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THE SHUAR AND LARGE-SCALE MINING IN ZAMORA-CHINCHIPE, ECUADOR: A STUDY OF ETHNOPOLITICS AND THE STRUGGLE OVER NATURAL RESOURCES Elena del Consuelo Fernández-Salvador This research was funded by the Secretariat of Higher Education, Science, Technology and Innovation of Ecuador (SENESCYT) © Elena del Consuelo Fernández-Salvador 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission by the author. ISBN 978-90-6490-089-1 The Shuar and large-scale mining in Zamora- Chinchipe, Ecuador: A study of ethnopolitics and the struggle over natural resources De Shuar en grootschalige mijnbouw in Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador: een onderzoek naar etnopolitiek en de strijd om natuurlijke hulpbronnen Thesis to obtain the degree of Doctor from the Erasmus University Rotterdam by command of the Rector Magnificus Prof.dr. R.C.M.E. Engels and in accordance with the decision of the Doctorate Board The public defence shall be held on Wednesday 10 October 2018 at 16.00 hrs by Elena del Consuelo Fernández-Salvador born in Quito, Ecuador Doctoral Committee Doctoral dissertation supervisors Prof.dr. M.N. Spoor Prof.dr. M. Arsel Other members Dr. G. Valdivia, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Dr. R. Fletcher, Wageningen University & Research Dr. J.F. Gerber Co-supervisor Dr. L. Pellegrini To my family, who inspired me to begin this journey and supported me in every sense until the end. Thanks to my parents, José Ignacio and Robert. To the Shuar people and their leaders Contents List of Maps, Figures and Tables x Acronyms xi Acknowledgements xiii Abstract xv Samenvatting xvii 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Setting the Stage 1 1.2 Research Objectives and Main Questions 6 1.3 Main Arguments and Findings 15 1.3.1 The Construction of Identity in Postcolonial Contexts 15 1.3.2 Indigeneity as a Political Strategy 20 1.3.3 Development and Modernity 24 1.4 Thesis Structure 29 Notes 34 2 THEORY AND METHODS 37 2.1 Introduction 37 2.2 Indigenous Politics: Ethnic Identity in the Struggle over Natural Resources 37 2.2.1 Discursive Approach on Identity: Positioning and Articulation 41 2.2.2 Ethnicity as Strategy 44 2.2.3 Identity Politics, Articulation, and the Struggle for Resources 46 2.2.4 Indigeneity and Multi-Scalar Networks 51 2.2.5 Identity Politics, Place, and Territory 53 2.2.6 Everyday Life Struggles and Politics 56 vi Contents vii 2.3 Methodology 61 2.3.1 Research Design and Methodology 61 2.3.2 Doing Long-Term, Multi-Site Ethnography 64 2.3.3 Description of the Qualitative Methods used in the Field 66 2.3.4 Positionality and Ethics in the Fieldwork 70 2.3.5 Final Thoughts on Doing Research in the Communities 73 2.4 Conclusions 75 Notes 76 3 THE POLITICAL, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL IMPLICATIONS OF LARGE-SCALE MINING IN ECUADOR 79 3.1 Introduction 79 3.2 The Extractive Industry in Ecuador: The Transition from Neo- Liberal to Post-Neoliberal Regimes 80 3.2.1 The Politics of Minerals 84 3.2.2 Large-Scale Mining: Issues of Sovereignty and Local Participation 85 3.3 The Development of Large-Scale Mining in Ecuador 90 3.3.1 Project Mirador: A Threat to Life in Cóndor-Mirador 92 3.3.2 Beyond Environmental Impacts: The Environmental Justice Perspective in Project Mirador 96 3.3.3 Alliances, Negotiations, and Tensions Related to Project Mirador 103 3.4 Conclusions 108 Notes 110 4 HISTORY AND ETHNO-POLITICS OF THE SHUAR FEDERATION OF ZAMORA CHINCHIPE 111 4.1 Introduction 111 4.2 Historical Context: The Creation and Evolution of the Shuar Federations in Zamora-Chinchipe 113 4.2.1 Early Shuar History and First Contacts with Missionaries 113 4.2.2 Change and Transformation among the Shuar 116 4.2.3 The Beginnings of the Shuar Political Organization 118 viii DUTCH TITLE 4.2.4 The Emergence of an Autonomous Shuar Federation in Zamora Chinchipe 122 4.3 The Shuar Federation of Zamora Chinchipe: A Snapshot of its Internal Structure 127 4.3.1 The Heart of the Shuar Political Organization: The Communities 129 4.3.2 Life in a Shuar Community in the Area of Project Mirador 131 4.3.3 The Role of the Associations 141 4.4 The Ethno-Politics of the Shuar Federation 145 4.4.1 Negotiating with the Mining Company: Changing Circumstances and Conflicts in the Shuar Federation 149 4.5 Conclusions 155 Notes 158 5 CHANGING DISCOURSES AND FRAGMENTED PRACTICES. THE CONSTRUCTION OF INDIGENEITY AROUND PROJECT MIRADOR 162 5.1 Introduction 162 5.2 Indigeneity, Positionality, and Territorial Dynamics 165 5.3 The Shuar Federation: Discourses and Political 169 Strategies 169 5.3.1 The Federation’s Rhetoric and Political Strategies 169 5.3.2 Identity Discourses and Political Practices in the Communities 173 5.3.3 Final Thoughts on the Discourse Continuum 188 5.4 Fragmented Territory and Communities 191 5.4.1 Changing Notions of Territory 196 5.5 Conclusions 200 Notes 203 6 A TRANSITION TO STATE CONTROL: THE ROLE OF ECUADOR ESTRATÉGICO IN THE CONTEXT OF PROJECT MIRADOR 207 6.1 Introduction 207 6.2 Sumak Kawsay and Development in the State’s 210 Constitution 210 6.3 What is Ecuador Estratégico? 215 Contents ix 6.4 The Politics of Extractivism: Buen vivir, Development, and Redistribution in Ecuador Estratégico 220 6.5 The Shuar Communities around Project Mirador: Passive Recipients of Policies or Active Subjects? 226 6.5.1 Between Discourses and Reality: The Life Choices of the Shuar Regarding Development 233 6.6 Conclusions 239 Notes 240 7 CONCLUSIONS 244 7.1 Introduction 244 7.2 Indigeneity and Positioning as Part of Territorial Dynamics 246 7.3 Development in the Context of Extractivism 247 7.4 Main Conclusions and Contributions 249 List of Maps, Figures and Tables MAPS 1.1 Northern Province of Zamora Chinchipe 3 3.1 Project Mirador and the area of direct impact 94 4.1 Project Mirador and Shuar communities in the study 132 FIGURES 4.1 Organizational Chart: National and Regional Organizations 126 4.2 Structure of the FESZCH and Associations and Communities in this Study 129 TABLES 4.1 Economic Activities 137 4.2 Basic Description of the Communities in the Parish of Tundayme 138 4.3 Basic Description of the Communities in the Parish of El Guismi 139 Acronyms ARCOM: Agency for Mining Control and Regulation. ASCOMI: Cóndor Mirador Association. CASCOMI: Amazonian Community for Social Action Cordillera del Cóndor Mirador. CEDHU: Ecumenical Commission for Human Rights. CIDH: Inter-american Commission for Human Rights. CODENPE: Council for the Development of Nationalities and Pueblos of Ecuador. CONAIE: Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of Ecuador. CONFENAIE: Confederation of Indigenous Nationalities of the Ecuadorian Amazon COOTAD: Organic Code of Territorial Organization, Autonomies and Descentralization. ECORAE: Institute for the Eco Development of the Amazon Region. ECUARUNARI: Confederation of Kichwa Peoples of Ecuador. ENAMI: National Mining Company of Ecuador. FEI: Ecuadorean Indian Federation FEINE: Council of Evangelical Peoples and Organizations of Ecuador FENOC: National Federation of Peasant Organizations. FEPNASH-CH: Provincial Federation of the Shuar Nationality of Zamora Chinchipe. FEPP: Fondo Ecuatoriano Populorum Progressio FESZCH: Shuar Federation of Zamora Chinchipe. FICSH: Interprovincial Federation of Shuar Centers. GADs: De-centralized, Autonomous Governments. xii GTZ: German Cooperation Agency. IERAC: Ecuadorian Institute for Agrarian Reform and Colonization. INDA: National Institute for Agrarian Development. INREDH: Regional Foundation for de Advisory on Human Rights. MAE: Ministry of Environment of Ecuador. MIDUVI: Ministry of Urban Development and Housing. POT: Land Planning System. PRODEMINCA: Mining Development and Environmental Control Project. SENPLADES: National Secretariat for Planning and Development. Acknowledgements It would not have been possible for me to undertake the academic and personal challenge that the PhD process entails, without the presence and support of many different people. I am greatly indebted to my supervisors at the ISS, Max Spoor, Murat Arsel and Lorenzo Pellegrini, for their guidance and constant encouragement throughout all these years. Thanks also for allowing me to be part of the NEBE Project, which gave me the opportunity to develop interesting personal and academic relations. I also want to acknowledge the financial support to complete my studies at the ISS and the research for the thesis, funded by a scholarship granted by the Secretariat for Higher Education, Science, Technology and Innovation of Ecuador, SENESCYT. During fieldwork, I met amazing people to whom I am extremely grateful for their hospitality and generosity with their time. This work would not have been possible without the participation of all the community and federation leaders in this study. I would like to thank Father Jorge Chumapi, who was the President of the Shuar Federation of Zamora Chinchipe at the time of my fieldwork, not only for offering me valuable information, but especially for his friendship. Special thanks also to Jeffersson Pullaguari, Edgar Aguananchi, Susana Guerrero (for the great food, hospitality and friendship during my stay in Tundayme), and José Tendetza (may he rest in peace). It was very rewarding to do fieldwork with the help and company of my students, Erika, Sebastián, Patricia and Cristina and with my friend and colleague Karolien van Teijlingen, with whom I have greatly enjoyed working ever since. I would also like to thank the authorities at the Universidad San Francisco de Quito, whose trust on my work allowed me to pursue my goals while keeping my teaching position at the university. I am also very grateful to my sister and colleague Carmen Fernández-Salvador, who was really the first person to inspire and push me to pursue an academic career; also to my colleague and friend Michael Hill, for all the time he put into reading my work and the great insights and ideas he shared with me.
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    Después del Campamento, la Transición en la Villa Departamento de Ciencias Sociales Carrera de Sociología Después del Campamento, la Transición en la Villa Tesis para Obtener Título Profesional Director de Tesis: Fernando De Laire Alumna Tesista: Loreto Molina Martínez Diciembre 2002 Santiago - Chile 1 Después del Campamento, la Transición en la Villa A mis Papás por todo lo que me han dado, por enseñarme a soñar, a amar en el servicio, y a ser feliz en la vida 2 Después del Campamento, la Transición en la Villa Mis agradecimientos a la Universidad y amigos por acompañarme y a Don Hernán y Verónica por el apoyo fundamental que me dieron en la Villa 3 Después del Campamento, la Transición en la Villa Tabla de contenidos Comentario [MC1]: Comentario [MC2]: 1. Resumen 2. Presentación 2.1 La realidad latinoamericana en vivienda social 2.2 La realidad chilena en vivienda social 2.3 Sobre los campamentos 2.4 Sobre las villas poblacionales 3. Introducción 3.1 Objetivo General 3.2 Objetivos Específicos 3.3 Metodología 3.3.a Elección de la Muestra 3.3.b Diseño de Instrumentos 3.3.c Dimensiones 4. Estado del Arte 4.1 Sociología de la Pobreza 4.1.a Segregación de la pobreza 4.1.b Desintegración social 4.2 Antropología Cotidiana 4.2.a La vida con la población de la villa y las demás familias de esta, desde una perspectiva macro-social 4.2. b Vida familiar, desde una perspectiva micro-social: 4.2. c Satisfacciones individuales y sociales 5. Estudio de Caso 5.1 Realidad de la Villa Cardenal Raúl Silva Henríquez 5.2 Resultados del Estudio de Campo 5.2.a Sobre la vida en el campamento .