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Article The Most Advanced Hydraulic Techniques for Water Supply at the Fortresses in the Last Period of Al-Andalus (Thirteenth to Fifteenth Century)

Luis José García-Pulido 1,2,* and Sara Peñalver Martín 3

1 Department of Art and , University of Málaga, 29016 Málaga, 2 Laboratory of Archaeology and Architecture of the City (LAAC, EEA, CSIC), 18010 , Spain 3 Architect, University of Málaga, 29016 Málaga, Spain; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]

 Received: 5 March 2019; Accepted: 9 May 2019; Published: 15 May 2019 

Abstract: Due to the conflicts that existed among the kingdoms of the during the Middle Ages, the territories of al-Andalus were protected with defensive architecture that played an influential role on the landscape. The development of these fortresses was necessarily linked to water, either because of the strategic control of a hydraulic resource or because of the need to provide to inaccessible places, as it is often the case of the emplacement of these constructions. The study of their implantation in the territory and the hydraulic elements that they preserve has revealed quite diverse systems of water supply. This paper presents the comprehensive overview that emerged after verifying that many of the existing cisterns, rather than being autonomous and isolated elements, as has often been considered, are strongly related to the organization and development of the fortresses, sometimes located at the end of complex and advanced hydraulic networks, closely linked to the topography of each place. This study is devoted to the water supply systems of some of the most significant fortresses in the last territories of al-Andalus, corresponding to the Nasrid kingdom of Granada (1238–1492).

Keywords: al-Andalus; Nasrid; Granada; fortresses; water supply; hydraulic systems; cistern; aljibe

1. Introduction As a general rule, the development of fortified settlements and defensive architecture in al-Andalus deals with very specific and conditioning topographical elements, in search of high places with an extensive view surveilling the surrounding territory and a controllable access. While favouring their position of defence and control, these places implied a series of difficulties to assure basic goods for a prolonged settlement. One of these essential resources is water. Building a fortress at a high position always meant an additional difficulty to the stable access to water, which is a key element both in the construction and maintenance of defensive structures and sustaining life inside them. In addition, many of them were established to control the access to surface or groundwater resources, ensuring the protection of springs, wells, water channels, and even rivers (Pavón Maldonado 1990). If this was not possible due to other strategic or defensive issues, there was still the possibility of transporting water from another place or collecting rainwater. In many cases, there was a combination of all or some of these factors. In this sense, facilities for water storage such as the cistern (called aljibe in Spanish, from Arabic al-jubb) and the pond (Spanish alberca, from Arabic al-birka) played an essential role within a (Spanish alcazaba, from Arabic al-qas.aba) and other different types of fortresses in al-Andalus. They provided autonomy during periods of peace and resistance against prolonged . In addition,

Arts 2019, 8, 63; doi:10.3390/arts8020063 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 23

Arts 2019, 8, 63 2 of 24 they are usually one of the surviving structures of these fortresses, due to their solid construction and their fully or partially interred situation. This fact has favoured their preservation, as they are less exposedthey to are erosion usually and one have of the been surviving protected structures with the of deposition these fortresses, of earth due and to debris their solidfrom constructionthe destructionand of their other fully surrounding or partially elements. interred situation. This fact has favoured their preservation, as they are Thisless occurs exposed on most to erosionof the Nasrid and have fortresses. been protectedDuring this with kingdom, the deposition many pre-existing of earth and defensive debris from the structuresdestruction were reoccupied of other and surrounding adapted to elements. new border status, as well as others were built from the ground up. InThis this occurs process, on mostthe construction of the Nasrid te fortresses.chniques and During the thissolution kingdom, for the many defence pre-existing and the defensive hydraulicstructures supply followed-up were reoccupied with long and traditions, adapted to coupled new border with status, the wide as wellaccumulated as others knowledge were built from the that the Nasridground kingdom up. In this gathers, process, due the to the construction concentration techniques of population and the and solution trade forfrom the Medieval defence and the Europe andhydraulic the Maghreb. supply followed-up with long traditions, coupled with the wide accumulated knowledge that the Nasrid kingdom gathers, due to the concentration of population and trade from Medieval State of theEurope Art and the Maghreb. Historically, water supply to fortresses has relied on digging wells to get water from the State of the Art ground, or in building cisterns inside the walled enclosures to storage piped water or rainwater. These constructiveHistorically, resources water have supply been to fortressesused from has Prehistory, relied on digging as the wellsexcavation to get waterof the from Spanish the ground, or Bronze Agein building archaeological cisterns sites inside of the Motilla walled del enclosures Azuer in to Daimiel storage (Aranda piped water Jiménez or rainwater. et al. 2008), These with constructive the oldestresources fortified havewell found been used in the from Iberian Prehistory, Peninsula, as the or excavationPeñalosa in of Baños the Spanish de la Encina Bronze (Onorato Age archaeological et al. 2008, pp.sites 297–316) of Motilla have del revealed. Azuer in Daimiel (Aranda Jiménez et al. 2008), with the oldest fortified well Besidesfound their in thesituation Iberian in Peninsula,high places, or harsh Peñalosa and in dry Baños environments de la Encina present (Onorato more et challenges al. 2008, pp. to 297–316) obtain water.have That revealed. is the case of many fortresses and fortified settlement situated in the Near East, where more complexBesides hydraulic their situation systems in high were places, develo harshped for and catching dry environments water; deeper present wells moreand other challenges to ways of waterobtain transport water. That are isneeded, the case as of well many as a fortresses high storage and fortifiedcapacity. settlement The settlement situated of Masada, in the Near East, built betweenwhere 37–31 more complexBC, is a well-known hydraulic systems example were of developedthis situation. for catchingThere, a water;huge network deeper wells of 12 and other cisterns thatways could of water hold transport about 40,000 are needed, m3 was as dug well out as a at high thestorage base of capacity. the mountain, The settlement being fed of Masada,by a built system ofbetween dams and 37–31 two BC, aqueducts is a well-known that collect example and drive of this flood situation. water There, from the a huge surrounding network of ravines 12 cisterns that and gorges.could Water hold was about raised 40,000 to other m3 was cisterns dug out situ atated the on base the of top the of mountain, the cliff by being human fed byand a animal system of dams force alongand a twoprotected aqueducts staircase that (Netzer collect and 1991). drive flood water from the surrounding ravines and gorges. Water Similarwas uses raised of to wells, other cisternspipes, and situated aqueducts on the top were of theput cli inff by use human in Roman and animal force andalong castella a protected establishedstaircase in the (LimesNetzer Arabica 1991)., along the Via Nova from Petra to Aila, that were built in wadis, next to ravines thatSimilar could usesbe dammed, of wells, pipes,as well and as aqueductsduring Byzantine were put and inuse Umayyad in Roman timescastra in andthe castellaso-calledestablished ‘desert ’.in the Some Arabica of them, along were the conceived Via Nova fromas palatial Petra tostrongholds Aila, that werewith built amenities in wadis, as nextbaths, to ravines sometimesthat situated could beat dammed,a distance as from well them. as during Byzantine and Umayyad times in the so-called ‘desert castles’. The SomeUmayyad of them Palace were of conceived Amman as(Jordan), palatial built strongholds in the first with third amenities of the as eighth baths, century sometimes on the situated at a northern distanceside of the from hill them. of Jabal al-Qalʿa, include a large circular pool next to a public area that ensures waterThe supply, Umayyad with a Palacecapacity of of Amman 1368 m3 (Jordan),. Next to builtit, a bath in the was first excavated third of whose the eighth layout century was on the similar tonorthern that which side ofmay the be hill seen of Jabalat Qusayr al-Qal ʿAmraa, include and aother large Umayyad circular pool buildings next to in a publicJordan area that (Almagroensures Gorbea water 2010, pp. supply, 475–513). with a capacity of 1368 m3. Next to it, a bath was excavated whose layout Whenwas the similar last surviving to that whichmember may of this be seen dynasty, at Qusayr ʿAbd al-RaAmraḥm andān III, other escaped Umayyad to al-Andalus, buildings he in Jordan established(Almagro the independent Gorbea 2010 Caliphate, pp. 475–513). of Córdoba. Then, in 936, the palace-city of Madīnat al-Zahrā was built nextWhen to the theold last capital surviving of the memberRoman Beti of thiss region, dynasty, choosingAbd a al-Ra placeh. m onan¯ the III, way escaped of one to of al-Andalus, the he main Romanestablished aqueducts the of independent Córdoba, which Caliphate was ofrefu Córbishedrdoba. to Then, supply in 936, water the to palace-city the Umayyad of Mad citadel¯ınat al-Zahra¯ (Ruggleswas 2008, built pp. next152–53). to the old capital of the Roman Betis region, choosing a place on the way of one of the Amongmain the Roman fortresses aqueducts built ofby C theórdoba, Almoravids which was in refurbishedthe eleventh to and supply twelfth water century to the Umayyadin their citadel expansion(Ruggles from Saharan 2008, pp. Africa 152–53). to the north of Morocco, Zagora is one of the oldest. It was raised to the west of SijilmAmongāsa in the the fortresses third quarter built of by the the eleventh Almoravids century, in theon the eleventh right bank and twelfthof Wadi century Draʿa, in their which ensuredexpansion its water from supply Saharan (Meunié Africa to and the Allain north of1956, Morocco, pp. 310, Zagora 322). isIn one its northern of the oldest. part, It which was raised is to the the lowest,west there of Sijilm wereasa¯ two in theirrigation third quarter channels of the parallel eleventh to century,the ravine. on theThey right passed bank ofthrough Wadi Drathe a, which enclosureensured running its along water the supply northern (Meuni wall.é and On Allainly about 1956 20, pp.m from 310, the 322). inner In its channel, northern a part,ḥamm whichām is the (Arabic bath)lowest, was there dug were out in two the irrigation mid-twentieth channels century, parallel while to the the ravine. water They supply passed to the through upper thearea enclosure where therunning dwellings along are the located northern was wall. done Only by hand. about 20 m from the inner channel, a h. ammam¯ (Arabic bath) was The dugfortress out inof theTāsgim mid-twentiethūt was also century, built by while the Almoravids the water supply around to 1125. the upper There, area the whereremains the of dwellings an albercaare with located a horseshoe was done plant by made hand. of stone, in which the rainwater was collected, are preserved,

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The fortress of Tasgim¯ ut¯ was also built by the Almoravids around 1125. There, the remains of an alberca with a horseshoe plant made of stone, in which the rainwater was collected, are preserved, as well as a fountain that guaranteed the supply of water to a big aljibe of square plan and made with large stones, in the southeast of the fortress (Cressier and Erbati 1999, p. 61; Basset and Terrasse, p. 170). In addition, a ravine near the walls was crossed by a thick wall that could have served as a dam (Marcos Cobaleda 2010, p. 484). The fortress of Tiguemi Ouguellid or Agadir Izenaguen is quite similar to the previous one. It is located in the Taourirt N Lhassene massif, near Wadi Sayad. In the lower part of the enclosure, there is an aljibe of 600 m3 fed by rainwater, covered with a masonry barrel vault with circular openings (Ricard 1938, pp. 644–45). The fortress of Qas.bat al-Nas.ran¯ ¯ı in Jebel al-Nas.ran¯ ¯ı, at the north of Meknes, has a defensive character. The lowest point of the enclosure, at the northern side, is the exit of a ravine, and up to three springs are protected there by two rectangular towers that overtake the wall (Berthier 1938, plan 3). All these fortresses based their water supply on the protection of natural resources (springs, rivers, etc.) or artificial structures linked to water (wells or cisterns filled with rain or by channels), usually situated in the lower areas of the walled enclosures, and hence, water has to be manually transported to the highest points. This continued to happen in the Almohad period (twelfth-thirteenth century) and in the late Middle Age Christian fortresses. As the conquest of al-Andalus advanced, they reuse previous structures or build new ones, as happened with La Peña de Martos , the seat of the Order of Calatrava in the border with the Nasrid kingdom of Granada. There, a rectangular cistern was established at the lowest point of the fortified enclosure, in order to collect the runoff waters, and was connected with a three vaulted naves cistern (García-Pulido et al. forthcoming). In the Nasrid kingdom, the frontier fortresses were reinforced, and often new structures were built for the hydraulic supply, letting or modifying the previously existing ones. In many cases, the remains of these aljibes have been considered as autonomous structures but, as we can see, they are usually part of a complex system. Regarding the fortresses in al-Andalus, when the aljibes have a certain entity or importance, they have been documented and studied from their constructive to their functional features (Feijoo Martínez and Calzado 2005). Overall, they have been described as outstanding architectural and archaeological remains among the structures preserved in a fortress (Martín García et al. 1999; Gutiérrez Ayuso 2001; López Guzmán et al. 2002; Bestué Cardiel and Tascón 2006). However, they have rarely been documented graphically and generally classified as isolated elements. In addition, there is the fact that, in most of the cases, the supply systems of the cisterns are unknown, especially in those preserved in urban and rural fortresses. There exist some important works developed in two aspects. On one hand, the documentation of aljibes from consolidated urban networks (Orihuela Uzal and Vílchez 1991) and from some fortified enclosures (Córdoba de la Llave and Porras 1994). On the other hand, the intense studies developed around the hydraulic networks in rural settlements, linked to irrigated lands on the Levant, the Balearic Islands and the southeast of Spain (Barceló i Perelló et al. 1986; Barceló i Perelló 1989; Cressier 1991). However, all of this work leaves a gap in relation to the hydraulic supply to fortified enclosures in al-Andalus. This paper focuses on the analysis of the hydraulic systems of various fortresses within the Nasrid kingdom of Granada. The study of several cases has allowed us to locate evidence of supply networks very closely related to the fortification and the special topography of each place.

2. Results The essential starting point is the survey of the aljibes and their relationship with other structures inside and outside the fortress from an archaeological and architectonical point of view, documenting both the remaining medieval landscape and the structures and infrastructures built in it. Arts 2019, 8, 63 4 of 24

The methodology used is based on photogrammetric and topographic documentation of several fortresses as well as a review of the present information. An accurate graphic documentation allows us to deal with the study of the hydraulic supply system at its final use as a fortress prior to the take-over by the Castilians. Pre-existing Andalusian elements and modifications that could have been carried out after the conquest have been detected through the different systems identified in the remains of each fortress. Firstly, a classification that encompasses the different supply procedures identified has been established on the basis of the elements that may exist in the Andalusian hydraulic systems (Cressier 1991, pp. 403–28). Surface water collection:

- Water intake from a river, either through a dam, a waterwheel, or manually. - Water from a fountain or spring. - Runoff water collection.

Groundwater collection:

- Well supplied from the water table or from an underground water channel. The most common means of raising water are usually a wheel and a crankshaft. - Drainage gallery of an aquifer: mine, qanat,¯ and a covered drainage trench on the river bed.

Water channelling:

- With irrigation ditches, water channels, aqueducts, etc. in an open laminar regime. - By means of stone, ceramic, or metal water pipes.

Storage:

- Reservoirs of water bodies: lagoons, pools, ponds, cisterns, water tanks, big vats, etc. - Recharge of aquifers to accede to extraction points (wells, drillings, draining galleries, etc.) or natural spillway (springs and fountains).

A series of case studies will be presented taking into account this classification, based on three essential points for the response to the hydraulic supply: the topographic context, the inspection of the hydraulic remains, and the hypotheses of the water supply network (Figure1). Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 23

allows us to deal with the study of the hydraulic supply system at its final use as a fortress prior to the take-over by the Castilians. Pre-existing Andalusian elements and modifications that could have been carried out after the conquest have been detected through the different systems identified in the remains of each fortress. Firstly, a classification that encompasses the different supply procedures identified has been established on the basis of the elements that may exist in the Andalusian hydraulic systems (Cressier 1991, pp. 403–28). Surface water collection: - Water intake from a river, either through a dam, a waterwheel, or manually. - Water from a fountain or spring. - Runoff water collection. Groundwater collection: - Well supplied from the water table or from an underground water channel. The most common means of raising water are usually a wheel and a crankshaft. - Drainage gallery of an aquifer: mine, qanāt, and a covered drainage trench on the river bed. Water channelling: - With irrigation ditches, water channels, aqueducts, etc. in an open laminar regime. - By means of stone, ceramic, or metal water pipes. Storage: - Reservoirs of water bodies: lagoons, pools, ponds, cisterns, water tanks, big vats, etc.

- RechargeArts 2019 , of8, xaquifers FOR PEER to REVIEW accede to extraction points (wells, drillings, draining galleries, etc.) or 2 of 23 natural spillway (springs and fountains). A theyseries are of usuallycase studies one ofwill the be surviv presenteding structures taking into of accountthese fortresses, this classification, due to their based solid on constructionthree Artsessential2019and, 8 ,points 63 their forfully the or response partially to interred the hydraulic situation. supply: This factthe topographichas favoured context, their preservation, the inspection5 as of of 24they are the hydraulicless exposed remains, to erosionand the andhypotheses have been of the protected water supply with the network deposition (Figure of 1).earth and debris from the destruction of other surrounding elements. This occurs on most of the Nasrid fortresses. During this kingdom, many pre-existing defensive structures were reoccupied and adapted to new border status, as well as others were built from the ground up. In this process, the construction techniques and the solution for the defence and the hydraulic supply followed-up with long traditions, coupled with the wide accumulated knowledge that the Nasrid kingdom gathers, due to the concentration of population and trade from Medieval Europe and the Maghreb.

State of the Art Historically, water supply to fortresses has relied on digging wells to get water from the ground, or in building cisterns inside the walled enclosures to storage piped water or rainwater. These constructive resources have been used from Prehistory, as the excavation of the Spanish Bronze Age archaeological sites of Motilla del Azuer in Daimiel (Aranda Jiménez et al. 2008), with the oldest fortified well found in the Iberian Peninsula, or Peñalosa in Baños de la Encina (Onorato et al. 2008, pp. 297–316) have revealed. Besides their situation in high places, harsh and dry environments present more challenges to obtain water. That is the case of many fortresses and fortified settlement situated in the Near East, where more complex hydraulic systems were developed for catching water; deeper wells and other ways of water transport are needed, as well as a high storage capacity. The settlement of Masada, built between 37–31 BC, is a well-known example of this situation. There, a huge network of 12 cisterns that could hold about 40,000 m3 was dug out at the base of the mountain, being fed by a system of dams and two aqueducts that collect and drive flood water from the surrounding ravines Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 23 and gorges.Figure Water 1. Fortresses was raised studied to in other relation cisterns to their situ water ated supply. on the Created top of bythe authors. cliff by human and animal force along a protected staircase (Netzer 1991). 2.1. The Case of the2.1. The Case as of a theSummary Alhambra of Advanced as a Summary Hydraulic of Advanced Solutions Hydraulic Solutions Similar uses of wells, pipes, and aqueducts were put in use in Roman castra and castella The citadel of theTheestablished Alhambra citadel of in thewas the Alhambra theLimes seat Arabica wasof the the, along Nasrid seat the of theViadynasty Nasrid Nova (1238–1491), from dynasty Petra (1238–1491), to although Aila, that althoughits were built its alcazabain wadis, next alcazaba is developedis developed overto ravines an overearlier that an fortress earlier could fortress (Malpicabe dammed, (Malpica Cuello as well Cuello1996, as 2002; 1996during ,Martín 2002 Byzantine; Mart Garcíaín Garc andet al. íUmayyada 1999). et al. 1999 It times). It is in situated the so-called ṭṭ ṭ is situated on theon top the of top‘desert the of Sab the castles’.īkaSab Hill¯ıka Hill(asSome was (as of wasreferred them referred were by the by conceived thewriter writer Ibn as Ibn Ba palatial Baūt.tah.u¯t. ah fromstrongholds from Tangier, Tangier, within in theamenities fourteenth as baths, Ḥ ʾ the fourteenth century),century),sometimes also also known known situated as as the the atRed Red a distance(al- (al-Hamr. amr fromā a¯ ) Hill,them. a place with an excellent strategic position but, on position but, onaccount account of itsTheof lack itsUmayyad oflack water, of Palace withwater, limitations of withAmman limitations for (Jordan), human for settlement.built human in the Thefirstsettlement. implementation third of The the eighth of a complexcentury on the implementation andof a flexiblecomplexnorthern hydraulic and side flexible of system the hydrau hill capable of licJabal ofsystem supplying al-Qal capableʿa, abundantinclude of supplying a waterlarge wouldcircular abundant allow pool water the next development to a public of area a that would allow themedieval developmentensures palatine of water a citymedieval supply, near the palatine withAlcazaba a capacity cityof near the of Alhambra.the 1368 Alcazaba m3. Next of theto it, Alhambra. a bath was excavated whose layout was ḥ ʿ ḥ The first monarchThe similarof first the monarchNasrid to that dynasty, ofwhich the Nasrid mayMu dynasty,ammadbe seen Mu Abdat h.Qusayrammad Allāh ibn ʿAmraAbd al-A All andmarah¯ ibn other(r. al-A 1232–1273), hUmayyad. mar (r. 1232–1273), buildings must in Jordan must have conceivedhave conceived (Almagrothe walls the Gorbea and walls general 2010, andgeneral pp. la yout475–513). layout of the of theenclosure. enclosure. According According to toIbn Ibn ʿIdarIdarī ¯ı al-Marrakush¯ ¯ı, al-Marrākushī, inin 1238, hehe tookWhentook waterwater the last from fr survivingom the the river, river, member building building of this a dama dynasty,dam and and digging ʿAbd digging al-Ra out aḥoutm waterā an III,water channel escaped for to thisal-Andalus, sole he channel for this purpose,sole purpose,established which which would the would independent ensure ensu there Alhambra’s Caliphate the Alhambra’s of subsistence Córd subsistenceoba. Then, and independence inand 936, independence the palace-city (Huici Miranda of Madīnat 1954 al-Zahr, ā (Huici Miranda p.1954, 125). p.was They125). built lookedThey next looked forto the a collectionfor old a capital collection point of the inpoint theRoman in Darro the Beti Darro Rivers region, moreRiver choosingthan more 6 than km a place from 6 km on the the Alhambra, way of one so of the from the Alhambra,that so most mainthat of most Roman it could of it aqueducts be could supplied be supplied of byCórdoba, gravity. by gravity.which was refurbished to supply water to the Umayyad citadel ḥ Further to this, MuFurther(Rugglesammad to this,2008, V (r. Mu pp. 1362–1391)h. 152–53).ammad Vput (r. the 1362–1391) Acequia putde los the Arquillos Acequia de(Little los ArquillosArches (Little Arches Water Channel) Waterinto operation Channel)Among in into the the operation second fortresses half in theof built the second fourteenthby the half Almoravids of century, the fourteenth which in the century, led eleventh to the which supplyand led twelfth to the century supply ofin their of water to the almuniaswater toexpansion (from the almunias Arabic from (fromal-munya Saharan Arabic, plur. Africaal-munya mun to āthn,,e plur.country northmun of estates an¯Morocco,, country with Zagora vegetable estates is with one gardens) vegetableof the oldest. gardens) It was that raised to that were situatedwere beyond situatedthe westthe beyondreach of Sijilm of the theāsa reach firstin the ofchannelling. thethird first quarter channelling. The of almunias the eleventh The ofalmunias Los century, Alijaresof Los on (Higuera Alijaresthe right ( Higuerabank of Wadi Mata Draʿa, Rodríguez and Moralesand Delgadowhich Delgado ensured1999 1999,, p. its 33), p. water 33),Dar¯ al-DsupplyārAr al-usa¯ʿAr (Meunié(ūRubierasa (Rubiera and Mata Allain Mata 2005 1956, 2005,, art. pp. VIII,art. 310, VIII, pp. 322). 5–7;pp. In 5–7;Orihuela its northern Uzal part, 1996 which, is Orihuela Uzal pp.1996, 221–27; thepp. lowest, Malpica221–27; there CuelloMalpica were 2002 Cuellotwo, pp. irrigation 333,2002, 336–37) pp.channels 333, and D336–37)parallelar¯ al-W ad¯toand¯ı (theGarc D ravine.āíra-Pulido al-W Theyād ī2016 passed) were through built, the (García-Pulido 2016)achieving wereenclosure the built, occupation running achieving andalong exploitationthe the occupation northern of the wall. and territory Onexploitationly surroundingabout 20 ofm thefrom Alhambraterritory the inner (Figure channel,2). a ḥammām surrounding the Alhambra(Arabic (Figure bath) 2). was dug out in the mid-twentieth century, while the water supply to the upper area where the dwellings are located was done by hand. The fortress of Tāsgimūt was also built by the Almoravids around 1125. There, the remains of an alberca with a horseshoe plant made of stone, in which the rainwater was collected, are preserved,

Figure 2. Hypothesis on the development of the Alhambra and its surroundings at the time of maximum expansion during the second half of the fourteenth century. Created by authors.

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 23

2.1. The Case of the Alhambra as a Summary of Advanced Hydraulic Solutions The citadel of the Alhambra was the seat of the Nasrid dynasty (1238–1491), although its alcazaba is developed over an earlier fortress (Malpica Cuello 1996, 2002; Martín García et al. 1999). It is situated on the top of the Sabīka Hill (as was referred by the writer Ibn Baṭṭūṭah from Tangier, in the fourteenth century), also known as the Red (al-Ḥamrāʾ) Hill, a place with an excellent strategic position but, on account of its lack of water, with limitations for human settlement. The implementation of a complex and flexible hydraulic system capable of supplying abundant water would allow the development of a medieval palatine city near the Alcazaba of the Alhambra. The first monarch of the Nasrid dynasty, Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Aḥmar (r. 1232–1273), must have conceived the walls and general layout of the enclosure. According to Ibn ʿIdarī al-Marrākushī, in 1238, he took water from the river, building a dam and digging out a water channel for this sole purpose, which would ensure the Alhambra’s subsistence and independence (Huici Miranda 1954, p. 125). They looked for a collection point in the Darro River more than 6 km from the Alhambra, so that most of it could be supplied by gravity. Further to this, Muḥammad V (r. 1362–1391) put the Acequia de los Arquillos (Little Arches Water Channel) into operation in the second half of the fourteenth century, which led to the supply of water to the almunias (from Arabic al-munya, plur. munān, country estates with vegetable gardens) that were situated beyond the reach of the first channelling. The almunias of Los Alijares (Higuera Rodríguez and Morales Delgado 1999, p. 33), Dār al-ʿArūsa (Rubiera Mata 2005, art. VIII, pp. 5–7; Orihuela Uzal 1996, pp. 221–27; Malpica Cuello 2002, pp. 333, 336–37) and Dār al-Wādī (García-Pulido 2016) were built, achieving the occupation and exploitation of the territory surroundingArts 2019, 8, 63 the Alhambra (Figure 2). 6 of 24

FigureFigure 2. HypothesisHypothesis on on the the development development of theof Alhambrathe Alhambra and its and surroundings its surroundings at the time at ofthe maximum time of maximumexpansion expansion during the during second the half second of the half fourteenth of the fourteenth century. Created century. by Created authors. by authors. 2.1.1. The Royal Water Channel (Acequia )

Prior to the works of Muh. ammad I for the water supply of the Red Hill, a fortification existed in the area where the Alcazaba of the Alhambra was developed. It had a bath and a big cistern that was supplied by using a fortified wall (coracha) that reached the Darro River from the north wall. Later, in the thirteenth century, the development of a gravitational channelling system for the Alhambra also allowed supply to the aljibe of the Alcazaba (Gómez-Moreno Martínez 1966, p. 16), through the Royal Water Channel. The source of this channel was on a diversion outlet dam on the Darro River, at 838 m above sea level, although there are other water catchments and medieval hydraulic archaeological remains slightly higher that converge on this spot. The main water channel entry into the Generalife palace is at 798.50 m above sea level, maintaining a constant slope along its gardens and accomplishing the agricultural supply. However, after crossing 350 metres, it descends abruptly by 10.5 m to the level of its entry into the citadel. This indicates that, when designing the irrigation channel in 1238, extensive areas for cultivation were foreseen on the slope where the Generalife gardens are situated. When the water channel entered into the Alhambra walls, it initially divided into two branches that later joined together, organising the urban structure of the citadel. An extensive network of different ceramic pipes called atanores in Spanish (from Arabic tannur), enabled the distribution by gravity to all the enclosures of the Alhambra, by means of separators with small flood gates that supplied water to at least six baths, more than eight aljibes, and numerous fountains, albercas, and gardens of the houses and palaces of this citadel. Arts 2019, 8, 63 7 of 24

The extension of the hydraulic system in the second half of the fourteenth century by the creation of the Acequia de los Arquillos entailed the settlement and control of the nearby hills, implementing ingenious elevation systems to overcome the altitude limitations created by these irrigation ditches. One of the most outstanding was the diversion tunnels that, at different levels, fill the reservoirs situated at the bottom of dry wells, in which a waterwheel was generally devised to raise the water to a higher point. Today, this system is usually referred as a reverse qanat¯ . In Nasrid times, the intense hydraulic network established in the valley of the Darro river would have enabled an extensive settlement. Although Christian historical sources only refer to the existence of the farmsteads of Beas, Cortes, and Huétor, which were linked to the royal family, traces of other nuclei were preserved downstream along the water channels of the Alhambra, as Arquillos, Solana and Umbría, which would indicate the existence of other royal properties in this area. Following the conquest of Granada by the Catholic Monarchs in 1492, they realized the mastery achieved by Nasrid people with respect to the use and management of water. Therefore, an immediate provision for the maintenance and functioning of the hydraulic systems was made, which enabled the survival of the Royal Water Channel up to the present day.

2.1.2. Water Elevation from the Royal Water Channel to the Alcazaba of the Alhambra The Alcazaba of the Alhambra is separated from the Sab¯ıka Hill by a ravine. It is situated at 778 m above sea level, 6 m above the beginning of the Royal Street of the Alhambra at the Puerta del Vino (Wine Gate). Water supply in these cases was usually solved either by using an aqueduct or a syphon as, for instance, was used in the last section of the canalization that supplied the Alijares Palace. In the Alcazaba, a syphon has been in operation since the nineteenth century, having replaced a unique device that had been functioning up to the end of the eighteenth century, after the Christian conquest, being carefully kept up as it was, even though its operating principle was not understood. Confusing description of this device was mentioned in the second half of the eighteenth century (Velázquez de Echeverría 1764, vol. I, pp. 62–63). This system would have replaced an earlier one, destroyed with the demolition of the Puerta Real (Royal Gate) in the sixteenth century. The description shows the misunderstanding of the principle of physics that explained how it worked. It indicates the existence of a vertical tube with a vent at the top, which acted as an elevation duct to take water up to the level of the walls. At the beginning of the twentieth century, it was demonstrated that such a water elevation procedure was feasible (Cáceres 1914, vol. IX, pp. 77–82; Rubio Gandía et al. 2002, pp. 279–82), through an experiment based on the idea of setting a suction tube within a descending pipe, which, after emptying into a sealed space, would become a propulsion tube. It was able to raise a fraction of the water that entered the device to a height almost triple the distance between the entrance funnel and the sealed lower receptacle. It showed that the 6-metre difference in height that existed between the Alcazaba and the Royal Gate could have been overcome if the original device had had a 2-metre load height. The interpretation of Cáceres’ description implies the use of something similar to a Vortex Tube (García-Pulido 2016, pp. 15–18). This type of device could have been used in more Andalusian fortresses, like the Alcazaba of , as explained below.

2.1.3. Use of Reverse Qanats¯ Associated with the Royal Water Channels This is one of the systems used in the Alhambra and other important fortresses to break the altitude limitations of a water channel. The use of the term qanat¯ alludes to the fact that the layout of the required elements (a horizontal gallery, airing shafts (where they exist), and a main well) has a similar appearance to that of a qanat¯ , although its operating principle is completely different. It is a well that does not reach down to the water table, and therefore requires a horizontal underground gallery with slope downward to the interior to bring the water in from an external source. The existence of a deposit at the bottom of the well indicates that a certain amount of liquid could be accumulated; this Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 23

indicates the existence of a vertical tube with a vent at the top, which acted as an elevation duct to take water up to the level of the walls. At the beginning of the twentieth century, it was demonstrated that such a water elevation procedure was feasible (Cáceres 1914, vol. IX, pp. 77–82; Rubio Gandía et al. 2002, pp. 279–82), through an experiment based on the idea of setting a suction tube within a descending pipe, which, after emptying into a sealed space, would become a propulsion tube. It was able to raise a fraction of the water that entered the device to a height almost triple the distance between the entrance funnel and the sealed lower receptacle. It showed that the 6-metre difference in height that existed between the Alcazaba and the Royal Gate could have been overcome if the original device had had a 2-metre load height. The interpretation of Cáceres’ description implies the use of something similar to a Vortex Tube (García-Pulido 2016, pp. 15–18). This type of device could have been used in more Andalusian fortresses, like the Alcazaba of Antequera, as explained below.

2.1.3. Use of Reverse Qanāts Associated with the Royal Water Channels This is one of the systems used in the Alhambra and other important fortresses to break the altitude limitations of a water channel. The use of the term qanāt alludes to the fact that the layout of the required elements (a horizontal gallery, airing shafts (where they exist), and a main well) has a similar appearance to that of a qanāt, although its operating principle is completely different. It is a well that does not reach down to the water table, and therefore requires a horizontal underground gallery with slope downward to the interior to bring the water in from an external source. The existence of a deposit at the bottom of the well indicates that a certain amount of liquid could be accumulated; this water would have to be brought to the surface by a waterwheel. This was an expensive technique, both for construction and for maintenance and conservation. Arts 2019In ,the8, 63 Alhambra, the first known reverse qanāt was the one put in place to supply the Albercón8 of 24 de las Damas from the Royal Water Channel (Figure 3a). Some scholars argue that it must have been waterinstalled would in the have mid to or be first brought half of to the the fourteenth surface by century a waterwheel. when major This works was an were expensive carried technique,out on the bothnearby for Generalife construction (Malpica and for Cuello maintenance 1991, pp. and 65–1 conservation.01; Malpica Cuello 1996, p. 414; Bermúdez López 1992,In pp. the 153–61; Alhambra, Salmerón the first Escobar known reverse 2006). qanYearsat¯ was late ther, oneit would put in placebe replaced to supply by the a Albercsecondó nbranch de las Damaschannel from of the the Royal Royal Water Water Channel, Channel (Figurecalled 3thea). On Somee-Third scholars or Generalife argue that Wa it mustter Channel, have been which installed had in a thehigher mid level or first and half reached of the fourteenth the pond centurydirectly. when major works were carried out on the nearby Generalife (MalpicaThe major Cuello example 1991, pp. of 65–101;this technique Malpica in Cuellothe Alhamb 1996,ra p. territory 414; Berm is úthedez East López Well 1992 of ,the pp. Alberca 153–61; SalmerRota complex.ón Escobar It is 2006 divided). Years into later, two it levels, would each be replaced with a horizontal by a second gallery branch and channel underground of the Royal deposits Water Channel,built of brick called (Gómez-Moreno the One-Third or Martínez Generalife 1889, Water pp. Channel, 109–110; which García-Pulido had a higher et levelal. 2011, and pp. reached 828–31) the pond(Figure directly. 3b). Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 23 they are usually one of the surviving structures of these fortresses, due to their solid construction and their fully or partially interred situation. This fact has favoured their preservation, as they are less exposed to erosion and have been protected with the deposition of earth and debris from the destruction of other surrounding elements. This occurs on most of the Nasrid fortresses. During this kingdom, many pre-existing defensive structures were reoccupied and adapted to new border status, as well as others were built from the ground up. In this process, the construction techniques and the solution for the defence and the hydraulic supply followed-up with long traditions, coupled with the wide accumulated knowledge that the Nasrid kingdom gathers, due to the (aconcentration) of population and trade from Medieval(b) Europe and the Maghreb. Figure 3.3. Reverse qanāats¯ts around the Alhambra. ( (aa)) Well Well near near Albercón Albercón de las Damas; (b) UpperUpper State of the Art cross-section of the the East East Well Well of of Cerro Cerro del del Sol, Sol, li linkednked to to the the Little Little Arches Arches Water Water Channel. Channel. Created Created by byauthors. authors. Historically, water supply to fortresses has relied on digging wells to get water from the ground, or in building cisternsThe major inside example the walled of this enclosures technique to in thestorage Alhambra piped territorywater or is rainwater. the East Well of the Alberca Rota These constructive resourcescomplex. have It is dividedbeen used into from two levels,Prehistory, each withas the a horizontal excavation gallery of the and Spanish underground deposits built Bronze Age archaeologicalof brick sites (G óofmez-Moreno Motilla del MartAzuerínez in 1889 Daimiel, pp. 109–110;(Aranda GarcJiménezía-Pulido et al. et2008), al. 2011 with, pp. 828–31) (Figure3b). the oldest fortified well foundDuring in the the Iberian construction Peninsula, works or Peñalosa carried out in byBaños Mu h.deammad la Encina V, the (Onorato water supply et was via the Little al. 2008, pp. 297–316) haveArches revealed. Water Channel and the Royal Water Channel too. From the first one, the water penetrated into Besides their situationthe hill in by high an inferiorplaces, galleryharsh an 105d dry m long, environments by means ofpresent a conduction more challenges of ceramic to piping as far as a small obtain water. That is theinner case deposit of many made fortresses of brick. and A waterwheel fortified settlement with buckets situated was installedin the Near in the East, upper section of the well where more complex tohydraulic elevate watersystems 59 were m deep. develo A similarped for device catching had water; worked deeper rising wells water and from other the Royal Water Channel ways of water transportto theare entranceneeded, ofas thewell previous as a high gallery, storage by capacity. means of Th anothere settlement well 63 of m Masada, deep linked to a lower tunnel built between 37–31 BC,126 mis longa well-known (García-Pulido example et al. of forthcoming this situation.). There, a huge network of 12 cisterns that could hold aboutLater 40,000 on, water m3 was catchment dug out from at the the base upper of channel the mountain, was abandoned being fed in by order a to excavate a higher system of dams and twogallery aqueducts 61 m long, that situated collect an atd 32 drive m from flood the water surface. from Inside the it,surrounding a narrow brick ravines channel was laid, pouring and gorges. Water wasthe raised water to into other a smallcisterns deposit situated suspended on the top beneath of the thecliff well by human shaft. Theand hydraulicanimal supply could have force along a protectedbeen staircase obtained (Netzer from 1991). some mine that existed in the nearby ravine, whose water table had been exploited Similar uses of wells,in various pipes, parts and of aqueducts the route. were Particularly put in importantuse in Roman was thecastra catchment and castella at the headwaters, which established in the Limescontinues Arabica, toalong flow the into Via the Nova Aljibe from de laPetra Lluvia to Aila, (Cistern that ofwere the built Rain). in wadis, next to ravines that could be dammed,The last as moment well as of during functioning Byzantine was characterizedand Umayyad by times its residual in the so-called use and the low output of the ‘desert castles’. Somehydraulic of them system.were conceived The small as deposit palatial in thestrongholds higher gallery with was amenities eliminated as baths, by means of an oval-shaped sometimes situated atperforation a distance from made them. in the bottom, which made it possible to recover the water stored in the lower deposit; The Umayyad Palacepresumably, of Amman this (Jordan), still flowed built through in the thefirst Little third Arches of the Watereighth Channelcentury on or wasthe taken out of another northern side of the hillmine of made Jabal inal-Qal the ravineʿa, include at a lowera large level. circular The waterpool next had to bea public raised area to the that surface by means of two ensures water supply,manoeuvres, with a capacity which of 1368 meant m3. that Next a waterwheelto it, a bath was could excavated not be used whose in the layout upper was section of the well. similar to that which mayIn be the seen palace at ofQusayrDar¯ al- ʿAmraArusa¯ thereand other is a well Umayyad depth of buildings 6.60 m, and in underneathJordan it, there is a brick (Almagro Gorbea 2010,deposit pp. 475–513). 1.36 m wide and 3.6 m long. In the upper left part of the north-eastern face, 1.24 m up from the When the last survivingbase of member the well thereof this are dynasty, the remains ʿAbd al-Ra of anḥ earthenwaremān III, escaped pipe, to 9.50 al-Andalus, cm in diameter. he Its level matches established the independentthat of Caliphate a channel of coming Córdoba. from Then, the Albercain 936, the Rota palace-city complex. of In Mad thisīnat case, al-Zahr the subterraneanā horizontal was built next to the oldgallery capital of theof the reverse Romanqan Betiat¯ woulds region, have choosing comprised a place this on ceramic the way pipe. of one of the main Roman aqueducts of Córdoba, which was refurbished to supply water to the Umayyad citadel (Ruggles 2008, pp. 152–53). Among the fortresses built by the Almoravids in the eleventh and twelfth century in their expansion from Saharan Africa to the north of Morocco, Zagora is one of the oldest. It was raised to the west of Sijilmāsa in the third quarter of the eleventh century, on the right bank of Wadi Draʿa, which ensured its water supply (Meunié and Allain 1956, pp. 310, 322). In its northern part, which is the lowest, there were two irrigation channels parallel to the ravine. They passed through the enclosure running along the northern wall. Only about 20 m from the inner channel, a ḥammām (Arabic bath) was dug out in the mid-twentieth century, while the water supply to the upper area where the dwellings are located was done by hand. The fortress of Tāsgimūt was also built by the Almoravids around 1125. There, the remains of an alberca with a horseshoe plant made of stone, in which the rainwater was collected, are preserved,

Arts 2019, 8, 63 9 of 24

2.2. Alcazaba of Malaga—Deep Well Dug through the Bedrock to the Water Table and Extraction by Means of a Waterwheel The Alcazaba of Malaga is very close to the port of Malaga, taking advantage of a promontory situated to the southwest of the hill where the Gibralfaro Castle was built, between 30 and 50 m above sea level. The first constructions of this alcazaba seem to date back to the eleventh century, although during the thirteenth and fourteenth century, various reconstructions and extensions were carried out, which led in part to the shape of the citadel of present times. It is a palatial city and fortified enclosure inside the defensive systems of the city. It measures about 200 m in the west–east direction to a maximum of about 100 m from north to south (1.26 ha), conforming to the unevenness of the terrain. In its northern part, there is a well in the enclosure that is between both lines of the walls, called Pozo Airón (Airon Well), at about 45 m above sea level. It is excavated in the rock, reaching a depth of 30 m at the present time, although maybe deeper until it reached a natural spring. There would have been a waterwheel to raise the water (Carranza Sell 2010, p. 121) (Figure4a). Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 23

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 4. 4. (a(a) )Inside Inside ortho-corrected ortho-corrected photogrammetry photogrammetry of of the the Airon Airon Well Well (Alcazaba (Alcazaba ofof Málaga); Málaga); (b (b) )Well Well connectedconnected to to the the Albercón Albercón de de las las Damas Damas at at the the Generalife. Generalife. Created Created by by authors. authors.

TheThe well well is curb located is a rectanglebetween the of 2.55 so-called m 1.00 Torre m. de Itsl Homenaje constructive and technique, the exterior similar wall, to to that the onenorth on × ofthe the Alberc Housingón de lasDistrict, Damas atat thethe Generalife highest (Figureend of4 b),the allows upper us toenclosure identify theof processthe alcazaba followed. This in neighbourhood,the building of theconsidered well (Figure a good4a). example Internally, of itthe is advanced covered with urbanism brick arrangedof the eleventh in alternating century, rows, was excavatedalthough itby was Leopoldo plastered Torres and stillBalbás has in some the first wedge-shaped half of the incisions,twentieth verycentury. common A series in coatings of drains of weretowers found and hydrauliccrossing the structures wall, two from of Nasrid which times. are situated In the upper near part,the well. under The the curb,water thereinlet aremust, low therefore,arches with have a width occurred of two in feet.the upper These part, structural close to elements the ḥamm showām, thatnext they to which were builtthereat is thean beginningaljibe that stillof the accumulates excavation water to support (Figure the 5). curb. This Finally, neighbourh theyood, were the completed associated with baths, brick the rows cistern on the and lateral the palacesclosing would walls, have arranged been fromsupplied the bottomthrough of this the well well (Carranza to the top, Sell as it2010, is shown p. 63). by the hollows of the squared timber to brace the profiles of the excavation, in groups of three or by means of entire slats. The well is located between the so-called Torre del Homenaje and the exterior wall, to the north of the Housing District, at the highest end of the upper enclosure of the alcazaba. This neighbourhood, considered a good example of the advanced urbanism of the eleventh century, was excavated by Leopoldo Torres Balbás in the first half of the twentieth century. A series of drains were found crossing the wall, two of which are situated near the well. The water inlet must, therefore, have occurred in the upper part, close to the h. ammam¯ , next to which there is an aljibe that still accumulates water

Figure 5. Ortho-corrected photogrammetry of the Alcazaba of Málaga. Hydraulic constructions and hypothesis on the irrigation line: (1) Pozo Airón, (2) cistern, (3) ḥammām, and (4) ceramic drain pipes. Created by authors.

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 23

(a) (b)

Figure 4. (a) Inside ortho-corrected photogrammetry of the Airon Well (Alcazaba of Málaga); (b) Well connected to the Albercón de las Damas at the Generalife. Created by authors.

The well is located between the so-called Torre del Homenaje and the exterior wall, to the north of the Housing District, at the highest end of the upper enclosure of the alcazaba. This neighbourhood, considered a good example of the advanced urbanism of the eleventh century, was Artsexcavated2019, 8, 63 by Leopoldo Torres Balbás in the first half of the twentieth century. A series of 10drains of 24 were foundArts 2019 crossing, 8, x FOR PEERthe wall,REVIEW two of which are situated near the well. The water inlet must, 2 of 23 therefore, have occurred in the upper part, close to the ḥammām, next to which there is an aljibe that (Figurestill accumulatesthey5). This are neighbourhood,usually water one (Figure of the the5). surviv associatedThis ingneighbourh structures baths,ood, the of cistern thethese associated fortresses, and the palacesbaths, due tothe would their cistern solid have and construction been the suppliedpalacesand would through their have fully this been wellor partially supplied (Carranza interred through Sell 2010 situation. this, p. well 63). This(Carranza fact has Sell favoured 2010, p. 63).their preservation, as they are less exposed to erosion and have been protected with the deposition of earth and debris from the destruction of other surrounding elements. This occurs on most of the Nasrid fortresses. During this kingdom, many pre-existing defensive structures were reoccupied and adapted to new border status, as well as others were built from the ground up. In this process, the construction techniques and the solution for the defence and the hydraulic supply followed-up with long traditions, coupled with the wide accumulated knowledge that the Nasrid kingdom gathers, due to the concentration of population and trade from Medieval Europe and the Maghreb.

State of the Art Historically, water supply to fortresses has relied on digging wells to get water from the ground, or in building cisterns inside the walled enclosures to storage piped water or rainwater. These constructive resources have been used from Prehistory, as the excavation of the Spanish Bronze Age archaeological sites of Motilla del Azuer in Daimiel (Aranda Jiménez et al. 2008), with the oldest fortified well found in the Iberian Peninsula, or Peñalosa in Baños de la Encina (Onorato et al. 2008, pp. 297–316) have revealed. Besides their situation in high places, harsh and dry environments present more challenges to obtain water. That is the case of many fortresses and fortified settlement situated in the Near East, where more complex hydraulic systems were developed for catching water; deeper wells and other ways of water transport are needed, as well as a high storage capacity. The settlement of Masada, FigureFigurebuilt 5. 5.between Ortho-correctedOrtho-corrected 37–31 BC, photogrammetryphotogrammetry is a well-known ofof thethe exampleAlcazaba Alcazabaof ofofM Málaga.thisálaga. situation. HydraulicHydraulic There, constructionsconstructions a huge andandnetwork of 12 hypothesis on the irrigation line: (1) Pozo Airón,3 (2) cistern, (3) ḥammām, and (4) ceramic drain pipes. hypothesiscisterns onthat the could irrigation hold line: about (1) Pozo40,000 Air món, was (2) cistern, dug out (3) h.atamm theam¯ base, and of (4) the ceramic mountain, drain pipes. being fed by a CreatedCreatedsystem byby of authors.authors. dams and two aqueducts that collect and drive flood water from the surrounding ravines and gorges. Water was raised to other cisterns situated on the top of the cliff by human and animal 2.3. Alcazabasforce along of Almer a protectedía and Baza—Channelling staircase (Netzer under 1991). the Hill and Elevation from a Tower by Means of a Well with a Waterwheel (Reverse Qanat)¯ Similar uses of wells, pipes, and aqueducts were put in use in Roman castra and castella Almeriaestablished (al-Mariyya in the) Limes was one Arabica of the, along main the cities Via of Nova al-Andalus, from Petra situated to Aila, in the that south-eastern were built in end wadis, of next the Iberianto ravines Peninsula. that Thecould port be of dammed,Bajjana¯ (Pechina, as well as an during inland cityByzantine situated and 6 km Umayyad from the times Mediterranean in the so-called Sea, on‘desert the left shorecastles’. of theSome Andax of them River) were was developedconceivedin as this palatial spot during strongholds the ninth with century. amenities Between as baths, 858 andsometimes 859, a situated at (al-Mariyya a distance) from was built,them. as well as some defensive enclosures (maharis) to defend againstThe NormanUmayyad raids. Palace In of 915, Amman there was(Jordan), already built a citadelin the (firstHayyan third 1981 of the, p. eighth 85). This century first on the Emiralnorthern enclosure side was of built the onhill the of highestJabal al-Qal part ofʿa, theinclude hill, anda large it would circular possibly pool next be smaller to a public than thearea that final alcazabaensuresthat water was supply, developed with afterwards a capacity (ofGurriar 1368 mán3. Daza Next forthcomingto it, a bath was). excavated whose layout was Shortlysimilar after to thethat attack which by may the Fatimidbe seen caliph at Qusayr al-Mu ʿAmraizz in 955–956,and otherAbd Umayyad al-Rah. m buildingsan¯ III and hisin Jordan son al-H(Almagro. akam II restoredGorbea 2010, and extended pp. 475–513). the citadel itself. They also walled the growing settlement of the former portWhen of the Pechina last surviving and transformed member it of into this the dynasty, city of ʿ AlmeriaAbd al-Ra (Lḥémvi-Provençalān III, escaped 1957 to, p.al-Andalus, 373). he Theestablishedalcazaba (2.17 the independent ha) is located Caliphate on an elongated of Córd hilloba. of Then, 500 m in 936,100 mthe and palace-city more than of 80Mad mī abovenat al-Zahrā × sea level,was parallel built next to the to the Gulf old of capital Almeria, of the in the Roman lower Beti partss region, of the choosing hill of La a Hoya. place Thison the promontory way of one of the was levelled,main Roman it was dividedaqueducts into of threeCórdoba, enclosures which followingwas refurbished the topography to supply andwater the tolower the Umayyad one was citadel also walled.(Ruggles 2008, pp. 152–53). AccordingAmong to al- theUdr fortresses¯ı from Almeria, built by in Taifathe Almoravids times (eleventh in century)the eleventh the leaders and twelfth of the citycentury built ain their channelexpansion for water supply.from Saharan The authorities Africa to promotedthe north hydraulicof Morocco, works Zagora which is one had of a prestigious the oldest. characterIt was raised to (Navarrothe Palaz westó nof and Sijilm Castilloāsa in 1995 the ,third p. 402). quarter The mainof the eleventh of century, Almeria hadon the its ownright supplybank of in Wadi 1066 Draʿa, and a hydraulicwhich ensured shunt its was water derived supply from (Meunié the water and Allain channel 1956, to behind pp. 310, the 322).alcazaba In its. northern This new part, which is flowedthe underground lowest, there until were it reached two theirrigation well dug channels in the north parallel of the to citadel.the ravine. A water They mill passed was built through on the the well,enclosure to raise therunning water along to the the gardens northern of the wall. palace On (Lirolaly about Delgado 20 m 2005from, pp.the 27–31).inner channel, a ḥammām Water(Arabic was bath) raised was to the dugalcazaba out inby the means mid-twentieth of a well linkedcentury, to thewhile Noria the delwater Viento supply Tower, to the situated upper area in the northernwhere the walls dwellings of the upperare located enclosure was done (Gurriar by hand.án Daza forthcoming). This tower could be the The fortress of Tāsgimūt was also built by the Almoravids around 1125. There, the remains of an alberca with a horseshoe plant made of stone, in which the rainwater was collected, are preserved,

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 23

2.1. The Case of the Alhambra as a Summary of Advanced Hydraulic Solutions The citadel of the Alhambra was the seat of the Nasrid dynasty (1238–1491), although its Arts 2019, 8, 63 11 of 24 alcazaba is developed over an earlier fortress (Malpica Cuello 1996, 2002; Martín García et al. 1999). It is situated on the top of the Sabīka Hill (as was referred by the writer Ibn Baṭṭūṭah from Tangier, in one referred by the historicalthe sources fourteenth as the century), Tower of also the Wellknown of theas thealcazaba Red ((al-BuryḤamr al-Biā ʾ r)), Hill, that a was place with an excellent strategic destroyed by Jayran during theposition of 1014.but, on It was account rebuilt byof theits Catholiclack of Monarchswater, with after thelimitations conquest for human settlement. The of Almeria, on another previousimplementation rammed-earth of tower, a complex whose remainsand flexible can stillhydrau be seenlic system at its foundation. capable of supplying abundant water This tower still has a well insidewould it, with allow a preserved the development depth of of 35 a m. medieval It is situated palatine at the city highest near the point Alcazaba of of the Alhambra. the fortress, where it could supplyThe the wholefirst monarch fortified of enclosure. the Nasrid dynasty, Muḥammad ʿAbd Allāh ibn al-Aḥmar (r. 1232–1273), The alcazaba palace (wasmust built 100have m toconceived the southeast the walls of this and point general with a cross-shapedlayout of the patio enclosure. and According to Ibn ʿIdarī three small ponds (one in the centreal-Marr andākush twoī, nextin 1238, to the he porticos), took water in order from to the irrigate river, its building inner gardens a dam and digging out a water and those that could be situatedchannel in the for surroundings this sole purpose, of the palace. which would ensure the Alhambra’s subsistence and independence The central enclosure would(Huici be Miranda defined by1954, the p. southern 125). They wall looked of this for palace a collection and the point Muro in de the la Darro River more than 6 km Vela towards the middle of thefromalcazaba the Alhambra,, which separates so that most it from of it the could lower be supplied terrace. Onby gravity. this central Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 23 terrace, the Baño de la Tropa wasFurther built, attached to this, toMu theḥammad northern V wall,(r. 1362–1391) while on theput southern the Acequi halfa ofde los Arquillos (Little Arches Water Channel) into operation in the second half of the fourteenth century, which led to the supply they are usually one of the surviving structuresthe Muro of de these la Vela fortresses, and on thedue southern to their sidesolid of construction the main mosque of the alcazaba, a large cistern with of water to the almunias (from Arabic al-munya, plur. munān, country estates with vegetable gardens) and their fully or partially interred situation.five naves This wasfact has built. favoured It has been their dated preservation, from the Umayyadas they are Caliphate times (tenth century), due to the that were situated beyond the reach of the first channelling. The almunias of Los Alijares (Higuera less exposed to erosion and have been protectedconstructive with patterns the deposition in its vault. of earth The water and debris supply from of this thealjibe comes from the rain, but it could also Rodríguez and Morales Delgado 1999, p. 33), Dār al-ʿArūsa (Rubiera Mata 2005, art. VIII, pp. 5–7; destruction of other surrounding elements.have been linked with the Tower of the Well. Orihuela Uzal 1996, pp. 221–27; Malpica Cuello 2002, pp. 333, 336–37) and Dār al-Wādī This occurs on most of the Nasrid fortresses.The Du lowerring enclosure this kingdom, of the many citadel pre-existing has another defensive storage system that was unearthed a few decades (García-Pulido 2016) were built, achieving the occupation and exploitation of the territory structures were reoccupied and adapted ago,to new supplying border thestatus, surrounding as well as neighbourhood. others were built During from the first half of the eleventh century, an aljibe surrounding the Alhambra (Figure 2). ground up. In this process, the constructionwith threetechniques naves andand a the water solution wheel wasfor the built. defence A fountain and the with a bowl was added in the first half of the hydraulic supply followed-up with long twelfthtraditions, century coupled and, with finally, the awide decanting accumulated basin that knowledge collected rainwater and drained it into the cistern that the Nasrid kingdom gathers, due to( CaraArtsthe 2019concentration Barrionuevo, 8, x FOR PEER 2005of REVIEW population, p. 115) (Figure and trade6). from Medieval 11 of 23 Europe and the Maghreb.

State of the Art Historically, water supply to fortresses has relied on digging wells to get water from the ground, or in building cisterns inside the walled enclosures to storage piped water or rainwater. These constructive resources have been used from Prehistory, as the excavation of the Spanish Bronze Age archaeological sites of Motilla del Azuer in Daimiel (Aranda Jiménez et al. 2008), with the oldest fortified well found in the Iberian Peninsula, or Peñalosa in Baños de la Encina (Onorato et al. 2008, pp. 297–316) have revealed. Besides their situation in high places, harsh and dry environments present more challenges to obtain water. That is the case of many fortresses and fortified settlement situated in the Near East, where more complex hydraulic systems were developed for catching water; deeper wells and other ways of water transport are needed, as well as a high storage capacity. The settlement of Masada, built between 37–31 BC, is a well-known example of this situation. There, a huge network of 12 cisterns that could hold about 40,000 m3 was dug out at the base of the mountain, being fed by a system of dams and two aqueducts that collect and drive flood water from the surrounding ravines and gorges. Water was raised to other cisterns situated on the top of the cliff by human and animal force along a protected staircase (Netzer 1991). Similar uses of wells, pipes, and aqueducts were put in use in Roman castra and castella established in the Limes Arabica, along the Via Nova from Petra to Aila, that were built in wadis, next FigureFigure 6.6. AlcazabaAlcazaba ofof AlmerAlmería.ía. HillsideHillside terracesterraces andand hydraulichydraulic constructions:constructions: (1)(1) NoriaNoria deldel VientoViento to ravines that could be dammed, as well as duringTower, Byzantine(2) the ponds and of Umayyadthe palace, (3)times the Bañoin the de so-called la Tropa (ḥammām), (4) the cistern next to Aljama Tower, (2) the ponds of the palace, (3) the Baño de la Tropa (h. ammam¯ ), (4) the cistern next to Aljama ‘desert castles’. Some of them were conceivedmosque,mosque, as palatial and and (5) (5) the thestrongholds cistern cistern on on the thewith lower lower amenities terrace. terrace. Created Createdas baths, by by authors. authors. sometimes situated at a distance from them. The Umayyad Palace of Amman (Jordan),TheThe built NoriaNoria in delthedel VientofirstViento third TowerTower of the isis situated eighthsituated century aboutabout 85 on85m mthe aboveabove seasea level,level, andand thethe mainmain mosquemosque ofof northern side of the hill of Jabal al-QalʿAlmeriaa,Almeria include was was a large around around circular 70 70 m m lower. lower.pool next If If the the to connection connection a public area had had beenthat been made made after after thethe channelchannel thatthat reachedreached the the Figure 2. Hypothesis on the development of the Alhambra and its surroundings at the time of Aljama3, it would have flowed approximately 500 m underground, until reaching the vertical of the ensures water supply, with a capacity of Aljama1368 m,. it Next would to it, have a bath flowed was approximatelyexcavatedmaximum whose expansion 500 layout m underground, during was the second until half reaching of the fourteenth the vertical century. of the Created by authors. similar to that which may be seen at well.Qusayrwell. Al-Al- ʿAmraUdrʿUdr¯ıī wrote wroteand thatother that the theUmayyad connection connection buildings would would have inhave occurredJordan occu rred by meansby means of a derivationof a derivation from thefrom main the (Almagro Gorbea 2010, pp. 475–513). watermain channel,water channel, perhaps perhaps after having after reached having the reachedaljibe with the threealjibe naveswith locatedthree naves near thelocated Pechina near Gate, the When the last surviving member of thisaroundPechina dynasty, 23 Gate, m ʿ aboveAbd around al-Ra sea 23ḥ level.m mān aboveIII, From escaped thissea point,level. to al-Andalus, From it could this have he point, reached it could the have southern reached slopes the of southern the hill established the independent Caliphate ofof slopesCórd theoba. citadel of the Then, abouthill in of 936, 250the citadel mthe from palace-city about the base 250 of of mMad thefromīnat well. the al-Zahr Anbase underground ofā the well. An gallery underground of this length gallery must of this be was built next to the old capital of the Romanlength Beti musts region, be opened choosing underneath a place on the the alcazaba way of andone ofthen the be elevated about 62 m. A similar system main Roman aqueducts of Córdoba, whichhas was recently refurbished been excavated to supply inwater the citadelto the Umayyadof Salobreña citadel (Navarro Palazón et al. 2018). (Ruggles 2008, pp. 152–53). Among the fortresses built by the AlmoravidsAlcazaba of Baza in the eleventh and twelfth century in their expansion from Saharan Africa to the north of TheMorocco, city of Zagora Baza is is located one of onthe the oldest. western It was edge raised of the to basin of the same name, which is one of the west of Sijilmāsa in the third quarter theof thedepressions eleventh century,of the north-eastern on the right areabank of of the Wadi province Draʿa, of Granada. The urban settlement is laid which ensured its water supply (Meunié andout Allainon a gentle 1956, pp.slope 310, towards 322). In theits northerneast, between part, which870 and is 820 m above sea level. The Hill of the the lowest, there were two irrigation channelsAlcazaba parallelstands outto thein thisravine. relief, They at 860 passed m above through sea level,the with an elliptical shape arranged on a enclosure running along the northern wall.north–south Only about axis. 20 m from the inner channel, a ḥammām (Arabic bath) was dug out in the mid-twentiethThe century, population while along the water with supplyits suburbs to the would upper ha areave occupied over 23 ha during the Nasrid where the dwellings are located was doneperiod. by hand. The city centre itself (the Almedina district, from Arabic al-madīna) would occupy about 3.24 The fortress of Tāsgimūt was also builtha andby the the Almoravids alcazaba only around 0.87 ha. 1125. To the There, west, the the remains suburb of Algedid (from Arabic al-Jadīda, the New) an alberca with a horseshoe plant made of wasstone, finally in which developed, the rainwater and to wasthe north,collected, the suburbare preserved, of Churra. The citadel was open to the south, although at the moment it is surrounded in its entire perimeter by the urban development of the twentieth century. From the south end came the Caz or Acequia Mayor (main water channel), which was fed mainly from the Prado de las Siete Fuentes (The Meadow of the Seven Springs), located about 4 km south of the city, although it also received water supply by means of a divergence of the San Juan or Morayja Fountain. At the height of 860 m above sea level, there are the remains of an extremely damaged tower, located at less than 10 m of difference from the passage of this water channel and about 5 m away from it. This opens the possibility of a system from inside the tower to elevate water from the channel to the citadel (Caballero Cobos forthcoming).

Arts 2019, 8, 63 12 of 24 opened underneath the alcazaba and then be elevated about 62 m. A similar system has recently been excavated in the citadel of Salobreña (Navarro Palazón et al. 2018).

Alcazaba of Baza The city of Baza is located on the western edge of the basin of the same name, which is one of the depressions of the north-eastern area of the province of Granada. The urban settlement is laid out on a gentle slope towards the east, between 870 and 820 m above sea level. The Hill of the Alcazaba stands out in this relief, at 860 m above sea level, with an elliptical shape arranged on a north–south axis. The population along with its suburbs would have occupied over 23 ha during the Nasrid period. The city centre itself (the Almedina district, from Arabic al-mad¯ına) would occupy about 3.24 ha and the alcazaba only 0.87 ha. To the west, the suburb of Algedid (from Arabic al-Jad¯ıda, the New) was finally developed, and to the north, the suburb of Churra. The citadel was open to the south, although at the moment it is surrounded in its entire perimeter by the urban development of the twentieth century. From the south end came the Caz or Acequia Mayor (main water channel), which was fed mainly from the Prado de las Siete Fuentes (The Meadow of the Seven Springs), located about 4 km south of the city, although it also received water supply by means of a divergence of the San Juan or Morayja Fountain. At the height of 860 m above sea level, there are the remains of an extremely damaged tower, located at less than 10 m of difference from the passage of this water channel and about 5 m away from it. This opens the possibility of a system from inside the tower to elevate water from the channel to the citadel (Caballero Cobos and García-Pulido forthcoming).

2.4. Alcazabas of Antequera and Ronda. Water Elevation without Energy Input The description of the remains of the artefact that enables the ascent of water to the Alcazaba of the Alhambra, along with the experiments carried out in the twentieth century, allows us to consider its presence in other citadels of the Nasrid kingdom. Such could be the case at the Alcazaba of Antequera, as described above in the Alhambra.

2.4.1. Alcazaba of Antequera Located on a hill on the left bank of the Villa River and to the south of the Plains of Antequera, the alcazaba (1.55 ha) is in a dominant position on the plateau where the present town of Antequera is situated. The hill is entirely conditioned by the river bed. It flows about 40 m from the town walls and generates a strong fall towards the southeast, although the topography has undergone many alterations due to the urban development of the eastern slope of the alcazaba. It has two well-defined enclosures; one known as the Christian alcázar is subdivided into two terraces. The second space surrounds the previous one, marking a third terrace that ascends to the south to the level of 578 m above sea level. It descends progressively towards the north to 562 m above sea level (Romero Pérez 2007, pp. 17–19; Melero García and Pérez forthcoming). In Nasrid times, there was also a little opening or gate with direct access to the river. There are remains of several hydraulic infrastructures linked to this hill. On one side, the vegetable gardens located on the north part of the city were irrigated at least until the end of the fifteenth century to the public water channel called Valedalanes. Additionally,a hydraulic account of the city written by Sancho de Toledo in 1545 (Escalante Jiménez 2008) refers to two infrastructures that supplied water to Antequera. One of them is an underground mine discovered in 1995 next to the Torre del Agua (Water Tower) (Romero Pérez 2002, pp. 164–68). Its integration with the city walls indicates that it had a precursor from Nasrid times, although in modern times, it led the water to the new city outside the walls. Both the Valdealanes water channel and this mine are intercepted by the Torre del Agua, which should have allowed the raising of water manually or by means of a water wheel in order to supply the city inside the walls. Arts 2019, 8, 63 13 of 24

The Aqueduct of the Arches is the other infrastructure providing water in the mid-sixteenth century. It collects water at the foot of the Chimeneas mountain range, more than 4 km to the south of Antequera. It flows through the pass of Las Ánimas and the surroundings of the Torre del Hacho. There were continuous diachronic changes in its route until it was abandoned in the late nineteenth or early twentieth century, when it was replaced by the current Little Arches Aqueduct. The objective of this channelling was to connect with the city through two points in the walls. One of them was not referred by Sancho de Toledo, but other scholars from the seventeenth century did mention it (Cobos Rodríguez 2014, p. 34). It consists of a direct channelling by means of a siphon of ceramic pipes from the Plaza del Portichuelo to the parade ground (Patio de Armas) of the fortress, crossing the and the wall between the two main towers, thus reaching the highest point of the alcazaba. The other water supply could have been achieved by the Tower of the street of Herradores, next to the northern corner of the citadel. There, a similar elevation system to that of the Alcazaba of the Alhambra could have been established. Vertical ceramic pipes of different sizes could have raised water to at least 8 m from the present level 552 m above sea level outside the town. This system of ducts, water arcs in the high and low parts of the tower, different openings, and other hydraulic “secrets”, were related by Sancho de Toledo in 1545. The most ancient evidence from the aqueduct seems to be part of a qanat¯ with wells linked to each other, which open on to the limestone terrain of an area that could correspond to the meadow of Duranguillo (Melero García and Pérez forthcoming). These wells do not appear in Sancho de Toledo’s detailed description of each of the water arcs in use in 1545. They are considered to have been from the Islamic period, probably reusing another from Roman times. Inside the precincts of the citadel, there exist cisterns from Antiquity, as well as little ponds dug in the limestone rock and covered with mortar, with a difficult dating. From the Andalusian times, there existed at least two aljibes with different chronology. They must have stored rainwater, although it is possible that they were supplied by some of these distribution branches of the Aqueduct of the Arches (Melero García and Pérez forthcoming). One of them, located on the first terrace, dates from the eleventh or twelfth century, although it probably lasted up until the thirteenth century and could have been linked to the dwellings of the elite of the citadel. In the fourteenth century, the great cistern measuring 6.20 m 4.10 m was built on the second terrace next to the mosque of the Alcazaba × of Antequera.

2.4.2. Alcazaba of Ronda The historical development of Ronda until the end of the Middle Ages is limited to the hill where the citadel is located and its foothills, mainly on the eastern side (Castaño Aguilar et al. 2005; Castaño Aguilar forthcoming). As with the previous ones, the Alcazaba of Ronda (1.09 ha) was also composed of a double walled enclosure: the main one, located at the highest part, and a lower one as a barbican. To the west, the of the citadel overlapped with the city walls. This is a relatively isolated flat hill that has a clearly dominant position over its surroundings, which became detached from a high plateau due to the erosive effect of the Guadalevín River that generates steep slopes to the west and east. The need for water supply to this plateau was solved in the third century AD by means of an aqueduct (De Hoyos et al. 2004). Due to its location, a large cistern that exists in the convent of Santa Isabel de los Ángeles could be related to this Roman aqueduct (Castaño Aguilar forthcoming). At the beginning of the twentieth century, there was the general idea that the water of medieval Ronda could not come from aqueducts because of its size and design (Pérez de Guzmán y Gallo 1910, p. 41). The most striking hydraulic element preserved in this city, the cave called Mina de la casa del Rey Moro, has contributed to this fact. It was a defensive and secure underground way to descend for water to the river level, protected by itself and by means of a tower that is still partly visible next to the Old Bridge (Pavón Maldonado 1990). Arts 2019, 8, 63 14 of 24

Among the large diaphragm arches inside this “mine” runs an intricate staircase with rooms, landings, and cantilevers whose function was not only related to the extraction of water and its maximum use, but also with its defence, both external and internal (De Hoyos and Aguilar 2000, pp. 379–80). As a hydraulic system, it was not supplied directly by the river, but by the water table. It is possible that water was elevated with a waterwheel since, at the bottom, structures were found that could have belonged to a cistern or wells (Pérez de Guzmán y Gallo 1910, pp. 46–47). Within the enclosure of the alcazaba, we know of the existence of two aljibes (Miró Domínguez 1987, p. 96). Some of them were already known in other buildings, such as the Main Church (former aljama). Recently another one was discovered in the Plaza Duquesa de Parcent. Due to its size and storage capacity, it was considered a public cistern. In addition, all the houses of the neighbourhood of La Ciudad have their own or shared one. Among them, we highlight the Casa del Gigante, which has the only accessible cistern with a medieval chronology since it occupies the entire southern corridor of this dwelling. Possibly, the system was completed at the top of the city with a reservoir or cistern from which water would be distributed to the aljibes. Recently, the director of the Museum of Ronda has discovered a perforation in the western barbican of the citadel, the purpose of which is to hold a water pipe (Castaño Aguilar forthcoming). This evidence could support the existence of a medieval syphon in the last section of this infrastructure. On the other hand, local scholars also described at the end of the nineteenth century the existence of lead pipes linked to this system (Rivera Valenzuela 1873, p. 50). Until now, it has been assumed that the hydraulic supply of Ronda relied on the mine next to the River Guadalevín, but it is clear that the elevation of water from the river level to the network of reservoirs in the medina would have been a very costly task, especially to the alcazaba, which was in the opposite sector of the city. The traces which were found of a system of pipes crossing the sections of the medieval wall in the immediate vicinity of the place occupied by the citadel would give credibility to the words of Ibn al-Khatib in the fourteenth century, referring to the existence of aqueducts that take water to the city (Castaño Aguilar forthcoming). These could be related to the Aqueduct of the Fountain of the Sand, which sets out from the left bank of the Arroyo de las Culebras and would reach the structures existing in the Predicatorio, in front of the alcazaba. From this point, the head of a syphon could have allowed water to be raised to the plateau of Ronda (Sierra de Cózar 1990).

2.5. Mondújar Fortress and the Fortified Settlement of Los Guájares—Water Channel Gravity-Driven through Topography In some cases, the topography itself enables water supply by gravity from levels higher than the location of an alcazaba, without the need to resort to any other facilities than minimum levelling systems or the introduction of small syphons.

2.5.1. Mondújar Fortress Mondújar Fortress is located in the Lecrín Valley (Granada), built on the rocky summit of the last hill of a mountain range of the Fuentezuela ravine and another one known as the ancient Sierra path, a route from Mondújar to the southwest foothills of . The walls, some towers, and two cisterns are the only remaining parts of the castle (0.37 ha). Written sources refer to its construction during the Nasrid kingdom. It might have been one of the strongholds built by Yusuf¯ I or Muh. ammad V, as a part of its plan to refortify some areas of the Nasrid kingdom from the threat of the Castilians (Molina Fajardo 2007). Later, this fortress was the scene of the resistance towards the Mudéjar uprising in 1499, being the only fortress to remain in the hands of Castile, under the command of Guiomar de Acuña, wife of Pedro de Zafra. This fact shows the Castilian occupation and possible modifications of the fortress. It is only accessible from the slope towards the northeast, and from the chain of hills that precede its position. These hills descend gradually from 1009 to 870 m above sea level, where the fortress is Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23

(Castaño Aguilar forthcoming). These could be related to the Aqueduct of the Fountain of the Sand, which sets out from the left bank of the Arroyo de las Culebras and would reach the structures existing in the Predicatorio, in front of the alcazaba. From this point, the head of a syphon could have allowed water to be raised to the plateau of Ronda (Sierra de Cózar 1990).

2.5. Mondújar Fortress and the Fortified Settlement of Los Guájares—Water Channel Gravity-Driven through Topography In some cases, the topography itself enables water supply by gravity from levels higher than the location of an alcazaba, without the need to resort to any other facilities than minimum levelling systems or the introduction of small syphons.

2.5.1. Mondújar Fortress Mondújar Fortress is located in the Lecrín Valley (Granada), built on the rocky summit of the last hill of a mountain range of the Fuentezuela ravine and another one known as the ancient Sierra path, a route from Mondújar to the southwest foothills of Sierra Nevada. The walls, some towers, and two cisterns are the only remaining parts of the castle (0.37 ha). Written sources refer to its construction during the Nasrid kingdom. It might have been one of the strongholds built by Yūsuf I or Muḥammad V, as a part of its plan to refortify some areas of the Nasrid kingdom from the threat of the Castilians (Molina Fajardo 2007). Later, this fortress was the scene of the resistance towards the Mudéjar uprising in 1499, being the only fortress to remain in the hands of Castile, under the command of Guiomar de Acuña, wife of Pedro de Zafra. This fact shows the Castilian occupation and possible modifications of the fortress.

Arts 2019It , is8, 63only accessible from the slope towards the northeast, and from the chain of hills15 ofthat 24 precede its position. These hills descend gradually from 1009 to 870 m above sea level, where the fortress is situated. This is reached through a pass in the higher mountains where there is a route that situated.leads to the This fortress. is reached through a pass in the higher mountains where there is a route that leads to the fortress.Close to the main gate, there is a cistern that measures 9.25 m × 4.60 m, which retains the traces of aClose barrel to vault the main that gate, has therenow iscompletely a cistern that disappeared. measures 9.25 This m aljibe4.60 is m, located which retainsoutside the the traces walled of × aenclosure barrel vault and that its haslayout now is completelynot aligned disappeared. with the walls, This whichaljibe impliesis located that outside the cistern the walled could enclosurehave been andbuilt its prior layout to is the not walls. aligned We with should the walls, emphasize which impliesthe existence that the of cistern a vaulted could passage have been in its built northwest prior to thecorner, walls. connecting We should this emphasize water tank the with existence the walled of a vaulted enclosure. passage This in passage its northwest could be corner, a way connecting to manual thisaccess water to water. tank with the walled enclosure. This passage could be a way to manual access to water. ThisThis cisterncistern seemsseems toto bebe connectedconnected toto thethe tracktrack thatthat runsruns alongalong thethe crestcrest ofof thethe hillhill fromfrom thethe easteast andand reaches reaches the the entrance entrance of of the the fortress fortress (Figure (Figure7a). Along7a). Along this hill,this there hill, isthere a series is a ofseries traces of that traces follow that thefollow isolines the isolines of the landform. of the landform. One of One them of reaches them reaches a trough a trough dammed dammed by a masonry by a masonry wall. This wall. place This couldplace havecould been have used been to used collect to the collect runo ffthewater runoff from wa theter adjacentfrom the slopes adjacent or even slopes as aor small even dam as aof small the olddam course of the of old a river.course of a river.

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 7.7.Fortress Fortress ofof MondMondújarújar (a(a)) View View of of the thealjibe aljibeoutside outside the the walls. walls. (b(b)) Hypothesis Hypothesis onon thethe water water supplysupply with with cistern cistern inside inside (1) (1) and and outside outside (2) (2) the the fortress fortress and and its its blocked blocked o offff arch. arch. Created Created by by authors. authors.

TheThe hypothesis hypothesis that that water water could could be suppliedbe supplied by gravity by gravity through through a water a channel water fromchannel the oppositefrom the hillopposite to the fortresshill to the can fortress be considered. can be Onceconsidered here, a. smallOnce aqueducthere, a small would aqueduct save the would depression save that the precedes the hill and maintain the level of the canal, which would reach the cistern which is outside the walled enclosure (Figure7b). Inside the fortified enclosure, there is another rectangular cistern with only one nave, attached to the northeast stretch of the wall, smaller than the outside one. It preserves the starting point of a semicircular vault in one corner, and there are two small holes on the wall facing the interior of the fortress. This aljibe could have been filled through these holes from the water collected inside the fortresses.

2.5.2. The Fortified Settlement of Los Guájares The Fortified Settlement of Los Guájares is a walled enclosure (0.29 ha) occupied by a dense network of domestic buildings of a rural community (García Porras 2009, p. 1052), located on a hill defined by the deep ravines of Rendite and the course of the Toba River. The archaeological works carried out since the 1980s, focused on the settlement and its surroundings, as well as studies of the ceramic remains discovered, suggest that it was suddenly abandoned at the end of the thirteenth century or at the beginning of the fourteenth century (Barceló i Perelló et al. 1987, p. 366). There is evidence that the settlement continued to maintain a strong defensive identity, and may have had occasional reoccupation during the Mudéjar uprisings until the sixteenth century (García Porras 2009, p. 1053). The hill is not an isolated elevation, but the end of a mountain chain that descends from Cerro del Palinar, at 914 m above sea level, in the foothills of Sierra del Chaparral. From this hill, a descendant trace can be followed until it ends at 405 m above sea level from the pass after the fortified settlement, where important hydraulic elements remain: a small water tank and a rammed-earth wall, 24 m long and almost 2 m high and aligned with the track. It preserves the imprints of a circular pipe in its Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23 depression that precedes the hill and maintain the level of the canal, which would reach the cistern which is outside the walled enclosure (Figure 7b). Inside the fortified enclosure, there is another rectangular cistern with only one nave, attached to the northeast stretch of the wall, smaller than the outside one. It preserves the starting point of a semicircular vault in one corner, and there are two small holes on the wall facing the interior of the fortress. This aljibe could have been filled through these holes from the water collected inside the fortresses.

2.5.2. The Fortified Settlement of Los Guájares The Fortified Settlement of Los Guájares is a walled enclosure (0.29 ha) occupied by a dense network of domestic buildings of a rural community (García Porras 2009, p. 1052), located on a hill defined by the deep ravines of Rendite and the course of the Toba River. The archaeological works carried out since the 1980s, focused on the settlement and its surroundings, as well as studies of the ceramic remains discovered, suggest that it was suddenly abandoned at the end of the thirteenth century or at the beginning of the fourteenth century (Barceló i Perelló et al. 1987, p. 366). There is evidence that the settlement continued to maintain a strong defensive identity, and may have had occasional reoccupation during the Mudéjar uprisings until the sixteenth century (García Porras 2009, p. 1053). The hill is not an isolated elevation, but the end of a mountain chain that descends from Cerro del Palinar, at 914 m above sea level, in the foothills of Sierra del Chaparral. From this hill, a descendant trace can be followed until it ends at 405 m above sea level from the pass after the fortifiedArts 2019, 8,settlement, 63 where important hydraulic elements remain: a small water tank and16 of 24a rammed-earth wall, 24 m long and almost 2 m high and aligned with the track. It preserves the imprints of a circular pipe in its upper part. Its layout disappears about 34 m before the entrance to theupper settlement, part. Its layoutwhere disappearsthe groundabout rises. 34Although m before it theis difficult entrance to to re theconstruct settlement, the route where that the it ground could haverises. followed Although from it is this diffi pointcult towith reconstruct precision, thenext route to the that southeast it could corner have followedof the settlement, from this several point withopenings precision, in the next wall to have the southeastbeen conserved corner that of the co settlement,uld show the several passage openings of a pipe in the along wall the have walled been enclosure.conserved The that water could showwould the reach passage the interior of a pipe cister alongn by the gravity walled from enclosure. this point, The waterfollowing would the reach wall (Figurethe interior 8a). cistern by gravity from this point, following the wall (Figure8a).

(a) (b)

Figure 8. FortifiedFortified settlement of Los Guájares. Guájares. Hy Hypothesispothesis of the water supply system. (a)) Situation Situation of the cistern ( b) View of the hill’s summitsummit line,line, thethe waterwater tank,tank, andand channels.channels. Created by authors.

For all these reasons,reasons, thethe water water could could be be taken taken at at some some point point in in the the hills hills or inor thein the ravines ravines west west of the of thefortified fortified enclosure, enclosure, possibly possibly from from a spring a spring or from or afrom run-o a ffrun-offwater water collection collection system. system. The channel The channel would wouldhave been have adapted been adapted to save the to ridgesave priorthe ridge the settlement, prior the communicatingsettlement, communicating the preserved the structures preserved to structuresthe alignment to the aqueduct alignment as the aqueductventer of as a syphonthe venter that of would a syphon maintain that thewould difference maintain from the ground difference level fromup to ground about 10 level m (Figure up to about8b). 10 m (Figure 8b). It should be noted that, on the northern slope, next to the remains of the water tank and the aqueduct, aa systemsystem ofof irrigatedirrigated terraces terraces of of Islamic Islamic tradition tradition is is preserved. preserved. They They were were supplied supplied at firstat first by a fountain and, later on, by an irrigation channel (García Porras 1995, p. 247; Barceló i Perelló et al. 1987).

2.6. Lojuela and Dúrcal Fortresses—Water Collection from a Lower Channel through a Protected Passage (Coracha) or a Mine Sometimes there are remains of defensive paths from the fortress down to a river, or even passages that use natural cavities in the rock, which act as natural ways of defence. This old system, reported in the first century BC fortress of Masada for example, appears in several alcazabas already described, such as the Alhambra, or in the medinas of Antequera and Ronda. They can be accompanied by other more complex systems whenever a greater flow of water is needed. However, in some cases, this infrastructure is the only one preserved in relation to the provision of water from a point outside the fortress itself.

2.6.1. Lojuela Fortress This is located on a hill that rises on the left bank of the Dúrcal River, in the Lecrín Valley. There are still remains of a large stretch of the eastern wall, part of the northern wall, and the foundation of a tower at the highest point (0.21 ha). The west side is protected by the strong drop towards the Dúrcal river-bed. It is a small-sized fortress that could be a hisn, dating back to the Emirate of Cordoba (eighth–tenth century) (Malpica Cuello 1996). It could be associated with the alquería of Loxuela, which was developed in the surroundings in Nasrid times. The hill on which it is situated lies at the end of a slope that descends from the Lomas de la Manteca, a plain that extends between the southwest foothills of Sierra Nevada and the Dúrcal River. This channel and a ravine parallel to the Barranco de la Hojuela define the hill, creating a deep slope so Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23 by a fountain and, later on, by an irrigation channel (García Porras 1995, p. 247; Barceló i Perelló et al. 1987).

2.6. Lojuela and Dúrcal Fortresses—Water Collection from a Lower Channel through a Protected Passage (Coracha) or a Mine Sometimes there are remains of defensive paths from the fortress down to a river, or even passages that use natural cavities in the rock, which act as natural ways of defence. This old system, reported in the first century BC fortress of Masada for example, appears in several alcazabas already described, such as the Alhambra, or in the medinas of Antequera and Ronda. They can be accompanied by other more complex systems whenever a greater flow of water is needed. However, in some cases, this infrastructure is the only one preserved in relation to the provision of water from a point outside the fortress itself.

2.6.1. Lojuela Fortress This is located on a hill that rises on the left bank of the Dúrcal River, in the Lecrín Valley. There are still remains of a large stretch of the eastern wall, part of the northern wall, and the foundation of a tower at the highest point (0.21 ha). The west side is protected by the strong drop towards the Dúrcal river-bed. It is a small-sized fortress that could be a hisn, dating back to the Emirate of Cordoba (eighth–tenth century) (Malpica Cuello 1996). It could be associated with the alquería of Loxuela, which was developed in the surroundings in Nasrid times. The hill on which it is situated lies at the end of a slope that descends from the Lomas de la Manteca,Arts 2019, 8 ,a 63 plain that extends between the southwest foothills of Sierra Nevada and the Dúrcal17 of 24 River. This channel and a ravine parallel to the Barranco de la Hojuela define the hill, creating a deep slope so that the northern area is the only access point to the fortified enclosure. The source of the riverthat the is about northern 60 m area below is the the only level access at which point the to thecastle fortified is situated enclosure. (590 m The above source sea of level). the river is about 60 mAmong below thethe level remains at which of this the castle, castle isthere situated is no (590 hydraulic m above infrastructure sea level). other than a possible cisternAmong inside the the remains masonry of base this castle,of the tower there isthat no re hydraulicmains standing infrastructure (Martín other García than et a al. possible 1999, p. cistern 296). However,inside the masonrythis settlement base of must the tower have thathad remainsanother standingwater supply (Mart system.ín Garcí a et al. 1999, p. 296). However, this settlementIt is thought must by havethe local had population another water that supply there is system. a passage that communicates the base of the towerIt with is thought an underground by the local gallery population towards that the there river. is This a passage could thatbe a communicatesway to take water the either base of from the thetower river with or anfrom underground an intermediate gallery channel towards (Padilla the river. Mellado This could and Espinar be a way Moreno to take 2007). water eitherAs a matter from the of fact,river a or natural from an fissure intermediate can be channel seen to (Padilla the east Mellado of the and tower, Moreno which 2007 generates). As a matter a natural of fact, trench a natural to descendfissure can to bethe seen Acequia to the de east los of Arcos the tower, (Arches which Water generates Channel), a natural which trench flows to at descend a level toof theabout Acequia 40 m lowerde los down Arcos (Figure (Arches 9). Water Channel), which flows at a level of about 40 m lower down (Figure9).

Figure 9. South-east prospect of the Alcazaba of Lojuela. Hypothesis Hypothesis on on the the corachacoracha andand detail detail of of the Acequia de los Arcos. Created Created by authors.

2.6.2. Alcazaba of Dúrcal

The Castle of Dúrcal (0.67 ha) is situated on a slight hill that leans out over the bed of the Dúrcal River, and culminates the plain at the bottom of the western foothills of Sierra Nevada, in the Lecrín Valley. No more remains are preserved than the foundations of some towers, built in rammed-earth and masonry, some parts of the wall and a cistern. However, the walled enclosure has lost much of its identity due to the poor state of these remains and the transformation of the inner terrain, now dedicated to farming. The hill is defined by the ravine of the Baño in the south-southeast, and the Dúrcal River in the west. Towards this side, the hill has a strong drop. The north side presents a smoother access where there are several paths leading towards the tower located at the western end. The cistern was attached to what would be the northern stretch of the wall, next to the remains of one of the towers. It measures 2.10 m 5.00 m and completely conserves its barrel vault which is × built at ground level. Apart from its central hollow of the vault, it has a series of breaks on two of its sides; one of them is used as an access, the other is filled with rubble and earth. There are no traces of channels or pipes in its walls. The main sources of water collection appear on the sides with steepest slopes, at about 150 m below the level of the fortress (795 m above sea level). Despite this strong difference in height, the existence of open passages in the rock descending from the hill to the river-bed allows us to hypothesize that the water would be captured directly from the river or from a channel situated at a medium height. These passages were used as a protected access (Figure 10). It would be necessary to have archaeological data to verify the way in which the water was driven from the west side to the cistern. Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 23

2.6.2. Alcazaba of Dúrcal The Castle of Dúrcal (0.67 ha) is situated on a slight hill that leans out over the bed of the Dúrcal River, and culminates the plain at the bottom of the western foothills of Sierra Nevada, in the Lecrín Valley. No more remains are preserved than the foundations of some towers, built in rammed-earth and masonry, some parts of the wall and a cistern. However, the walled enclosure has lost much of its identity due to the poor state of these remains and the transformation of the inner terrain, now dedicated to farming. The hill is defined by the ravine of the Baño in the south-southeast, and the Dúrcal River in the west. Towards this side, the hill has a strong drop. The north side presents a smoother access where there are several paths leading towards the tower located at the western end. The cistern was attached to what would be the northern stretch of the wall, next to the remains of one of the towers. It measures 2.10 m × 5.00 m and completely conserves its barrel vault which is built at ground level. Apart from its central hollow of the vault, it has a series of breaks on two of its sides; one of them is used as an access, the other is filled with rubble and earth. There are no traces of channels or pipes in its walls. The main sources of water collection appear on the sides with steepest slopes, at about 150 m below the level of the fortress (795 m above sea level). Despite this strong difference in height, the existence of open passages in the rock descending from the hill to the river-bed allows us to hypothesize that the water would be captured directly from the river or from a channel situated at a medium height. These passages were used as a protected access (Figure 10). It would be necessary to have archaeological data to verify the way in which the water was driven from the west side to the Arts 2019, 8, 63 18 of 24 cistern.

FigureFigure 10. 10. PhotogrammetricPhotogrammetric modelmodel ofof thethe hill hill of of the theAlcazaba Alcazabaof Dofú Dúrcal.rcal. (1) Cistern(1) Cistern and, and, in dotted in dotted lines, lines,hypothesis hypothesis of the of protected the protecte passage.d passage. Created Created by authors. by authors.

2.7.2.7. Alcazaba Alcazaba of of Moclín Moclín and and Píñar—Ci Píñar—Cisternssterns with with Self-Sufficient Self-Sufficient Water Water Supply Supply Finally,Finally, there there are are some some cases cases in in which which the the cister cisternsns have have their their own own supply, supply, either either natural natural through through thethe land land or or through through their their own own rain rainwaterwater collection collection systems. systems. A A well-kn well-knownown case case is is the the Cistern Cistern of of the the Rain,Rain, located located at at a higher level than thethe Alhambra,Alhambra, atat aboutabout 930 930 m m above above sea sea level, level, at at the the head head of of one one of ofthe the ravines ravines that that drop drop towards towards the Darrothe Darro River. River. This cistern This cistern may have may been have one been of the one water of the collection water collectionpoints for points the hydraulic for the hydraulic complex ofcomplex the Alberca of the Rota. Alberca Rota. ItIt was was reproduced reproduced in in an an engraving engraving by by Joris Joris Hoefnagel Hoefnagel from from 1563, 1563, included included in in the the Civitates Civitates Orbis Orbis TerrarumTerrarum edited edited by by Georg Georg Braun (1572–1618). This This illustration illustration clearly clearly shows shows a a structure structure with with an an invertedinverted roof, roof, as as a a compluviumcompluvium, ,with with the the purpose purpose of of collecting collecting the the rainwater rainwater and and pouring pouring it it into into the the cisterncistern through through a a central central oculusoculus.. However,However, this this is is not not their their only only source source of of supply, supply, since since the the cistern cistern is is located located on on a a natural natural spring spring thatthat provides provides water. water. Although Although the the oculusoculus isis currently currently blocked blocked up, up, the the ci cisternstern continues continues to to be be filled filled withwith water. water.

2.7.1. Alcazaba of Moclín The alcazaba of Moclín is situated on an isolated hill, located between Sierra de Enmedio and Sierra de la Hoz, reaching an altitude of 1100 m above sea level. It has strong rocky slopes to the north, east, and west. The settlement and access were therefore associated with the slight hillside towards the south. The alcazaba (0.31 ha), located at the top, preserves most of its double wall, towers, and some interior remains excavated in the last archaeological interventions. The variety of constructive elements shows the continuous evolution of this fortress, dated from the Almohad period (eleventh to twelfth century) to the processes of refortification carried out by Yusuf¯ I and Muh. ammad V during the Nasrid period (García Porras 2014). Inside the alcazaba, there are two cisterns. One of them, with only one nave, measures 5.40 m 2.00 m and has lost its vault and part of its walls. It is twinned with the main tower and another × perpendicular space, whose purpose is unknown. This tower has undergone an important evolution since it now has a masonry facing reinforcement of a massive rammed-earth tower. This cistern could have been very close to one of the first lines of the wall and could correspond to the first periods in the development of the fortress. However, it seems unlikely that it was fed through a collection system from the tower, as it is not part of this construction. There is another very large cistern (6.70 m 4.50 m), adjoined to the north wall. It retains its × curbstone in its southern wall. There is evidence that at some moment, its vault was reconstituted after a break in its central part. The hypothesis is that this cistern could have been fed either by collecting Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 23

2.7.1. Alcazaba of Moclín The alcazaba of Moclín is situated on an isolated hill, located between Sierra de Enmedio and Sierra de la Hoz, reaching an altitude of 1100 m above sea level. It has strong rocky slopes to the north, east, and west. The settlement and access were therefore associated with the slight hillside towards the south. The alcazaba (0.31 ha), located at the top, preserves most of its double wall, towers, and some interior remains excavated in the last archaeological interventions. The variety of constructive elements shows the continuous evolution of this fortress, dated from the Almohad period (eleventh to twelfth century) to the processes of refortification carried out by Yūsuf I and Muḥammad V during the Nasrid period (García Porras 2014). Inside the alcazaba, there are two cisterns. One of them, with only one nave, measures 5.40 m × 2.00 m and has lost its vault and part of its walls. It is twinned with the main tower and another perpendicular space, whose purpose is unknown. This tower has undergone an important evolution since it now has a masonry facing reinforcement of a massive rammed-earth tower. This cistern could have been very close to one of the first lines of the wall and could correspond to the first periods in the development of the fortress. However, it seems unlikely that it was fed through a collection system from the tower, as it is not part of this construction. Arts 2019There, 8, 63 is another very large cistern (6.70 m × 4.50 m), adjoined to the north wall. It retains19 of its 24 curbstone in its southern wall. There is evidence that at some moment, its vault was reconstituted after a break in its central part. The hypothesis is that this cistern could have been fed either by 2 collectingrainwater rainwater on its own on roof its (73own m roof) or (73 by m a2 channel) or by a that channel reached that thereached cistern the along cistern the along top of the the top wall, of thealthough wall, although there is no there evidence is no evidence of where of this where channelling this channelling could come could from. come from. At this highesthighest partpart ofof the the hill hill of of Mocl Moclín,ín, there there is alsois also an extensivean extensive area area with with a slightly a slightly lower lower level leveladapted adapted to the to eastern the eastern point ofpoint the alcazabaof the alcazaba. It is consolidated. It is consolidated by a lime by concrete a lime concrete parapet. Thisparapet. structure This structurecould be acould pond, be but a therepond, are but no there connections are no withconnections the rest ofwith the thealcazaba rest orof withthe alcazaba the nearby or with stretches the nearbyof the wall stretches (Figure of 11the). wall (Figure 11).

Figure 11.11.Orto-corrected Orto-corrected photogrammetry photogrammetry of the ofAlcazaba the Alcazabaof Moclí n.of Isolated Moclín. hydraulic Isolated constructions: hydraulic constructions:(1) Oldest cistern, (1) (2)Oldest large cistern, cistern, (2) and large (3) possible cistern, collection and (3) possible surface. Createdcollection by surface. authors. Created by authors. In this case, the hill is not apparently associated with the source of any river; the ravine runs about 500 mIn belowthis case, on itsthe southern hill is not slope, apparently and the associated nearest natural with waterthe source source of isany on river; the northern the ravine slope runs of aboutMorró n500 del m Hacho, below aton 1030 its southern m above seaslope, level. and So, the if thisnearest were natural the water water collection source point,is on anthe important northern slopesyphon of wouldMorrón be del necessary Hacho, at to 1030 raise m the above water sea 80 level. m up So, to if the this level were of the wateralcazaba collectionup a rocky point, slope, an which shows no remains of any hydraulic infrastructure.

2.7.2. Alcazaba of Píñar The alcazaba of Píñar is situated on an isolated promontory at about 1120 m above sea level, in line with an area dominated by other lower hills. The Píñar River and the ravine of El Gaterón are the two depressions that mark the hill of this fortress. The alcazaba (0.22 ha) preserves most of its walls, together with two cisterns. There is a variety of construction techniques that demonstrates the continuous evolution of this fortress, which is characteristic of other frontier castles of the Nasrid kingdom (Bonet García 2007). One of the aljibes is located near the access tower. It is a rectangular one-nave cistern, and there are no remains of its vault. It is not linked to the tower; therefore, it could be an autonomous element regarding its water collection. On the other hand, close to the north wall and apparently isolated from any other structure, there is a large two-nave cistern, covered by slightly pointed vaults (Figure 12a). Although the headwalls that protrude from ground level have disappeared, the traces of the curbstone are maintained. Near the curbstone, on the outside and at ground level, there are the remains of two channels that bifurcate in the union between both vaults, going to the inner corners of both naves. These channels preserve traces Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 23

important syphon would be necessary to raise the water 80 m up to the level of the alcazaba up a rocky slope, which shows no remains of any hydraulic infrastructure.

2.7.2. Alcazaba of Píñar The alcazaba of Píñar is situated on an isolated promontory at about 1120 m above sea level, in line with an area dominated by other lower hills. The Píñar River and the ravine of El Gaterón are the two depressions that mark the hill of this fortress. The alcazaba (0.22 ha) preserves most of its walls, together with two cisterns. There is a variety of construction techniques that demonstrates the continuous evolution of this fortress, which is characteristic of other frontier castles of the Nasrid kingdom (Bonet García 2007). One of the aljibes is located near the access tower. It is a rectangular one-nave cistern, and there are no remains of its vault. It is not linked to the tower; therefore, it could be an autonomous element regarding its water collection. On the other hand, close to the north wall and apparently isolated from any other structure, there is a large two-nave cistern, covered by slightly pointed vaults (Figure 12a). Although the headwalls that protrude from ground level have disappeared, the traces of the curbstone are Artsmaintained.2019, 8, 63 Near the curbstone, on the outside and at ground level, there are the remains of20 oftwo 24 channels that bifurcate in the union between both vaults, going to the inner corners of both naves. These channels preserve traces of the ceramic pieces which would form the drain and, although the of the ceramic pieces which would form the drain and, although the pipes have not been conserved, pipes have not been conserved, they clearly mark the direction by which the water would have they clearly mark the direction by which the water would have entered into the cistern. This direction entered into the cistern. This direction points to the area where the first cistern is located (Figure points to the area where the first cistern is located (Figure 11b). 11b).

(a) (b)

FigureFigure 12.12. CisternCistern formedformed by two naves in the Alcazaba of Piñar. (a) View ofof thethe twotwo navesnaves cisterncistern ((b)) DetailDetail ofof thethe ceramicceramic pipespipes atat thethe jointjoint ofof thethe vaults.vaults. PhotographiesPhotographies byby authors.authors.

TheThe presencepresence ofof thethe tracetrace ofof thesethese twotwo entranceentrance channels,channels, togethertogether withwith thethe absenceabsence ofof gapsgaps inin theirtheir vaults,vaults, raisesraises thethe possibilitypossibility thatthat itit waswas suppliedsupplied byby aa channelchannel oror irrigationirrigation ditchditch thatthat wouldwould runrun throughthrough thethe courtyardcourtyard ofof thethe alcazabaalcazaba..

3.3. Conclusions InIn thethe last last decades, decades, in depthin depth studies studies have have been b conductedeen conducted on the on systems the systems of the hydraulic of the hydraulic supplies tosupplies the Andalusian to the Andalusian settlements settlements and their and agricultural their agricult areas.ural In thisareas. context, In this it context, is essential it is toessential progress to knowledgeprogress knowledge of the processes of the ofprocesses water supply of water related supply to the related fortresses. to the Water fortresses. was a basicWater resource was a frombasic theresource first moment from the of theirfirst construction,moment of their as well constr as duringuction, theiras well development as during and their evolution, development and was and a determiningevolution, and factor wasduring a determining armed conflicts. factor during armed conflicts. InIn manymany cases,cases, thethe preservationpreservation ofof aljibesaljibes asas wellwell asas otherother apparentlyapparently disconnecteddisconnected hydraulichydraulic elements,elements, hashas led led to to the the conclusion conclusion that that many many of them of werethem onlywere supplied only supplied with the with rainwater the rainwater collected incollected these cisterns. in these However, cisterns. theHowever, panorama the that panorama emerges that as a emerges result of theas a study result of of these the infrastructuresstudy of these seems to be much more complex and advanced, even when a great deal of the channelling systems has been lost. Therefore, we must continue to delve deeper into the signs presented by many fortresses, and be aware of the multitude of combined techniques that were known in al-Andalus regarding the systems of uptake, conduction, raising, and storage of water. The status of the last Muslim kingdom in Iberia as a tributary territory of Castile and its favourable geographic position helped to prolong the small Nasrid Emirate of Granada for almost 250 years, allowing it to prosper as a crossroad of trade between medieval Europe and the Maghreb, as well as acting as a natural refuge for Muslims fleeing the conquered territories by Christians. The result of this concentration of human capital and accumulated knowledge led to one of the most intense cultural flourishes of Islam (Peláez Rovira 2009). The mastery achieved during this period was not only in the architecture and the art, which reached their maximum splendour in the palatial ensemble of the Alhambra, but also in the hydraulic engineering, as they managed to gather and update all the water supply techniques known until the Late Middle Ages in a universe of palaces, agricultural estates, gardens, ponds, and fountains. This knowledge was not only implemented in the seat of the Nasrid power but, as far as possible, it was also put into operation in other fortresses built or refurbished during this period.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, L.J.G.-P.; Writing, L.J.G.-P. and S.P.M. Arts 2019, 8, 63 21 of 24

Funding: The general study of these fortresses has been developed in parallel to different projects led by Luis José García-Pulido and Jonathan Ruiz-Jaramillo, at the University of Malaga, and funded by the Ministerio de Economía y Empresa, Gobierno de España (HAR2016-79689-p) and the Centro de Estudios Andaluces, Junta de Andalucía (PRY/259/17). Part of the studies referred in this paper to the Alhambra have been developed within some restoration projects on the hydraulic system of the Alhambra, funded by Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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