term UNITS 4.2 Military and Economic DevelopmentFigure 4-2 Levels of Function

This objective was looked at by analysing the capabilities of the Kenya Military with regard

to its current establishment, personnel training and equipment. The Kenya Defence Forces continues to be involved “through projects such as borehole drilling, dam construction and desilting, road and bridge construction and participate in provision of medical and veterinary services” (Defence White Paper, 2019).

The Army possesses considerable capability for rapid response and may therefore be called upon to assist in the event of disaster support to any state department for socio-economic development of the community. Such assistance will be rendered in close coordination with the relevant civil office, for instance national disaster officer, taking into account the roles of other stakeholders, the need for expediency and scope of response, For effective response, a reasonable degree of readiness should be maintained at all times, especially the provision of first aid as the nation mobilizes resources to cope with the disaster. This implies that the army must act to assist the public during disaster, without waiting for orders to do so. Some of the disasters which formations and units have in the past been called upon to respond to include collapsed buildings, damage to communication systems including roads, railway lines, bridges, airports, telephone and radio networks.

Defence White Paper (2019) notes that “the KDF capabilities that can directly be put to economic development include the Maritime Resources, Air, Transport, Medical and Kenya

Army Corp of Engineers (KACE). Such development activities are manly geared towards reduction of poverty and improvement of the lives of communities living in the affected regions. They will continue being achieved through increasing collaboration between the defence forces and other government ministries, departments and agencies.”

The Ministry of Defence continues to support the National Industrialization process through

research based technological innovations and transfer of appropriate technology in the development of Defence Industrial Capacity. The Defence Industrial Capacity includes military equipment, food processing and clothing for self-sustenance and spurring of economic growth through utilization of local resources.

The Ministry of Defence also recognizes “Space Science, Research and Development as key components of technological advancement. The National Space Agency which is domiciled in the Ministry continues to partner with other National and International Institutions to explore opportunities available in the space arena. KDF continues to support activities in

Space Science, Research and Development linking it to industry in support of defence operational capability” (Defence White Paper, 2019).

The Kenya Army Engineers brigade is comprised of Field Engineers Battalion (10 Engineers

Battalion), Construction Battalion (12 Engineers Battalion), School of Combat Engineering

(SOCE) and the Water Drilling Squadron (WDS). The brigade is capable of horizontal construction which includes construction of roads, bridges and dams and vertical construction of both new structures and renovation of new ones. The WDS is capable of drilling boreholes and water purification. The SOCE trains Officers and Service Members of Engineer Corps in all fields of Combat Engineering as well as limited engineering training to certain trades within KDF. Some of the training pertinent to infrastructure development that are conducted at SOCE are Construction Supervisory Course, Plant Operators Course, Plant Mechanic

Course, Survey Engineer Course, Draughtsman Course, Masonry Course, Carpentry/Joinery

Course, Electrical Installation Course, Painter/Sign Writer Course, Geo Survey, Drillers

Course, and ROWPU technician course.

General Engineering Tasks for the Brigade are:

1. Vertical and lateral constructions which refer to building construction and bridge

design.

2. General Support Bridging (LSB, GSB, Bailey Br): The General Support Bridging

comprises a thirty-two metres bridge that is used is used in battle areas. It is launched

using a special launching equipment capable of launching bridges up to forty-four

metres of length.

3. Environmental Support/Disaster Response.

4. Barracks maintenance.

5. Limited development projects: This includes classrooms construction, construction of

monuments, road construction and maintenance.

6. Borehole drilling and rehabilitation.

Figure 4-3 Spectrum of Kenya Army Corp of Engineers Operations

KACT is structured to move personnel and equipment during training, operations and aid to civil authority. Transport Battalion manages and operate heavy lift transport vehicles to support the army within the theatre of operations. It also has M/trucks which enhance

Engineers Brigade mobility of equipment and personnel. During peace time, KACT also conducts Military Aid to Civil Authority (MACA).

The Defence Forces Technical College (DEFTEC) is a premier institution for training technical manpower for the Kenya Defence Forces. Its training is of high quality, practical and tailored to meet the changing security needs and advancement of technology. The college is as well known to be the centre of excellence for research and development in KDF.

4.3 Military and Infrastructure Development

Kenya military has in the past engaged in infrastructure development. Though most of what has been done has gone undocumented and sparsely mentioned in the Mashujaa magazine of

KDF. Such projects have ranged from school renovations in North Rift and in Thika’s

Kiandutu slums. The military is also involved in land scaping and road works. A recent project in Narok that caught the eyes of the public due to political interests involved was the Extra wide bridge constructed shown in fig. 4-1.

photograph 4-1 Chief of Defence Forces Inspecting bridge in Narok

photograph 4-2 KDF has partnered with Kenya Commercial Bank in construction &

distribution of water tanks within Gilgil (Majeshi Yetu , 2019)

KDF operations in Somalia has shown that having better equipment enhances fighting power, and that acquiring and maintaining that equipment is costly, and therefore the need to harness local technology and innovation. In pursuing its military strategy, the Government needs to ensure that its forces are combat ready to handle diverse set of threats, while at the same time, maintaining and restructuring the forces to a level which is sustainable by the existing economy. Harnessing of local technology therefore becomes an essential element for sustaining the effectiveness and efficiency of the military.

The Kenya Ordnance Factories Corporation (KOFC) was established in 1997 with a manufacturing and production capacity of small arms ammunition as well as other products within the country. Situated in Eldoret, Thika and in Gilgil, KOFC is Kenya’s only

ammunition and related products for the nation.

In support of His Excellency President and Commander-in-Chief of Kenya Uhuru Kenyatta’s

Big 4 Agenda, on 14th October 2018 KDF officially opened the Kenya Defence Forces Food

Processing Factory (KDF-FPF) in Gilgil, Nakuru. KDF-FPF is among the Ministry of

Defence’s (MOD) Vision 2030 Flagship Project whose implementation began in 2014. It supports the other 3 pillars in the Big 4 Agenda, namely Manufacturing, Universal Health

Care and Food Security and Nutrition.

The Functions of KDF -FPF is to reduce KDF logistical signature in operations thus enhancing

Fighting Power, Force Protection, Sustainability, Mobility and Manoeuvrability, enhance national food security and health, improve the national agricultural market and thus stabilize the prices of food products, enhance manufacturing, skills development, technology transfer and create jobs, create an assured market and thus economically empower farmers and enhance national support of KDF by citizens.

Researchers within the Kenya Defence Forces Technical College and the Kenya Army Corps of Electrical and Mechanical Engineers invented a diesel-powered mobile field kitchen which is reliable, economic, efficient and environmentally friendly. Since the fuel it uses is compatible with fuel used by most military vehicles and equipment gives it an advantage as the most preferred cooking equipment especially in field deployment.

4.4 Military Involvement in Infrastructure Development Towards Realization

of the Big Four Agenda

This objective will be examined through a comparative analysis of the roles that militaries in

other countries have played in infrastructure development, then compare that with that of

Kenya in order to arrive at recommendations on how Kenya military can best take part in infrastructure development towards realization of the Big Four Agenda.

Table 4-1 shows military expenditure for Kenya, Ethiopia, Singapore and Philippines as percentage of GDP. As can be seen, all four countries have over time reduced their military expenditure as a proportion of GDP. Ethiopia for instance in the year 2000 had the highest percentage at 7.6%, and is currently the lowest at 0.6% amongst the countries under study.

Kenya and Philippines have relatively maintained the at the same level from the year 2000 to

2018.

Looking at the amount that each country spends in military, Singapore emerges as the highest spender, followed by Philippines. The only time that Singapore has had a reduction in its military expenditure was in the year 2001. Philippines, however appears to have several years where the actual amount spent in military expenditure has dropped. These were in the years

2001, 2004, 2009, 2014 and 2017. In the years 2000-2005, Ethiopia put more in military expenditure compared to Kenya, only for Kenya to surpass Ethiopia’s expenditure in military in the year 2006 till present. Kenya has only had reduction in the year 2009 and 2014. Ethiopia on the other hand drastically cut its military expenditure from 2000 to 2003. What comes out clear after looking at the actual amounts in dollars that every country actually puts into military expenditure is that all the countries have in reality been increasing their military expenditure from the year 2000 till 2018.

Table 4-1 Military Expenditure by Country as Percentage of Gross Domestic Product, 2000-2018 (Source: Sipri

2019)

country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Kenya 7.6% 4.3% 3.7% 3.2% 3.1% 2.8% 2.3% 1.9% 1.5% 1.2% 1.1% 1.1% 0.9% 0.8% 0.8% 0.7% 0.7% 0.7% 0.6%

Ethiopia 1.3% 1.5% 1.6% 1.7% 1.6% 1.7% 1.5% 1.5% 1.6% 1.6% 1.6% 1.5% 1.7% 1.6% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.2%

Philippines 1.6% 1.5% 1.5% 1.6% 1.4% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.3% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.2% 1.1% 1.1% 1.4% 1.2% 1.1%

Singapore 4.5% 4.8% 4.9% 4.9% 4.4% 4.3% 3.9% 3.6% 3.9% 3.9% 3.4% 3.2% 3.2% 3.1% 3.1% 3.1% 3.2% 3.2% 3.1%

Table 4-2 Military Expenditure by Country, In Millions of US$ at Current Prices and Exchange Rates, 2000-2018 (Source: Sipri)

country 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Ethiopia 617.5 349.8 288.9 278.7 311.0 342.1 345.7 360.1 388.2 339.6 303.6 332.4 366.5 345.1 414.5 442.6 490.2 503.2 496.6

Kenya 165.6 195.4 213.9 245.9 259.8 316.8 375.8 494.7 580.0 578.1 622.0 646.7 840.1 860.6 819.0 843.7 933.1 1015.4 1097.5

Philippines 1303.1 1122.1 1199.1 1301.3 1243.2 1372.7 1607.3 2014.4 2270.9 2115.8 2438.2 2701.5 2898.7 3377.0 3103.1 3335.6 4358.0 3755.4 3769.7

Singapore 4330.7 4309.1 4528.1 4723.7 5043.4 5463.8 5830.5 6518.5 7454.3 7537.8 8108.9 8922.3 9171.9 9345.7 9596.6 9383.8 9873.3 10195.7 10841.0

Military Expenditure by Country as Percentage of Gross Domestic Product, 2000‐2018 8.0%

7.0%

6.0%

5.0%

4.0%

3.0%

2.0%

1.0%

0.0% 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

Ethiopia Kenya Philippines Singapore

Figure 4-4 Military Expenditure as Percentage of Gross Domestic Product, 2000-2018

10841.0 10195.7 10000.0 9873.3 9596.6 9383.8 9171.9 9345.7 8922.3

8000.0 8108.9 7454.3 7537.8

6518.5 6000.0 5830.5 5463.8 5043.4 4723.7 4528.1 4330.7 4309.1 4358.0 4000.0 3755.4 3769.7 3377.0 3335.6 3103.1 2898.7 2701.5 2270.9 2438.2 2000.0 2014.4 2115.8 1607.3 1303.1 1301.3 1243.2 1372.7 1122.1 1199.1 1015.4 1097.5 840.1 860.6 819.0 843.7 933.1 617.5 622.0 646.7 494.7 580.0 578.1 414.5 442.6 490.2 503.2 496.6 349.8 213.9288.9 245.9278.7 259.8311.0 316.8342.1 375.8345.7 360.1 388.2 339.6 303.6 332.4 366.5 345.1 0.0 165.6 195.4 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Ethiopia Kenya Philippines Singapore

Figure 4-5 MILITARY EXPENDITURE IN MILLIONS OF US$ AT CURRENT PRICES AND EXCHANGE RATES, 2000-2018

Table 4-3 Profile Comparison of Countries under Case Study

KENYA ETHIOPIA SINGAPORE PHILIPPINES

Geographic location East Africa East Africa East Asia East Asia

Current form of state The national Federal City state with Unitary state

government of Parliamentary parliamentary presidential

Kenya is Republic democracy representative.

composed of Democratic the legislature, republic. the executive

and the The president is

judiciary. both the head of

state and

government.

Previous form of British colony Attempts by British colony Spanish colony state Italy to colonize (1819-1959) (1565 – 1898)

Ethiopia were Member of repulsed. Malaysia (1859-

1965)

Land area 582,646 sq. km 1.13 million sq. 647.5 sq. km 300,000 sq. km

Population 49, 699, 862 104, 957, 438 5,612,253 104, 918, 090

Population growth 2.5% 2.5% 0.1% 1.5%

Languages English, Amharic, English, Arabic, English,

Swahili, local Oromo, Chinese, Malay Hokkien,

dialects Tigrinya, and Tamil Japanese,

Somali Korean, Malay,

Spanish, South

Asian

Languages

GDP (US$) 79.263 Billion 80.561 Billion 323.907 Billion 313.595 Billion

GDP growth 10.2 4.9 3.6 6.7

Economic status Newly

industrialized

economy

Type of Export oriented Export oriented Export oriented Export oriented industrialization

Major industries Agriculture, Mining, Energy, Finance, Business by % of GDP manufacture, Manufacturing, property, process

Tourism Floriculture manufacturing, outsourcing,

wholesale and retail,

retail trade, Hospitality and

transport and leisure,

communication manufacturing,

and Construction,

construction energy and

automotive,

ship building

4.4.1 Lessons for Kenya

Having examined the manner in which the military-industrial complex in other counties have developed, it can be said that Kenya is on the right track towards building its own military- industrial complex. It has been considered good practice, for a country to sufficiently develop its own industries to support its military forces and thus stimulate general economic development.

Kenya military directly involving in infrastructure development might be a drop in the ocean in terms of having any substantial contribution to the economy. This is because, the equipment and personnel presently on base are low in number. Also, the military expenditure by the government is meagre, something that might inhibit the military’s effectiveness in carrying out huge projects like countrywide road construction, bridge building and water drilling.

Looking at the United States of America, the defence industry itself employs a minimum of

3.5 million jobs either directly or indirectly. The companies that provide these jobs generated

several billions of dollars in terms of revenue totalling to over $324 billion. The companies in turn pay over “$5.5 billion in corporate income taxes on their earnings, as well as $1.7 billion in state income and similar business taxes” (Military Economy: The Military and Defense

Industry: An Economic Force in the U.S.: Site Selection Online, 2019).

The report does not include the users of these products and services. According to Military

Economy: The Military Defence Industry, “Military by itself employs over “720,000 civilian employees and 2.2 million military personnel. It has approximately 431,000 facilities or assets in the U.S. Employee roles include aerospace and defence skilled workers at National

Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Federal Aviation Administration (FAA),

Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) armed forces maintenance and repair depots, and civilians working at DoD.”

Arising from this, the effect and influence of the military cannot be overlooked. So far as there is a military, possible spill over of desirable attributes, and development in the immediate surroundings remains viable. Kenya can for instance in industrialization or modernization of its forces follow up with development around the areas where the military is expanding. This can be attained by placing upon the military the responsibility of conducting low level development in the area by establishing roads, schools, bridges and water points in such areas.

Kenya, as Tordoff notes, is a country that has experienced has historically enjoyed a stable political culture with no military intervention in state activities. This is partly owed to the fact that Kenya continues to consider the corporate interest of defence forces and looks at the morale factor of its military officers. This is seen as happening differently in Kenya compared to what is seen to happen in States where the military has gain power. Kenya military strictly

adheres to its civil prerogative and the interaction of political and organizational variables between the military and civil authorities allows for a favourable interaction that can eventually stimulate economic growth and development. A question that may need to be explored further is whether institutions headed by former military personnel do perform better owing to the leader bringing in some level of military experience. Recent examples in Kenya are the appointments of military generals to head the Departments of Immigration and other

Key Parastatals. The military’s hierarchical command structure and the habits of discipline and obedience of its members makes individuals believe that merely to issue a command is to have it obeyed. There is therefore this possibility of the civil authority borrowing much from the military to ensure efficiency in key parastatals, in this case departments dealing with infrastructure development, just so that the country can ensure achievement and realization of its plans.

4.4.2 Challenges of Military Involvement in Development

Inasmuch as the military can be used to enhance development, caution must be taken to ensure that civilianization of the military or militarization of civil activities is put to check. Military leaders in most cases may fail to appreciate that sensitive issues cannot be politicized. There is always that possibility also that some areas like infrastructure development in this case may be deeply politicized dragging the military in politics, while military should remain apolitical.

Military lack an organized popular base and an easy means of communicating with the people.

Military leadership may therefore be forced to develop an alliance with the police who are seen to be have much contact with what is happening on ground. For example, the National

Liberation Council in Ghana between 1966 and 1969 consisted of four senior army officers

and four senior police officers. The head of Nigeria’s first military government (January –

July 1966), Major General Ironsi, attempted to seal loopholes in his government by including a number of police officers in the narrow circle of his bureaucratic advisers (drawn predominantly from the army and civil service). This however, did not prevent him from committing blatant mistakes during governance (Tordoff, 2003).

Tordoff (2003) notes that “military regimes often seek to compensate for their relative isolation and lack of experience in governance by gaining the support of groups not too closely identified with the previous regime.” A lesson can be drawn from where the Ghana NLC relied

“heavily on the civil service, as well as engaging chiefs and members of the legal profession and the universities, all of whom were strongly represented on the various commissions and committees established by the Council” (Tordoff, 2003).

Military officers involved in governance have high chances of becoming divorced from the military command structure. Owing to civilianization, many military governments may find it difficult maintaining organizational cohesion as the military culture gets eroded. A similar experience has been witnessed in Nigeria during the reign of Gowon who disagreed with the

Military Council on matters principle when it came to schedule of returning to military rule

(Tordoff, 2003).

Military discipline and thoroughness always remain good virtues that need to be emulated by entire civil service. There is however the challenge with military rule as leadership becomes exposed to various aspects of corruption as was the case in Nigeria where corruption was rampant in 1975 during military rule (Oyediran, 1979).

Military regimes which intervene in internal affairs may become sucked into politics. The

military becomes politicized which eventually worsens the situation as soldiers take sides in support of opposing leadership.

In the long run, there seems to be no significance improvement in the economic performance of states which have experienced military rule. In Nigeria, during the first period of Military rule between 1966-1979, sectoral performance was recorded in manufacturing, oil and building sectors. Agriculture sector performed poorly. The result was the similar in Ghana where the overall economic performance of General Acheampong between 1972 and 1978 is reported to have been disappointing (Rothchild, 1980).

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter summarizes the findings, draws conclusion and gives recommendations based on the study of the military and Kenya’s Big Four Agenda: The Case of Infrastructure. This study investigated the capability of the KDF to engage in effective infrastructure development as an enabler towards realization of President Uhuru Kenyatta’s Big Four Agenda. This study sought to find out whether KDF has the capacity to have any substantial contribution in the economy of the country by virtue of engaging in economic development activities, particularly infrastructure development, something which presents a deviation from the military’s traditional role of state protection in accordance with state centric approach to security.

Secondary data was used in this study, with bulk of the data coming from documentary data and past research work related to present study. This study was guided with research questions that attempted to understand the roles of other militaries in the world in industrial development within their states, desirable attributes of the Military that could enhance infrastructure development and what in essence determines effective industrial role for the military.

This study then conducted a comparative study of Kenya Military capabilities against that of other countries, particularly Ethiopia, Singapore and the Philippines by attempting to find out what role the militaries in these particular countries played during the periods when their governments put into practice the concept of developmental states, a deviation from the

Washington Consensus that many developing states and third world countries adopted in the period following decolonization.

5.2 Summary of the findings

The first objective of this study sought to analyse opportunities for Kenya Military to participate in economic development as presently constituted. The study revealed that the

Kenya Army Mandate and Strategy provides for collateral functions which deviates from the primary role of defence of the state against land based external threats. It was noted that the

Kenya Army Corp of Engineers has capabilities that would enable the Corp to effectively engage in development activities geared towards poverty eradication. KDF has indeed aligned itself towards Vision 2030 and has established KDF-FPP in Gilgil. KDF also has training institutions such as DEFTEC and SOCE which train engineers and technicians who enhance the capacity of KDF to engage in infrastructure development.

The second objective was to assess the role that Kenya Military has in the past played in enhancing infrastructural development. Notable finding with regard to this objective was the recent bridge construction in Narok and renovation of buildings by the Corp of Engineers following the 2007 Post Election Violence (PEV) in Kenya. The corps of engineers and

Disaster Response Units have heavy machinery that have ordinarily been used in responding to disasters as was the case in Huruma where a building had collapsed. KDF Research and

Development Centre has equally been a centre of innovations. Following operational needs in

Somali, KDF invented Portable Diesel operated Field Kitchen, started processing KDF bottled water and has now embarked on processing dried vegetables just so that the life of troops at warfront is made easy. Following these innovations, KDF has expanded the same, bringing

about employment to non-military personnel and at the same time moving Kenya towards achievement of Vision 2030. Suffice to say, KDF is acting as an enabler towards realization and attainment of the Big four Agenda

The third and final objective was to analyse opportunities for Kenya Military involvement in infrastructure development towards realization of the Big four agenda particularly in enhancing infrastructure. The study established that there are indeed several opportunities for the KDF to involve in infrastructure development. This however should be conducted in conjunction with the civil authorities, with KDF acting as enablers in the process.

This study established that a development of a military-industrial complex within a country can greatly enhance industrialization as has been seen in Ethiopia and Singapore. The military influences this by creating an enabling environment for industries to flourish and at the same time acting as end users of the innovations that come out of industrialization. There is also the effect of spill over of technology from the military to civilian world, as well as military personnel taking to the civil world discipline and expertise gathered during their military career upon retirement.

This study however established that the economic growth and development experienced in

Singapore, Philippines and Ethiopia were not necessarily as a result of militarization. On the contrary, most of the development led to need for military industrialization, resulting to military modernization.

5.3 Recommendations

Issues of economic development are areas in sub-Saharan Africa will still be researched more.

In the period following decolonization, all African countries adopted mechanisms and strategies to fast track development and the results have been diverse. Some adopted the

Washington Consensus proposals, others opted for the Beijing Consensus as an alternative.

This study attempted to investigate ways in which military, particularly Kenya Military, can be best employed to help foster infrastructure development. This is one area that still remains a grey area and needs to be further researched. However, this study recommends the following in line with Kenya’s Big Four Agenda.

There is need to development of a vast Military-Industrial Complex. Kenya is on course with this as the study saw how Research and Development is taking shape within the Military with the creation of Food Processing Plant in Gilgil, Diesel Operated Field Kitchen and the running of Ordinance Factory in Eldoret. Areas such as aviation still remains unexplored, as Kenya still largely depends on foreign companies for overhaul of its aircraft, something that if researched and explored more remains quite tenable.

Kenya could also look at the possibility of increasing the mandate for KDF to encompass infrastructure development. Proper guidelines and policies will however need to be put in place to ensure that the military remains apolitical and their engagements with population is not politicized.

Government should also plan for infrastructure development in line with military expansion and modernization. Wherever there is establishment of new bases, the government should plan way ahead on how infrastructure and social amenities will follow. The military can be tasked to engaged in low level development in constructing roads in such area.

5.4 Conclusion

From the analysis of the findings, it is was established that the development of the countries under study cannot be linked to direct military participation. However, when military acts as the user of some end products in the economy, it enhances development of a vast DIB thus enables the economy to prosper. Coming back to our study, Kenya can realize its Big Four

Agenda, specifically infrastructure development by a combination of strategies, and one of that is creating a vast defence industrial base that would enable industries to crop up, create employment and lead to general economic growth.

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