Senegal, Between Migrations to Europe and Returns

The ITPCM International Commentary

Vol. X no. 35 ISSN. 2239-7949 in this issue: in this issue: SENEGALSENEGAL

BETWEEN MIGRATIONS TO EUROPE AND RETURNS April 2014 1 ITPCM International Commentary April 2014 ISSN. 2239-7949

International Training Programme for Conflict Management ITPCM International Commentary April 2014 ISSN. 2239-7949

The ITPCM International Commentary SENEGAL BETWEEN MIGRATIONS TO EUROPE AND RETURNS

April 2014 ITPCM International Commentary April 2014 ISSN. 2239-7949

Table of Contents

For an Introduction - Senegalese Street Vendors and the Migration and Development Nexus by Michele Gonnelli, p. 8

The Senegalese Transnational The Policy Fallacy of promoting Diaspora and its role back Home Return migration among by Sebastiano Ceschi & Petra Mezzetti, p. 13 Senegalese Transnationals by Alpha Diedhiou, p. 53 Imagining Europe: being willing to go does not necessarily result The PAISD: an adaptive learning in taking the necessary Steps process to the Migration & by Papa Demba Fall, p. 21 Development nexus by Francesca Datola, p. 59 EU Migration Policies and the Criminalisation of the Senegalese The local-to-local dimension of Irregular Migration flows the Migration & Development by Lanre Olusegun Ikuteyijo, p. 29 nexus by Amadou Lamine Cissé and Reframing Senegalese Youth and Jo-Lind Roberts, p. 67 Clandestine Migration to a utopian Europe Fondazioni4Africa promotes co- by Jayne O. Ifekwunigwe, p. 35 development by partnering Migrant Associations Senegalese Values and other by Marzia Sica & Ilaria Caramia, p. 73 cultural Push Pull Factors behind migration and return Switching Perspectives: South- by Ndioro Ndiaye, p. 41 South Migration and Human Development in Senegal Returns and Reintegrations in by Jette Christiansen & Livia Manente, p. 79 the Senegalese Labour Market by Pape Sakho, p. 47

About the ITPCM Next Trainings in Agenda, p. 88 ITPCM International Commentary April 2014 ISSN. 2239-7949

the ITPCM International Commentary

Administrative Director: Francesco Ceccarelli Scientific Director: Andrea de Guttry

Editor in Chief: Michele Gonnelli

Contributors to this issue: Ilaria Caramia, Sebastiano Ceschi, Jette Christiansen, Amadou Lamine Cissé, Francesca Datola, Alpha Diedhiou, Papa Demba Fall, Jayne O. Ifekwunigwe, Lanre Olusegun Ikuteyijo, Livia Manente, Petra Mezzetti, Ndioro Ndiaye, Jo-Lind Roberts, Pape Sakho, Marzia Sica

Proofreading & Copy Editing Jessica Capasso, Nicole Hoagland, Priya Mathews, Charlotte Reed, Andrea Jacquelin Scheske, Jennifer Suzanne Wells

Art Director Michele Gonnelli ITPCM International Commentary April 2014 ISSN. 2239-7949

Thanks & Acknowledgements

We are irremediably indebted to all contributors, western and locals, for having embarked on this project by sharing their invaluable insights and knowledge, despite time constraints, workloads, sometimes language barriers and hindered communications.

Special thanks go to Jessica Capasso, Nicole Hoagland, Priya Mathews, Charlotte Reed, Andrea Jacquelin Scheske, and Jennifer Suzanne Wells, for their patience and kindness in performing the proofreading and copy editing services.

Finally, we are particularly grateful for the precious contacts provided by Carlos Cardoso (CODESRIA), and Henna Mustonen, and her colleagues (UNDOC Senegal).

The ITPCM International Commentary FOR AN INTRODUCTION Senegalese Street Vendors and the Migration & Development Nexus

“ One euro, one euro please, to buy a only a few minutes to sell the same sort to the way they shake your hand or sandwich, I did not sell anything to- of umbrellas to all unequipped com- greet you. They tend to maintain good day”. You bump into them every day, muters in town. relationships with their selected local clients, year after year, and through this They walk all day long, 7 days a week If being a street vendor is the com- building up a sort of customary loyalty. orjust nearly, by walking for months, to and sometimes from your office.years. mon trait for all of them, then basically You see them snaking into all possible time - their time - is the good that is on All these dynamics escape, totally or in streets, every little corner downtown, sale. Casual human and residual spa- part, the analysis and outputs of this is- wherever pedestrians have access. tial resources in town are rationally sue of the commentary. They represent They look for fortunate encounters, exploited, looked after and serviced, in more recent trends, but also an often someone willing to delve a hand into order to maximize returns on their in- submerged and under investigated di- vestment, which is their waiting, their mension of the (irregular) migration to be in need of the nth lighter, a new prolonged presence. To increase their packetthe pocket of napkins and flip ora coin, some or extra pretending soaks. probability of success they all adopt the same token these men are often Their quest is about little monetary re- a same strategy. They tend to expand overlookedflows that linkor bypassed Senegal toby Europe.more insti By- wards, demonstrating their persever- as much as possible their exposure to tutionalised forms of intervention, at ance and resilience. a fortuitous possibility of gain. That is the policy making and implementation their being there at the right moment level. Less educated and undocument- They are what I would call the ‘walking’ with the right person doing the right ed, though they are potential targets portion of the Senegaleses migrants in thing. Pisa. Back in the 90s they were just a repeatedly fail to qualify for a regi- bunch of guys, more scared of you than Time, inexorably, is the main resource mentedand beneficiaries policy pattern of said (toopolicies, big-scale they you were surprised to see them. Today around which this male gendered form projects/actors?), invariably adopted they are dozens, cheering up a student of migration revolves. The money they by governmental and non-governmen- town to which they keep arriving and can put together serves three main ob- tal development actors alike. returning, with their rucksacks, their jectives: it pays for their food and ac- bags, or the typical cardboard box lying commodation, often in overcrowded But be it how it may, these dynamics on their forearm, a compendium of an apartments where diet, meals and ex- represent, more generally, another side entire Chinese knick-knack shop. penses are communitarianly managed; of the coin, a switch on those same is- it pays for periodic travel costs to and sues that are more overtly debated in But not all of them are ‘walkers’, there from Senegal; and, it pays for part of the these pages. Yet, the daily witnessing of - household needs of their extended fam- these men, while far from being scien- zation. ‘Parking assistants’, on the most ily back home. They send remittances are other profiles and field of speciali- on a regular basis to relatives, spouses ion sellers’ on the town mall, next to and children, in their place of origin. If thistifically publication. grounded, For confirms example, most the of cirthe- brandedtrafficked shop squares windows. and ‘Glamour streets, ‘fash sell- they are lucky, some report sending up cularitytrends and of the findings migration presented movements within ers’, close to the Leaning Tower, where to 200-300 euros a month. They never and the subsequent shaping of transna- they can better intercept international tell you when they are about to leave, tional lives, routes, and identities or the but you realize that they have been temporary nature of recent returns and glasses and watches. Showing a higher away, sometimes for months, as soon as the role of endurance and self-reliance leveltourists of educationflows willing and to a buydifferent counterfeit dress they are back. Suddenly you recognize as cultural drivers in the migratory self- code, ‘cultural promoters’ instead sell that they have become a part of your validation process. traditional books in front of well-estab- environment, of your people. You have lished bookshops. When it rains, how- grown up crossing their gaze and their Articles are presented in an order that ever, like magicians they all turn into urban trajectories. You have become suggests a way to approach the com- ‘shelter providers’, somehow able in familiar with their faces, accustomed plexities that are at stake and provide for a reading path. In their opening con- youth protests. Dissatisfaction with ternational insecurity, current policy tribution, Ceschi and Mezzetti frame neo-colonial conditions at home would and detail the main characteristics of lead African migrants, who are socially into the need to avert potential national the Senegalese out of Senegal. Amount- designated as black, to risk their life and securitynarratives crises in , Europe as he puts turn it. such issues ing to 2/3 million, according to some es- limb en route, as she puts it. Reframing timations, the Senegalese living abroad such movements within the historical In the realm of the above mentioned qualify, with regards to their traits, as context of the Global African Diaspora, return policies, the contribution by Da- a transnational Diaspora. Within this she maintains, helps to highlight mi- tola provides for a detailed account of framework, and given the spontaneous - the on-going PAISD project. A joint ini- solidarity they usually show towards pean paradise. tiative between France and Senegal, the their homeland, both authors look into grants’ pursuit of an imagined Euro PAISD project addresses the Migration - Also supporting the idea that migration and Development nexus from a prom- aspora plays, politically and economi- determinants are not merely economic, ising perspective that adopts a more cally,the role back the in the European country Senegalese of origin. Di - - cuses on other cultural aspects of the trepreneurship and private collective From an indigenous perspective, Dem- Senegalesethe contribution background. by Ndioro Relationships Ndiaye fo investments‘private-sector-oriented’ are meant toapproach. couple En the ba Fall sheds new light on the Senega- between spouses and their children, social dimension and other capacity lese migratory process while providing religious and gender issues, as well as building activities of the programme of socially praised values shape the main co-development. Imagining drivers of the future would-be migrant. Europea detailed from account the Outside of the (concludedmain findings in But cultural aspects also deeply affect Along similar lines, Roberts and Cissé 2013).of the If EUMAGINE a very strong project, desire to leave return processes in terms of push-pull elaborate on the Joint Migration and the country (up to 82% of the surveyed factors. While looking in particular Development Initiative in Senegal, cur- population in some cases) is very pop- at lower income class dynamics, she rently in its second phase of implemen- ular, acquired data show a far less un- maintains that culture can work as a tation (2013-2015). Drawing from the controversial readiness to implement blocking factor to social insertion, both evidence generated by the project, they the will to migrate. While the migra- in the country of origin and in the coun- argue that the effectiveness of M&D tory aspirations vary according to the try of destination. activities largely depend on strategic relative perception that people have of partnerships between Diaspora or- The problematic nature of Senegalese ganisations and local governments at aspirations can have a great impact on returns is the focus of Sakho’s contribu- the decentralised level. PAICODEL and people’sEurope or everyday Senegal, life he andposits (negatively) how such Jappando programmes, implemented affect the management of households’ in Sedhiou and Diourbel respectively, revenues. statisticstion. Building that uponspan theover MAFE a long project’s period provide for sustainable examples in ofmain time, findings starting (2012), from the he mid draws 1970s. from If this respect. Ikuteyijo, after having recalled the proportions of returns have been de- main historical patterns and trends of clining since then, from 54% to 20% (in By the same token, Sica and Caramia Senegalese migration, focuses on how report about Fondazioni4Africa (F4A) data shows, at the same time, a preva- Senegal Initiative (2008 – 2013). Pro- lentthe first global decade tendency of the 2000 to make years) short the moted by four Italian foundations of thatroutes migration and flows management have been across impacted the stays in their home country. When it banking origin, the programme was by the EU migration policies. He argues comes to reintegration in the local la- meant to capitalize and endorse the measures aimed at deterring irregular bour market, ex-migrants compared to role that Senegalese migrant asso- migrantsEU - being and characterised treating them by as punitive crimi- non-migrants, have a higher presence ciations can have in fostering devel- nals - resulted in an enlargement of in those professional sectors requiring opment. While involving, on claimed real criminal networks. In more recent equal terms, 9 Diaspora associations years, in the face of rising human rights less from unemployment and inactivity. based in Italy, it promoted saving and higher qualifications and they suffer countries have embraced more partici- stronger links with the community of patoryadvocacy, migration the EU and management other destination tools, analysis while addressing the main originremittances as well as through awareness microfinance, raising and whose main priorities remain, how- Diedhiou, in his write-up, confirms this- development education activities. To ever, to thwart irregular migration and this end training and capacity building help irregular migrants to reintegrate threeflaws orders of the Europeanof return, among migration Senega poli- for the partnered association were the back into their countries of origin. lesecies promotingmigrants, as returns. he sees Elaborating them - transi on- preliminary steps undertaken prior to tions, permanent return, and circula- project implementation. Ifekwunigwe, within this framework, tion, he maintains that such policies argues that most policy interventions move from untested assumptions and Finally, Christiansen and Manente close on migrations from continental Africa disharmonic timeframe perspectives, this issue by switching perspectives. - They look at South- South migration proach that rarely acknowledges their compelling political agenda. By asso- - natureto Europe as favour racialised a “one forms size fits of all” urban ap ciatingcovertly immigration reflecting a different with growing and more in- ing for an account of their overall rel- flows, to and from Senegal, provid

8 evance, at the regional and global level. On the one hand their contribution is a - pean perception on the whole migra- toryreminder issue. of On the the relativity other hand, of the if a Euro common migratory culture helps to frame these movements within western Afri- ca, it is their impact in terms of human development and in the local context in Senegal (Casamance) that end up being particularly praised. Beyond (or despite) western driven developmental initiatives, these experiences seem to postulate for the role played by the regional spontaneous transmission of the so-called social remittances.

International mobility and freedom of movement per se are values on the rise, and in the face of globalization, they reach out in unprecedented numbers to more and more people in the world. Cultural exchange and the cross-fertili- zation of experiences and backgrounds have also their positive outcomes, besides an inevitable cultural hybridi- zation that is part of life and brand of movement itself. The biggest challenge lies in making this process as bio-culturally diverse and as representative as possible. Far from that, western policy agendas tackling migration issues of- concerns or a racialised bias. Maybe it isten just still a reflectmatter securityof time, suchissues, as identity it is for the ‘walkers’ mentioned in the begin- vendor walk dawn before he can go backning. home? How manyOnly he roads knows. must a street

Michele Gonnelli

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All your beautiful words All your beautiful promises We still wait for them You promised me I would have a job You promised me that I would never go hungry You promised me that I would have real work and a future Actually, so far I still see nothing That’s why I decided to flee, that’s why I’m clearing out in this canoe I swear! I cannot stay here one more second Better to die than live in such conditions, in this hell Come what may I prefer to die

By Awadi and Kirikou 2006 a popular 2006 rallying cry and lament by Senegalese rapper and record producer DJ Awadi ITPCM International Commentary April 2014 ISSN. 2239-7949 pp. 12 - 85 Contributions ITPCM International Commentary April 2014 ISSN. 2239-7949

Dakar Rooftops

Senegal 7 January 2011|Jeff Attaway

12 THE SENEGALESE TRANSNATIONAL DIASPORA AND ITS ROLE BACK HOME The dialogue between the Senegalese State and its citizens abroad represents a central arena for determining future paths and opportunities for the country. The vast Senegalese diaspora has a weight in determining electoral results and in spurring development. In this framework, the re-dynamisation of Conseil Supérieur des Sénégalais de l’Extérieur and plans for extended social protection are at the forefront of the current debate.

by Sebastiano Ceschi & Petra Mezzetti

Senior Researchers at CESPI Centro Studi di Politica Internazionale ITALY

The Senegalese Migration

Migrations have played, since the pre- Lebanese and French emigrants, be- and re-exporting migrants in these colonial period, an important role in came an important migratory pole af- countries as well as in Ivory Coast the West African social space, character Independence in 1960. For at least and Gabon, leading destinations the terized by great dynamism in human three decades, the country experien- recent past, which are losing ground mobility and shaped by a number of ced both emigration and immigration today (Fall, Carretero, Sarr 2010). In migratory waves of populations (Fage flows, mostly within the African con- this sense, Senegal is fully included 1969; Amin 1974; Amselle 1985). Sene- tinent, receiving foreign population in the West African migratory system gal, which from early colonial times mainly coming from Guinea Conakry, of which it represents one of the main has been a destination country for Guinea Bissau, Mauritania and Mali poles, after Nigeria and Ivory Coast,

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appearing at the same time really in- ad total a population of 12 million: narratives about them can not only tegrated in the world migratory sy- almost 25% of the total population li- report the transformations affecting stem. ves outside of the country (ACP-OIM both sending and receiving contexts, 2010; ICMPD-OIM 2010; Fall 2010). but become metaphors through which Until the 1990s, migration outside rethinking these transformations and Africa remained generally limited to Conversely, data on immigrants li- placing them in the usual context of specific areas of departure (above the ving in Senegal differ depending on life “at home” (Gaibazzi, 2010). River Region, in the Northern part of the sources examined, fluctuating the country) and destination (France), between 220.000 and 325.000 people, The Senegalese Transnational Dia- as well as to specific ethnic groups 80% of which coming from African spora (mainly Soninké et Haal Pulaar) (Qui- countries, in line with the average Senegalese culture, social relation- minal 1991; Timera 1996). However of the whole region (UNDESA 2009; ships, values and representations, as from the mid-1980s, as a consequence ACP-OIM 2010; ICMPD-OIM 2010, well as Senegalese economic perspec- and a response to the crisis situation Gagnon, Khoudour-Castéras 2012). tives, political discourses and state (drought, contraction of the peanuts’ Currently migration is a phenomenon policies, both at national and local le- price, structural adjustment, demo- affecting all social strata of the Sene- vel, are strongly interlinked with the graphic growth), migratory flows galese population. Departures have dynamics, the effects and the social experienced an extension and diver- become a generalized and cross cut- construction of migration. One of the sification: new areas, groups and so- ting perspective concerning people reasons of this intertwinement lays in cial classes were strongly affected by coming from all regions and ethnic the characteristics of the Senegalese international departures, particular- groups within the country, with dif- diaspora. Many scholars remarked ly Wolof of the rural central regions, ferent ages, sex, education and class1. that Senegalese collectivities abroad while new countries of immigration, Insofar, international migration is have a high degree of social and cul- such as Italy, Spain and USA become the standard model of social advan- tural cohesion as well as a persistent more and more important. In fact, cement and young people’s “career attachment and sense of belonging the movement of people within Afri- planning” increasingly directed to- to the homeland (Ceschi 2001; Riccio ca itself still plays an important role, wards the international labour market 2002). Generally, Senegalese are ca- since the 1990s Europe and USA have (Geddes 2007; Willems 2013). Interna- pable of maintaining relationships, become preferred destinations for tional migrations’ social, economic, contacts and affective ties with their Senegalese migrants, accounting for symbolic and cultural impact are hi- family and their community; build more than a half of all the destina- ghly visible in the Senegalese context, instrumental projects in the sending tions (Fall 2010; Gehrold, Bunk 2011). in urban as well as in rural areas (Tall context; practice temporary returns In the 2000s Senegal, considered at 2009; Grillo, Riccio 2004). Migration in and cultivate the idea of a definitive the regional level also a host country Senegal acts as a marker of class, a so- reinstallation in their home country. with a relatively high degree of de- cial classifier (Herrera, Carrillo 2010). These migratory feelings and their velopment, witnessed the increase of individual and social organization immigrations flows from West Africa The international migrant is a central in forms of solidarity, networks and (Blakewell, 2007; Ndoye et Grégoire figure within Senegalese society, often associations, initiatives towards the 2008), becoming also a place of transit celebrated by the local popular cultu- context of origin, remittances and re- migration towards North Africa and re as a “modern hero“ (Riccio, 2005), turns, make this expatriate communi- Europe (Gehrold, Bunk 2011). assuming new social prestige and sta- ty a “diaspora”. tus both at the individual and collec- In many African countries, statistics tive level. More recently, a migrant’s The sense and the use of the term are still incomplete and often unre- social image turned into a more nuan- diaspora has changed through the liable. Even international sources can ced vision also including negative last two or three decades, moving show great differences in quantifying aspects (degli Uberti, 2010) and the towards a larger and more inclusive emigrants and immigrants stocks and discourses about the desirability of meaning2. Diasporas are now postula- are not free from contradictions: UN- migration to Europe are adapting to DESA reports in a recent document the changing structural circumstan- 2 From a historical approach, for 209.398 as the number of Senegale- ces affected by the economic crisis, which diaspora referred to forced displace- se international migrants (UNDESA reshaping the images of “elsewhere”, ment of populations (Jewish, Armenians, Afro- Americans, Palestinians), to a political-cultural 2013), while in a joint publication migrants, as well as migrants’ and approach developed during the 1980s and the with the OECD, the number of Sene- non-migrants’ imaginations of possi- 1990s which called diasporas as collective ac- galese migrants aged more than 15 ble futures in the homeland (Hernan- tors residing abroad which, maintain a clear years residing in one of the OECD de Carretero, 2013). Migrants and the sense of “us” and strong material and symbolic ties with co-nationals and the home country countries are quantified in 248.400. In (Clifford 1997, Appadurai 1996, Sheffer 1986), both cases, these figures appear un- despite the assimilation paradigm and expecta- derestimated if compared with other 1 From the 2000’s, a rise in the wom- tions. This second conceptualization stretched sources and estimations, which have en’s percentage of Senegalese migrants in Italy the use of the term diaspora to include any has been recorded, as well as a phenomenon of foreign born population ‘deterritorialized’, quantified in between 2 and 3 million, ‘feminization’ of the migratory patterns, tradi- still producing forms of ‘ethnicity’ (Levy 2000; the number of Senegalese living abro- tionally centred on the male first migrant (Ces- Vertovec & Cohen 1999; Cohen 1997) and con- chi, Lulli 2012). taining elements such as solidarity and trust,

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ted as collective actors acting in tran- recognition and legitimacy, this way The Senegalese abroad and their snational fields which produce, from giving to their expectations and re- role for internal politics and deve- a ‘long distance’, forms of belonging quests more powerful features both lopment and economic, social and political in the context of origin and destina- Before winning the presidential elec- mobilisation oriented towards the de- tion (Mezzetti, 2011). The activism tions in Senegal in 2000, Abdoulaye velopment of their country of origin. of the Senegalese diaspora has on the Wade, dedicated one entire year to his ‘Diaspora’ has been mainstreamed in one hand directly stimulated the in- electoral campaign from his residence international development, as a new terest of many and diverse actors of in France. He recorded a video tape actor emotionally connected with the the international and decentralized addressed to Senegalese migrants in homeland and collectively engaged in cooperation outside Senegal, produ- France, the United States, Italy, Ger- the creation of a differential identity cing tangible results in terms of the many, and all those countries with from the context of destination, and volume of the interchanges between a significant number of Senegalese especially, being actively involved the country and the places where the abroad. He focused on issues rele- and politically situated in favour of migrants live. On the other hand, it vant to immigrants, addressing seve- the development of the home country has impacted the relationship with ral electoral promises to this poten- (Ceschi, 2011). Senegalese public and private rea- tial constituency. Aware of migrants’ lities. Senegalese national and local economic weight and capacity to in- This precisely suits the Senegalese institutions, politics and policy in the fluence political choices of relatives at community abroad, which is active- recent years are engaged in a process home, he offered migrants good- ar ly engaged in collective spontaneous of dialogue and negotiation with their guments to convince family members solidarity actions3 towards the home- citizens abroad. back home to vote for him. He thus land, through donations, support to instrumentally focused on transnatio- social activities and needs, commu- This arena of confrontation has been nal connections as voting multipliers, nity development initiatives. At the taking place at different levels and in- creating an important economic mo- same time, this nationality of immi- volves many different actors on both bilization of political supporters (Sal- grants has easily entered into co-de- sides: the Government and in parti- zbrunn, 2002). velopment programs and initiatives cular the Ministry of Foreign Affairs promoted by international organi- and Senegalese Abroad (MAESE), Following his appointment President sation, by national and local gover- other national institutions and tech- Wade launched a personal “call” for nments or by the civil society and pri- nical agencies, local authorities, pri- more involvement and participa- vate bodies4 in the last fifteen years. vate and civil society institutions, on tion to the development of the home one hand, and official representations country and organised in July 2001 The encounter between grassroots of the diaspora (Conseil Supérieur des a symposium − Nouveau Partenariat initiatives and structured co-develop- Sénégalais de l’Extérieur6), federations, avec les Sénégalais de l’Extérieur – in- ment schemes5 has generally increa- associations, entrepreneurs and home volving various ministries, internatio- sed the impact of diaspora activities town organizations and networks, on nal organisations, and the Senegalese on the sending context, providing the other hand. Of course, the dialo- Diaspora. With Wade the diaspora migrants with a voice claiming clear gue of the diaspora with the Senegale- became a new political interlocutor, se State (and society) is not free from confirmed during the presidential political and cultural loyalty as well as respon- problems and conflicts, but migrants’ elections in 2007 by the creation of the sibility and engagement towards the place of voice and actions are important fac- movement Alliance Internationale des origin (Anteby-Yemini, Berthoumière 2005). tors which have been influencing the Emigrés Sénégalais pour la Réélection du This introduces a third meaning of diaspora, which led to a further vulgarisation of the term, current mobilization of Senegalese President Wade (Allies.org 2008; Coslo- towards a developmental meaning of diaspora, public actors. In the next section we vi et al., 2008). employed by governments, international or- take in account the recent trends in ganisations and various cooperation and co- the public policy towards the Senega- In 2001, the symposium put forward development actors. 3 Generally these kinds of socially ori- lese abroad examining some on-going a clear political will for finding practi- ented initiatives are undertaken by groups of actions and results of this State/citi- cal solutions for protecting Senegalese migrants coming from the same places of origin zens relationship. abroad, as well as for fostering their or, conversely, (but less frequently) residing in involvement in national develop- the same area of destination, and are driven by the common will to improve the community ment policies, articulating the debate life’s conditions and to reassure the local popu- 6 Initially created in 1995 with the aim around two central issues: “what can lation about their persistent engagement. of helping the Government in the management, Senegal do for Senegalese abroad” 4 This is particularly true in the case protection and promotion of the Senegalese and “what can Senegalese abroad do of Italy, where the main co-development pro- abroad it quickly paralyzed. The Conseil was for Senegal?” (Ndione and Broekhius, grams such as MIDA Italy and Fondazioni4Af- revitalised in 2010-2011 and is actually com- rica-Senegal have both concerned the Senega- posed by 75 members, of which 45 directly de- 2006). The main outcomes, in terms lese community. See Ceschi (ed.) 2012. signed by the President of the Republic and 30 of needs and priorities, have been 5 Convergence of spontaneous and elected by diaspora representations. As a Con- translated in a Governmental Plan informal solidarity initiatives and the more sultative body, the Conseil has been contested of Action (Plan d’Action – Nouve- structured policy on Migration & Development by the Senegalese community abroad and is (or co-development) carried out by public and still not working as an inclusive and represen- au Partenariat avec les Sénégalais de private institutions of different levels (interna- tative mean of collaboration between the Sen- l’Exterieur, Juillet 2001), followed by tional/multilateral, national, and local). egalese Government and the diaspora.

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the creation in of the ad hoc Ministry Given the proliferation of diaspora a structure which shall be established for Senegalese Abroad7 in 2003, which associations spread abroad and in- also in the regions and abroad namely absorbed and elaborated the plan volved in transnational activities to- the Bureau d’Accueil, d’Orientation et de of action in the strategic document wards Senegal, the idea of creating a Suivi which can follow and orient Se- known as Lettre des Politiques Sectoriel- body which can “represent” them in negalese abroad that want to invest as les des Senegalais de l’Exterieur (LPS) in their interlocutions with state actors well as those that wish to return. 2006 (Coslovi et al., 2008: 47). This do- is absolutely comprehensible. Howe- cument was further modified in 2009, ver the ways in which representatives Shortcomings exist within these ini- updated in 2011 and more recently have been appointed received many tiatives, such as the need for augmen- revised. The LPS serves as the basis critiques from overseas Senegalese ting resources for the FAISE and the for developing policies and initiati- which in many instances do not re- ability to give continuity to such to- ves towards the Senegalese diaspora, cognise the CSSE as the unique inter- ols and measures that would allow adopting a participatory approach locutor with the Government. A revi- Senegalese abroad to commit and for its formulation and a holistic fo- sion of the appointing system should undertake investment decisions in cus: from taking into account needs be realised in order to re-legitimise mid-long term perspectives. In addi- and claims of the Senegalese abroad the CSSE. tion, besides these specific measures to considering migrants’ families left for attracting investments from abro- behind and the entire population/citi- The second pillar reflects the more ad, structural policies must be envi- zens living in the country. classical “developmental” meaning saged and undertaken, coupled with In the next paragraphs we take into of the word diaspora, and is direc- anti-corruption measures, trying to consideration three central themes/ ted at supporting and attracting in- “re-conquer” trust between gover- pillars in the dialectic and do ut des re- vestments/entrepreneurial competen- nmental institutions and Senegalese lationship between governmental in- ces of Senegalese abroad. Interestin- abroad, which is key for establishing stitutions and the diaspora: migrants’ gly, besides two big programs finan- long-lasting collaborations, partner- political participation, economic/en- ced by Italy and France (respectively ships, investments etc. trepreneurial investments, social pro- Plasepri and PAISD10, representing tection. co-development programs funded Extending universal social protection by these two countries’ cooperation) to all citizens, especially vulnerable Do ut des relationship between go- which we don’t analyse as they are groups, is the third pillar we shall re- vernmental institutions and the dia- discussed in different contributions flect upon, considered since last elec- spora of this issue11, different measures tions14 a core governmental action. Regarding political participation, as have been developed and adopted by The Presidents’ commitment in this already mentioned, the diaspora has Senegal. These include for example domain is strong, willing to integrate a weight in determining electoral re- the creation of a fund, FAISE - Fon- migrants’ social protection in public sults both by voting from abroad as ds d’Appui à l’Investissement et aux policies, thus considering migrants well as by influencing relatives’ elec- Projets, created in 2008, which is a fi- central elements of the Senegalese po- toral behaviour. Senegalese institu- nancing tool for initiatives run by Se- pulation. In practical terms this has tions have thus put in place several negalese abroad12; a guide, namely Le been translated in mainstreaming sec- measures in the last years to reinfor- Guide des Sénégalais de l’Extérieur13 and torial policies specific for Senegalese ce their links with Senegalese abroad abroad or on universal health covera- which include: a) the re-dynamisation ge in the SNDES 2013-2017, Strategie domains in front of public powers (President of 15 of the Conseil Supérieur des Sénéga- the Republic, Government, National Assembly de Développement Economique et Social lais de l’Extérieur (CSSE) in 2010; b) etc.). The Council is composed by a president (2012). In this context, high level au- the election of a Member of Parlia- and 24 members, nominated by decree. thorities expressed a concrete interest ment elected abroad appointed as 10 For Plasepri with its allocation of 20 in negotiating and ratifying conven- 3rd deputy president of the National Million euro for credit aid and subventions for tions on social security and for the 3.7 Million by Italy, for PAISD 9 Million Euro Assembly; c) the nomination of 5 Se- by France, the Senegalese state has been able to negalese abroad in the Senate8; d) the contribute respectively with 350.000 Euro and nomination of Economic and Social 745.000 Euro. as existing possibilities in the habitat domain as Counsellors among also diaspora re- 11 See contribution by Francesca Dato- well as concerning money transfer/remittances. la in this issue. presentatives9. 14 Last elections in Senegal were held 12 The FAISE has been able to fund, in 2012. Mr. Macky SALL was elected President. since its inception, 65 bankable projects for a Sall was a long-time member of the Senegalese total amount of 330 million F CFA. The state is Democratic Party (PDS). After coming into con- 7 With the new government in 2012 conscious of the limited resources and is com- flict with Wade, he was removed from his post the Ministry of Senegalese Abroad has been mitted to raising them, for example relying as President of the National Assembly in No- absorbed by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, re- on the credit line issued by Plasepri (cfr. LPS). vember 2008; he consequently founded his own named MAESE, Ministère des Affaires Etrangères Despite resources the instrument is considered party and joined the opposition. Placing second et des Sénégalais de l’Extérieur. extremely valuable and institutions have been in the first round of the 2012 presidential elec- 8 Senators are designated by the Presi- explicit in willing to give continuity to this fi- tion, he won the backing of other opposition dent of the Republic (65%) and by local collec- nancing tool. candidates and prevailed over Wade in the sec- tivities (see FIIAPP, 2012). 13 The guide contains useful informa- ond round of voting, held on 25 March 2012. 9 The Economic and Social Council tion on civil state, consular matriculation, and 15 http://www.gouv.sn/Strategie-pour- constitutes a consultative assembly disposing social and health protection. Equally it informs la-croissance-et-la.html; http://www.gouv.sn/ expertise in the economic social and cultural on formalities for creating an enterprise as well Validation-politique-de-la.html

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protection of migrants, whereby the its’ focus – with the objective of achie- rocci Editore. effective implementation of existing ving measures of social cohesion - not conventions especially in destination just on migrants but on the entire po- Ceschi S. (2011) “What attention for countries crucial for Senegalese mi- pulation, envisaging also innovative what Transnationalism? Some Reflec- grants (i.e. West and Central Africa forms of S-S and triangular coopera- tions about Migration and Develop- and France) is definitely a priority, on tion on issues of migration. ment Nexus and the Transnational which the diaspora presses and raises Field”, distributed Paper at the Inter- growing expectations16. In order to References national Conference The Migration- achieve these goals at the institutional ACP-OIM (2010), Vue d’ensemble sur Development Nexus Revisited: State level, coordination mechanisms have les migrations Sud Sud, tendances du of the Art and Ways Ahead, Univer- been put in place, involving key and développement et besoins en termes sity of Trento 8-10 June. http://www. different institutions/ministries and de recherché au Sénégal, Observatoire tcic.eu/c/document_library/get_ stakeholders17. This process has been ACP sur les migrations, Bruxelles. file?uuid=2c0b0415-7393-4c03-9d79- developed through a multi-dimen- 0917e4c44c17&groupId=12226 sional and inclusive approach, which Amin, S. Introduction, in Amin S. saw the participation of non-state (ed) (1974), Les migrations contempo- Ceschi S. (2001), “Trasmigranti con actors as well as diaspora represen- raines en Afrique de l’Ouest./Modern radici. Le ideologie dell’emigrazione tatives, setting the basis for further migrations in Western Africa, Oxford senegalese e la gestione collettiva del collaborations among this potential University Press, London. contatto interculturale”, La Ricerca network of stakeholders. Senegal is Folclorica, n 44 currently at the forefront in the region Amselle, J. L. (1985), “Ethnie et es- in committing to social protection and paces: pour une anthropologie Clifford, J. (1997), Routes. Travel and may play in the near future a key role topologique”, in Au coeur de l’ethnie, translation in the late twentieth Cen- at the CIPRES18 level for extending/re- J. L. Amselle e E. M’bokolo (eds), Edi- tury, Harvard University Press, Cam- plicating its expertise in this domain tions La Découverte Paris,. bridge [Mass.] – London. with neighbouring countries. Anteby-Yemini, L. e Berthomière, W. Cohen, R. (1997), Global Diasporas: Conclusion (2005), “Diaspora: A Look Back on a An Introduction, London, Routledge In conclusion, the dialogue between a Concept”, Bulletin du centre de re- Coslovi L., Zarro, A., and Pastore, F. State and its citizens abroad is an on- cherche français de Jérusalem. N.16. (2008), Stati africani e migrazioni La going process, which despite many sfida dell’institution-building, Work- weaknesses and contradictions, re- Appadurai A. (1996) Modernity at ing Paper CeSPI, 39/2008; presents a central arena for determi- Large: Cultural Dimensions of Glo- ning future paths and opportunities balization, Public Worlds Volume 1. Degli Uberti S. (2010) “Da Modou mo- for the country. The interplay betwe- Minneapolis: University of Minnesota dou à Européen”: Rappresentazioni e en migration, its widespread effects, Press,. auto-rappresentazioni. Il caso delle and the Senegalese society (and Sta- “migrazioni clandestine in piroga” te) is so strong, deep, and complex Bakewell, O. (2009), ‘South-South Mi- da Senegal, “Mondi Migranti” n. 3, that the former has become one of gration and Human Development: Franco Angeli, Milano the main social changing factors of Reflections on African Experiences’, the latter. Senegalese politics cannot United Nations Development Pro- Fage, D. J. (1969), A History of West ignore this and can continue to invest gramme, Human Development Re- Africa. Cambridge University Press, for harmonizing and furthering the ports, Research Paper 07 1969 coherence of policies, maintain a transparent and updated communication Carim (2010), Profil migratoire. Séné- Fall, P. D. (2010) ‘Sénégal. Migration, as in the precedent years, preserving gal, Robert Schuman for Advanced marché du travail et développement’, Studies, Florence. Projet de recherche « Faire des migra- 16 The project Bureaux d’Appui au tions un facteur de développement : Sénégalais de l’Extérieur (BASE) is meant to Ceschi (ed) (2012), Movimenti mi- une étude sur l’Afrique du Nord et work also through consulates and embassies gratori e percorsi di cooperazione. l’Afrique de l’ouest », Institut Interna- gives special attention also to social protection issues (as well as administrative matters, etc.). L’esperienza di co-sviluppo di Fon- tional d’Etudes Sociales, Organisation 17 This has been partly experimented, dazioni4Africa-Senegal, Roma, Ca- International du Travail, Genève. for example, through a specific EU funded rocci Editore. project MeDAO, within which an action plan Fall P. D., Hernández Carrete- precisely supporting the negotiation and rati- Ceschi S, Lulli F. (2012), “Migrazioni ro M., Sarr M. Y. Senegal Coun- fication process has been implemented. Cfr: http://migrationdev.blogspot.it/p/accueil.html. femminili dall’Africa. Percorsi di in- try and Research Areas Report, For further information also see: FIIAPP, CeSPI, serimento e dinamiche identitarie” EUMAGINE,http://www.eumagine. GIP International, 2012. , in S. Ceschi (a cura di), Movimenti org/outputs/PP2%20-%20Senegal%20 18 Conférence Interafricaine de la Prévoy- migratori e percorsi di cooperazione. Country%20and%20Research%20 ance Sociale, the organism which controls and gives technical assistance to African Social Se- L’esperienza di co-sviluppo di Fon- Areas%20Report%20-%20Final.pdf curity Funds of member states. For more details dazioni4Africa-Senegal, Roma, Ca- FIIAPP, CeSPI, GIP International, see http://www.lacipres.org/

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(2012) RAPPORT COMPARATIF sur Anthropological Lenses: Contexts of africaine - Les émigrés et l’habitat à les Défis et les Priorités des Adminis- Postmodernity”, Diaspora, vol. 9, n. 1. Dakar, Paris, Karthala. trations Publiques du Cap-Vert, de la Mezzetti, P. (2011) Côte d’Ivoire, du Maroc et du Sénégal Timera, M., (1996), Les Soninké en en matière de Migration et Dévelop- “Migration&Development: A Dis- France: D‘une histoire à l‘autre. Paris: pement [http://www.cespi.it/PDF/ course and Strategy used for Ac- Karthala. MeDAO%20étude.pdf] cessing the Local Public Spheres. Evidence from Senegalese and Gha- UNDESA (2009), Trends in Interna- Gagnon J., Khoudour-Castéras D. naians Associations in Italy”, Paper tional Migrant Stock: The 2008 Revi- (2012) “South-South Migration in presented at the International Con- sion, (United Nations database, POP/ West Africa: Addressing the Chal- ference The Migrations and Develop- DB/MIG/Stock/Rev.2008) lenge of Immigrant Integration,” ment Nexus Revisited, University of OECD Development Centre Working Trento, Trento, June 2011 [http://www. UNDESA (2013), Trends in Interna- Papers 312, OECD Publishing. tcic.eu/c/document_library/get_ tional Migrant Stock: The 2013 Revi- file?uuid=17a93a68-d97d-4303-bb32- sion. http://esa.un.org/unmigration/ Gaibazzi P. (2010), “Qui, nell’altrove 0647e1db46d0&groupId=12226]. wallchart2013.htm : giovani, migrazione e immaginazi- one geo-sociale nel Gambia rurale”, Ndione, B., and Broekhius A. (2006), UNDESA, OECD (2013), World Mi- Mondi Migranti n. 3, Franco Angeli, Migration internationale et dévelop- gration in Figures. A joint contribu- Milano pement. Points de vue et initiatives au tion by UN-DESA and the OECD Sénégal, Working papers Migration to the United Nations High-Level Gehrold S., Bunk M. (2011) “Between and Development series, Report No.8. Dialogue on Migration and Develop- paradise and prison. Senegalese mi- OIM (2009) Migration au Sénégal. ment, 3-4 October 2013, http://www. grants and the response of the Euro- Profil National 2009. OIM, Geneva. oecd.org/els/mig/World-Migration- pean Union”, Kas International Re- in-Figures.pdf port n. 5. Quiminal, C., 1991. Gens d’ici, gens d’ailleurs, Crhistian Bourgois Editeur, Vertovec, S., Cohen, R. (Eds) (1999), Gerdes F. (2007), Focus Migration Breteuil-sur-Iton. Migration, Diasporas and Transna- - Country Profile: Senegal, HWWI, tionalism, International library of [http://focus-migration.hwwi.de/ Republique du Senegal (2012) SNDES studies on migration: 9, Edward Elgar Country-Profiles.1349.0.html?&L=1] 2013-2017. Stratégie de Développe- Pubblishing, Cheltenham. Grégoire, L.J. et Ndoye, O. (2008), ment Economique et Social, [http:// Migration au Sénégal, Dynamique www.gouv.sn/Strategie-pour-la-cr- Willems R. (2013), Local realities and et Orientations Stratégiques, Pro- oissance-et-la.html] global possibilities: deconstructing gramme des Nations Unies pour le the imaginations of aspiring migrants Développement, nº02 Riccio, B. 2005 ‘Talkin’ about migra- in Senegal, Identities: Global Studies tion. Some ethnographic notes on the in Culture and Power, DOI: 10.1080/ Hernande Carretero M. (2013) The ambivalent representation of migrants 1070289X.2013.829771 Changing Value of International Mi- in contemporary Senegal’ in V. Bilger gration: Discourses About Senegalese e A. Kraler (eds) Special Issue: “Afri- Migration to Europe in Times of Cri- can Migrations. Historical Perspec- sis (April 14, 2013). Available at SSRN: tives and Contemporary Dynamics, http://ssrn.com/abstract=2250826 STICHPROBEN. Wiener Zeitschrift fur Kritische Africastudien/ Vienna Herrera G., Carrillo M.C. (2010), “Tras- Journal of African Studies, 8; formazioni famigliari nell’esperienza migratoria ecuadoriana. Uno sguardo Riccio, B. (2002), ‘Senegal is our home: dal contesto di partenza”, Mondi Mi- the anchored nature of Senegalese granti n. 3, Franco Angeli, Milano transnational networks’, in N. Al-Ali e K. Koser (a cura di) New Approach- ICMPD-OIM (2010), MTM: a Dia- es to Migration? Transnational Com- logue in Action. Linking Emigrants munities and the Transformation of Communities for more Develop- Home, Routledge, London ment. Inventory of Institutional Ca- pacities and Practices, [http://www. Salzbrunn Monika (2002) “L’impatto icmpd.org/MTM-Dialogue-Linking- delle reti transnazionli degli emigrati Emigrant-communities-for-More-De- sulle elezioni presidenziali in Senegal velopmen-Inventory-of-Institutional- nel 2000” in Afriche e Orienti (3/4); Capacit.1820.0.html]

Levy A. (2000), “Diasporas Through Tall, S.M (2009), Investir dans la ville

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African Renaissance Monument

Dakar, 24 March 2011, Photo|Jeff Attaway

20 IMAGINING EUROPE: BEING WILLING TO GO DOES NOT NECESSARiLY RESULT IN TAKING THE NECESSARY STEPS Findings from the EUMAGINE research project reveal that prevailing migratory aspirations often fail to materialize in actual measures necessary to go abroad. While Europe is the most coveted destination, poverty and misery are not the sole determinants. Senegalese international migration reflects a great deal of thirst for emancipation that goes along with the claim for a fundamental right: the freedom of movement.

by Papa Demba Fall

Fundamental Institute of Black Africa Cheikh Anta Diop University, Dakar Director of the Network for African International Migrations Studies SENEGAL Intro

The original research carried out in national mobility is deeply affected ried out in four geographic areas that the framework of the Imagining Europe by the lack of relevant and up-to-date are representative of the main Sen- from the Outside project shed new light data, which would allow for a thor- egalese migratory contexts, mainly: on the Senegalese migratory process. ough analysis of this phenomenon. It Indeed, the study of Senegalese inter- is to fill this gap that research was car- 1. A religious city and its hinter-

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Figure 1: Map (available in French) of the geographic areas of interest of the EUMAGINE research project. land comprised of rural areas repre- worth highlighting: the pervasiveness A very strong prevailing desire to senting regions of strong emigration: of the wish to leave the country, the emigrate Darou Mousty; gap between the desire to go abroad It is now understood that Senegal 2. An agricultural area located and the achievement of such a desire, has evolved from a host country to a in the heart of the Groundnut basin, the growing presence of European country of emigration since the early representing regions with low emi- countries in the Senegalese migratory 80s (EMUS 1995; DPS 2004 ; Diop gration: Lambaye; mindset and the relative importance 2008). In addition to the Modou-Mo- 3. A residential area in the Da- of democratic aspirations in the deci- dou2 whose number is still unknown3, kar suburb that symbolizes areas fea- sion to leave Senegal. turing a wide ranging double immigration and emigration process: Golf 2 Originally the word borrowed from Sud; the dominating Wolof language pejoratively described the international migrants from rural 4. A peripheral area representa- members of the household before drawing one areas belonging to the Wolof ethnic group and tive of the old emigration basin locat- respondent who was interviewed on the mem- Mourid brotherhood. Through a shift in mean- ed along the Senegal river: Orkadiéré. bers of his household who migrated or returned ing resulting from the growing participation of to their country, and on the people in his non- the city people in the expatriation process, the family neighborhood living abroad or those hav- word ended up being positively applied to all By the end of the investigations car- ing migrated. He is then asked to talk about his the emigrants, regardless of their original cul- ried out from February 2010 to Janu- own migratory aspirations and some other issues tural backgrounds. It is worth noting that the ary 20131, four results are particularly such as their perception of Europe, transnational pioneers of labor migration represented by the practices, local living conditions, migratory net- Halpularr et Soninke – ethnic groups known as works, etc. As for the qualitative questionnaire the “people from the valley” – were called Fran- 1 Following the test period, 2000 indi- or semi-structured interview guide it is submit- cenabè because of their migratory inclination to- vidual questionnaires have been administered to ted to 20 resource people in each of the research wards France.. people aged 18- 39 chosen at random from 500 areas. These ones talk more widely about issues 3 This is one of the major challenges households surveyed in each of the research ar- related to local living conditions, international to be addressed in the framework of an effec- eas. Fifty previously trained interviewers have migration, perception of Europe, personal mi- tive management of emigration. The number of contributed, under the authority of two super- gratory aspirations, etc. The responses collected Senegalese migrants living abroad is estimated, visors, in the collection of data on the basis of a in native languages’ have been recorded before according to the sources, as somewhere between 24-page questionnaire. They have counted the being transcribed in French. 600000 individuals to 2 or even 3 million people!

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1. To begin with, these aspirations 100 are an important dimension of mi- 90 gratory dynamics. Even though most 80 of the people who would like to go 70 60 abroad would never have the oppor- 50 tunity to do so because of the migra- 40 tory protectionism or a lack of means, 30 20 the overflowing migratory ambition 10 affects people’s daily life. This situa- 0 tion makes it all the more necessary Darou Mousty Lambaye Golf Sud/ Dakar Orkadiéré to achieve a more effective management of the migratory issues as it also Man: would rather go affects the behaviors of those who are

Woman: would rather go lucky enough to go abroad.

Man: would rather go if he had the documents required to stay and work abroad 2. The second reason that justifies Woman: would rather go if she had the documents required to stay and work abroad the study of migratory aspirations is that they may somehow affect the management of household revenues. Figure 2. Gender and migratory aspirations. Source : Surveys Eumagine Senegal 2010-2013 Indeed, negative impacts may result from the allocation of the households’ thousands of Senegalese would like to thanks to a long tradition of emigra- few resources in vain exodus trials emigrate. Indeed, at the national level, tion towards Africa and France. and, as well, the ambition to invest in about ¾ of the population states that one’s native country may be thwarted they would like to leave their country The desire to leave Senegal does not by migratory plans that are unlikely within the next five years (table 1). however mean a total separation from to succeed. To review migratory aspirations, the people surveyed were asked to an- 35 swer the following question « If you 30 had the opportunity, would you like 25 to go abroad to live or work there in the next five years, or to stay in Sen- 20 egal? ». 15

10 Figure 2 illustrates the importance of

5 positive migratory aspirations if they are studied in terms of gender and 0 Darou Mousty Lambaye Golf Sud/ Dakar Orkadiéré research areas. Although Senegalese migrations are male oriented, this il- lustration highlights the fact that the

Man: Holding a passport Woman: Holding a passport will to go abroad is widely shared by both women and men. The gender Men: has taken steps towards departure Woman: has taken steps towards departure differences are evidently not -impor tant in Golf Sud/Dakar and Lambaye, but appear clearly in Darou Mousty Figure 3. Migratory aspirations and practical steps taken in terms of passport possession. Source: Survey and Orkadiéré. Eumagine Sénégal 2010-2013. Willing to go does not result in taking the necessary steps to leave the Within the four geographic research the country of origin. On the contrary, country areas, the proportion of respondents migration is fundamentally seen as A major difference is noted between who would like to leave the country a time in life that offers opportuni- the positive migratory aspirations varies between 64 and 82%. It should ties to enhance the living conditions and actually taking the necessary be highlighted that the migratory as- of those staying in the home country, measures to materialize the will to pirations are influenced, in variable and/or an opportunity to ensure a bet- go abroad. Our investigations help proportions, by parameters such as ter future to the returning migrants evaluate the proportion of individu- gender, age, the area of origin, etc. (Ba 2010; Fall 2008; Fall & Gamberoni als who have taken the measures re- The strongest prevalence of positive 2010; Sinatti 2014). quired for their migration. In that re- migratory aspirations has been re- Understanding migratory aspirations spect, the visa application, the foreign ported in the Senegal river valley that is important for at least two main rea- university pre-registration and the is connected to the external world sons: search for information on job markets

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90 Secondly, the gender differences are more marked if we take into account 80 the steps taken by the candidates and/or the fact of holding a passport 70 France in contrast to migratory aspirations. This is not certainly applicable in the 60 Italy case of Golf Sud, which is a less con- 50 servative area, but the remark is obvi- United States of America ous in the other research areas where 40 there are three times more men hold- Spain ing passports than women; 30 Other european contries 20 Thirdly and finally, the prevalence Others desdtinations of measures taken toward achieving 10 the will to immigrate is stronger in Golf Sud where at least one respon- 0 dent out of 5 has taken the necessary Darou Mousty Lambaye Golf Sud/ Dakar Orkadiéré steps towards leaving the country. In- deed, contrary to the other research areas, the high level of education of the people surveyed is a valuable as- Figure 4. Senegalese favorite destinations per research area set for access to information most often regarding the continuation of outside Senegal are major indicators. est can only fund the migration of their higher education, the consulta- Figure 3 indicates the proportion of one of their relatives towards North- tion of Internet websites, the search men and women, in each of the re- ern countries (Northern Europe and for agencies funding departures, etc. search areas, who have undertaken America), less wealthy candidates The socio-economic situation of the initiatives towards facilitating their have no other choice than Africa, or middle class families ensures as well departure for migration, as well as the getting involved in dangerous expe- the funding of migration. number of migration candidates al- ditions by sea or across the desert. ready holding a passport4. Several les- (Schapendonk 2012; Bredeloup & Today Europe is the most coveted sons from this figure are worth high- Pliez 2005 ; Brachet 2007)6. destination of the Senegalese lighting: to begin with, its comparison There are major differences between with figure 2 indicates a huge gap be- the research areas in terms of the se- tween migratory aspirations and the lected migratory destinations. These readiness to implement the will to mi- surance policy whose cost varies between 19,82 findings were obtained from a subsid- euros (9 750 FCFA) for a week and 57, 17 (35 000 grate. The majority of the candidates FCFA) for 6 months. Furthermore applicants iary question asked to the people with for migration had not undertaken any are requested to show income proof documents a positive migratory aspiration and initiative towards that goal as they do (salary sheet, financial statements) together with related to the destination they would not even hold a passport and have not other documents such as the passport whose is- choose if they were given all the guar- suance requires the purchase of a 30 to 49 euro taken any steps towards achieving the tax stamp, etc. For more insight into the red antees regarding their stay and em- will to go abroad. tape and other tricks, please refer to Francesca ployment in a foreign country. Gen- Zampagni’s (2010) text « A Visa for Schengen’s erally the choices are a reflection of The large amounts of money required Europe. Consular practices and regular migra- the traditional migratory systems and tion from Senegal to Italy », CARIM-VI Summer for the departure for migration is a School on Euro-Mediterranean Migration and of the present transnational mobility discriminating factor in the achieve- Development. systems respectively represented by ment of the exodus plans and the 6 In 2006, the “sea madmen” paid be- the Senegal river valley and the Wolof choice of destinations5. If the wealthi- tween 40000 and 60000 FCFA, about 610 to 915 land. (Traoré 1994; Chart et al. 2012- Euros to join the Canaries Islands at the risk of 2013). In the Senegalese Groundnut their life. See: Fall Papa Demba « Ndaraw, Sekka, Sidi Bara, Yéri et al. Investigations in the mbëkk Basin (Darou Mousty and Lambaye), 4 Because the passport stands as the in the Dakar suburb », Communication deliv- where emigration candidates can document required for travel across borders, ered at the Seminar of the IFAN Cheikh A. Diop its possession demonstrates a migratory deci- hardly demonstrate strong vocational Scientific Committee on Barça ou Barsa: quelles sion and/or a will to leave Senegal. There is skills, Italy (Fall 1998) is the most cov- lectures des Sciences sociales sur l’actualité des mi- saying among the Senegalese youths that “the grations internationales ? Dakar or “Les voyages eted destination, with Spain coming horns never precede the head” meaning that one dangereux. Les mobiles et le coût humain de la second place. (Fall & Garreta-Bochaca should always get ready as one never knows migration irrégulière en partance d’Afrique au when the opportunity will show up. 2012). sud du Sahara”, Communication au ESF Explo- 5 The cost of a short term visa valid ratory Workshop on The Human Costs of Border in the Schengen area was 60 euros, about 40 000 Control in the Context of EU Maritime Migration In comparison to the other three re- FCFA, to which would be added the fees of the Systems. Amsterdam, Netherlands, October 25- search areas, Golf Sud/Dakar high- delegate service provider amounting to 19,20 27th 2009. euros or 13 000 FCFA. These expenses are not lights a wider diversity in terms of refundable in the case of visa denial. The ap- choice. No destination attracts more plicant should in addition purchase a travel in-

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ure comprise respondents with few variations in their perceptions of Eu- rope and Senegal. About ¾ of the respondents would like to go abroad in the next five years.

People with a more positive perception of Europe than of Senegal would be expected to be more inclined to migration, but the data collected in the field does not clearly reflect this expectation. Indeed the prevalence of the migratory aspirations varies according to the relative perception that people have of Europe or Senegal, but are not determined by a radically more positive perception of Europe or of Senegal. Europe’s economic opportunities are certainly highly appreciated by the respondents, just like some aspects of life in Senegal such as solidarity and family life. The attraction of the European continent on the Senegalese candidates to emigration is no less a reality based on a penchant for democracy and human rights. Figure 5. Migratory aspirations in terms of perceptions of Senegal and Europe. Aggregate of the findings from the four research areas Source: Survey Eumagine Sénégal 2010-2013 Conclusion Due to the growing number of migra- than a third of the potential candi- dealt with in the survey to understand tion candidates that it attracts, the Old dates to migration. Some European the determinants of emigration. They Continent is called upon to address countries other than the current des- are related to topics as important as the demand for mobility from the tinations such as France, Italy and health, education, corruption, securi- South. The Senegalese example that Spain also appear as first ranking des- ty and job opportunities. These issues was chosen to illustrate this discus- tinations: Switzerland, Germany, Bel- that have to do with human rights sion indicates that international mi- gium, the United Kingdom, Greece, and democracy are appreciated both gration is not dictated solely by pov- etc. More than any other country, in Senegal and Europe. The informa- erty or misery. It also reflects a great the North American countries (USA tion collected has helped develop a deal of thirst for emancipation that and Canada) are the countries most scale of perceptions of Europe and goes along with the claim for a fun- coveted by the middle class. These Senegal that are then used to design damental right, in this case the free- respondents are more educated than a comparative grid of the two entities. dom of movement. In that respect, the their countrymen from the other emi- adoption of bold policies in terms of gration basins and consequently have The data collected indicate that, all circulatory migration would address more access to information sources other things being equal, the over- not only the development challenges such as the international media and whelming majority of the respon- in the country of origin but would the Internet. dents have a slightly more positive also address the labor needs of the perception of Europe than of Senegal. Northern countries. By contrast, in Orkadiéré, France, A second group of surveyed respon- while it is losing favor in the other re- dents have a perception that is neither References search areas is, for 80% of the respon- favorable to Europe nor to Senegal. Adams, A. (1977). Le Long voyage des dents, the favorite destination of the The aggregated findings can be de- gens du fleuve. Paris: Maspero. candidates to migration. This results constructed as follows: mainly from the power of the solidar- 1. People with a far more posi- BA, A. H. (2010). « Reconstruction ity networks of « the people from the tive perception of France than of Sen- territoriale et codéveloppement. valley » (Adams 1977 ; Diop 1968 ; egal are very inclined to emigration L’exemple de la diaspora sénéga- Gonzalès 1994 ; Dia 2010). but their number is very low: 9 indi- laise », Hommes & Migrations, n° 1286- viduals; 1287: 200 à 211. Emigration is equally based on dem- 2. Respondents with a percep- ocratic aspirations tion radically more positive of Sen- Brachet, J. (2007). Un désert cosmo- Several issues relating to the percep- egal are far less numerous: 3 people; polite. Migrations de transit dans la tion of Europe and Senegal have been 3. The central clusters of the fig- région d’Agadez (Sahara nigérien).

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Université Paris1 Panthéon Sorbonne: Gonzales, G. (1994). « Migrations, Thèse de doctorat. nuptialité et famille dans la vallée du fleuve Sénégal », Revue européenne de Bredeloup, S. & O. Pliez (coord.) migrations internationales 10 (3): 83- (2005). Migrations entre les deux rives 109. du Sahara, Autrepart n° 36. Schapendonk, J. (2012). “Beyond de- Chort, I., J-N Senne & F. Gubert (2012) parture and arrival: analyzing migra- “Migrant networks as a basis for social tion trajectories of sub-saharan afri- control: Remittance incentives among can migrants from a mobilities per- Senegalese in France and Italy”, Re- spective” (:105-119), in. : The Challenge gional Science and Urban Economics, 42 of the Threshold : border closures and mi- (5): 858-874. gration movements in Africa. Lanham: Lexington Books. Dia, H. (2010). « Les villages “multi- situés” sénégalais face à la nouvelle Sinatti, G. (2014). “Return migration configuration migratoire mondiale », as a win-win-win scenario? Visions Hommes & Migrations n° 1286-1287: of return among Senegalese migrants, 234-244 the state of origin and receiving countries,” Ethnic and Racial Studies [http:// Diop, A. B. (1965). Société. toucouleur dx.doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2013.868 et migration. L’immigration toucouleur 016] à Dakar. Dakar: IFAN (Initiations et Etudes africaines, n° 18). Traore, S. (1994). « Les modèles migratoires soninké et poular de la val- DPS (2004). Rapport de synthèse de la lée du fleuve Sénégal », Revue euro- deuxième enquête sénégalaise auprès péenne des migrations internationales 10 des ménages (ESAM II). Dakar:MEF. (3): 61-80.

EMUS (1995). «Enquêtes sur les mi- Zampagni F. (2010). A Visa for Schen- grations et l’urbanisation au Sénégal gen’s Europe. Consular practices and (Emus-1993)». Bamako: REMUAO/ regular migration from Senegal to CERPOD. Italy. CARIM-VI Summer School on Euro-Mediterranean Migration. Fall, P. D. (1998). « Stratégies et implications fonctionnelles de la migration sénégalaise vers l’Italie », Migrations- Société, vol. 10, novembre – décembre, pp. 7-33.

Fall, P. D. (2008). « Migration internationale et développement local dans le Nguènar sénégalais » (: 195-210), in. Momar-Coumba Diop (dir.), Le Séné- gal des migrations - Mobilités, identités et sociétés. Paris: Crepos-Karthala-ONU Habitat.

Fall, P. D. & E. Gamberoni (2010). « Movimenti migratori ed effetti sul territorio. Il caso di Podor (Regione di Saint-Louis, Senegal », Bollettino della Società Geografica italiana, Serie XIII, vol. 3: 925-937.

Fall, P. D. & J. Garreta Bochaca (2012). Les migrations africaines vers l’Europe. Entre mutations et adaptation des acteurs sénégalais. Dakar-Lleida: REMIGRAF- IFAN/GR-ASE.

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Demonstration for Mor Diop Samb Modou, Florence

Florence, Italy - 17 December 2011 | Photo Lorenzo Ridi

28 EU MIGRATION POLICIES AND THE CRIMINALISATION OF THE SENEGALESE IRREGULAR MIGRATION FLOWS Senegal constitutes a significant source for irregular migration to Europe. The attempt of the EU to stop or thwart established migration routes through stricter migration policies has invariably led to the proliferation of illegal outlets and networks. At the same time more subtle migration management strategies have often reflected an arrogant Eurocentrism.

by Lanre Olusegun Ikuteyijo

Research Fellow Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife, NIGERIA Introduction

Over the years, African migrants, be- countries of North Africa are fast be- the Mediterranean Sea on separate lieving Europe to be full of opportu- coming graves for scores of African occasions over a two week period1. nities, have continuously attempted youth in their attempts to either swim Such incidents are increasing, with to cross EU borders to escape the across the Mediterranean, walk across the deaths of migrants attempting to myriad of push factors in their home the desert, or scale the tall fences (of- cross the Sea becoming an almost dai- countries. This exodus has generated ten with barbed wire and security a number of reactions in migration cameras) of the Spanish enclaves of policy reform from destination coun- Ceuta and Melilla. 1 The Guardian 2013: ‘Death Toll of tries in Europe (initially, Italy, Spain African Migrants Rises after Boat Disaster near Lampedusa’. http://www.theguardian. and Malta). In fact, the border zones In October 2013 alone, more than com/world/2013/oct/12/african-migrants-boat- between Europe and the Maghreb 300 African migrants drowned in lampedusa-capsizes-mediterranean. Accessed on 03/03/2014.

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ly occurrence. Unfortunately, victims cations of irregular migration, which xenophobic attacks on Senegalese in include women, men and children, is framed in terms of its magnitude in the Ivory Coast, which began in the cutting across all age and gender di- comparison with regular migration to 1990s and culminated in direct and mensions. Europe and within the African con- violent attacks of Senegalese migrants text, are also discussed. Policy recom- in the wake of the Ivorian 2002 Since the 1990s, trans-Saharan and mendations are provided in order to civil war. Likewise, the restriction trans-Mediterranean irregular migra- improve the management of the flow of fishing rights for Senegalese tion has attracted the interest of many of Senegalese migrants to Europe and migrants in Mauritania led to a EU countries who perceived the is- other destination countries. decline of the number of Senegalese sue to be of common concern and in the country, which had been a who agreed Italy, Spain and Malta Patterns and trends of Senegalese preferred destination of Senegalese should not be left alone to tackle the Migration migrants due to its close geographical challenge. Consequently, trans-Med- The correspondence between patterns proximity9. iterranean2 migration has become a of migration and socio-economic Generally, the economic and political key issue on the EU policy agenda, re- development may be described crises in many West African countries sulting in a number migration policy as being directly related. Socio- have led to a shift in the migration reforms. Some policies have included economic factors constitute what are trend from within the sub-region to exerting pressure on North African referred to as ‘push and pull factors5’ other parts of Africa, especially South countries to clamp down on ir- in migration literature. Shortly after Africa. Since 1994, with the fall of the regular migration within and through independence, Senegal was a major apartheid regime, many migrants their territories by increasing border destination country for most West from across Africa have perceived control operations, strengthening mi- African migrants. For example, South Africa as a major destination gration legislation, re-admitting irreg- political asylum-seekers from Guinea country. Hence, migrants from Sen- ular sub-Saharan migrants from Eu- fleeing the repressive regime of egal and other African countries like rope and deporting migrants back to President Sekou Toure constituted the Mali, Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, their own national territories3. These largest group of migrants in Senegal. Kenya and Uganda have moved to policies have disproportionately af- This was highlighted by the fall in South Africa for employment op- fected migrants from sub-Saharan the Guinean migrant population portunities. It is pertinent to note Africa given the fundamental shift in in Senegal from 300,000 to 45,000 that most Senegalese migrants are trans-Mediterranean migration in the after the demise of President Toure.6 low-skilled and are involved in com- late 1990s. It was during this period Similarly, as a result of the war in mercial activities, especially in the that sub-Saharan migrants began to Guinea-Bissau, 75,000 migrants left selling of artefacts from Senegal, hair- join migration flows from the Magh- the country and moved to Senegal in dressing and other low-paid service reb, with migrants who had already the early 1970s; however, there was a sectors.10,11,12 started crossing the Mediterranean sharp decline to about 7,100 migrants illegally as a result of the introduction from Guinea-Bissau in the 1990s7. However, Senegalese have also been of visa requirements for North Afri- Nonetheless, increasing population reported to migrate to Northern Af- can workers by Italy and Spain. The growth coupled with a declining Gross rica, with the ultimate aim to reach journey was completed primarily by Domestic Product and concomitant Europe as a final destination. Senegal, using fishing boats (pateras),4 which rise in unemployment represent key along with other West African coun- exposed migrants many grave haz- push factors marking the transition tries like Nigeria and Ghana dominate ards at sea. of Senegal from a net-immigration to migration flows to Europe and North a net-emigration country.8 Senegalese America, representing 25.5, 16.4, and This commentary examines select EU have increasingly migrated to 12.2 percent of all West African mi- migration policies and their impact countries such as Mauritania, Mali, grants living in OECD countries, re- on irregular migration flows from Ivory Coast, Guinea and Guinea- spectively13. The migration dynamics Senegal (a major country of origin in Bissau within the West African sub- of Senegalese outside the African con- Africa) to Europe. The brief also ex- region. However, certain events in tinent initially followed the colonial amines specific migration policies, these traditional destination countries corridor; hence, Senegal accounts for including the criminalization of irreg- have served as additional push ular migration, securitization of EU factors for onward migration among 9 Ibid. borders, as well as forced expulsion Senegalese migrants, including 10 Adepoju, Aderanti (2004) from European territories. The impli- 11 Van Criekienge (2008) The EU-Af- rica Migration Partnership: A Case of the EU’s 5 ‘Push factors’ are those factors which Migratory Dialogue with Senegal and Ghana 2 Trans-Mediterranean migration is are responsible for migrants leaving a country 12 Zubrzycki, Bernada (2012) Recent defined as the movement of people (mostly ir- while ‘pull factors’ are those factors present in African Migration to South America: The Case regular migrants) across the Mediterranean Sea destination countries that attract potential mi- of Senegalese in Argentina. International Journal to Europe as a result of strict migration policies grants. of Humanities and Social Science. Volume 2 no. in most EU states. 6 Gerdes, Felix (2007) Focus Migra- 22. Pp. 86-94 3 De Haas, Hein (2007).The Myth of In- tion: Senegal Country Profile. Hamburg Insti- 13 International Organisation for Mi- vasion: Irregular Migration to the Maghreb and the tute of International Economics. gration (2008) World Migration 2008 Managing European Union. IMI Research Report 7 Ibid. Labour Mobility in the Evolving Global Economy, 4 Ibid. 8 Ibid. IOM, Geneva.

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the highest contribution of migrants door’ EU entrances from Western and Schengen Code, and the externalisation to France and other OECD countries Northern Africa. In 2006, about 23,000 and sub-contracting system of man- in sub-Saharan Africa. [For instance, irregular migrants entered the Canary aging migration. in 2005, there were 82,116 Senegalese Islands between January and Septem- A major player in the externalisation in France.14] However, the introduc- ber. Meanwhile, the Mediterranean process is the European Agency for tion of compulsory visas for Senega- remains the traditional entry point for the Management of Operational Co- lese diverted the migratory flow from irregular migrants, with recent fig- ordination at the External Borders of France to other destination countries ures suggesting an increase in land- Member States (FRONTEX). FRON- in Europe and North America. A new border crossings from 55 percent in TEX has played a key role as the co- trend in Senegalese migration is the 2009 to 86 percent in 201018. However, ordinating agency for the EU and south-south migratory flow. As a re- the number of illegal border-crossing provides leadership to guide member sult of restrictive policies in the EU detections into the EU peaked dur- states in conducting collaborative po- and USA, there has been a diversifi- ing the Arab Spring, with about licing, not only along the EU borders cation in the Senegalese migratory 59,000 detections19. In responding to but in third countries, as well.21 In flow whereby migrants have begun irregular migration, different coun- 2006, the EU deployed the FRONTEX to move to non-conventional desti- tries have used various approaches, mission - HERA - which was mainly nations, where they have no existing including strict border control tactics run by the Spanish Border Services in linguistic, cultural or colonial bonds. and raids in establishments and com- partnership with select EU member This is typified by the Senegalese mi- munities where migrants work and states. In 2007, the EU implement- gration flow to non-EU countries like live. Criminalisation, however, entails ed the Rapid Reaction Mechanism Argentina15. that migrants, like asylum-seekers (RRM)22 programme to build the and refugees, who should ordinarily capacity of Senegalese authorities to Criminalisation of Irregular Migra- be entitled to certain considerations combat irregular migration. tion from destination countries, are treat- In recent years, the politics of immi- ed instead as criminals, imprisoned In addition to facing the securitisa- gration and migration management and later deported, usually under in- tion and militarisation of most EU across the EU have been characterised humane circumstances. borders, irregular migrants have also by punitive measures aimed at deter- been intercepted and deported before ring irregular migrants. The criminal- Criminalisation has led to further they reach EU territories. This ap- isation of irregular migration implies debates as to the adequacy of subse- proach was viewed as necessary giv- that irregular migrants are treated quent measures to manage irregular en increasing difficulties in expelling like criminals rather than solely as migration in light of the violations of irregular migrants after entry into the violators of administrative rules and migrants’ rights during the process. EU, particularly due to the fact that procedures.16 This development has EU policies aimed to stem the flow many migrants destroy all forms of evolved given the associations be- of irregular migrants from the global identity documents providing give tween irregular migration and a myr- south, a large percentage of whom clues as to their countries of origin. iad of criminal endeavours including come from Africa, have included ini- terrorism, smuggling, human traffick- tial reactions by individual member Ironically, criminalisation of irregular ing and exploitation. Moreover, most states. One of the early responses was migration has led to more despera- EU member states have agreed that the introduction of visas in the 1990s, tion among irregular migrants and to better management of the Union’s prior to which no visa had been re- the enlargement of criminal networks external borders will help to combat quired (for example, in Italy and specialized in the movement of peo- parallel criminal activities linked to Spain). Tall barricades and high-tech ple across borders. For instance, those irregular migration. There were an security devices were also installed who use the trans-Saharan migration estimated 1.9-3.8 million irregular along the Italian and Spanish borders routes make their journeys in several migrants in the EU in 2008,17 yet from to ward off irregular migrants. Col- stages lasting for various lengths of 2004-2008, Lampedusa Island in Italy lectively, Integrated Border Manage- time, ranging from one month to sev- and the Canary Islands in Spain were ment (IBM) schemes were adopted by eral years or even eternity (as many noted as the most notorious ‘back- the EU, such as the acquis communau- do not return to tell the story).23 taire20 on the management of internal 14 OECD Migration Data Base, (2005 and external borders typified by the 21 Besides EU member states, other cited in Van Criekienge (ibid.) third countries which serve as transit points 15 Zubrzycki, Bernada (ibid.) are also key partners of FRONTEX, including 16 Ikuteyijo, Lanre (2014) The Impact of 18 Ifantis, K. (2012) Addressing Irregular Libya, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt. European Union Migration Policies on Irregular Migration in the Mediterranean. Centre for Euro- 22 The RRM operated on three major Migration in sub-Saharan Africa. In Territoriality pean Studies terms, including: inter alia; provision of necessary and Migration in the EU Neighbourhood: Spill- 19 FRONTEX, (2013) Annual Risks facilities and training to Senegalese Naval Officers ing over the Wall. By Walton-Roberts, M. and Analysis 2013, pp. 19. Available at http://fron- to combat irregular migration from Senegal, provi- Hennebry (editors) Springer. Pp 97-110. tex.europa.eu/assets/Publications/Risk_Analy- sion of assistance to voluntary returnees and capac- 17 European Commission (2010) First sis/Annual_Risk_Analysis_2013.pdf (assessed ity building in conducting comparative research on Annual Report on Immigration and Asylum on 17/03/2014). legislations on critical issues in irregular migration (2009 Report from the Commission to the Eu- 20 Also known as Community acquis in Senegal and selected EU member states (Van ropean Parliament and the Council), Brussels: which is the aggregation of EU laws applicable Criekienge). European Commission. in all member states. 23 International Organisation for Mi-

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Migration Dialogue as Migration and Italy. This is due to the strategic The attempt of the EU to stop or block Management in the EU geographic position of Senegal as a established irregular migration routes In the face of rising advocacy by hu- major point of departure for both re- and thwart migration through stricter man rights groups around the world gular and irregular migrants, thereby migration policies has invariably led against the criminalisation of irre- contributing to a major influx of irre- to the proliferation of illegal outlets gular migration and its subsequent gular and low-skilled migrants in Eu- and networks. While the EU cannot measures, the EU and other destina- rope. In addition, the countries in the sustain the criminalisation and abso- tion countries have embraced more southern axis of the EU (Greece, Mal- lute restrictions to combat irregular participatory migration management ta, Italy, Cyprus, and Spain) are those migration through military and puni- tools. These have been characterised most directly affected by the influx of tive measures, there is a need for the by strategies that are less punitive irregular migrants. Senegalese Government to reflect on and employ bilateral cooperation ra- its own policies and begin to address ther than the unilateral approach pre- However, negotiations between Sene- the myriad of push factors within the viously applied. The EU has therefore gal and the EU are still characterised country. There is also a need for dialo- identified major sending countries24 by certain shortcomings, leaving Se- gue to move beyond an analysis of the and has devised means of helping negal to prefer to negotiate separately benefits for individual countries and such countries to manage irregular with specific EU member states. Talks to instead focus on employing a re- migration by addressing push fac- concerning readmission programmes gional approach to address the chal- tors and helping irregular migrants between the EU and Senegal have stal- lenges of irregular migration. Moreo- to reintegrate into their countries of led twice (2006 and 2007) due to what ver, there is an urgent need for EU origin. For example, EU diplomatic the Senegalese Government terms countries to help sending countries, missions have visited select African long and bureaucratic bottlenecks in including Senegal, to immediately countries25 to negotiate readmission EU operations.28 Another challenge address push factors propelling large agreements and secure cooperation in of the partnership is that most terms numbers of youth to leave the country. addressing irregular migration. are Eurocentric, with the EU dictating the conditions of the agreement. Ge- In addition, the issue of corruption The most common form of migration nerally, major areas of disagreement has been the bane of development in dialogue between the EU and African relate to the divergence of interests most African countries and the EU countries (especially Senegal) is the between the EU and the Senegalese can contribute to strengthening anti- ‘mobility partnership,’ which involves Government. While the EU empha- corruption activities in this region. Se- the granting of increased EU labour sises migration control using various negal and other sending countries in market access in exchange for coope- ‘carrot and stick’ approaches, autho- Africa should also create an enabling ration on migration control.26 In some rities in Senegal favour a migration environment for the African diaspora instances, irregular migrants in desti- management approach which en- to invest in the local economy and fos- nation countries are returned to their hances the development prospects ter return migration. countries of origin with assistance of migration29. Ultimately, Senegal is packages from destination countries an important sending country which in order to hasten reintegration. While commands EU attention and the Go- such a bilateral arrangement has exis- vernment of Senegal is doing all it ted for some time between France and can to exploit the situation in order Senegal,27 the African country has to maximize the migration-develop- recently gained more attention from ment nexus. other EU member states such as Spain Conclusion and Policy Recommen- gration (2007) Irregular Migration from West Af- dations rica to the Maghreb and the European Union: An Senegalese migration dynamics have Overview of Recent Trends. IOM Migration been quite interesting as the country Research Series. IOM, Geneva. has transited from a net-immigra- 24 Some of the major sending countries tion to a net-emigration country. in West Africa identified by the EU include Moreover, the migration flow which Ghana, Nigeria, Senegal, and Mali. previously remained largely within 25 Senegal was among the first set of the African sub-region now extends countries to be visited the EU Diplomatic Mis- sions in 2006. beyond the continent, constituting a 26 Chou, M., (2009) “European Union significant source of origin for irregu- Migration Strategy towards West Africa: the lar migration in the EU. Undoubtedly, Origin this development constitutes a major and Outlook of ‘Mobility Partnerships’ with challenge to both the EU and Senegal. Cape Verde and Senegal,” A Paper presented at the EUSA Conference, Los Angeles, April. 27 For example, in 1975, Senegalese migrants in France were encouraged to return to contribute to the development of their country 28 Van Criekienge Ibid. of origin. 29 See Van Criekienge, ibid

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Gorée Island - Senegal

19 February 2008, Photo|Juan Falque

34 REFRAMING SENEGALESE YOUTH AND CLANDESTINE MIGRATION TO A UTOPIAN EUROPE Situating more recent Senegalese migrations within the historical context of the Global African Diaspora helps to place these movements as the latest manifestation of over 500 years of European economic and geopolitical interference in the African continent, which has both produced forced migrations of African peoples as well as contributed to their resistance and resilience. by Jayne O. Ifekwunigwe

Visiting Associate Professor African and African American Studies Duke University, USA Reframing Africa, Europe and the Global African Diaspora

Since the mid-1980s, stricter immi- nating in Libya. Thousands of African imagining is in sharp contrast to the gration control in most European migrants have died trying to enter historical reality of a Europe that used Union (EU) member states has made Europe. These include the more than the master tools of scientific racism to it increasingly difficult for African mi- 400 migrants, who lost their lives last manufacture its racialised ‘Others’ grants who are neither highly-skilled October in two shipwrecks en route and build the industries of transatlan- nor a family migrant or who do not from Libya to the Italian island of tic slavery and imperial expansion. meet the limited criteria for refugee Lampedusa. Their bleached bones status outlined by the 1951 UN Con- strewn over the Sahara and buried This cooperative complicity under vention to enter the EU. Those who in the forgiving sea are morbid testa- the guise of ‘commerce’ and ‘civilis- cannot enter Europe legally will do so ments to the seductive “El Dorado” ing’ mission literally and figurative- “by any means necessary”. just beyond their reach. ly aligned the destinies of Africans, diasporic and continental. Although According to the International Orga- Though migrants may have specific coming from diverse backgrounds nization for Migration, since the be- destinations in mind, “Europe” is they are forever situated within the ginning of 2014, 5,745 West African, configured as a monolith in much same unfolding grand narrative. As East African and Syrian migrants the same way “Africa” was and is a result, since the sixteenth century have arrived in Sicily on boats origi- imagined by Europeans. This utopian (and even earlier), these circuits of

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trade, processes of settlement, and and settlements (Ifekwunigwe, 2010). roots, routes and detours (Hall 1990, Gil- political economic regimes have cre- Spanning more than five centuries roy 1996, Ifekwunigwe 2010). The first ated co-terminal points of reference and still unfolding, the unique gen- phase is roots, which encapsulates for African diasporic constituents in dered and racialised history of the Global the dispersal of continental Africans Europe as well as the Americas, the African Diaspora, whose cornerstones as a result of the transatlantic slave Caribbean and beyond. Furthermore, are resistance, resilience and innova- trade, such as the forced migration the long-term effects of under-devel- tion, is also in part, both a history of of enslaved Africans from the transit opment in Africa have given rise to continental Africa and Fortress Eu- centre of Gorée Island, Senegal, to the new African diasporas that do not rope. I organize the follow conceptu- Americas and the Caribbean. necessarily correspond to former co- alisation of the Global African Dias- lonial European or Commonwealth pora in terms of three key themes: 1) The second phase is routes, which in- status. The racialised, gendered and gen- mapping and framing 2) historicising cludes the dispersal of people of Afri- erational dimensions of these clandestine and 3) stratifying. can descent on the African continent land and sea movements from West and as a result of the social and historical North Africa to southern Europe forc- Mapping and Framing the Global processes of imperialism, colonialism es us to rethink what constitutes voli- African Diaspora and their aftermath, such as the Sen- tion, agency, and victimization. How we configure “Africa” impacts egalese to France. how we conceptualize the Global Af- The third phase is detours, which ac- The precarious nature of these mi- rican Diaspora in general and African counts for what I call contemporary grations of desperation demand that diasporas in Europe in particular. If extra-colonial dispersals of people of Af- we address human rights concerns of we conceptualise “Africa” as below rican descent, such as the Senegalese protection, prevention and freedom. the Sahara we are reifying an Hege- to Italy, Spain and Greece. By extra- Undocumented migrants without le- lian artificial construct and overlook- colonial, I mean movements that do gal citizenship do find community ing “the cultural and historical dis- not adhere to former colonial and thus and create new forms of multiethnic tinctiveness of the two regions, their geopolitical relations between these and multinational migrant cosmo- overlap and their great diversity” sovereign African nations and their politanism (Mbembe 2001). At the (Osondu 2010:45). Including North former European colonisers. There same time, as (in)visible strangers, Africa in our conceptualisations of was a time when a geopolitical logic they must labour in the shadows of continental Africa paves the way for underpinned African migrations to informal and exploitative economies, our inclusion of the Maghreb as both Europe so that if one were from Sen- where they are marked as racially an important transit zone and a des- egal, a former Francophone colony, different “crimmigrants”- a term Aas tination for Africans en route to Eu- one would migrate to France. How- uses to describe stratification, non- rope. It also highlights older and es- ever, in 1974, this migratory route citizenship and the interface of prac- tablished trade routes between North was disrupted by the legal closure of tices of surveillance and conditions of Africa and southern Europe: “…the French borders to new international undocumented migration in the EU shores of northern Africa and south- labour migrants and from the 1980s to (2011: 343). The policing of “crimmi- ern Europe enclose, like two cupped the present day Spain and Italy have grant” bodies and Italy’s poor recep- hands, the waters of the world’s most become the primary extra-colonial tion and detention conditions were famous sea, perceived by the ancients destinations for Senegalese migrants evident during the aftermath of the as the very heart and center of the (Beuchemin, Caarls and Mazzucato 2013 Lampedusa tragedy, when de- world” (Achebe 2009: 77). 2013). grading video footage of surviving migrants at a detention centre being This reconfiguration is particularly This geopolitical shift in migra- hosed down was leaked to the press salient in light of the fact that con- tion patterns has contributed to the (Sunderland 2013). temporary European identity poli- growth of transnational families as tics are drawn along more than one well as skewed gendered dynamics in The Global African Diaspora axis than ‘race’ (El-Tayeb 2011) and Senegalese migrant communities. For The African Diaspora is an historical different European colonial projects example, in France, women comprise and discursive frame, which provides gave birth to differing (post)colonial 46 percent of the Senegalese popula- a holistic way for us to assess and ad- assimilationist models (Nimako and tion whereas in Spain and Italy, wom- dress the different trajectories and Small 2009). Shifting the frame so that en comprise 16 percent and 13 percent forms of suffering of people of Afri- it embraces the Mediterranean ba- of the Senegalese population respec- can descent; who, at different periods sin emphasizes the particularities of tively (Beauchemin, Caarls and Maz- in history, have migrated to Europe, southern European immigration poli- zucato 2013: 18). With reachable roots the Americas, the Caribbean and be- cies and politics. and tangible ties with their countries yond in search of refuge, labour or of origin, contemporary African mi- as part of the subjugating missions Historicising the Global African Di- grants in Europe in general and Sen- of transatlantic slavery and colonisa- aspora: Roots, Routes and Detours egalese migrants in particular, speak tion. (Gomez 2005). The African Di- In thinking historically about the Af- from multiple locations as trans- aspora has evolved as a useful frame for rican Diaspora, I link its formation ported and transplanted daughters understanding these global movements to three phases, which I configure as and sons of “over-lapping” diasporas

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(Lewis 1999). Paul Zeleza has devised like in a specific local context is deter- tions, at every stage of the migration the term “diasporas of structural ad- mined by a complex set of economic, process, strategies are highly strati- justment” to describe these more re- political and historical circumstances. fied (Ejikeme 2010). As agents and vic- cent movements: For clandestine Senegalese migrants tims, youth and older adults, women making their way to southern Europe, and men, these ‘unofficial’ migrants …the diasporas of structural adjustment a contingent state of (un)belonging deploy strategies which demonstrate have been formed since the 1980s, out of is fabricated both by their precari- both the potency of collective agency the migrations engendered by economic, ous undocumented status as well as and the exigencies of survival. That is, political and social crises and the desta- by their racialised difference (Carter clandestine migrant women and men bilizations of structural adjustment pro- 2010, Merrill 2011). may share a similar destination, but grammes (2005: 55). by virtue of their structural positions, In Fortress Europe, borders remain their destinies will be very different. According to Frontex, the European permeable for the transnational flow Agency for the Management of Op- of capital, commodities and informa- In fact, irregular migration is conven- erational Cooperation at the External tion, but not people. Across the EU, tionally enacted by men (Pickering Borders of the Member States of the illegal immigration control is a hot and Cochrane 2012). For example, on EU, there have been several land and button issue that polarizes political the 18th of March, 2014, in the Span- sea routes from continental Africa debates and public opinions. The ish enclave on Moroccan territory to the EU, which include Western, rallying cry from the Right is contain of Melilla, 500 African migrant men, Central and Eastern Mediterranean ‘the Others’ already within and keep mostly Senegalese and Malians, suc- routes as well as the Western African ‘those Others’ out. These outside cessfully scaled the border fence and route. In 2014, the preferred route for ‘Others’ are exemplified by clandes- made their way to the immigration prospective North and West African tine movements “by any means nec- holding centre shouting “Bosa, Bosa”, clandestine migrants attempting to essary” of the unwanted and the im- which according to witnesses means enter Europe is across the land border poverished (as opposed to the ‘brain “victory, victory” (El Pais 2014). Those between Greece and Turkey: drain’ elites) from structurally (mal) women who do make these journeys adjusted West African urban centres are exposed to dangers and risks, par- This area of the external border neigh- to economically and demographically ticularly sexual assault, other forms bours Turkey and offers a natural transit restructured Western and southern of physical violence and ultimately bridge with Asia, which includes many European metropoles. death (IOM 2013). In a compara- source countries for migrants hoping to These transnational migratory pro- tive analysis of the role of gender in illegally cross the border to the EU…mi- cesses have included the smuggling border-crossing deaths, Pickering grants from northern and western Africa of West African (such as, from Sen- and Cochrane reported that women willing to illegally cross the EU external egal, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Mali, are disproportionately dying at “the borders, are expected to increasingly take Cameroon, and Guinea-Bissau) and global frontiers between the Global advantage of the Turkish visa policies, North African (particularly Moroc- North and the Global South,” such as granting visas to a different set of nation- can) women and men via North the 82 percent of women who died alities than the EU, and the expansion of Africa across the Mediterranean to at the land and maritime borders be- Turkish Airlines, to transit through the southern Europe, including Spain, tween North Africa and the EU (2012: Turkish air borders to subsequently at- Italy and Greece-the Gateways to For- 39). The configuration of global cit- tempt to enter the EU illegally, either by tress Europe. The borders crossed are ies and survival circuits also demon- air or through the neighbouring land or not just physical but also symbolic, strates the extent to which Senegalese sea borders (Frontex 2012, 39-40). economic and political. At the same migrant women and men in Spain, time, the nation-state is both extrane- Italy and Greece participate in local As long as the “aid-trade-debt nexus” ous to transnational identities forma- economies in differential ways with (Cheru 2010:207) on the African con- tion and integral to the everyday po- women over-represented in the ser- tinent persists, the EU will find it dif- licing, surveillance, management and vice sector labouring in the formal ficult to stem the tide of desperation containment of racialised and gen- and informal economies as nannies, that contributes to these clandestine dered African diasporic bodies. The domestics or sex workers. migration flows; for, as one border bio-politics and alterity of “diseased” is sealed another border is made po- African diasporic bodies are evident “Voting with their Feet”: Senegalese rous. at the Los Cristianos port of Tenerife Youth and Clandestine Migration as where Spanish officials wear protec- Gendered Protest Stratifying the Global African Dias- tive gear including contagion masks With half the population of 12 mil- pora and gloves in order to meet boat-loads lion under the age of 18, Senegal is The Global African Diaspora is de- of arriving Senegalese clandestine mi- a youthful nation, which means that rived from a common heritage as well grants (Ifekwunigwe 2013). the Senegalese migrant population is as shared legacies of and resistances What motivates clandestine migrants a relatively young one (Melly 2011). to slavery, (post)colonialism, racism is the promise of higher European The unemployment rate remains at and other forms of structural inequal- Union (EU) wages. As was/is the case almost 50% and 70% of the popula- ities. What the African Diaspora looks with older African diasporic formation lives on $2 a day. Urban youth

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comprise more than 40% of the 50% ish colonies on the Gold Coast (Asi- voluntary transnational circulation of who are unemployed: “youth are per- waju 1976). In the case, of Senegalese African peoples, of which Senegalese manently disarticulated from civil youth en route to southern Europe, a clandestine migrant men and women society” (Ralph 2008: 11). The on- sort of “colonisation in reverse” (Ben- are a part, illuminates the complexi- going social transformation of urban nett 1966/2000,16) takes place. Dissat- ties and politics of new African dia- Senegalese youth from subordinates isfaction with neocolonial conditions sporic processes in the latest globalis- to local African moral traditions and at home lead them to risk life and ing age (Campbell 2010). The contin- values to champions of globalization limb en route to the imagined para- ual growth of new African diasporas and transnationalism, as channelled dise of Europe’s southern frontier. of structural adjustment forces a re- through the fusion of politics, arts One could argue, as Helff (2008) does, assessment of the dialectics of struc- and popular culture is in direct re- that these aspiring Europeans uphold ture and agency within which one sponse to the perceived political and the foundational ethos of an ‘old’ Eu- must be mindful of the sexualised, economic failings of the colonial in- rope and in doing so embody a more racialised and gendered dynamics of dependence project at the level of the ‘authentic’ European identity than the migrant labor in informal and clan- family, the state and the nation (Diouf subject-citizen Europeans who deny destine economies. The persistence of 2003, Herson 2011). them entry, citizenship and humanity. globalised, racialised and gendered ineq- uities as manifest in the legal and so- Social disarticulation breeds social In “Titanic Tales of Missing Men” cial exclusion of clandestine African dispossession. Reaching back into the Melly suggests that it is the very na- migrant women and men, en route to annals of political economy as well as ture of Senegalese society, as it is in and living in the shadows in south- colonial and (post)colonial African constant transformation, that de- ern Europe, affirms the importance of history, I borrow from Tiebout (1956), termines the differential role men viewing African/diasporic formations Asiwaju (1976) and Herbst (1990) re- and women play in these migration as dynamic, interconnected and his- spectively to suggest that rather than protests. Carretero-Hernández and torically contextualised and thus cy- being mere economic migrations, Carling’s ethnographic research also clical rather than static, arbitrary and these movements are also migra- supports this claim: “notions of man- ahistorical. tions of protest. These individual- hood, honor, pride, responsibility, ized contemporary youthful Senega- and courage intertwine in accounts of References lese protest migrations are not to be the decision to embark on a pirogue Aas, K. (2011) “’Crimmigrant’ Bodies confused with earlier and longstand- to Europe” (2012, 411). The dreams of and Bona Fide Travelers: Surveillance, ing collective Murid trade diasporas young Senegalese men are adrift on Citizenship and Global Governance,” (Buggenhagen 2012). They are both the Atlantic and more recently on the Theoretical Criminology, 15 (3): 331-346. transnational in form and function. Mediterranean as they attempt to en- However, the specific purpose of Mu- ter Europe to create employment op- Achebe, C. (2009) Education of a Brit- rid trade diasporas was the produc- portunities that will generate income ish-Protected Child, New York: Alfred tion of a global African commercial to send back to their extended fami- A. Knopf. diaspora, which was still steeped in lies and also enhance their status as the foundational tenets of the Murid potential marriage candidates (Car- Asiwaju, A.I. (1976) “Migrations as brotherhood (Diouf 2000). retero-Hernández and Carling 2012). Revolt: The Example of the Ivory Coast and the Upper Volta before Contemporary Senegalese youth pro- Venables’ ethnographic study of 1945,” The Journal of African History, test migrations may have Murid ties, “Senegalese Women and the Cyber 17 (4): 577-594. but more stringent immigration re- Café” reveals that young Senegalese strictions in Europe and the United women also have migration aspira- Beauchemin, C., Caarls, K. and Mas- States have transformed these mi- tions, which they hope to successfully sucato, V. (January, 2013) “Senegalese gration chains: “Once considered a accomplish by meeting European Migrants between Here and There: matter of exploiting social networks men online with whom they can form An Overview of Family Patterns,” and seeking brotherly aid, migration relationships and eventually relocate MAFE (Migrations between Afri- is increasingly imagined as a matter to Europe: “Whereas men seek tem- ca and Europe) Working Paper 33, of chance or luck, and as involving porary stepping-stones to the West pp.1-31, http://www.ined.fr/fichier/t_ a personal engagement with risk” through creating social and profes- telechargement/67573/telecharge- (Melly 2011, 368). Asiwaju defines a sional links with tourists or Europe- ment_fichier_fr_wp33_senegal_fam- protest migration as “a series of un- ans living in Senegal, women rely ily.pdf armed but effective expressions of upon forming romantic and sexual resentment” (1976, 578); in this case relationships” (2008: 475). Bennett, L. (1966/2000) “Colonization against a particular European colo- in Reverse,” in J.Proctor (ed.) Writing nial regime that was perceived to be Concluding Remarks Black Britain, Manchester: Manchester more austere than another. Migrants Young Senegalese men and women University Press, pp.16-17. moved from one colonized African re- are both striving for opportunities in gion to another, such as from French what they imagine to be the economic Buggenhagen, B. (2012) “Fashioning West Africa to neighbouring Brit- paradise of Europe. This latest (in) Piety: Women’s Dress, Money and

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Faith among Senegalese Muslims in Frontex. (2012) The Frontex Annual “ in D.C. Hine and J. McLeod (eds.) New York City,” City and Society, 24 Risk Analysis 2012, Warsaw: Frontex. Crossing Boundaries, Bloomington: In- (1): 84-104. diana University Press, pp. 3-32. Gilroy, P. (1996) “Route Work: The Campbell, E. (2010) “Irregular Mi- Black Atlantic and the Politics of Ex- Melly, C.M. (2011) “Titanic Tales of gration within and to the Republic ile,” in I.Chambers and L.Curtis (eds.) Missing Men: Reconfigurations of of South Africa and from the African The Post-Colonial Question, London: National Identity and Gendered Pres- Continent to the European Union: Routledge, pp.17-29. ence in Dakar, Senegal,” American Tapping Latent Energy of Youth,” in Ethnologist, 38 (2): 361-376. A.Adepoju (ed.) International Migra- Gomez, M. (2005) Reversing Sail: A tion within to and from Africa in a Glo- History of the African Diaspora, Cam- Merrill, H. (2011) “Migration and Sur- balised World, Legon-Accra: Sub-Saha- bridge: Cambridge University Press. plus Populations: Race and Deindus- ran Publishers, pp. 169-207. trialization in Northern Italy,” Anti- Hall, S. (1990) “Cultural Identity and pode, 43 (5): 1542-1572. Carretero-Hernández, M. and Car- Diaspora,” in J. Rutherford (ed.) Iden- ling, J. (2012) “Beyond “Kamikaze Mi- tity, Community, Culture and Difference, Nimako, K. and Small, S. (2009) “The- grants”: Risk Taking in West African London: Lawrence and Wishart, pp. orizing Black Europe and African Di- Boat Migration to Europe,” Human 222-237. aspora: Implications for Citizenship, Organization, 71 (4): 407-416. Nativism and Xenophobia,” in D. C. Helff, S. (2008) “‘The New Europe- Hine, T. D. Keaton and S. Small (eds.) Carter, D. (2010) Navigating the African ans’: The Image of the African Refu- Black Europe and the African Diaspora, Diaspora: The Anthropology of Invisibil- gee in European Literature.,” African Chicago: University of Illinois Press, ity, Minneapolis: University of Min- and Black Diaspora, 1 (2): 123-132. pp. 212-237. nesota Press. Herbst, J. (1990) “Migration, the Poli- Osondu, I.N. (2010) “Not Out of Af- Cheru, F. (2010) “The Global Eco- tics of Protest, and State Consolida- rica?: Sifting Facts from Fiction in nomic Order and its Socioeconomic tion in Africa,” African Affairs, 89 the New Balkanization of Africa,” in Impact: The African Perspective,” in (355): 183-203. P.Soyinka-Airewele and R.K. Edozie P.Soyinka-Airewele and R.K. Edozie (eds.) Reframing Contemporary Africa, (eds.) Reframing Contemporary Africa, Herson, B. (2011) “A Historical Analy- Washington,D.C.: CQ Press, pp. 36- Washington,D.C.: CQ Press, pp. 195- sis of Hip-Hop’s Influence in Dakar 46. 217. from 1984-2000,” American Behavioral Scientist, 55 (1): 24-35. Pickering, S. and Cochrane, B. (2013) Diouf, M. (2003) “Engaging Postcolo- “Irregular Border-Crossing Deaths nial Cultures: African Youth and the Ifekwunigwe, J.O. (2013) “’Voting and Gender: Where, How and Why Public Space,”African Studies Review with Their Feet’: Senegalese Youth, Women Die Crossing Borders,” Theo- 46 (2): 1-12. Clandestine Boat Migration and the retical Criminology 17 (1): 27-48. Gendered Politics of Protest,” African _ (2000) “The Senegalese Murid Trade and Black Diaspora 6 (2): 218-235 Ralph, M. (2008) “Killing Time,” So- Diaspora and the Making of a Vernac- cial Text 97, 26(4): 1-29. ular Cosmopolitanism,” Public Cul- _ (2010) “’Black Folk Here and There’: ture, 12 (3): 679-702. Repositioning Other(ed) African dia- Sunderland, Judith (2013) “Dispatch- sporas in/and Europe” in T.Olaniyan es: Lampedusa, a National Shame Ejikeme, A. (2010) “Engendering Afri- and J.Sweet (eds.) The African Diaspora for Italy,” 18 December, http://www. can History: A Tale of Sex, Politics and and the Disciplines, Bloomington: Indi- hrw.org/news/2013/12/18/dispatches- Power,” in P.Soyinka-Airewele and ana University Press, pp. 313-338. lampedusa-national-shame-italy R.K. Edozie (eds.) Reframing Contem- porary Africa, Washington,D.C.: CQ International Organization for Migra- Tiebout, C. (1956) “A Pure Theory of Press, pp. 291-306. tion (2013) “Diverse, Innovative Ap- Local Expenditures,” Journal of Politi- proaches are Needed to Ensure Safe cal Economy, 64 (5): 416-424. El Pais (2014) “Group of 500 migrants Migration for Women and Girls,” 4 crosses Melilla border in biggest fence March. Venables, E. (2008) “Senegalese Wom- jump to date”, 18 March, en and the Cyber Café: Online Dat- http://www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/iom/ ing and Aspirations of Transnational http://elpais.com/elpais/2014/03/18/ home/news-and-views/news-releas- Migration in Ziguinchor,” African and inenglish/1395150133_092464.html es/news-listing/diverse-innovative- Asian Studies, 7: 471-490. approaches-ar.html El-Tayeb, F. (2011) European Others: Zeleza, P. (2005) “Rewriting the Afri- Queering Ethnicity in Postnational Eu- Lewis, E. (1999) “’To Turn as on a Piv- can diaspora: beyond the Black Atlan- rope, Minneapolis: University of Min- ot’: Writing African Americans into tic,” African Affairs 104 (414): 35-68. nesota Press. a History of Overlapping Diasporas,

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Malikounda, Senegal

17 May 2012, Senegal, Photo | Franco Emilio Risso

40 SENEGALESE VALUES AND OTHER CULTURAL PUSH PULL FACTORS BEHIND MIGRATION AND RETURN Relationships with the mother, as well as Mougn (endurance), Jom (dignity), and Foula (courage), provide for a mix of cultural values that have a great impact on the migratory projections of young Senegalese in search for self-validation. On the other hand, religion, language, ethnicity and other cultural dimensions help to explain the more or less rational nature of returns.

by Ndioro Ndiaye

Alliance pour la Migration, le Leadership et le Développement (ALMD) Dakar, SENEGAL

Introduction

For the longest time, humans have gin and as such leads to the social and nologies, free movement of popula- migrated in search for better opportu- economic development of these coun- tion is still much slower than that of nities and a chance to improve their tries. Until recently, few governments goods and capital services. living standards. Each country in Af- and institutions in Africa recognized rica has been affected by international the potential contribution that the di- Recently, international migration migration. Migration has often been aspora could bring to the economic has marked Senegal’s economic and seen as a ‘brain drain ‘ instead of an transformation of the continent. De- development process. Historically, opportunity. Technological progress spite the few steps taken in favor of Senegal is mainly a country of emi- facilitates the interaction between migration and the fast amelioration gration because of the everyday life emigrants and their countries of ori- of transport and communication tech- struggles that people often have to

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face and the successful experiences middle classes are mainly composed of his young fellow countrymen, WD of early emigrants. Emigrants coming of highly educated and well-off in- was not able to have a decent job that back home are perceived as examples dividuals. These two classes are the is well paid and in accordance with of success. They often have the most ones which insist more on having his skills. When he decided to leave beautiful cars, the biggest houses and their children pursue their studies Dakar two years ago, WD was still liv- these exterior signs of wealth make abroad rather than sending them over ing at his parents’ and was completely more and more young people willing there for a chance at a better life. They cared for. His little girl’s birth changed to go abroad in search of a better life. therefore expect their children to everything. It was a positive motiva- The conviction that one must travel come back in their home country once tion to succeed at any priceto be able to Europe whatever may the risk be their studies are completed. to satisfy her needs. is summed up in the wolof expression “Barça mba Barzakh (Barcelona We will focus on Senegal’s lower in- He thus decided to leave Senegal ‘two or Death)”. According to the World come class. This specific class is com- years ago with a tourist visa for France. Bank about 463,000 Senegalese (or 4% posed of individuals living day to day My brother financed my travel and paid of the population) were living abroad and facing the hardships often caused almost 3000000 CFA for me to get a six in 2005. The results from a household by lack of financial means. Most im- month visa. When I was leaving Senegal, survey carried out by Senegal’s Min- portantly, they are affected by the lack my intention was not to stay in Europe istry of Economy and Finance (2008) of possibilities to turn dreams into for more than one year because I was show that 76% of urban households concrete opportunities. convinced I would have a job as soon as and 70% of households nationwide I arrive in Paris. The first three months have at least one family member who For this part of Senegalese society, of my stay in Paris went by quite well. lives abroad. A total of 46% have gone having a child living in Europe is a The fourth month, I had an argument to Europe, where Italy, France and great deal. It means the achievement with my sister’s husband who was host- Spain are the most common countries of their goals and dreams. For a moth- ing me. I therefore left his home and went of destination. A further 8% have gone er from this lower income class, who to stay with my best friend who also lived to North America. There is a tendency raised her children doing her best to in Paris. The stay at his home became infor Senegalese migrants to remain in satisfy their needs, having her son or creasingly difficult because I was not able the destination country for long peri- her daughter move to Europe is also to get a job. Every day, I was told to marry ods, even though a significant propor- a mark of self-validation. Most of the a French girl to have my documents. One tion of irregular migrants in industrial time, whether it is coming from the day he just asked me to leave – so I did. countries are deported within a short mother or the father, parents do not During the following two months, my time. In general, however, Senegalese pay much attention to the way their goal was no longer to find a job, but to migrants plan their stays abroad as son or daughter is living in Europe find somewhere to sleep at night and I just short-term experiences. because they are convinced that to cannot tell you how many times I slept live in Europe cannot be worse than outdoors before I decided to go to Belgium A study based on a sample of mi- to live in Senegal no matter what. For and ask for asylum. After nine months grants residing in Germany shows this class of the society, a worker in It- spent in Belgium living quite the same that their wish for an early return to aly does not have the same status as a experience, I went to Germany where their home country has not come true worker in Senegal, simply because the I have been living since the past three for a number of reasons. Some have first one lives abroad with all the op- months now. I asked for asylum again ended up starting a family abroad, portunities and the halo of wealth and and I am awaiting the results. I promised while many others still feel obliged to success it represents. Consequently, my daughter’s mother to come back if it continue meeting the financial needs the emigrants coming from this kind does not work but I know from the bottom of their dependent family in Senegal. of family will be more reluctant to of my heart that I will not even though There is also widespread fear of los- returning to Senegal if they did not it is my strongest wish. I cannot go back ing their social status in Senegal upon succeed in their quest for success as it because there is no way for me to go back return. Through this article we will will be a great disgrace for them and home and live the same situation I lived see how culture and the socioeco- for their entire family. before.” nomic environment can influence migrants’ choice to return in their coun- To better illustrate this situation I in- This story is similar to that of so many try of origin but also how their social terviewed a friend who decided to go Senegalese living in Europe or in the reinsertion can be influenced by both abroad to try his luck. To respect his rest of the world. This has surely to of these factors. privacy we will just use his initials do with social class, but it also has to and call him WD. do with the Senegalese culture. The Overview of Senegalese Social Wolof word “Jom” and “Foula” (dig- Classes WD is a 36 years old Senegalese man, nity and courage) are primordial. As in every society, Senegalese society proud father of a two year old girl. is divided into three classes: the high He is the fifth son of a family of seven. Senegalese Culture class represented by the bourgeoi- His parents are not rich but did their It is important to define basic socio- sie, the middle class, and the lower best to finance WD’s two first years logic terms of identity to understand income class. Both the high and the of undergraduate studies. Like many cultural identity. Culture is learned

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and passed through generations and accordance with Senegalese values of tries of immigration. Constituting includes the beliefs and value sys- Jom (dignity) and Foula (courage), or groups of persons coming from the tem of a society. Culture has been her failure to support her child’s fa- same country is in fact reassuring for described as features that are shared ther. With this mix of cultural values the individuals and it is also a way for and that bind people together into a and social class issues, it will surely each of them to express themselves in community. Identity is the totality of be difficult for an emigrant to come a cultural way. one’s perception of self, or how we as back to his country of origin without individuals view ourselves as unique having succeeded in his search for This culture’s expression can be a from others. Bhugra notes that racial, self-validation. positive thing or not according to cultural and ethnic identities form the way people express themselves part of one’s identity, and identity will The desire to leave is very present in in a foreign and unknown country. change with development at a per- the linguistic system, which includes However, most of the time it is seen sonal as well as at a social level along sayings that glorify travel or simply as defiance by the natives of the host with migration and acculturation migrants or migration. For example, country and/or by the authorities and among the Haalpulhar of the Senega- also as a refusal from the emigrants to Senegal is a country that presents a lese river Valley, it’s is common to hear integrate the social background they rich cultural diversity. Whatever the ‘The Haalpulhar know where they found on site. So this will to preserve ethnicity of the individual may be were born but not where they will be the migrant’s social identity can defi- and whatever his or her social class, buried’ or ‘If you have a son, let him nitely be the factor that will make the he or she has been raised with a spirit go. One day he will come back either authorities of the host countries want of submission to his or her parents. with money or knowledge’. On the the migrant to go back home. For Senegalese people, whatever their other hand, we have the Wolof people On the other hand, the total integra- religion may be, parents have a great who often say ‘He who does not trav- tion of the migrant and the acknowl- role in their life and also in their fu- el will never know where it is best to edgement of the host country culture ture. A Senegalese man or woman has live’ and ‘Dignity makes people travel can be a factor of rejection by both been raised with the spirit to respect but courage make them come back’. his compatriots in the host country and to honor his or her parents, espe- It is known that individuals who mi- and the ones in the country of origin. cially his or her mother. The Senega- grate experience multiple stresses that Whether be it the case of the success- lese individual is one who has been can impact their mental well-being, ful emigrant or the one who failed, raised bearing in mind that his or her including the loss of cultural norms, the rejection from the society will re- mother has withstood a lot from his religious customs, and social support main the same, even if it may be more or her father (e.g. infidelity, nastiness systems, adjustment to a new culture important for the first one. of the step-family, etc.) because she and changes in identity and concept wanted him or her to have a great life of self. Indeed, migration involves Returns living with a united family. This refers the loss of the familiar, including In the case of West Africa, the charac- to the ‘Mougn’ (endurance) concept language (especially colloquial and teristics of the returning migrants and and, because of all the mother has suf- dialect), attitudes, values, social struc- their social reinsertion have not been fered for the child, the child in return tures and support networks. How- studied enough. Censuses conducted has to obey to her if he or she wants to ever, it is still evident that the same in different countries clarified to some have a great future. stresses can occur if the return in the extent the return flux and the mi- country of origin is not the choice of grants’ profiles. However, these cen- We also have to bear in mind that the the individual. If the individual loses suses are dressing some incomplete Senegalese society is composed of the culture of his country of origin be- tables because the individuals are of- 90% Muslims and 10% Catholics. This cause of an effective integration in the ten identified on the basis of their res- fact makes polygamy a reality for rich host country, it may lead to difficul- idence places a few years before the and poor people. Polygamy always ties regarding his or her reinsertion in census is done. The 2002 Senegalese leads to a competition between broth- the country of origin. census took their place of residence ers and sisters who do not have the five years before as a basis, so the in- same mother. The rivalry between Culture: a blocking factor to social dividuals who left and came back in them will be more or less important insertion both in the country of ori- a period of time less than these five and perceptible depending on their gin (acculturation) and in the host years are not considered as returning mothers’ relationship. country migrants. When individuals migrate they do Inversely , as in every normal society, not leave their beliefs or idioms of Theoretical Logic of the return ap- children are the pride of their parents distress behind, no matter what the proach – especially their mothers. The suc- circumstances of their migration are. The return and its more or less ratio- cess of her child is of the mother and Their beliefs influence their idioms nal nature are defined differently ac- father, but the child’s failure to suc- of distress, which influence how they cording to the different international ceed will be the mother’s alone. The express symptoms and their help- migration theories. For example, the invoked reasons will be her failure seeking behavior. This is showed by neo-classical economy theory and the to raise her child in the right way, in the diasporas from the different coun- one regarding work migration are

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stating different point of views about PUSH PULL migration and return of the migrant, Deterioration of the economic Development of the country of origin although the theoretical framework Economic Causes stability of the host country (Push-Pull, please see below) sorts and rise of salaries out a typology of the reasons for the Racism and difficulties related migrant to come back in his country. to the integration of the Homesickness, desire to have better The most ancient neo-classic ap- Social Causes migrant (Adjustment Problems, living standards (enterprise creation, proach, and also the most known, is Ammassari & Black) business, etc.) based on the existing gap between the salary of the host country and the one Will to return to home country to get married, raise children in the country Family Causes of the country of origin, as the gain in - of origin and to reinforce strong family the host country becomes much more ties important. According to this theory, Forced deportation, indirect the migrants become rational actors policies of the host countries New policies facilitating the return who decide to immigrate as a result of regarding the migrant’s return Political Causes (fiscal advantages, social assistance, (work restrictions, family a calculation of the costs and benefits social help) of their travel (Massey & Al, 1993). Mi- settlement, etc.) gration is also seen as a way to maxi- - mize profits for the whole lifetime of Moral reasons Chauvinism an individual. This theory makes the return be considered as a failure because the goal of profit maximizing Table 1: Classification of the causes for return according to economic, social and family reasons. had not been reached. The failure is linked to the time the emigrant stays abroad and to the expected profit of Cassarino insists on the fact that be- decisive determinants of the return’s the migration. However, if the differ- hind the diversity of migration expe- success. In this respect, Assisted Vol- ences between the salaries are elimi- riences, an essential element must be untary Return and Reintegration poli- nated, then the return won’t be con- taken into account: the organization of cies, such as those implemented by sidered as a failure anymore. the return. This requires a lot of time IOM, can play a crucial role. 1 and is determined by personal or con- More recently, the theory of the new textual circumstances in the country The first returns economy of labor migration ques- of origin or in the host country. None- In Senegal there’s almost no database tions the conclusions of the neo-clas- theless, what we have to focus on is regarding the return migration statis- sic approach (Stark & Bloom, 1985). the capacity of the emigrant to gather tics, and the existing databases give This theory enlightens the fact that tangible and intangible resources to limited information about the subject. a household, not a sole individual, ensure safe and good conditions of Among the Senegalese migrants who makes decisions about migration. return. So are justified the Free Will lived abroad for one year, 46% came Migration becomes not only a way and the Readiness concepts. back to Senegal whereas 54% never to maximize profits but also to mini- The Free Will concept tends to let the did. Concerning the countries where mize the risks of living in a restric- migrant have the choice to decide to tive economical context, diversifying return in the appropriate moment of the resources of the household. Based the migration process. What is impor- 1 Assisted Voluntary Return is an in- on this theory, the return becomes a tant to note here, is that the choice to dispensable part of a comprehensive approach to migration management aiming at orderly logical result of the migration project, return to his or her home country is and humane return and reintegration of mi- allowing emigrants to spare and to not dictated by others or due to any grants, who are unable or unwilling to remain improve their competencies, having circumstances. With this concept, the in host countries, and wish to return volun- much more experience. Migration is return is prepared and so is the mi- tarily to their countries of origin. The AVRR Program promotes international dialogue and also considered as a success since the grant with all the financial resources cooperation on migration management issues emigrant reached his goals (Cassa- and/or support he or she needs. among host countries and countries of origin. rino, 2004). King, in 2000, developed a. Effects of the AVRR from an Eco- a simplified theoretical framework The Readiness concept reflects the nomic Point of View. This part of the return eases the social reinsertion both for the migrant called ‘Push Pull’. The ‘pull’ types are idea according to which the migrant and the state of Senegal, as far as he or she has the ones inciting the migrant to come has acquired all the tangible and in- enough income to develop activities or projects back in his home country because of a tangible resources he or she needs so that will definitely raise the economy of the specific positive motivation, whereas that the whole process of his or her country. In fact, the migrant who decides to come back freely for a positive reason will then the ‘push’ factors are at the origin of return can be done well. These re- have no desire to leave his country for good. a migrant’s decision to move from the sources will constitute the financial b. Effects of the AVRR from a Social host country. The return’s causes are (e.g. savings and human education, Point of View. Acceptation of the returning mi- classified according to economic, so- experience and knowledge) capital of grant by his or her family and his or her social environment will lead to: Improved migrant’s cial and family reasons (Table 1). the migrants. Time and living condi- self – esteem; Respect from his or her relatives; tions in host countries will surely be flourishing personality thanks to the positive experience.

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PUSH PULL Religion: Obviously, religion is a strong cultural factor. With the raise of Islamic terrorism, Will to get back to the religious background / Senegalese migrants will have more and more difficulties to practice their religion. They’re coming favorable welcoming of the relatives because the from a 90% Muslim society and have to integrate into a 90% Catholic society (difficult to find a job migrant kept his cultural identity. or to be accepted). Will to have better living conditions in accordance (religion won’t be a cause of rejection anymore) Language and dialect; language is also a marker of cultural difference. A different dialect raises linguistic questions, and also the probability that other cultural factors will be different. Ethnicity : Fact of belonging to a group having the same ideas, the same origins, the same story Feeling of belonging towards the home country and culture and the same experiences and values and pride to be Senegalese will make the migrant Ethnicity = Vital attachment (GEERTZ) invest in Senegal. His return will be done in a = Situational ethnicity (anthropology) voluntary way. = Rational behavior (sociology) Explicit or implicit cultural behavior may lead to the marginalization of the migrant.

Racism: Economic and social changes make the migrants culturally different from the natives; idea of being responsible for the crisis in European countries.

Cultural Identity and Community Homesickness and desire to live with the Culture has become a main element in the debate concerning ethnic minorities because it plays an community (affiliation to a socio – cultural important role in their identity. The Dynamic nature of culture is based on its capacity to link the group). story and the tradition of a group of individuals to the situation they live in the migration process. This situation may lead to a visible decline as result of a kind of discriminatory and exploiting modernization which make the migrants lose their identity

State, nation, citizenship Will of the migrant to go back in the home With globalization and the opening of frontiers, nation – states have to face new issues such as the country to act for the development of the one to define who the citizens of their countries are. In fact, globalization and general mobility due country and helping it benefit from the to migration make the national identity of the individuals disappear in favor of multiple identities. experience he or she gained abroad (higher As citizenship becomes more and more universal, some notions such as ‘ nearly citizen’ and ‘ human capital for the country = innovation). transnational citizenship ‘ appear. Being a ‘transnational ‘ citizen will also ease the return.

Table 2: Cultural Push Pull Factors Influencing Return (Castles & Miller) the returnees lived (figure 1), we can be treated as partners and investors Maghreb notice that a quarter of the emigrants but not as a mere resource. Because of Other West 7% African Central Countries come back from France (the favorite the importance of migrants’ return in Africa 13% destination country of the Senegalese their country of origin, African gov- 9% migrants in 2008). Returning migra- ernments have to think about how to tion from a European country other open the frontiers and make all Afri- than France only represents 9% of the can natives circulate freely, whether Bordering Countries 26% sample. The survival curve represents they are from the west, the east, the France the proportion of the migrants who south or the north. This will also help 26% still lived abroad in 2008, taking into European and American countries account the years passed since they balance migration’s effects and im- left Senegal. The abscissa origin (an- prove the promotion of the migrants’ Asia née 0) represents the year the migrant return, with less risks of rejection in America 4% 6% Other European left Senegal. In 2008 100% of the mi- the host country. Countries 9% grants lived effectively abroad. Figure 1: Percentage of returning migrants accord- Although we can notice that more ing to the destination countries. MAFE Households and more migrants come back to Sen- Survey - Senegal 2008 egal as time goes out.

Returning Migrants Survival Curve Conclusion 100% Migrants’ contribution to the devel- Figure 2: The opment of their countries of origin is Returning Mi- not only monetary. Migrants’ contri- 75% grants Survival bution also includes knowledge and Curve – MAFE skills transfer. Through the concept of Survey Senegal ‘brain circulation’, qualified migrants 50% 2008 can be encouraged to return to their countries of origin on a voluntary ba- 25% sis, temporarily, permanently or vir- tually, to transfer knowledge, skills and competencies. Emigrants must 0% Years 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

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Street Vendors

Senegal, 5 December 2013, Photo | Göran Höglund (Kartläsarn)

46 RETURNS AND REINTEGRATIONS IN THE SENEGALESE LABOUR MARKET Data from the MAFE project - Migrations between Africa and Europe - shows that returns to Senegal have declined more and more since the mid-1970s. Yet, the majority of migrants continue to make frequent short stays in their homeland, as a cyclical movement. Those who do manage to reintegrate permanently can count on a sufficient human and economic capital that often enables them to set up as independent workers in the trade and service sector.

by Pape Sakho

Maître-assistant de géographie Institut de Population et Développement (IPDSR) Université Cheikh Anta Diop Dakar, SENEGAL

Introduction

The problematic nature of the return possible return in individual migrato- vey between Africa and Europe, that of southern country migrants is in the ry projects (Ebin 1993; De Vreyer and the Migrations between Africa and forefront of the news; it is about the al. 2008; Daum 1998; Robin and al. Europe (MAFE) project completed in relationships between Europe and 2000). Others suggest a certain myth 2007-2008, addresses this need11. This Africa. This is in parallel to the mana- of a continuously postponed return gement policies of the migratory flux which thus justifies the transnationa- 1 through border entry controls put in lism theory (Bruzzone and al. 2006; 1 The MAFE project is coordinated by INED (C. Beauchemin) and is formed, ad- place by European countries. It feeds Tall 2007; Sinatti 2009). In Senegal, ditionally by the Université catholique de Lou- political speeches and underlies the little quantitative data is available and vain (B. Schoumaker), Maastricht University (V. international debate raised both by is very patchy (results of 2002 census), Mazzucato), the Université Cheikh Anta Diop the western and southern media. with only REMUAO surveys in 1993, (P. Sakho), the Université de Kinshasa (J. Man- galu), the University of Ghana (P. Quartey), DEMIS in 1997-1998 and « 1-2-3 » sur- the Universitat Pompeu Fabra (P. Baizan), the Some studies support the idea of a vey in 2001-2002. The migration sur- Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (A. González-Ferrer), the Forum Internazio-

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was the last major survey carried out FIGURE 1: Proportion of migrants returning to their home country during the first decade in the region of Dakar. Data was col- of their departure from Senegal (Kaplan MEIER Estimates) considering their destination and lected over a long period (1975-2008) period (1975-2007) and used to trace the migration trajectories and identify major trends, characteristics and determinants of current Senegalese migration.

The purpose of this contribution is to provide an analysis of some trends of the returns derived from the results of this survey and some elements of public policies set up both in Senegal and in Europe. It is based on unpu- blished working papers of a team of analysts who investigated the nature of the phenomenon and its (Sakho P., et al. on 2013) economic effects (Eleo- nora C., et al. on 2013).

Some tendencies from the MAFE Source Household surveys, MAFE 2008 Population: The sample includes the migrants (Households’ chiefs, their spouses and children data having left Senegal at the age of 18 or more). It also includes the migrants who left before 1975. The analysis presents the data taken from household and biographic surveys on the characteristics of the among Senegalese returnees from return movements of Senegalese mi- non European countries (cf fig 1). grants between Senegal and three Eu- ropean countries (France, Spain and The intentions of stay duration before Frequency of stays in their country Italy), and their reintegration into the a possible return On one hand, 1 migrant out of 6 (14- Senegalese labour market. From the mid-1970s to 2008, approxi- 15%), whatever the place where they mately a quarter (24.5%) of the mi- have resided (including before 1975) • The characteristics of the retur- grants who left for France, Italy or has made a long stay (for at least a ning movements Spain intended to return in the first year) before their last departure for decade following their first arrival in migration. On the other hand, since Returns declining since the mid- Europe. Nevertheless, their propor- the mid-1970s, the trend is declining 1970’s tion has progressively declined in half (from 16.5% to 11%). It is true that du- The proportion of migrants coming to stabilise at around 20% during the ring the 2000 years, the proportion of back to Senegal from all destinations last decade of the 20th century. stays from Europe is 10% (Cf. Table during the first decade after their de- 1). The overall decline in returns over parture has declined by half. It has gone from 75% in the mid-1970s to FIGURE 2: Proportion of the migrants intending to stay less than 10 years after their first arrival around 40% during the first half of in France, Italy or Spain considering the period of their first arrival (1975-2007) the 2000 years. However, this decline is more visible in the migrants returning from Europe within the ten years after their first departure. Their proportion has declined from 54% in the mid-1970s to 20% in the first decade of the 2000 years, that is to say 1 migrant out of 5. A trend that is not confirmed nale ed Europeo di Ricerche sull’Immigrazione (E. Castagnone), and the University of Sussex (R. Black). The MAFE project received funding from the European Community’s Seventh Framework Programme under grant agreement 217206. The MAFE-Senegal survey was conducted with the financial support of INED, the Agence Nationale de la Recherche (France), Source: biographic survey, MAFE, 2008 the Région Ile de France and the FSP pro- Population: the sample includes the first long stay in a destination country of all the migrants gramme ‘International Migrations, territorial living in a MAFE country or back to Senegal aged 18 or more or after 1975. reorganizations and development of the coun- Interpretation : the individuals intending to stay definitely are included in the category « more tries of the South’. For more details, see: http:// than 10 years » www.mafeproject.com/

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a year might suggest that the Sene- Among the migrants living in a Eu- one stay in their homeland (65.8%), galese migrant returns less; in other ropean country during the investi- mainly for visits lasting less than a words, more and more such migrants gation, since the middle of 1975, ap- year (Cf. Table 1). tend to stay, especially in Europe. proximately 2/3 have made at least During the last five years, more than half of them have made at least one visit to their country. The global ten- TABLE 1: Proportion of individuals living outside Senegal, having migrated at least once and made a return that lasted at least a year before their last departure dency is that the biggest proportion makes short stays in their country (Cf. Place of present day Last departure period N Table 2). residence 1975-1990 1990-1999 2000- 1975-2007 Between 1975 and 2007, more than 2007 half (53.5%) of migrants living in the Europe 16.1 17.7 10.0 14.4 586 time of the survey, in whichever of the three European countries made Africa (except Senegal) 32.2 10.0 13.9 15.4 118 at least one return to Senegal in the others 6.2 12.8 15.6 14.0 103 first 5 years of their arrival. Overall, All 16.5 16.1 11.0 13.4 807 after a peak observed during the Source: household surveys, MAFE, 2008 1990s, all returns have declined over Population: the sample includes the migrants (household chiefs, their spouses and children) the 2000s. However, from one country who left at the age of 18 now living abroad. It also includes those who left before 1975. to another there are some remarkable differences. In France, a traditional destination country, as well as in Spain, a new destination one, returns TABLE 2: Proportion of individuals living in France, Italy and Spain at least have done a long concerned 1 out of 2 migrant in the back (one year) or visit (return of less than one Year) Kaplan Meier Estimates) by country of 2000s. Conversely in Italy, the decline residence … is not only regular, but it is also the A) … since their first arrival in Europe strongest: only one third of migrants Place of present day % return is returning. (cf. Table 3). N residence Long Visit short or long Table 3 France 7.9 73.2 74.0 186 All in all, if the returns from Europe Italy 6.3 61.3 62.7 203 have declined more and more since Spain 2.9 51.9 52.6 199 the mid-1970s, it remains constant France, Italy,Spain 6.1 63.8 65.8 588 that the majority of migrants keep making frequent short stays in their B) … during the five years after their first arrival homeland. The fact that in the three France 2.5 51.1 52.1 186 surveyed countries, more or less 1 Italy 3.8 48.5 51.4 203 migrant out of 2 (51.9%) came back Spain 2.4 59.7 61.2 199 to Senegal for a visit strengthens the France, Italy, Spain 2.9 51.9 53.5 588 idea of a cyclical Senegalese migrants’ movement. Source: biographic survey, MAFE, 2008. Population: the sample includes the migrants who left Senegal at the age of 18 or after 1975, still living in France, Italy or Spain. • The reintegration into the labour market A priori, the migrants who return are TABLE 3 : Proportion of individuals living in France, Italy or Spain having at least made expected to be back with a capital a long or short return in the 5 years following their first arrival(Kaplan Meier estimates) gain, whether it is in terms of human considering the period and the residence rythm. or economic resources. They are also Place of present day residence % returns (long or short) expected to live in better conditions 1975-1990 1990-1999 2000-2007 1975-2007 compared with those who were not France 47.3 58.8 51.1 52.1 migrants. The returnees’ weak occupational status are as numerous the 56 57 73 186 first year of return as at the moment Italy 59.0 52.7 33.2 51.4 of migration departure (39% versus 33 77 93 203 34.5%). The tendency is that they re- Spain (82.7) 68.8 51.0 61.2 main active in the same occupations 19 74 106 199 (43.7%) (Cf. Figure 3). France, Italy,Spain 53.3 58.8 48.2 53.5 108 208 272 588 Comparatively to non-migrants, returnees are proportionally less present in the activities of weak level pro-

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FIGURE 3 : Occupational status of returnees from Europe at four points in time in their and confirmed by the type of job he/ migratory life and of non migrants at 2008 (%). she is doing once back.

100% 3,7 10,1 Discussion 17,4 23,3 Making a link between the different 33,1 Student 80% 16,3 28,9 data of the history of migration, it ap- 13,1 pears that returns have lessened be- 3,3 Inactive 1,8 15,4 cause of the strengthening of border 3,8 5,3 9,3 60% Unemployed controls and the hardening of entry 26,6 10,2 4 and stay conditions (Tall & Tandian 22,3 Intermediate-High 19,1 2010, Beauchemin & Lessault 2009). 40% Elementary 64 The MAFE results confirms the idea 51,9 according to which Senegalese com- 43,7 20% 39 34,5 munities’ have developed a new return attitude (Wolof in Italy), (Tou-

0% 0 couleur and Soninke from the river Last year in Last year in First year in At survey NON Senegal valley in France), as deve- Africa before Europe Senegal after time in MIGRANTS loped in some recent socio-anthropo- departure before return Senegal (2008) return (2008) logic studies (Sinatti 2009; Sarr 2010; Daum 1998; Fall and al. 2007). Returns Source: MAFE-Senegal biographic survey in Senegal, France, Italy and Spain would be continuously postponed be- Population: Current migrants in France, Italy and Spain (Cfr. Table 1); weighted data cause the living conditions in the Eu- Interpretation: Distribution of returnees by occupational status at four points in time and of non ropean countries are more and more migrants. difficult to allow the achievement of an economic success that is a condi- FIGURE 4. Employment sector (working population) of returnees from Europe at four points tion of a socially successful return in time in their migratory life and of non migrants at 2008 (%) that matches the familial obligations. According to those authors, the mi- 100% 4,9 grant, in order to sustain the deep 13,7 25 34,5 31,7 link with their origins, has developed 80% new relationships in his/her country through investments and circulation. 60% 70,5 26,8 Other Comparative to non-migrants inter- 49,8 60,3 40% 49,1 Trade and services viewed at the same moment, (51.9%), Industry and construction returnees tend to consider migrations

20% 27,7 Agriculture as an added value, in terms of availa- 8,8 24,6 bility of a financial and social capital 18,6 14,4 7,6 obtained thanks to their migratory 0% 0,3 0 1,8 Last year in Last year in First year in At survey NON experience. At the same time, the Africa Europe Senegal time in MIGRANTS already high percentage of returnees before before after return Senegal (2008) in the trade and services sector be- departure return (2008) fore migrating (49.1%) from Senegal, and during their migration in Europe Source: MAFE-Senegal biographic survey in Senegal, France, Italy and Spain could motivate traders to set up in Se- Population: Current migrants in France, Italy and Spain (cfr. Table 1); weighted data negal again. Interpretation: Distribution of returnees by employment sector at four points in time and of non migrants. We should also notice the heavy influence of the agricultural sector whose weakness would be linked to fessional qualifications (43.7% versus ties and services before they left Sene- the place of investigation - its sample 51.9%) but twice more present in gal; at the moment of this survey they was drawn from the region of Dakar, those of higher professional qualifica- represent 60.3%. (Cf. Figure 4). a region that is 98% urbanized. Consi- tions (20.6% versus 10.2%), suffer less dering the importance of the peri-ur- from joblessness (3,3% versus 5.3%) When they leave for Europe 59.4% ban and urban agricultural sub-sector and less inactivity (16.3% versus 28.9 are contractual workers, while when in our national economy and the op- %) than the non-migrants. they come back 62% are independent portunities this presents, the percen- workers. This would be the result of tage of returnees is nevertheless weak Considering the results, 1/3 of the re- the financial capital gathered by the there (0.3%). turnees were working in trade activi- migrant during his/her reintegration

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Conclusion The battle for the setting up of more Fall P. D., Tall S. Mansour, Virginia These few results show two major adequate policies is to know how the Tiziana Bruzzone & Cheikh Gueye recent trends regarding returns of Se- migratory logics, which is expected to (2007) Capital social et potential d’in- negalese migrants. On the one hand, drive the migrant at the beginning of vestissement dans les territoires d’ori- if the Senegalese migrants return less his/her migratory project or as viewed gine des Sénégalais d’Italie in Ceschi for longer stays they tend increasingly by his/her native community, can also S. et Stocchiero A. (eds), Relations to multiply short visits. On the other be a benefit for the country’s develop- transnationales et co-développement, Pa- hand, returned migrants seem much ment. ris, L’Harmattan, pp 123-166. more to ensure their reintegration by investing financial capital mobilized What are the returnee’s main aspira- Flahaux M-L., Mezger C. et Sakho P. mainly in the service sector and trade, tions? What attractive answers should (2011), “Migration circulaire au Sé- their main activities before starting he/she be proposed? Afterwards, how négal: la migration de retour dans la migration. to match the returnee’s aspirations to Région de Dakar” in Notes d’analyse the national policies’ orientations in et de synthèse. Série Module démo- Far from the investigation myth of terms of migration and development? graphique et économique, Consor- Europe, the MAFE results show that (Flahaux, Mezger and Sakho 2011) tium Euro-méditerranéen pour la in weak proportions, certainly accen- Recherche Appliquée sur les Migra- tuated by the setting up of institutions Internationales (CARIM), Eu- tional constraints and the economic References ropean University Institute, Robert crisis in the European countries, the Beauchemin C., et Lessault D., « Ni Schuman Centre for Advanced Stu- Senegalese migrants tend to return to invasion, ni exode », Revue européenne dies, Florence, 2011. cadmus.eui.eu/ their homelands. In the MAFE results des migrations internationales, vol. 25 - bitstream/handle/1814/.../CARIM_ we can notice some changes in the mi- n°1 | 2009, [En ligne], mis en ligne le ASN_2011_62.pdf. grants’ behaviour that privileges their 01 juin 2012. URL : http://remi.revues. movement as envisaged in the trans- org/index4889.html. Consulté le 17 Robin N., Lalou R. (2000) Facteurs nationalism theory. Furthermore, it avril 2010. d’attraction et de répulsion à l’origine appears clearly that their integration des flux migratoires internationaux : takes place in the preferred tradi- Beauchemin C., Kabbanji L., Sakho rapport national Sénégal. Bruxelles tional sectors of Senegalese people P. & Schoumaker B. (eds) (2013), Mi- (BEL) ; Dakar : Eurostat ; IRD, 148 p. (trade and services). grations africaines : le co-développement En Libre Accès sur HAL http://hal.ird. en questions. Essai de démographie poli- fr/ird-00502007/en/. If migration constitutes an added va- tique. Armand Colin/INED, Paris. lue, it is to be found in the accumu- Sakho P. (2012), renouvellement lated financial capital. What to say Castagnone E., Nazio T., Rakotona- des migrations sénégalaises vers la about the initiated public policies? rivo N., Sakho P., (2013), Understan- France, l’Italie et l’Espagne, Docu- ding Afro-European labour trajec- ment de travail n°5 MAFE-UE, inédit. For a few years, circular migration tories: integration of migrants in the policy is following the migratory European labour market and re-inte- Sarr F. et al. (2010), Migration, trans- movement. Since 2006, Senegal has gration in origin countries. The case ferts et développement local sensible concluded some partnerships with of Senegal, MAFE WORKING PAPER au genre. Le cas du Sénégal, UN INS- France, Italy and Spain within the WP7 MAFE-UE, inedit. TRAW, UNDP, Dakar, 60 p. framework of concerted management actions through legal migration so as Daum C. (1998), Les Associations de Sinatti G. (2009) ‘Mobile Transmi- to launch some mechanisms related Maliens en France. Migrations, dévelop- grants’ or ‘Unsettled Returnees’? to the movement and the return of pement et citoyenneté. Paris, Kartha- Myth of Return and Permanent Re- migrants, such as the circular migra- la, 1998. settlement among Senegalese Mi- tion programs of short stays. These grants, Population Space and Place, agreements more often than not, not De Vreyer P., Sylvie L. and Abla S. 17(1), 2011: 153-166. only prevent a proper development (2008): ‘Remittances and Poverty: of the migratory project but also do Who Benefits in the Household’, mi- Tall S. M. et Tandian A. (2010), La not allow for the accumulation of meo. migration des personnes hautement consistent financial resources. This qualifiées depuis et vers le Sénégal : could possibly explain their mitiga- Ebin V. (1993), Les commerçants mou- historicité, actualité et perspectives, ted results. Moreover, their manage- rides à Marseille et à New York. Re- Carim SA 2010/22, Robert Schuman ment comes up with both a problem gards sur les stratégies d’implantation Centre for Advanced Studies, San of sovereignty, as the terms of refe- » ( :101-123), in Grégoire E. et Labazée Dominici Di Fiesole, Institut Univer- rence are elaborated by the destina- P. (éds.), Grands commerçants d’Afrique sitaire Européen. tion countries, and governance, as it de l’Ouest. Logiques et pratiques d’un is granted to the department of youth groupe d’hommes d’affaires contempo- to the detriment of the department of rains. Paris : Karthala-Orstom. labour, responsible for the expertise.

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Soumbedioune Boats

Dakar, Senegal, 30 January 2011, Photo | Jeff Attaway

52 THE POLICY FALLACY OF PROMOTING RETURN MIGRATION AMONG SENEGALESE TRANSNATIONALS

The thinking that informs return migration policy is based on the flawed assumption that returnees will never move again. Programmes destined to prevent Senegalese from circulating fail to grasp behavioural determinants and aspirations of international mobility. Indeed, Senegalese migrants are often reluctant to reunify with their family in France, Spain or Italy. Rather, they prefer to “maintain transnational lives”.

by Alpha Diedhiou

African Governance Specialist & Political Risk Consultant UNITED KINGDOM

Introduction

While some recent international promptly to the heightened concerns motion of return migration. It also initiatives to curb migration flows of their internal constituencies about shows that there are three orders of from sub-Saharan Africa to Europe mass immigration. As a reactionary return among Senegalese migrants: appear to hold some promise, espe- policy framework, it is unsurprising transitions, permanent return, and cir- cially in terms of their early achieve- that some of its instruments are not culation. Understanding the fluidity ments, bilateral migration policies based on sound analytical work and between these three orders of return have generally focused on security a deep understanding of the issues it can help cast light on the importance and the promotion of return migra- attempts to resolve. of mobility among young Senegalese tion. The latter policy choice, return migrants. The paper places the cur- migration, seems to be driven by the This paper sets out to test the policy rent thrust among host countries to need for European states to respond assumptions that underpin the pro- promote return migration policies

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within the context of growing north- Based on a closer examination of this of one’s labour at home. For many ern public pressures on various gov- moral philosophy, three forms of re- of these permanent returnees, the ernments to stem immigration flows. turn can be isolated: first order return achievement of permanent residen- or transitions; second order or perma- cy or even naturalisation allows for Orders of return among Senegalese nent return; and third order or circu- greater mobility. As such, they tend migrants lation. to split their time between the home Although a returning migrant can be country and destination places where defined as a person returning to their First order return or transitions oc- they have lived. In this sense, even country of birth after having lived cur when migrants take the decision some of these so-called permanent re- abroad (whether for a short or long to return home for short periods of turnees tend to keep mobile. The ones period) and who intends to remain in time, typically between six months who tend to lose their mobility are their home country for at least a year, and a year. These are often occasioned those who have lived in destination the policy intentions of return migra- by family bereavement, a need to countries in irregular conditions. Inci- tion1 championed by many European set up a small business in person, or dentally, the probability of returning states envision a longer stay at home. to prepare for further migration to a home tends to be lower among this If returning migrants do not remain at different destination. While bereave- group (MAFE Project Briefing 2013c), home for longer than the intended pe- ments are generally unprepared and although they are the main target of riod, the idea is that they must not re- the migrant often returns to the first return migration policies. turn to the previous destination. Get- destination, those who return to set ting migrants to leave the host country up a small business or to move on to Third order return or circulation and never to return is at the heart of another destination are generally well can involve first and second order most return migration policies. In the prepared. For the latter, moving to an- returnees. Circulation is not neces- most lenient scenarios migrants are other destination is often informed by sarily the preserve of those with the expected to return only under specific experiences and knowledge of job op- relevant documentation to undertake circumstances, such as the receipt of portunities, mostly changing labour international travel without major temporary work visas. However, the market dynamics, in the first and sec- restrictions. While second order re- return migration policies under con- ond destination. Forced/constrained turnees have the financial resources sideration here are those that go as far return such as repatriation can also and social capital to circulate more as to support home country retention push migrants to consider retention freely, previously undocumented programmes, also presented in terms programmes as a transition, but rare- first order returnees do find a way to of long-term development support. ly as a long-term solution. circulate. This is illustrated with the The retention programmes that intend ever-changing migration routes be- to keep migrants in home countries Second order or permanent return af- tween Senegal and southern Europe. for longer periods than a year appear fects migrants of all ages, socio-eco- Even departure points have moved to misunderstand the fluidity of mi- nomic conditions in destination coun- from Saint Louis in the north of the gration processes in settings such as tries, and education levels. However, country to the central areas and to the Senegal. Research into return migra- as an OECD study shows, return rates southern province of Casamance. De- tion decisions among the Senegalese are higher among young migrants, spite the establishment of joint border migrant community has highlighted often in the form of transitions to fur- patrols between Senegal and some a specific moral philosophy that em- ther migration, and retirees (OECD southern European states, migrants phasises the economic and social ben- 2008). The study also found that the do still find a way of reaching Euro- efits of return (Diedhiou 2011). I shall return rate is higher at the two ends pean shores. At the time of writing, return to this pattern of thought about of the education spectrum. Yet in the about 200 undocumented migrants migration among young Senegalese. case of Senegal, systematic observa- from sub-Saharan Africa were re- tion shows that permanent return ported to have reached the Spanish mostly affects retirees, the highly mainland from Morocco on 28 Febru- 1 The return migration policies referred skilled/educated, and migrants aged ary 2014, emphasising the resilience to in this paper pertain to a range of policy ini- 40 or plus. Typically, highly educated/ of migratory flows to Europe despite encourage voluntary return or repatriation. They skilled migrants often return home to restrictive measures (Belga News aretiatives generally introduced couched by variousin a language European that states empha to- find work, retirees generally go back Agency 2014). The introduction of to manage previous investments, and limited work visas for Senegalese mi- origin. In the countries of origin, these initiatives havesises sought mutual to benefits foster local for hostand national and countries develop of- middle-aged migrants who have lived grants by countries such as Spain in ment based on the assumption that underdevel- abroad for long periods and who have 2007 reflects some form of unofficial opment is the principal driver of migration from saved and invested in some form of acknowledgement that circulation is Pay to Go policy business also consider return. In all almost inevitable, and that the only initiative in France and the Alien and Migration poorPolicy countries in Spain to are Europe. two examples The of wider ap- three cases, the decision to return is viable way of managing immigration proaches with two main components: a) restric- often pressed by family considera- is to attempt to get a grip on numbers. tive and control-oriented measures that use ex- tions (Tiemoko 2003), alongside the traterritorial migration control instruments such afore-mentioned philosophy among Problems with issue definition as maritime patrols in high seas and b) preven- tive measures that seek to address what is as- many Senegalese migrants, that it is Policy is always devised for a pur- sumed to be the root causes of permanent migra- most cost-effective to enjoy the fruits pose and it is always driven by some tion, namely underdevelopment.

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underlying political motive. In the of the problematisation of refugees cision to migrate to find work in Eu- case of return migration policy, the in the 1980s, a process that led to the ropean countries it is rarely with the purpose is to stem the flows of im- proliferation of similar containment view to remaining indefinitely away migration that have intensified in the policies which are at the root of con- from their families (Sinatti 2009). last decade or so. The problematic, temporary dilemmas about internally however, is that migration is defined displaced persons. It is true that the most recent flows of by the exponents of return migration emigration among young Senegalese in terms of the perceived social and In essence, return migration policies mostly concern undocumented mi- security problems it entails in Eu- attempt to address the issue ofin- grants. This is in line with the find- rope. Immigration has become a seri- tensified migration whilst failing to ings of research carried out by the Mi- ous political issue in the wake of not capture the quintessence of the phe- grations between Africa and Europe only overstretched social services, but nomenon. Assuming that migrants Project (MAFE). The findings show also of increasing threats from what who return home will remain there that the new wave of African migrants is commonly referred to as ‘home- and never move again is to misun- is “more likely to be less educated grown radical Islamism’. In this re- derstand the capacity of humans to and undocumented” (MAFE Project gard, the promotion of return mi- circulate, especially when mobility Briefing 2013b: 2). The lack ofad- gration becomes a central element in is central to people’s trading aspira- equate financial resources and strong immigration control policies, which tions and integration into global proc- social networks in destination coun- are also regarded in some quarters esses. People are always on the move tries mean that they have to resort to as pivotal in attempts to curtail inter- for various reasons and the purity of a form of travel which was rarely seen nal terrorism. In countries that have place of provenance and belonging until now. This is illustrated by im- experienced terror attacks on home is left to the romantic imaginings of ages of young Africans in makeshift soil, such as the United Kingdom2, people nostalgic of an era long gone boats attempting to cross seas to reach immigration control has become a by. Beauchemin et al. (2013) provide southern European shores. Surpris- counter-terrorism instrument because a good insight into processes of mi- ingly enough, many of the young Sen- most of the perpetrators of the 7th July gration among the Senegalese trans- egalese who take such risks to enter 2005 London bombings belong to im- nationals, noting that the Senegalese Europe do not leave home with the migrant communities. To some ex- migrants are reluctant to reunify with intention to never return. In general, tent, the promotion of return migra- their family in France, Spain or Italy. this is done with the view to finding tion policy has therefore to be placed They prefer to ”maintain transnation- work, saving as much money as pos- within the premise of such overarch- al lives, made of comings and goings, sible, and setting up small businesses ing security concerns. and based on a multi-sited distribu- they can live on, once back home. This tion of family members” (Beauchemin is captured by Gonzalez-Ferrer et al. By associating immigration with et al. 2013: 3). (2013). growing international insecurity, the policy narratives that are built around The untested policy assumptions The short- to medium-term perspec- return migration turn the issue into a Responding to high immigration tive adopted by these youths is rooted need to avert potential national secu- flows at a time of socio-economic in a form of realism they are seldom rity crises. In other words, return mi- malaise and increasing public pres- credited for. While return migration gration is perceived as a due response sure in Europe seems common sense. policies often assume that Senegalese to a national crisis of insecurity. The However, elaborating the right poli- (or for that matter, African) migrants crisis narratives pertaining to security cies – ones which substantially ad- seek to remain in destination coun- issues, namely the threat from home- dress some of the root causes of mass tries forever or for very long periods, grown terrorism and overloaded so- immigration – was always going to be the new wave of migrants are well cial services, may be justified to some a challenge for host country govern- aware of the international political extent but they tend to construct a ments. In terms of policy formulation, and economic conjunctures. They are reductionist view of migration. In- problem/issue definition constitutes also pragmatic about the constraints ternally-initiated acts of terrorism a first step towards mapping out ap- placed on the timeframe of their stay cannot just be reduced to the pres- propriate responses. In this area, mass in destination countries by institu- ence of a large immigrant commu- migration from countries of sub-Saha- tional responses to immigration. An- nity, and promoting return migration ran Africa to Europe is systematically other research work by MAFE but- will not address the security threats attributed to extreme poverty and/ tresses this argument. It points out from internal terrorism. Fusing mass or political violence. While these two that this wave of migrants is likely to immigration with national and in- factors play an important role in mi- spend short- to medium-term periods ternational insecurity is reminiscent gration decisions among sub-Saharan during which they generate “suffi- African youths (Gonzelez-Ferrer et cient money to use productively back 2 - al. 2013), in countries such as Senegal home, without establishing the kinds tions are not in order here, associating mass im- international migration is not neces- of ties that in some cases discour- migration with Even national though insecurity sweeping is increasingly generalisa sarily a response to extreme poverty. age return” (MAFE Project Briefing becoming common among some mainstream po- Even when youths from the poorest 2013c: 7). The aforementioned study previously regarded as the preserve of far-right segments of society have taken the de- by MAFE also supports the argument groups.litical parties across Europe, a practice that was

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about timeframes. It even argues that ever, the Spanish government con- systematic ex ante programme ap- “policies to promote return migra- tinued to support the programme praisal. tion could take into account the time with aid pledges of at least €20m in period – 3-to-10 years – within which 2006, which has more than doubled to Equally problematic and erroneous is return is more likely to occur” (MAFE €50m in 2013. the assumption that there are incen- Project Briefing 2013c: 6). tive structures which could be put in The REVA programme faced many place to retain young Senegalese at This short- to medium-term vision challenges from inception. Firstly, a home once they have been repatri- of emigration among undocumented programme of agriculture develop- ated, or simply encouraged to return Senegalese migrants of the last gen- ment that is destined for young peo- home voluntarily. Such thinking mis- eration does not seem to be in line ple cannot succeed when the wider understands and completely fails to with responses developed by a few agricultural sector is confronted with capture the conceptual complexity European governments to address difficulties pertaining to persistent and dynamism of migration among immigration flows. Since the surge drought and flooding. Between 2006 Senegalese. Conversations with Sen- of this form of irregular migration and 2011, the primary sector only con- egalese migrants over the past decade from sub-Saharan Africa to Europe, a tributed to 13.8% of GDP, compared or so (Diedhiou 2011) have helped number of European countries have to 20.7% for the secondary sector and cast light on an important element of promoted return migration policies in 46.4% for the tertiary sector (IMF their underlying migration philoso- conjunction with governments of mi- 2013). Secondly, Senegal has failed to phy. As mentioned earlier, the moral grant-sending countries. Congruent diversify its agricultural exports over philosophy that underpins migration with the thinking that mass migration the years, with groundnut products among many Senegalese youths holds from Africa to Europe is underpinned remaining the main agricultural ex- that the fruits of their labour during by poor life conditions, inexistent job port earners. In addition, available migration are best enjoyed at home opportunities for young people, and a resources were too insufficient to sup- and are used to help lay solid foun- desire among migrants to stay indefi- port any form of industrial transfor- dations for future departures. In this nitely or for very long periods, return mation of groundnuts, into biodie- respect, migration among Senegalese migration policies have sought to ad- sel for instance. Although the REVA youths is not only driven by a search dress such drivers by creating condi- programme has evolved to become for better income. It is also a process tions of retention in the home country. an instrument for promoting agricul- that helps construct strong social and For the exponents of return migra- tural diversification, it continues to be professional networks capable of re- tion, encouraging and supporting too under-resourced to substantially sponding to their entrepreneurial as- governments of migrant-sending address the root causes of youth un- pirations. As such, migration in the countries to create employment op- employment. The focus on employ- Senegalese context has to be situated portunities is enough to stem the flow ment generation and the promotion within a geography of globalisation of migrants to Europe. In the case of of national development through ag- where the world is regarded as a Senegal, much emphasis was placed riculture are based on the assumption space where people are able to circu- on a programme to encourage young that underdevelopment is the main late and trade (Diouf 2000). people to return to agriculture instead driver of migration among Senega- of migrating. The return to agriculture lese youths. However, MAFE research Concluding remarks (REVA: French acronym) programme shows that “more development does Return migration policy is built on has been chosen here because it epito- not translate into less migration to Eu- flawed assumptions that reduce mi- mises the type of programmes, cham- rope” (MAFE Porject Briefing 2013b: gration to an effort to escape poverty pioned by both host and countries of 4). and/or war. It dismisses the multiple origin, which are focused on address- other reasons that inform the deci- ing underdevelopment as a key driv- This way of devising policy based on sions to migrate. It also underplays er of migration from Africa to Europe. false assumptions is reminiscent of the importance of mobility by reifying the earlier narrow conceptualisations concepts of home and abroad. In so It was based on the assumption that it of underdevelopment as the absence doing, migrants are encouraged to re- is rural youths who make up the bulk of economic growth, and poverty as turn home with the creation of what is of undocumented migrants. It was a lack of adequate income. Also, by regarded as conditions for retention. also premised on a thrust by the gov- providing aid to support the reten- Yet, mobility continues to character- ernment that left power in April 2012 tion and employment programmes of ise international migration flows, es- to promote agriculture as a develop- a migrant-sending government, the pecially among Senegalese. Circulat- mental pillar in the country. Despite Spanish authorities have merely rein- ing to gain knowledge and develop attempts by the incumbent govern- forced much criticised aid relations of strong social and business networks is ment to repackage the initiative, the the past - a practice that has seen most at the centre of how many Senegalese programme remains unattractive to aid resources wasted in unviable pro- migrants think of their place and role young people, by and large. REVA grammes or projects. This is gener- in contemporary global processes. was rejected outright by youths who ally due to the lack of understanding Programmes destined to keep young had been repatriated from Spain be- of programme context, which could Senegalese from circulating may tween 2006 and 2007 (Ba 2007). How- have been resolved with research and therefore be addressing issues other

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than some of the underlying motives Diedhiou, A (2011) ‘Remittances, opment in Senegal, viewpoints and for migration. High youth unemploy- Transnational Dahiras, and Govern- policy initiatives’, Migration and ment does play a role in decisions to ance in Senegal’, International Migra- Development Working Papers Series migrate, but leaving the home coun- tion [online version], June, Interna- N.8, the Netherlands: Radboud Uni- try or returning indefinitely tran- tional Organisation for Migration versity and the Institute of Develop- scends the need to gain employment (IOM) ment Studies (IDS) and generate revenue. Like many entrepreneurs, young Senegalese who Diouf, M. (2000) ‘The Senegalese Mu- OECD (2008) ‘Return Migration: A migrate do so with the view to devel- rid Trade Diaspora and the Making of New Perspective’, Paris: Organisation oping the social and financial capital a Vernacular Cosmopolitanism’, Pub- for Economic Cooperation and Devel- necessary to sustain and grow a busi- lic Culture 12(3): 679-702 opment ness. Gonzalez-Ferrer, A.; Kraus, E.; Baizan, Perkins, D.D.; Palmer N.A.; Garcia- Migration, for many Senegalese, rep- P.; Beauchemin, C.; Balack, R. ; Schou- Ramirez, M. (2011) ‘Psychosocial resents one dimension of a broader maker, B. (2013) ‘Factors of Migration Studies of Migration and Communi- entrepreneurial endeavour, the suc- between African and Europe: Assess- ty: Introduction to the Special Issue’, cess of which depends on the capac- ing the Role of Resources, Networks Psychosocial Intervention 20(3): 237-242 ity of the individual or family mem- and Context. A Comparative Ap- bers to move. As the orders of return proach’, MAFE Working Paper 22 Sinatti, G. (2009) ‘Home is Where the show, mobility is the means but also Heart Abides: Migration, Return and the end of the game. In this respect, Grillo R. and Riccio, B. (2003) ‘Trans- Housing in Dakar, Senegal’, Open the incentives imagined by the return local Development: Italy-Senegal’, House International 34(3): 49-56“ migration paradigm do not go any International Workshop on Migration way close to meeting the aspirations and Poverty in West Africa March 13- of many young Senegalese migrants. 14, University of Sussex This failure is fundamentally linked to the way return migration policy de- Hettige, S.T.; Ekanayake, E.S.; Jayasun- fines migration and its root causes. By dere, R.; Rathnayake, A.; Figurado, P. failing at the level of issue definition, (2012) ‘Understanding psychosocial generating in the process reduction- issues faced by migrant workers and ist crisis narratives, and flawed policy their families’, Background Paper. responses, return migration policy Colombo: the Ministry of Foreign shrinks the scope of policy interven- Employment Promotion and Welfare tions. of Sri Lanka and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC)

References IMF (2013c) ‘Senegal – Achieving Ba, C.O. (2007) ‘Barça or Barzakh: la High and Inclusive Growth While migration clandestine Sénégalaise Preserving Fiscal Sustainability’, Afri- vers l’Espagne entre le Sahara Oc- can Departmental Paper Series, Wash- cidental et l’Acéan Atlantique’, pa- ington D.C.: International Monetary per presented at the Round Table Le Fund Maghreb, terre d’emigration, de passage et d’immigration, organised by Casa Laganà, G. (2007) ‘Co-development: Árabe on 7 and 8 June win-win solution of all or burden- shifting opportunity for the devel- Beauchemin, C.; Caarls, K.; Mazzu- oped world?’ Brussels: Solidar cato, V. (2013) ‘Senegalese Migrants between Here and There: An Over- MAFE (2013b) ‘Changing patterns view of Family Patterns’, Migrations of migration between Africa and Eu- between Africa and Europe (MAFE) rope: Departures, trajectories and re- Working Paper No.33 turns’, Migrations between Africa and Europe (MAFE) Policy Briefing No.2 Belga News Agency (2014) ‘Plus de 200 migrants débarquent à Me- MAFE (2013c) ‘Factors of migration lilla’, available at http://www.7sur7. between Africa and Europe: Assess- be/7s7/fr/1505/Monde/article/de- ing the role of education, family and tail/1802568/2014/02/28/Plus-de-200- policy’, MAFE Project Briefing N.3 migrants-debarquent-a-Melilla.dht- ml, accessed on 28/02/14 Ndione, B. and Broekhuis, A. (2006) ‘International migration and devel-

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Salt Boats, Pink lake

Niaga, Senegal, 30 July 2011, Photo | Jeff Attaway

58 THE PAISD: AN ADAPTIVE LEARNING PROCESS TO THE MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT NEXUS Jointly carried out by France and Senegal, the PAISD Promotes migrants’ entrepreneurship and private collective investment in the home country. Its second phase (PAISD II), commencing in June 2014, is particularly promising insofar as it unveils existing synergies between business and solidarity, promoting a new and potentially self-sustainable “development by the diaspora”.

by Francesca Datola

PhD, Scuola Superiore Sant’Anna Pisa, ITALY

The ‘Migration and Development’ nexus in Senegal

The ‘Migration and Development data, competing theories and varying nexus’ is currently high on the agenda policy approaches makes it difficult coordinated and ineffective policy responses of both researchers and policy-makers to interpret and fully comprehend the that have failed to take into account all the and the consensus has been growing multiple facets of the dynamics be- dimensions of the nexus, being sometimes 1 only inspired by an ill-concealed hope to curb in recent years on the positive inter- tween migration and development. irregular migration and get rid of undesired action between its two components. migrants. This is the rationale behind the enact- According such an interpretation, ment of the so-called ‘development instead of migration could, under certain condi- 1 The relationship between “Migra- migration policies’ (de Haas 2007), the objec- tion” and “Development” is characterised by tive of which is to prevent further migration tions, trigger development. Neverthe- complex reciprocal feedback mechanisms. The by addressing its root causes, i.e. underdevel- less, the presence of a large amount of intrinsic difficulty in capturing such acom- opment, poverty, unemployment and lack of plexity has often engendered fragmented, un- opportunities at home. The idea that triggering

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Also troubling, is the fact that specu- the nexus depends on at least four ing the importance of establishing a lations about ‘Migration and Devel- factors: a deep-seated mobility tradi- legal and institutional framework to opment’ are being challenged by the tion; an ingrained migration culture; maintain diaspora contacts in view misuse, trivialization and overex- the strong propensity of Senegalese of promoting development through posure of the phrase, with the nexus migrants to establish a multitude of migration. From the 1983 creation of dangerously at risk of becoming a ‘hometown’ associations abroad and a ministry responsible for coordinat- mere fad, buzzword or a-critical man- resilient trans-local networks; and an ing the socio-economic reintegra- tra pervading the development dis- early mainstreaming of the ‘Migra- tion of perspective returnees to the course.2 Moreover, despite growing tion and Development’ discourse at two ‘Symposium des Sénégalais de agreement on the potential for migra- the national institutional level since l’Exterieur’ (held in 1994 and 2001) tion to contribute to development, the 1990s. and from the disputed REVA5 plan to consensus quickly fades with respect the creation of a Ministère des Séné- to how this might occur and to the Senegal has always been character- galais de l’Exterieur (suppressed in most appropriate policy framework ised by strong migratory dynamics, 2012), the Senegalese Government to harness the benefits of migration being both a sending and destination has paid careful attention to the ‘Mi- and maximize “developmental” spill- country, at the intraregional and inter- gration and Development’ nexus (al- over effects while minimizing poten- regional level3. In Senegalese society, though such attention has not always tial negative repercussions. migration is considered one of the been coherent, conclusive or coupled most effective means of upward so- with adequate resources). If proceeding via trial and error is cial mobility, dramatically outpacing inevitable, Senegal has proved to be higher education (Riccio 2005 and For these reasons, Senegal has a a suitable testing ground, having be- Ludl 2008). If, in traditional Western- well-developed tradition of projects, come a lively laboratory for piloting African imaginary, migrating was al- initiatives and funds dealing with different policy-recipes in the ‘Mi- ready conceived as a ‘rite of passage’, migration matters. Such projects are gration and Development’ field. Sen- such benign social consideration has run either by the government, donor egalese proactivity in dealing with been further strengthened in recent countries (both at central and local years. ‘Modou-Modous4’ are now cel- levels) and international organiza- development in sending countries could some- ebrated in popular songs as contem- tions, NGOs or directly by migrant how contain migratory pressure to destination porary heroes and are the preferred associations. In this panoply of initia- countries is however naïve and wishful think- targets of ‘gold-diggers’. Senegalese tives, the PAISD6 stands out as one of ing. Some studies (Zelinsky 1971; de Haas 2010) migration is organised through a so- the most stimulating and long-lasting show indeed that a mild improvement in life conditions in sending countries plays more cial network system facilitating the programmes. Jointly carried out by as a catalyst than as a restraint on migration reception and integration of new mi- France and Senegal, the PAISD is an flows in the short term. Migration thus cannot grants in destination countries. Mi- interesting case-study given the im- be isolated as an exogenous variable: rather it gration networks might be more or portance of the diplomatic and eco- simultaneously causes and it is caused by development processes. Apart from the (failed) less institutionalised, based either on nomic ties between the two imple- attempt to read the nexus in the sense that religious affiliation (e.g. the Murid menting countries, the extensive and more development could curb migration, the ‘dahiras’) or on ethnic or geographi- highly educated Senegalese diaspora ‘Migration and Development nexus’ could be cal criteria (‘hometown associations’ in France and the PAISD’s duration read in the opposite way as well: in the sense that migration could reduce development (e.g. stricto sensu). Such lively diaspora (its multiannual implementation by generating conspicuous consumption, dis- involvement abroad finds its basis in timeframe represents an exception in couraging those left behind from working and the spectacular activism of authorities a plethora of finite development aid causing brain-drain). Some of these arguments at home. The Senegalese Government projects). have been reversed over the years, dismantled or at least assessed in a less apocalyptical way has been a forerunner in acknowledg- by several theoretical contributions. (See for ex- The PAISD has undergone several ample Taylor 1999, Skeldon 2002, de Haas 2005, changes during its various phases Grabel 2008). A more promising and palatable 3 Focusing on the Europe-Senegal of implementation, diversifying its interpretation of the nexus has made inroads migration corridor, the three main European both into academia and into the field. More and destinations for Senegalese migrants are Italy, objectives over the years. Such an more researchers and policy makers are indeed France and Spain. While Senegalese in France adaptive learning process along with suggesting that migration could, under certain typically have higher education, only 10% of the programme’s far-reaching scope conditions, promote development (especially those who migrated to Italy and Spain are high- and innovative prospects makes the human development). The programmes and ly educated (Schoumaker et. al 2013). Accord- projects stemming from this last interpretation ing to the World Bank (2011), inward remittance PAISD, notwithstanding some minor of the nexus are likely to be the most fruitful flows to Senegal expected in 2010 amounted to flaws, a successful experience in coin the field, since they are not pursuing hidden $ 1 164 million. Remittances accounted for 12% development practice. In this article, agendas (such as using the ‘Migration and De- of GDP in 2007 (Some 2009). Recent research I will describe the evolution of the velopment’ rhetoric in order to curb migration by Orozco et.al. estimates (2010) that 81% of or to nurture perverse logics of clientelism), Senegalese migrants in Europe send money PAISD, how the programme works, ideally being only inspired by a genuine desire back home. its outputs and how it gradually shift- to make migration work for development (and 4 Riccio (2005) argues that Modou- not development work for less migration!). Modou ‘are the rural migrants who only know how This third way of interpreting the nexus is the to trade but nevertheless manage to earn enough 5 Retour des Emigrés vers l’Agricul- one adopted in this article. money abroad and come back showing off new hous- ture. 2 See for example Vammen I.M. and es, clothes, big weddings and all the symbols of suc- 6 Programme d’Appui aux Initiatives Mossin Brønden B., (2012). cess’. de Solidarité pour le Développement.

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ed towards employing a more busi- database ‘www.senexpertise.gouv. the costs of these projects, the PAISD ness-oriented approach to the ‘Migra- sn’. Approximately 800 highly skilled is now uses building “templates” (i.e. tion and Development’ nexus. migrants have uploaded their CVs on for the ‘typical’ school or hospital) senexpertise.org, while 62 expert mis- validated by state technical services The PAISD: evolution and outputs sions have been conducted. in conformity with local legislation. Formerly known as ‘Initiatives de Such templates allow for the identi- Co-développement’ (2005-2008), the 3. ‘Appui au développement local cal reproduction of structures in dif- PAISD I was implemented from 2009- des régions d’origine ‘ ferent regions/villages. Utilizing this 2013 (with an endowment of nine mil- This component aims at co-funding approach, it is possible to both save lion euros provided by France and an infrastructure projects promoted by money (given that the architectural additional 0.75 million euros provid- diaspora associations. Conceived project remains the same) and to im- ed by Senegal). Mainly covering the as a way to multiply the impact of prove the technical quality of OSIM’s “Région du fleuve7” and the “region so-called ‘collective remittances’ interventions. Moreover, the exist- de Dakar8, the PAISD I includes five (Goldring 2004), proposed infrastruc- ence of ready-made templates, allows components: ture projects are financed up to 70% OSIM to save time and to rapidly de- by the PAISD. The co-funding has a liver tangible results in sending com- 1. ‘Accompagnement des projets multiplier effect (every euro collected munities. d’investissement privé’ generates 2.3 euros of investment). This component aims at supporting On average, OSIM9 managed to au- 4. ‘Volontariat de Solidarité pour le those migrants (through professional tonomously gather 31,414 euros per Développement’ mentoring, training and follow-up) project. Moreover, partial co-fund- This component primarily includes wishing to start business activities ing encourages migrant associations the implementation of cultural and in Senegal. Migrants are helped to to look for additional funds via the social programmes in order to link identify and develop their investment mobilisation of other partners. From second-generation migrants to their ideas through assistance in conduct- 2005-2012, 134 projects were funded, parents’ homelands. As of 2012, 15 ing feasibility studies. Apart from the totalling more than 15.4 million eu- young people had volunteered to par- preparatory studies, the PAISD also ros (4.7 million euros directly collect- ticipate in these programmes, with funds training and follow-up activities ed by OSIM, 10.7 million euros pro- approximately 100 others registered during the first year. Generally, only vided by the PAISD). The outputs of in the database. individual migrants apply to receive the third component are impressive. support within this component. One In the educational sector, 46 projects 5. ‘Lutte contre la fracture numérique’ exception, however, was the support were constructed. 271 classrooms and The fifth component of the PAISD I given to Niokolo Transport, a collec- 19 libraries with annexed computer aims to eliminate the digital divide tive effort of several migrants whose rooms were built for a total of 16,200 by exposing the most peripheral re- positive outcome inspired the design students. In the health sector, 42 struc- gion of Senegal to information and of the PAISD II and its new ‘private- tures were built, with a potential user communication technologies (ICT) sector-oriented approach’ (see below). base of 251,000 people. In a Sahel through the construction of modern In total, 485 entrepreneurs have been country like Senegal, water supply is multimedia centres. Although not tar- assisted by the PAISD to date, while crucial: 31 projects were completed geting migrants directly, the fifth com- 1800 indirect jobs have been created. in this sector serving 163,400 benefi- ponent will enable those ‘left behind’ The majority of migrants supported ciaries (including 19 water towers, 10 by the migration process to communi- under the first component have con- drillings and 8 dams for agricultural cate more easily with relatives abroad ducted their entrepreneurial projects purposes). In addition, 189 km of (as ICT centres will be built in major in the Région de Dakar. drinking water distribution pipelines sending regions). were laid, alongside the establishment In November 2013, the PAISD II was 2. ‘Mobilisation de l’expertise de la of 11,500 house connections. As for renewed, with a budget of two mil- diaspora’ the vocational training sector, three lion euros, covering the period from This component aims at mobilizing training centres were established, 2013-2016. The new phase will be the highly-skilled diaspora for short- with a reception capacity of 550 stu- entirely operational by the second term missions in Senegal. Volunteer dents. The third component main- semester of 2014, introducing major consultants transfer their specific ly covers the so-called « région du modifications to the architecture of knowledge and know-how. They are Fleuve » with activities conducted in the programme. provided with a daily subsistence the Région de Matam (Matam-Kanel) allowance and their travel expenses and the Région de Saint-Louis (Po- The PAISD II will merge the second are covered by the programme. Ex- dor). Outside the Senegal River Val- and fourth components of PAISD I perts from the diaspora willing to ley area, infrastructure projects have into a new component solely devoted volunteer can register on the online also been implemented in the Région to human resources. The first com- de Tambacounda (Bakel-Goudiry). It ponent of PAISD I will be divided: is noteworthy that, in order to reduce perspective entrepreneurs will still 7 Especially as far as the third component is concerned (see below). be coached on start-up enterprises, 8 Especially as far as the first compo- 9 Organisations de Solidarité Interna- while groups of migrants (either for- nent is concerned (see below). tionale issues de l’Immigration.

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mally affiliated to an association or Different from other projects, Niokolo projects, each migrant would invest informally grouped) will also be sup- does not involve individual savings a portion of his/her money and there- ported in private collective invest- but rather the collective resources of a fore ‘risk’ a more limited sum of his/ ments. The third component of PAISD migrant association: the APDK10. After her earnings. I (i.e. co-funding of infrastructure de- participating in traditional develop- velopment projects) will be expanded ment aid interventions, the APDK at- The constructive model of Niokolo to include multi-village projects. An tempted to identify new ways to assist Transport, alongside ongoing re- additional and innovative component local communities back home without flection within the programme and will deal with partnerships and dis- resorting to dependency on gifts. An the encouraging results of a study11 semination of best practices. assessment of local needs revealed the conducted by the AFD, led to the re- inefficient transport system presented newed first component in PAISD II: Encouraging prospects toward a a major problem in the region. The apart from funding feasibility studies, more business-oriented model absence of a viable transportation net- training and follow-up for singular The main innovation of the PAISD II, work between Kedougou and Dakar migrant-entrepreneurs, the second commencing in June 2014, is a strong or between Kedougou and dispersed phase of the programme will also interest in the development of the villages hindered local economic and fund private collective investments private sector and the mainstream- social development. Thus, in aban- by migrant associations and groups ing of a new business-oriented ap- doning the charitable approach, the of migrants. proach targeting private collective APDK decided to establish a ‘societé investments.Once the basic needs of anonyme’ (i.e. a public limited com- Another interesting evolution of sending communities have been ful- pany). Several members of the APDK the PAISD is the idea to establish filled, in terms of housing, health, have purchased shares of this new a ‘business incubator’ (pepinière education, water supply and sanita- business entity and approximately d’entreprise) in the outskirts of Dakar, tion, other needs progressively but 3500 shares have been sold to date. in collaboration with the region Île- invariably arise. In particular, mi- In total, the company includes 300 de-France and the Dakar region. The grants from these communities have shareholders and has created jobs for pepinière aims to support business become more aware of the fact that re- 76 people. The company transports start-ups during their early stages of mittances (both at the individual and approximately 80,000 passengers per development and will provide a wide collective level) are dependent upon year. New regular bus lines are cur- range of affordable business-related their continuous stay abroad, i.e. that rently being studied as are plans for resources and services (e.g. shared, remittances are not self-sustainable in expansion to other regions and coun- cheap office space and shared admin- the long-term if merely used for contries. istrative services) to selected young sumption rather than investment. Af- firms. The costs of the services pro- ter having contributed to the creation The positive experience of Niokolo vided will gradually increase every of a viable, conducive environment in Transport prompted the PAISD to year in order to stimulate the enter- sending regions through actions pro- promote a new ‘private-sector-ori- prise to become independent from the moted under the framework of the ented’ approach. Such an approach pepinière and to identify autonomous third component (‘Appui au dévelop- is meant to couple the social dimen- office space. pement local des régions d’origine’) sion of public collective investments of PAISD I, migrants are increasingly realised within the framework of the This activity, apart from highlighting confident about their skills to manage third component (‘Appui au dévelop- the beneficial interplay of the PAISD collective remittances. pement local des régions d’origine’) with decentralised cooperation, sup- with an economic dimension, the ports the progressive movement to- Moreover, their experience abroad idea being that these two dimen- wards the ‘private-sector-oriented has influenced their visions: migrants sions should complement each other approach’ which PAISD II intends feel that self-sustainable development (since dividends stemming from pri- to implement, targeting increasing could and should be the result of private-sector-oriented activities could economic opportunities, private pro- vate investment and the creation of be reinvested in social enterprises ductive investment and business de- local employment opportunities, as or used for social purposes). This is velopment. The construction of the a means of ending dependency on in line with the general evolution of incubator is, however, on hold at the foreign aid. This awareness does not the PAISD which plans to encourage moment due to ongoing local govern- uniquely concern individual migrant other migrant associations to follow entrepreneurs, but also groups of mi- the example of APDK and transform grants eager to realise private collec- themselves into investment compa- 11 In order to develop this new poten- tive investments. nies. Such transformation would also tial component, the PAISD started a collaboration with AFD (Agence Française de Dévelop- have a non-negligible corollary: the pement). The AFD conducted a scoping study A ground-breaking model for these investment risk will be disbursed aimed at identifying all the investment niches new developments has been the expe- among several shareholders mean- in the ‘Région du fleuve’ in order to help as- rience of ‘Niokolo Transport’, an en- ing that, different from individual sociations to choose the best business opportunities. The study was also in charge of finding terprise supported by PAISD I within out the most suitable legal status an association the framework of the first component. 10 Association pour le Développement could use to initiate business activity and the de Kédougou. available funding opportunities.

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ment reform in Senegal and the over- The programme simultaneously deals promotes a ‘participatory’ approach, hauling of the competences of local with several aspects of the Migration enhancing both the local ownership authorities12. and Development nexus, implicitly and the sustainability of the initia- acknowledging that migration is a tives over the long term. Best practices and lessons learned complex and multipronged phenom- The PAISD could be considered as an enon requiring an equally intricate The PAISD is a multi-stakeholder innovative approach to the ‘Migration and multifaceted policy response. partnership, coordinating the concert- and Development nexus’, providing Another strength of the programme ed efforts of different actors: individ- for overall positive performance. is its flexibility. Having been op- ual migrants, migrant associations, However, in order to appreciate the erational 2005, the PAISD has never Senegalese public technical adminis- beneficial - though limited- effects of stopped evolving in almost ten years tration, French ‘collectivité locales’, the programme, it is necessary to out- of activity, continuing to redefine and local construction firms and NGOs, line and discuss potential unrealistic review its contents and reshuffle its cabinet d’experts and technical as- expectations. components to ensure its adaptability sistants. The involvement of different to changing conditions in the field. actors allows the programme to build In particular, it is unrealistic to over- For example, the recent trend in the on diverse experiences, perspectives estimate the impact of the PAISD at re-orientation of OSIM resources to- and modus operandi towards the the macro-level. PAISD I had encour- ward private collective investment shared overarching goal of promot- aging results at the micro-level in responds to the perceived necessity ing development through migration. improving quality of life and related to stimulate economic development The transnational dimension of di- conditions of local households or, at in rural areas where basic needs have aspora is taken into account in all as- best, villages. The PAISD did relative- already been met. pects of the PAISD. Migrants are en- ly well in helping small enterprises to couraged to make use of their ‘translo- bloom (even though the sustainability Another sign of such flexibility is rep- cal’ social capital and their ‘translocal’ rate requires improvement) and sup- resented by the new component ‘Cap- social networks and to exploit their porting infrastructure projects pro- italisation et Partenariat’ enshrined in familiarity with the cultural codes, moted by migrant associations. How- the forthcoming PAISD II. This com- language, legislative and institutional ever, in order for the PAISD to have ponent will, on the one hand, collect context of both sending and receiving an impact on the overall development and disseminate best practices gath- communities. of the country, the size of the pro- ered during the programme and, on gramme, as well as its funding and the other, help migrants and migrant Concerning ownership, another posi- geographic distribution, should be associations in the search for addi- tive quality of the PAISD is that it greatly enhanced. Nonetheless the re- tional partners (such as local authori- has been conceived since the outset newed third component of the PAISD ties or private foundations) in order to as a joint French-Senegalese initia- II is a first step in this direction. provide access to technical expertise, tive. Senegal is a real partner to the mobilise further resources and raise programme which increases the le- The idea is to no longer intervene at funds for ambitious projects beyond gitimacy of the initiative. A shared the village level but at the departmen- the PAISD financial capacity. responsibility is ensured at all levels tal level instead, with projects involv- (from the funding to the composition ing several villages in order to exploit The PAISD success also depends on of the “governing” and “monitoring” economies-of-scale while avoiding the logic underpinning its action. Its bodies, including the steering com- waste and duplication. This new ap- interventions are characterised by a mittees). The involvement of Senega- proach will require new interlocutors: ‘logique d’accompagnement’ and not lese authorities is crucial, particularly federations of associations should by a ‘logique de substitution’. This for interventions made in the frame- replace small OSIMs in order to de- means the PAISD only strengthens al- work of the third component since it velop larger infrastructure projects ready existing activities, maximizing is up to the Senegalese Government to covering greater geographical areas. their chances of success without im- ensure the maintenance of infrastruc- If this trend manages to prevail and posing exogenous ‘magical formulas’ tures and the deployment/payment of gains the support of small hometown from the outside to trigger develop- personnel working within them (e.g. associations, the impact of the PAISD ment. The PAISD limits itself to sup- teachers, doctors, nurses etc.). will be enhanced, producing wider porting actions that would have taken and more systemic effects. place in any case, independent of the Last, but not least, the PAISD is in- programme’s intervention. Building teresting with respect to its fertile The PAISD should be praised for its on the existing reality, the PAISD of- cross-pollination with decentralised holistic, multidimensional approach. fers its ‘accompagnement’ to create cooperation. Not only does the par- the best conditions for these initiatives ticipation of local authorities multiply to thrive. This is a successful strategy the sources of co-funding, encourage 12 The Reform, known as Acte 3 de la as it respects the ‘grassroots’ origin decentralisation processes and con- decentralisation, was launched on 19 March 2013 of existing initiatives, the content of tributing to mainstreaming local de- and will reshape the institutional architecture of Senegal as well as the competences and mu- which is not imposed by remote poli- velopment through concerted actions, tual relations between communes, department cymakers. Instead, the PAISD rather but it also contributes to a deeper in- and regions.

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tegration of migrants into the receiv- The PAISD has proved to be proac- Ludl C., (2008), “ ‘To Skip a Step’: ing communities. tive in developing and supporting New Representation(s) of Migration, innovative intervention strategies in- Success and Politics in Senegalese Apart from these strengths, the spired by the spontaneous diaspora Rap and Theatre”, Stichproben, Wiener PAISD also presents some weakness- practices in statu nascendi. In particu- Zeitschrift für kritische Afrikastudien, es. For example, although inspired by lar, if the promises of the new private- Volume 8, No. 14, pp. 97-122. an overarching strive towards coher- sector-oriented approach are kept, the ence, its governing structure includes PAISD II will present a single unique Orozco M., Burgess E. and Massar- several bodies uniting at different lev- and flexible framework to respond to dier C., (2010), ‘Remittance transfers els (from ambassadors to civil serv- both social and economic challenges. in Senegal: Preliminary findings, ants to practitioners), with different Instead of conceiving the social and lessons, and recommendations on responsibilities and meeting in mul- economic dimensions of develop- its marketplace and financial access tiple venues at various periodic in- ment as irreconcilable (as a part of the opportunities’, International Migra- tervals. This inevitably presents chal- outstanding development discourse tion Paper No. 109, ILO, Geneva. Ac- lenges with the risk of becoming too continues to do), the PAISD dares to cessed via: http://www.ilo.org/wc- heavy, creating fragmentation instead unveil existing synergies between msp5/groups/public/---ed_protect/--- of coherence. business and solidarity, promoting protrav/---migrant/documents/publi- – without forcing- a new and poten- cation/wcms_177453.pdf Moreover, since the PAISD is based on tially self-sustainable “development bilateral agreements between France by the diaspora” model capable of Riccio B., (2005), ‘Talkin’ about Mi- and Senegal, its scope is deliberately being replicated elsewhere with due gration - Some Ethnographic Notes limited to people who have migrated adaptation. on the Ambivalent Representation of to France and to migrant associations Migrants in Contemporary Senegal’, registered in France. Such limitation References Stichproben, Wiener Zeitschrift für Kri- excludes transnational federations or tische Afrikastudien, Volume 5, No. 8, associations whose potential involve- de Haas H., (2010b), ‘Migration tran- pp. 99-118. ment could increase the impact of the sitions: a theoretical and empirical in- actions promoted (especially as far as quiry into the developmental drivers Schoumaker B., Flahaux M-L., Schans the third component is concerned). of international migration’, IMI Work- D., Beauchemin C., Mazzucato V. and Lastly, the construction of collective ing Paper 24, International Migration Sakho P., (2013), ‘Changing Patterns infrastructures could, in theory, cre- Institute, University of Oxford. Ac- of African Migration: a Comparative ate a risk of moral hazard in the sense cessed via http://www.imi.ox.ac.uk/ Analysis’, MAFE Working Paper 18. that migrants’ activism in building pdfs/imi-working-papers/wp24-mi- infrastructure might diminish incen- gration-transitions-1 Skeldon R., (2002), ‘Migration and tives for the government to provide Poverty’, Asia-Pacific Population Jour- services the state is entitled and re- de Haas H., (2007), ‘Turning the Tide? nal, December 2002, Volume 17, No. quired to deliver. However, in prac- Why Development will not stop Mi- 4, pp.67-82. tice, it is difficult to associate a conse- gration’, Development and Change, Vol- quence of this nature to PAISD since, ume 38, No. 5, pp. 819-841. Some A. N., (2009), ‘Migration au as explained above, the programme’s Sénégal, Profil National 2009’, OIM, logic is one of “accompagnement”. de Haas H., (2005), ‘International Mi- Geneva. Thus, even without PAISD support, gration, Remittances and Develop- migrants would in any case have or- ment: myths and facts’, Third World Taylor J.E., (1999), ‘The New Econom- ganized “collective remittances” to Quarterly, Volume 26, No. 8, pp. 1269- ics of Labour Migration and the Role build vital infrastructures back home. 1284. of Remittances in the Migration Proc- ess’, International Migration, Volume Conclusions Goldring L., (2004), ‘Family and Col- 37, No.1, pp.63-88. Even though the PAISD success is lective Remittances to Mexico: A partly due to inherent context-de- Multi-Dimensional Typology of Re- The World Bank, (2011), ‘2011 Migra- pendent variables (such as its multi- mittances’, Development and Change, tion Factbook’, 2nd edition, The World annual implementation timeframe, Volume 35, No. 4, pp. 799–840. Bank, Washington DC. Accessed via: the trust established among stake- http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ holders, the presence of a large and Grabel I., (2008), ‘The political Econ- INTLAC/Resources/Factbook2011- highly-skilled Senegalese diaspora omy of Remittances: What Do We Ebook.pdf in France, etc.), an analysis of the Know? What Do We Need to Know?’ programme stimulates a reflection Working Paper Series number 184, Polit- Vammen I.M. and Mossin Brønden regarding conditions necessary for ical Economy Research Institute, Uni- B., (2012), ‘Donor-Country Responses genuine, creative policy-making ef- versity of Massachusetts, Amherst. to the Migration–Development Buzz: forts in the ‘Migration and Develop- Accessed via: http://www.peri.umass. From Ambiguous Concepts to Ambi- ment nexus’. edu/fileadmin/pdf/working_papers/ tious Policies?’, International Migra- working_papers_151-200/WP184.pdf tion, Special Issue: ‘Migration and Devel-

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opment Buzz? Rethinking the Migration Development Nexus and Policies’, Vol- ume 50, No. 3, pp. 26-42.

Zelinsky Z., (1971), ‘The Hypothesis of the Mobility Transition’, Geographi- cal Review, Volume 61, pp.219-249.

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Playing kid in Senegal

Dakar, Senegal, 10 July 2006, Photo|Juan Falque

66 THE LOCAL-TO- LOCAL DIMENSION OF THE MIGRATION AND DEVELOPMENT NEXUS Good practices from the Joint Migration and Development Initiative in Senegal show the importance of linking civil society initiatives with local development agendas. Local authorities who develop strong ties with diaspora communities, originating from their area, can effectively direct investments and development efforts back in the home country.

by Amadou Lamine Cissé* and Jo-Lind Roberts**

**Head of Office and *Programme Coordinator International Organisation for Migration - IOM Dakar, Country Office SENEGAL

The Joint Migration and Development Initiative

In 2008, the European Commission programme was built on the premises velopment impact. So far, the experi- and the United Nations launched a that it was important to generate a mentation of small scale initiatives Joint Migration and Development Ini- solid evidence base for better plan- have had positive effects and contrib- tiative (JMDI)1 that reflects the accep- ning and management in this field, in uted to change the degree of activism tance of a strong nexus between mi- order to know what works and why. of local administrations in the field of gration and development (M&D). The migration and development. Unfortu- The good practices identified by the nately, their involvement remains, for 1 The JMDI was funded by the Eu- Joint Migration and Development Ini- the time being, largely underdevel- ropean Commission and the Swiss Agency for tiative showed the importance of effi- oped and many obstacles exist, such Development and Cooperation. In Senegal, the ciently linking civil society initiatives, as a lack of capacities and of efficient programme is implemented by International such as the ones of diaspora groups and effective coordination within lo- Organization for Migration (IOM) along with its partners UNDP, ILO, UNHCR, UNFPA and with local development agendas in cal authorities’ administration and UNWOMEN. The second phase of the pro- order to reach sustainability and de- with other stakeholders. gramme will run from 2013 to 2015.

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Findings on local ownership Local authorities’ involvement in provisions are hampered by the lack The findings of the JMDI show that Senegal of human and financial resources of the effectiveness of M&D activities Since the early 90s, Senegalese mi- local communities. largely depends on the identification gration has undergone important The importance of the competences and establishment of strategic part- changes especially, with the more transfer lies in the fact that it allows nerships between civil society organi- systematic orientation flows towards local officials to intervene in matters sations and governments at decen- Northern countries. According to the that directly affect the daily lives of tralised levels. Department of Planning and Statistics people, and to be significantly in- (ANSD), 54 % of Senegalese migrants volved in the pursuit of local develop- The most successful and sustainable between 1999 and 2004 chose to settle ment. It is therefore an empowerment M&D interventions identified by the in Europe (46%) and the USA (8%) policy for local stakeholders, who are JMDI are those with strong anchorage against 44 % in Africa. France remains now obliged to submit results at the with the local governments in coun- the first European country that Sen- time of evaluation. tries of origin and destination, in line egalese migrants call home. The new with the essential local-to-local di- countries of choice for the Senegalese However, the fact is that the transfer mension of the migration and devel- are now Spain, Italy and the United of powers to local authorities in Sen- opment nexus2. When local authori- States of America. egal has not been accompanied by a ties share a common vision with civil sufficient transfer of resources by the society partners, they develop a sense According to the World Bank and central State. Local authorities are of ownership over projects that lead the University of Sussex (Observa- having to face new tasks and respon- them to commit time, energy and re- tory ACP, 2010), Senegal listed 463 sibilities, and are left feeling they do sources, which effectively contribute 403 Senegalese migrants (or 4% of not have enough resources to cope to the success and sustainability of an total population) in 2005. 46.2% of with their old and new missions. M&D initiative. them resided in other sub-Saharan African countries. According to the Recognising this, the State has set up This linkage is all the more important same study, the main destinations for texts to facilitate the search for addi- as the drivers and impact of migration Senegalese migrants in 2005 were the tional revenue through decentralised are often most strongly felt at the local Gambia (123 443, or 26.3% of the total cooperation. Thus, local communities level, be it in terms of effects on the stock of emigrants), France (90 551 or without sufficient resources (region local labour market, the size and de- 19.5% of the total stock of migrants), and rural communities) can develop mographic of the local population, or Italy (70 783 15.3% of the total stock of external partnerships to ensure their the need for public service provisions. migrants) and Mauritania (42,866 or important mission of local develop- This is why provinces and local au- 9.3% of total stock of migrants). ment. thorities are strategic levels in order In terms of stock, key destinations to reinforce the involvement of gov- within the African continent for Sen- To create dynamic partnerships, the ernments, making consultations and egalese migrants, such as Ivory Coast contribution of migrants and migrant agreement with sub-national levels of and Gabon, are now in decline, while associations is essential. It is, in fact, governments particularly important neighbouring countries, such as the generally accepted that the most suc- for the civil society. Gambia, Mauritania and Mali receive cessful partnerships in local devel- about 40% of current African flows. opment are initially introduced by However, in general terms, local gov- migrants who build informal links ernments have not received the same In Senegal, decentralisation entered a with local authorities in the country level of attention as other stakehold- decisive phase in 1996 with the trans- of destination. Thereafter, these part- ers, while their involvement and po- fer, from the central State to local nerships take on a more institutional tential impact on the connections be- authorities, of nine areas of respon- dimension in the form of twinning, tween migration and development is sibilities. Local authorities3 acquired cooperative agreements, etc. between crucial. a range of management autonomy local authorities in countries of origin and members who compose them are and countries of destination. Since December 2012, the JMDI start- elected by universal suffrage. Trans- ed implementing activities designed ferred domains fall into three catego- Outside the framework of decen- to specifically target local authorities ries: economic, cultural, health and tralised cooperation, migrants from as well as civil society organisations social. However, the implementation Baol, Fouta or Pakao, in Senegal, in- that have a stake in local develop- of local policies in these areas of com- vest more in the development of their ment. petence, of primary importance to the home communities by mobilising daily lives of citizens, and the degree their own resources for the construc- of autonomy enshrined in the legal tion of classrooms, of health centres or other rural infrastructure. Due to a certain distrust of the local or national 2 Local authorities are at the forefront 3 Senegal has 14 administrative re- political authorities, these initiatives in confronting the transformations and oppor- gions, which include departments and districts, are taking place outside of priori- tunities that migration brings about; the drivers communes and rural communities. and impact of migration are often most stron- ties identified at the local level, and gely felt at local level.

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included in development plans and munity4 established in the diaspora articulation of the needs expressed by policies. For example, it is not uncom- during ceremonies commemoration. local authorities and the investments mon to see a multitude of well-built In addition, events such as Tabaski made by migrants. We wish to give classrooms that remain unoccupied, (Eid-el-Adha) and Korité (Eid-al-Fitr) the example in two regions of Senegal while the rehabilitation of “pistes are moments generally chosen by mi- facing singular needs: Sedhiou and de production” (feeder roads) is the grants to contribute to family expens- Diourbel. main need expressed by local authori- es. Savings and investment financing ties. This is not to say that classrooms are negligible (BCEAO, 2013). Sedhiou: an intervention in a crisis are unnecessary, but that the choices context for investment made by migrants are In Senegal, remittances have had a The region of Sedhiou is located in often not in correlation with locally positive impact on poverty. Indeed, Casamance, with a population of ap- identified needs. in Dakar, there is a 95% spending proximately 456,000 people, an over- increase per capita in households re- whelming part of which are aged un- Remittances and Money Transfers ceiving money transfers from abroad, der 15 years (about 42% of its popu- According to the Central Bank of versus those which receive none. lation according to ANDS (2010)). West African Economic and Mone- Outside of the capital, the increase in The region has many resources. tary Union (BCEAO, 2013), Senegal is spending is 63.2% within inland cities Subsistence farming, inland fisher- the first recipient of remittances from and 5.9% in rural areas (Fall). ies, forestry, animal husbandry and migrants in the region. The country arboriculture feature prominently in receives about 47.4% of total remit- The amount invested by migrants the regional economy. However, the tances. BCEAO (Central Bank of West in their country of origin is certainly development potential of the region African States) estimated around 700 growing but a few parts of the funds is compromised by the instability billion CFA (10.4% of GDP in 2011) are dedicated to finance sustainable caused by the Casamance conflict5. the total amount of transfers to Sen- development. Some food for thought egal in 2011. Senegal receives 88.7% in order to understand the attitude of Human mobility is a constant in the of transfers from migrants of Europe migrants: history of the region although insecu- and the Americas (BCEAO, 2013). rity in the area contributed greatly to • The low income of migrants is increasing it. Sedhiou welcomes na- In addition to contributing to the es- closely linked to their low level of tionals of neighbouring countries and tablishment of a stock of foreign ex- qualifications; regions while migration of the local change monies for the country, the • Mistrust displayed vis-à-vis bank population is both to Europe and oth- money from migration contributes to lending, which leads to migrants rely- er countries in Africa. In the coun- the improvement of living conditions ing solely on their own income, in or- tries of destination, Senegalese na- and/or to a significant reduction of der to build a house, even though the tionals from Sedhiou often organise poverty at the family level. possibility of benefitting from a bank themselves into associations6, with a loan is available, and many offers ex- solidarity component. They maintain In West African Economic and Mon- ist emanating from financial institu- close ties with their homeland and etary Union region, the BCEAO study tions of the host country; contribute to the development of Sed- also indicates that funds are primar- • The negative perception concern- hiou through various achievements ily assigned to current consumption ing the accumulation of wealth and/ (through the building of schools, spending (54.6%), real estate invest- or private property in some parts of health centres, etc.). ment (15.8%), other investments Senegal. In the north of Senegal (Sen- (5.5%), as well as spending on health egalese valley) there are examples of In addition, nationals regularly trans- and education (3.4% and 6.4% respec- sums allocated by migrants to com- fer money to their families and initi- tively). Family and religious events munity achievements but not to pri- ate economic projects in the region mobilize 8.7% of funds received from vate investment and/or to create jobs migrant workers. (Fall). 5 The conflict in Casamance is an important episode in the history of Senegal’s in- In Senegal, approximately 70% of In this regard, one of the main objec- dependence. At the beginning of the 80’s and funds received are intended for cur- tives of the Joint Migration and Devel- until 2005, after the ceasefire, it brought into rent consumption. Coverage of re- opment Initiative is to foster a better opposition the independent rebel forces of the Movement of Democratic Forces of Casamance ligious events is second with 8.2% (MFDC), led by Abbé Diamacoume Senghor, flow, followed by real estate invest- and Senegal’s armed forces. The conflict caused ment (7.6%) and educational and 4 The Mouride brotherhood is a the death of several hundred people and there health support (7.4%). The religious large Islamic Sufi order most prominent are many victims from antipersonnel mines, in Senegal, with headquarters in the holy city even up to this day. Occasional clashes still oc- dimension of occasional remittances of Touba (Diourbel region). The followers are cur, between the army and the rebels, but also in this country is due, in part, to the called Mourides, a term used generally in Su- with rival groups. preponderance of this type of trans- fism to designate a disciple of a spiritual guide. 6 The most important are: Associa- fers received in Diourbel, with strong The Mouride brotherhood was founded in 1883 tion des ressortissants d’Inor, Association des in Senegal by Amadou Bamba. The Mouride ressortissants de Tanaff, Association des res- mobilization of the Mouride com- make up around 1/6 of the total population in sortissants de Karantaba (France), Association Senegal. Their influence over everyday life can des ressortissants et sympathisants de la Casa- be seen throughout Senegal. mance en Amérique (United States).

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(small businesses, Agricultural De- ing household poverty in the region. targeted areas. velopment Bank of cereals). Although However, a small proportion of these Strategies to foster intervention Sedhiou is considered to be one of the important investments are directed Despite many promising experiences most affected regions by migration in to truly productive sectors. Most of implemented by local governments Senegal, the magnitude and impact is the migrants having a relatively low for migration and development, suc- ultimately not sufficiently document- level of financial education7; migrants cessful interventions are quite often ed. use their resources most often to fi- insufficiently institutionalised, which nance current consumption or fes- undermines their sustainability. Recognising this, local authorities, tive spending, such as weddings and Our experiences from the field have supported by the Regional Develop- christenings. shown that the involvement of lo- ment Agency (ARD), wished, through cal authorities in these issues is best PAICODEL (Program to support local In fact, studies indicate that migrants achieved through supporting con- economic initiatives in the area of co- have generally benefitted from little crete initiatives from local actors. The development in the Sedhiou region), or no formal education at all, al- JMDI partners are hopeful that initia- to set up a mechanism to produce though it appears there has been an tives in Sedhiou and Diourbel will be reliable knowledge on the links be- increase in the level of education of sustainable, in view of the real moti- tween migration and development in migrants from this region in recent vation and involvement of local au- the region. PAICODEL aims mainly years. Women migrants in the region thorities from these areas to carry out to strengthen the Help Office for Mi- tend to be younger than men at the the project and achieve its goals. grants (HOM) existing in Sédhiou time of departure from Senegal (74% since 2012 and develops new similar of migrants are between 15 and 34 Another limit encountered by local offices in other regions of Casamance years according to Fall). stakeholders involved in M&D initia- (Ziguinchor and Kolda). HOM seeks tives is the access to relevant infor- to guide investment of migrants and Local authorities in Diourbel and mation which increases their capac- their associations by territories, by the Regional Development Agency ity to effectively link migration and priority areas and economic sectors. (ARD) developed the Jappando Proj- development at the local level and The project also aims to strengthen ect - Linking migrants, Local Authori- to engage in meaningful strategies. the role of local communities in Sed- ties, investors and Economic actors In the context of Senegal, the lack of hiou in developing and implementing for local development. The ARD, in statistics on movement of persons is a projects for economic development, collaboration with the Senegalese definite stumbling block. For this rea- in collaboration with migrant associa- Confederation for the promotion of son, researchers want the Senegalese tions. small and medium enterprises and Government to establish a National entrepreneurship emigrants (CON- Observatory on Migration, for quan- Diourbel: creating new dynamics for FESEN) and the Association of Wom- titative assessment of the movement local development en Entrepreneurs of Veneto, Italy, set of workers. Diourbel is situated in an agricul- up the “Jappando” initiative in order to tural region. This region (‘le bassin strengthen support tools for migrants’ Furthermore, JMDI’s experience in arachidier’, or ‘peanut basin’) covers economic projects” so as to improve working with local authorities has the West and Centre of Senegal and their impact on local development in shown that the latter have few op- corresponds to the administrative Diourbel. This initiative, as well as the portunities to learn from other lo- regions of Louga, Thiès, Diourbel, one in Sedhiou, is being supported by cal stakeholders’ accomplishments. Fatick and Kaolack. It covers a third the JMDI. Knowledge sharing thus becomes an of the surface of Senegal and is host essential factor for replicating best to approximately half of the popula- The main tool set up is the “Help practices and forging new partner- tion. The main crop is peanuts, which Desks”, an office of information ships. guarantees a good part of farmers’ which allows migrants to obtain in- income, but other crops such as dried formation on investment opportuni- Besides interesting initiatives such beans, watermelon and cassava root ties in the region and to benefit from as this one, local authorities’ involve- contribute to increasing their income. targeted support for developing and ment remains for the time being Diourbel is traditionally known to be setting up their project. largely underdeveloped and many a region of high emigration. This is The project also includes an impor- obstacles exist as evidenced by the easily explained by the economic cri- tant gender approach. Indeed, one of findings of the JMDI, such as a lack sis in the ‘peanut basin’, with falling the activities under the project Jap- of efficient and effective coordination prices of the peanut on the world mar- pando is to select, train and support within local authorities’ administra- ket in the 80s. Migrants from Diourbel the twelve best women’s businesses in tion and with other stakeholders. The contribute a large extent to meet the main difficulty also relates to their basic needs of their families through lack of internal capacities and of clear 7 Financial education programmes for income transfers. Indeed, remittances migrant workers and their families aimed to awareness of migration dynamics and from small street vendors in Paris or provide direct assistance on financial services routes, and how it should inform lo- New York, commonly called “Modou and accesses as well as income planning and cal policies and services. Migration Modou “, contribute greatly to reduc- management. and development are treated in dif-

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ferent policy realms, which results in undefined competencies and responsibilities within local administrations. To a large extent, the linkages between migration and development remain a new field of action for local administrations and targeted support is necessary to fully harness the potential that local authorities can bring in this field.

Bibliography Observatoire ACP sur les migrations 2010. Aperçu national sur les migrations Sud-Sud et le développement au Sénégal-Tendances et besoins de recherche. [En ligne]. Site Internet de l’ACP. http://www.acpmigration-obs.org/ sites/default/files/Senegal-CtryOver- view-15022013.pdf

Agence nationale de la Statistique et de la démographie 2010. Situa- tion économique et sociale de la région de Ziguinchor –Année 2010. [En ligne]. Site Internet de l’ANDS. http://www. ansd.sn/publications/annuelles/SES_ Region/SES_Ziguinchor_2010.pdf

Banque centrale des Etats de l’Afrique de l’Ouest 2013. Synthèse des résultats des enquêtes sur les envois de fonds des travailleurs migrants dans les pays de l’UEMOA. [En ligne]. Site Internet de la BCEAO. http://www.bceao. int/IMG/pdf/synthese_des_resul- tats_des_enquetes_sur_les_envois_ de_fonds_des_travailleurs_migrants_ dans_les_pays_de_l_uemoa.pdf

Fall Pape Demba 2010. Sénégal, migration, marché du travail et développe- ment – Document de travail. [En ligne]. Site Internet de l’Organisation internationale du travail http://www.ilo. org/public/french/bureau/inst/down- load/senegal.pdf

Initiative conjointe pour la migration et le développement 2013. Etat des lieux des pratiques des autorités locales dans le domaine de la migration et du développement. Bruxelles.

Initiative conjointe pour la migration et le développement 2011. Migration for Development : A Bottom-up Ap- proach. Bruxelles.

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Theatre workshop

Senegal, 14 May 2012, Photo |Franco-Emilio Risso

72 FONDAZIONI4AFRICA PROMOTES CO- DEVELOPMENT BY PARTNERING MIGRANT ASSOCIATIONS Fondazioni4Africa Senegal Initiative, promoted by four Italian foundations of banking origin, assigned a central role to Senegalese diaspora associations, from project inception to delivery. As real partners they shared project management and implementation responsibilities, thus ensuring effectiveness and long-term impacts both in their community of origin and of destination.

by Marzia Sica & Ilaria Caramia

Fondazioni4Africa, Senegal Initiative Programme Managers ITALY

Introduction

Through the Fondazioni4Africa the most important functions carried Italian foundations of banking origin (F4A)1 Senegal Initiative several very out during the implementation of the (Compagnia di San Paolo, Fonda- diverse patterns of valorisation of the F4A programme as well as some of zione Cariparma, Fondazione Cari- role of the Senegalese diaspora be- the lessons learned and the conclu- plo, Fondazione Monte dei Paschi di tween Senegal and Italy have been sions that were drawn by the pro- Siena) in Senegal between 2008 and experimented with and promoted. moters of the F4A after five years of 2013. The program’s key concepts This paper presents an overview of project development. – co-development, real and virtual return of migrants, and the transna- 1 For further information Fondazioni4Africa at a glance tional role of migrants – have been about the Fondazioni4Africa Senegal Program- F4A is an initiative promoted by four translated into a number of actions me visit www.fondazioni4africa.org.

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which have helped to both identify egal that participated actively in both all the more effective when the mi- and experiment with new roles for di- countries at various levels�. grant organisations involved were aspora associations2 both in the coun- mature, strong and competent. try of origin and the country of des- Partnering migrant associations tination. The program aimed to im- The F4A initiative was characterised Supporting direct involvement in prove the quality of life of rural and in particular by the decision on the the country of origin peri-urban populations in the various part of the promoters to regard mi- In the framework of the F4A the con- areas of Senegal that most migrants grant associations as real partners cept of ‘co-development’ took various present in Italy originate from – par- with full responsibility. The founda- forms, as noted above. In the start- ticularly Piedmont, Lombardy, Emilia tions’ involvement was not limited ing phase it provided a definition Romagna and Tuscany. The actions to providing financial support, but connected mainly to the possibility undertaken focused on the promotion extended to active and constant en- for diaspora associations to start or of specific agricultural productions gagement so as to contribute stra- further develop community develop- (e.g. mangos, milk and other dairy tegic insights as well. Foundations ment actions in their area of origin products, typical processed foods), promoted a large partnership with in collaboration with local partners. microfinance, responsible tourism, several diverse organisations, where In Lompoul, in the Louga Region, a and development education. These a direct connection was created with project for the promotion of responsi- initiatives were put in place jointly each partner. This broke away from ble tourism was set up to be managed with Italian organisations (i.e. NGOs the concept of a lead partner head- by a Senegalese migrants association, and a research centre)3, producers’ as- ing a group of associations. In this called Trait d’Union, in collaboration sociations, microfinance institutions, framework the partnerships that were with an association of local produc- and village organisations4 that have created brought together different or- ers. In Kebemer, in the same region, a been active in these sectors in Senegal ganisations, including diaspora asso- fruits and vegetables processing and for a long time. ciations, which played a key role and conservation facility was created by shared the same ‘rights’ and ‘obliga- a group of women who collaborate The fil rouge that cut across the en- tions’ as other partners (e.g. Italian with the association of migrant wom- tire program was the central role of NGOs). They participated in various en, Stretta di Mano, based in Man- diaspora associations in Italy and phases of the F4A initiative since its tova, Italy. Outside Dakar – in Pikine Senegal. It involved eight migrant as- inception, from planning and devel- Est, Malika, Fass Mbao and Yembeul sociations operating in Italy 5and Sen- opment to monitoring activities. – four groups of women, in collaboration with the association of Senegalese Undoubtedly, this approach entailed migrants in Turin, created microfacili- 2 The Senegalese diaspora associations involved in the initative are the a number of risks, and weaknesses ties for the processing, packaging and following: Associazione dei Senegalesi di To- emerged during the implementa- sale of cereals and other food prod- rino, Comunità dei Senegalesi della Provincia tion of activities. However, it was ucts. These actions aimed to showcase di Parma, Associazione Insieme dei Senegalesi essential to boost the piloting of co- the role that diaspora associations can di Faenza, Associazione Trait d’Union di Tori- no, Sunugal di Milano, Associazione Stretta di development processes between Italy play in triggering development in Mano di Mantova, Coordinamento delle Asso- and Senegal. Prior to the start of the local communities. They do this by ciazioni dei Senegalesi della Toscana (CASTO), F4A programme most other simi- providing economic inputs as well as Associazione dei Senegalesi di Poggibonsi, and lar projects or programs in Italy did management and technical skills, and the Federazione delle Associazioni Senegalesi della Toscana. not involve Senegalese migrant as- starting projects in which the commu- 3 The Italian NGO part- sociations as active partners with full nity’s civil society is actively involved ners of the F4A programme are the following: responsibility. They were generally with the participation of local authori- ACRA, CISV, COOPI, COSPE. The research regarded as mere beneficiaries of ac- ties. centre is CeSPI.). tions and projects, unlike the Fon- 4 The main local partners of the F4A programme in Senegal are the fol- dazioni4Africa which called for their The actions put in place in the frame- lowing: APAD, ADID, ADENA, AFSDN, FBAJ, empowerment and an active partici- work of the F4A initiative were suc- FENAGIE PECHE, RAIL, Union Financière pation on a par with other partner or- cessful and the effects on local com- Mutualiste (UFM), Union Rurale des Mutuelles ganisations. munities were more positive when d’Epargne et de Crédit du Sénégal (URMECS), MEC DELTA, Comité intervillageois de la Pé- the association’s idea of ‘co-develop- riphérie du Parc Nationa de Djoudj, Gie des Over time, this approach inspired ment’ to be pursued was particularly ecogardes de la Langue de Barbarie, Asescaw, similar projects and programs that clear. The results of the interventions Adksl, Fesfop, and the Association pour le de- were launched by Italian Founda- put in place were effective when the veloppement de Sippo tions and public institutions – like collaboration between the diaspora 5 All activities involving migrants associations have been continuously the Country Programs by Fondazione association and the local partners (i.e. analysed by CESPI, an Italian research organi- Cariplo (2010) and the co-develop- civil society organisations and local sation specialised in migration. The main re- ment plan by the City of Milan. In the authorities) involved in project im- sults of the work developed by CESPI within framework of the Fondazioni4Africa plementation was more transparent. the F4A programme are contained in the publication: “Movimenti migratori e percorsi di initiative the active participation of This was true also when the diaspora cooperazione – L’esperienza di co-sviluppo di diaspora organisations, on the same association possessed solid manage- Fondazioni4Africa, Carocci Editore, 2012 footing as any other partner, proved ment skills.

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Strengthening skills of the organisations’ respective roles, that are often undervalued both in Since the early days, considering often fuelled by bias and a misplaced the country of destination and in the the specific high competences need- sense of competitiveness. community of origin. At present, this ed to effectively develop the actions However, also thanks to intensive different approach to migrants’ remit- planned, it appeared clear that the training and capacity building activi- tances is being tested and the con- role of diaspora associations would ties, the Senegalese diaspora associa- struction of the platform has proven consolidate through training as well tions are now much stronger , with very complex due to the number of as through a strengthening of their better skills and competences and different types of stakeholders in- institutional and management skills. a more defined role. They are also volved. Nevertheless it appears to be Thus training programs were de- able to prioritise the most strategic an effective tool for a more adequate signed in Italy – particularly in the actions and engage in constructive use of the significant resources that are Foundation’s regions of reference dialogue with various organisations. transferred from Italy to Senegal eve- (Piedmont, Lombardy, Emilia Ro- Nowadays, diaspora associations are ry year, particularly in terms of creat- magna and Tuscany) – to promote ca- more inclined and better prepared to ing better opportunities for migrants, pacity building, technical assistance, create partnerships between Senega- their families and microfinance insti- and management skills targeting the lese migrants associations in Italy. In tutions operating in the rural areas of nine diaspora associations involved. this sense it is interesting to note that Senegal. Similar mechanisms are now The courses were organised by the training and institutional building ac- in place between Italy and Ecuador, Italian NGOs involved in the F4A tivities have promoted the establish- and between Italy and Peru, based on initiative. The training program that ment of a network that brings togeth- the same framework, which also rests accompanied the F4A initiative for its er Senegalese migrants associations in on a specific cooperation agreement duration (five years) contributed to Italy. signed in 2012 between ABI (Italian increasing the management, technical Banks Association) and ACRI (Italian and institutional skills of the partici- This is supported by the Coordinat- Association of Foundations of Bank- pating migrant associations. Specifi- ing Committee of Senegalese Associa- ing Origin). cally, it helped to identify the associations of Tuscany in collaboration with tions’ mission more clearly, to consoli- the NGO COSPE in Florence which Bridging between Italy and Senegal date the management and technical counts thirteen member associations In the five years since the creation of skills of the partners, to create strong in Italy to date. This was an independ- the F4A initiative, the concept of co- strategic partnerships between di- ent initiative that is still developing at development has witnessed a number aspora associations and NGOs, and this point: Senegalese associations in of different applications that trans- to better clarify the role of the asso- Italy are operating as a National Fed- lated into various actions for the pro- ciations on Italian soil, where they eration. This is certainly an encourag- motion of the role of migrants. Two operate, and in Senegal, their country ing development issued from internal of these deserve special mention. of origin. It also helped in facilitating reflection, institutional building con- One experience refers to the role of mediation and creating a bridge be- solidation and the definition of long- diaspora groups in the promotion of tween the two countries. term missions for the associations of long-term partnerships between the the Senegalese diaspora in Italy. country of origin and the country of For the duration of the F4A initiative destination. around 100 Senegalese migrants from Promoting saving and remittances the nine partner diaspora associations through rural microfinance In the framework of the F4A, Sen- participated in training and capac- Another peculiar and innovative ex- egalese diaspora associations and ity building activities. It should be perience carried out within the F4A migrants have become the protago- noted that, while effective in paving concerned the mechanism for the nists of long-term partnerships be- the way to long-term benefits, at times valorisation of migrants’ savings and tween Senegal and Italy. Thanks to these activities generated conflict and fostering of rural microfinance insti- their peculiar transnational character discussion within the organisations. tutions. The mechanism was based on and their familiarity with both con- In certain cases this resulted in the an in-depth analysis of possible alter- texts and a feeling of belonging to splitting up of the association or the natives for the canalisation of remit- both countries, migrants associations removal of some members. Further- tances of the diaspora, from Italy to have proved invaluable bridges for more, not all migrants associations Senegal, carried out by CESPI during cooperation between Italy and Sen- involved benefited from training and the first three years of the F4A. The egal for the establishment and the capacity building activities in the aim was the creation of a ‘dedicated promotion of stable and durable re- same way and few of them did not environment’ (or ‘platform’) where all lations between communities in the managed to complete the training the subjects involved (i.e. migrants, two countries. Since 2010 Senegalese paths. Moreover, the partnerships be- Italian and Senegalese banks, money migrants associations have organised tween NGOs and associations did not transfer operators, Senegalese micro- missions to Italy for Senegalese local always run smoothly and effectively finance institutions and families of authorities and civil society organisa- and in some cases, particularly in the Senegalese migrants) could benefit tions. During these missions, meet- early stages, difficulties emerged in from the very considerable value of ings with Italian local authorities, terms of relations and different views migrants’ savings and remittances universities, and civil society organi-

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sations have taken place, partnership sociation Stretta di Mano in Mantova, tivities proved particularly effective agreements between Senegalese and in the context of Carovana4Africa, the also because the actions were organ- Italian authorities have been signed Mayor of Kebemer decided to open ised in both countries and students or renewed, and seminars on migra- the doors of the municipal council to were engaged on the same issues us- tion and other issues concerning the three new members who represent ing similar methods. Methodologies project (e.g. agriculture promotion, migrants from the town of Kebemer and pedagogical tools designed in the microfinance) have been organised who are now living in Italy. first three years of the F4A have been with an active role of Senegalese mi- consolidated and transferred on a grants associations involved across Engaging in awareness raising and wider European scale through ‘Parlez the board. In 2011 around ten Sen- development education activities Vous Global?’This is a project imple- egalese partners and local authorities Another experience that provided mented by a number of Italian NGOs travelled to Italy to participate in spe- yet another interpretation of the F4A’s and one migrant association (Stretta cial events (e.g. conferences, film fes- concept of ‘co-development’ concerns di Mano) that participate at the F4A, tivals, concerts, cultural events, etc.) the role of migrants in development in cooperation with other European organised by Senegalese diaspora education and awareness-raising ac- organisations. Project activities tar- associations in several Italian cities tions carried out in the framework geted teachers and students in seven (i.e. Milan, Treviglio, Faenza, Parma, of the F4A. Between 2009 and 2011 a European and African countries (i.e. Mantova, Siena, Poggibonsi, Florence, number of awareness-raising and de- Italy, France, Austria, Romania, Sen- Turin, Cirié, Grugliasco, and Mon- velopment education activities were egal, Burkina Faso, and Benin) with a calieri) under the common flag of organised for secondary schools stu- focus on migration and the active in- Carovana4Africa. dents (aged fourteen to 18) in Italy volvement of migrants in awareness and Senegal. About 2000 students raising and education issues. Carovana4Africa provided consider- participated in development educa- able visibility to Senegalese migrants tion activities organised in around 30 Conclusions associations allowing for the presen- schools both in Italy and Senegal. 1. After five years of intense activi- tation of diaspora associations and ties to promote and experiment with their activities to a broader Italian Development education actions al- different co-development approaches audience. Carovana4Africa events ways entailed the active participa- between Senegal and Italy, a more not only promoted the recognition tion of migrants acting as animators accurate sense of the meaning of ‘co- of Senegalese diaspora associations and co-educators in school activities. development’ has developed. The nu- in the Italian host territories, but also About 60 migrants were involved in merous ‘lessons learned’ have been allowed visiting local authorities and the design of course curricula, direct taken into account by Italian foun- partner organisations from Senegal to training courses targeting students, dations in the design and launch, in gain a better understanding of the ac- monitoring and evaluation activities, early 2014, of a new joint initiative in tive role that migrants can play both and the promotion of stable partner- Burkina Faso where the promotion of in Italy and in their community of ori- ships between Italian and Senegalese the role of diaspora associations begin. Also thanks to Carovana4Africa, schools. They also participated in tween the two countries represents diaspora associations are considered multi-country pedagogical team ac- once again a key element of a wider as very important stakeholders and tivities to ensure uniformity between programme. It would appear useful to reliable key players in decentralised Italian and Senegalese education ac- share the following conclusions with cooperation mechanisms. tivities. After a first phase of specific experts and organisations involved in training, migrants became the true ‘migration and development’ process- Today, despite the decrease of pub- protagonists of these activities both in es and activities.Diaspora associations lic and private resources for interna- Italy and Senegal. Their ability to un- are authentic and invaluable players tional cooperation programs, several derstand both cultures, to recognise in the development picture and they diaspora associations involved in the and deal with prejudice from both should be recognised as such without F4A promote and participate in decen- sides, and to narrate their own migra- prejudice or bias by the other players tralised cooperation projects support- tion stories to students highlighted involved. ed by Italian authorities or the Euro- the distinctive role that migrants can pean Commission in which a number play in awareness raising and educa- 2. Migrant associations can effective- of Italian and Senegalese public and tion activities. ly ensure long-term impacts through private partners are involved. Again, actions and programs in their country the stronger the diaspora association, Messages, stories and reflections and community of origin. Compared the more active and more effective its about migration and interdepend- to other players (e.g. international role in these projects. Additionally, in ence between different territories of NGOs, bilateral or multilateral coop- some cases, as an additional result, the world can be better disseminated eration organisations) migrants can these processes have helped to pro- and made more effective through the guarantee greater continuity for the mote a more active role of migrants in unique first-person testimonies that interventions developed in their com- the political life of their areas of ori- only migrants can contribute. The ac- munity of origin by virtue of their gin. For example, in 2012 after a visit tive role of migrants in development personal history and trajectories. In- to Italy organised by the migrants as- education and awareness-raising ac- ternational NGOs and cooperation

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programs may move from one area processes. At the same time co-devel- to another (e.g. due to emergency rea- opment also requires a genuine em- sons or to mission changes over time), powerment of diaspora associations but diaspora migrants keep their fo- in actions that are implemented in the cus on the country of origin, where country of destination, for example their roots and family are. with the aim of promoting migrants’ citizenship rights and better living 3. The role of diaspora associations conditions. in development should not be ma- nipulated or overestimated. Migrants associations can be effective players in facilitating change both in the community of origin and in the country of destination, together with other subjects and organisations.

4. ‘From beneficiaries to co-promoters’ should be the paradigmatic change always applied to co-development programs. Migrants should be guaranteed real and active participation in the design, planning, implementation and evaluation of co-development programs in a system that ensures equal conditions and powers to all those involved while recognising mutual limitations and potential.

5. The impact of the participation of diaspora groups in development mechanisms in the country of origin and in the territory of destination can be real and effective only if migrants associations are solid and technically qualified. In this sense it is strongly recommended to envisage long-term training and capacity-building actions for migrants organisations in co- development programs.

6. The contribution of diaspora associations in the area of origin are truly effective only if their actions are in line with local development plans for those territories. It is important that migrants associations shift from a logic of intervention designed to respond to emergency or one-off needs towards wider local development strategies.

7. When supporting co-development mechanisms and models, promoters should always consider transna- tionality as the core approach of the whole intervention. Co-development means ensuring an active role for diaspora associations in direct interventions carried out in the country of origin with the aim of contributing to local development mechanisms and

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Dakar from Ngor

Ngor, Dakar, Senegal, 9 October 2010, Photo | Jeff Attaway

78 SWITCHING PERSPECTIVES: SOUTH-SOUTH MIGRATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT IN SENEGAL South-South migration, just as common as South-North migration, represents a traditional livelihood strategy for millions of people. Beyond linked human rights issues south-south migration’s general impact on local human development in Senegal seems to be quite positive. This is confirmed by the case of Guinean Manjacks and Ghanaian fishermen, who resettled in the Casamance region.

by Jette Christiansen* & Livia Manente**

*Research Officer & **Research Assistant ACP Observatory on Migration BELGIUM

Introduction

Traditionally, mobility between de- flows not only represent a traditional migration, with latest figures showing veloping countries has received con- livelihood strategy for millions of 82.3 million international migrants siderably less attention than South- people in the global South, they are from the South living in the South and North migration. Yet, South-South also just as common as South-North slightly fewer (81.9 million) from the

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South living in the North (UN DESA Observatory on Migration1. In conclu- intraregional flows have been com- 2013). The importance of South-South sion, the paper argues that the pro- bined with small numbers of Sen- migration is particularly relevant in tection of migrant rights is a neces- egalese emigrants leaving for South West Africa both in terms of mag- sary first step for promoting positive America and Asia. Southern China, in nitude as well as potential positive impacts of South-South migration on particular, has been a destination for impacts for migrants and their com- human development in the West Af- Senegalese working as traders, busi- munities. In fact, only one-fourth of rica region. nessmen, or in the informal sector migrants from this region move to the (Manente 2012 and Skeldon 2011). In global North, whereas internal and South-South migration in Senegal: addition, primarily young, Senegalese intraregional mobility is prevalent Magnitude and Trends men have migrated to South America, (Awumbila et al. 2014). The majority Although traditionally considered a in particular Brazil and Argentina. (76%) of international migrants from country of destination for migrants IOM Buenos Aires reports the arrival West Africa reside within the region from the region, more recently Sen- of approximately 3,000 Africans to (UN DESA 2012). However, most gov- egal has also become a country of Argentina over several years, half of ernments in the region have not yet emigration to countries in both the them hailing from Senegal. Although made South-South migration policy- global North (52.8 % of emigration) many of these migrants may have making a priority, including protec- and South (47.2%). originally planned to transit through tion and integration issues, which can the region en route to North America, have negative repercussions not only According to UN DESA (2013), there they have stayed and are working in for migrants and their families, but are 251, 554 Senegalese emigrants re- the informal market, including handi- also for host communities (Gagnon et siding in other countries of the South. crafts, restaurants and street vending al. 2010; ACP Observatory on Migra- The top countries of destination for (IOM 2012). tion 2013). Senegalese migrants in the South include The Gambia (100,736) Mauri- Reasons for emigration are primar- Against this background, this paper tania (45,775), Gabon (29,057), Cote ily related to the search for improved focuses on South-South migration in d’Ivoire (21,359) and Mali (12,310), employment opportunities and living Senegal and its impacts on human showing that most South-South emi- conditions (IOM 2009). As mentioned, development for migrants and their gration occurs within the ECOWAS migration is an important livelihood communities. First, Senegal’s South- region. Over the past ten years, these strategy not only for the individual South migration flows, including migrant, but also for entire communi- magnitude and trends, are briefly de- ties (IOM 2009; ACP Observatory on scribed. Next, the challenges faced by 1 The ACP Observatory on Migration, Migration 2013). In addition to these these migrants in terms of exploita- established in 2010, aims to produce data on economic considerations, the conflict tion, discrimination and rights abuse South–South migration within ACP countries in Casamance2 has also forced many to be used by migrants, civil society and policy- are highlighted. Finally, examples of makers; enhance research capacities and capa- the various concrete local impacts of bilities in ACP countries; and facilitate the creation of a network of research institutions and 2 The Casamance conflict is a civil war South-South migration in the Casa- between the State of Senegal and the Move- mance region are described, relying experts on migration research. The ACP Obser- vatory on Migration is an initiative of the ACP ment of Democratic Forces of Casamance primarily on the results of a recent Secretariat, funded by the European Union, (Mouvement des Forces démocratiques de la study conducted by the University implemented by the International Organization Casamance – MFDC). Founded during the colonial period (1947), the Movement has been of Ziguinchor on behalf of the ACP for Migration and with the financial support of Switzerland, IOM, the IOM Development Fund fighting for the independence of the region and UNFPA. since 1982. Peace negotiations mediated by the Sant’Egidio community took place in Decem- ber 2012, but the consequences of the conflict

Figure 1: Emigration from Senegal to global North and South. Source: Data from UN DESA (2013)

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Figure 2: Immigration to Senegal from global South and North. Source: Data from UN DESA (2013)

of the region’s inhabitants to leave According to UN DESA (2013), there affected by trafficking, with NGOs their homes. were 209,396 immigrants in Senegal estimating that over 50,000 children in 2013. Of these, 89 per cent were in Senegal are forced to beg, most Geographical and cultural proximity from other countries in the South (see commonly as talibes, students of Ko- as well as linguistic, ethnic, family Figure 2). Top countries of origin in ran schools, run by teachers known and social ties are important factors the South include Mauritania (40,955), as marabouts (US State Department influencing Senegalese migrants to Guinea (39,594), Mali (26,193), Guin- 2013). Girls from Mali and Niger have choose to migrate to another coun- ea Bissau (22,670), and Sierra Leone also been reported begging in Dakar try in West Africa (ACP Observatory (11,453), highlighting again the high (Coulibaly 2012). 2013). In addition, the lower costs and level of intraregional migration (UN the 1979 ECOWAS Protocol on the free DESA 2013). Immigrants are reported Although the migration of children movement of persons, the right of estab- to be working in agriculture, fishing, entails many risks, NGOs and inter- lishment and residence have spurred production and processing, and a national organizations working to such intraregional migration (Gagnon variety of informal sectors including protect children have noted that ef- et al. 2010). Social networks of mi- artisanal gold mining (IOM 2009 and forts to prevent their migration were grants within the region also play an Dièye Gueye 2014). In some cases, im- largely ineffective, due to the histori- important role in this sense, as newly migrants or internal migrants from cal, cultural and religious as well as arrived migrants tend to be hired by rural areas are replacing depart- economic and social contexts of child their co-nationals in certain economic ing emigrants in the labour market mobility. In addition, some studies sectors, for example Senegalese mi- (Awumbila et al., 2013). The commer- have shown that this mobility not grants in the fishing sector in Gambia cial agriculture sector, in particular only represents an important sur- (Awumbila et al. 2013). Other factors draws its labour supply for seasonal vival strategy in West Africa, but also influencing the choice to migrate with migration from the region. brings opportunities and positive im- the region are increased economic pacts for children in terms of educa- growth and opportunities in some South-South migration in Senegal: a tion and health if risks are prevented countries, such as The Gambia, as matter of rights and safe migration is ensured (Projet well as increasingly restrictive migra- Next to the search for economic op- «Mobilités» 2011). In fact, fostering tion policies in the North (Gagnon et portunities, displacement due to en- of children, who often move to other al. 2010). Finally, the ease of return vironmental reasons and conflict in communities or countries to live with and circulation migration within the neighboring countries as well as hu- relatives or an extended network, is region may encourage Senegalese man trafficking bring people to Sen- a common practice in many African emigrants to migrate to a neighbor- egal. Although internal trafficking is countries. At least in some circum- ing country, rather than to the North more prevalent, boys from The Gam- stances, this tradition can be benefi- (ACP Observatory 2013). bia, Mali, Guinea-Bissau, and Guinea cial for children, leading to improved have been trafficked into forced beg- living standards and access to better ging and forced labor in artisanal gold services or education opportunities mines and agriculture in Senegal (US (Beegle, K. et al. 2009). However, it on both human and economic development are still visible. It is estimated that the conflict has State Department 2013). Senegalese can also be related to exploitative con- caused the death of at least 1,200 civilians and women and girls are trafficked into ditions as described above. soldiers, 600 victims of mines, 60,000 internally domestic servitude and prostitution, displaced persons, 13,000 refugees to The Gam- most recently in the southeast gold- Similar to those migrating to the bia and Guinea-Bissau, 231 abandoned villages and 4,000 students unable to attend school (PR- mining region of Kedougou (Daffé North, emigrants in West Africa can OCAS 2005 and Manga 2012 in Dièye Gueye 2012). Overall, children are the most face discrimination abroad (Gagnon 2014).

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et al. 2010). A recent study on Senega- Impacts of South-South migration in portant in the context of South-South lese migrants in Côte d’Ivoire and The Senegal migration. While financial remit- Gambia found that they often work Despite the human rights abuse and tances affect primarily the recipient in the informal economy carrying exploitation described above, recent household, the entire community out precarious low-income jobs with studies have also shown that under can benefit from social remittances in bad working conditions, few oppor- the right circumstances South-South terms of acquired competences, skills tunities and limited social protection flows can have a broad range of posi- and attitudes. (Coulibaly et al. 2013). In addition, tive impacts on human development they face inequalities in key areas like in communities of origin and desti- The impact of South-South migra- health and education in comparison nation as well as for migrants them- tion on local development in Sen- to the nationals of their host country. selves, most prominently in the areas egal: the case of the Casamance re- The study found, for instance, that of income, education and health (ACP gion3 Senegalese migrants as non-citizens Observatory on Migration 2013). A recent study commissioned by the end up paying twice the price to ac- ACP Observatory on Migration and cess health services (Coulibaly et al. Positive contributions of migrants in- carried out by Dièye Gueye has in- 2013). clude skills and knowledge transfers vestigated the potential of intangible (and other social remittances) as well transfers arising from the experience Social exclusion and rights abuse as financial transfers, which can bring of Manjack migrants and Ghanaian can significantly hinder any poten- improvements in terms of income, fishermen residing in the Casamance tial positive impacts that migration education and health. Despite these region. Despite the conflict which af- could otherwise have for migrants positive impacts for many Senegalese fected the region for the past 30 years, themselves and their communities of households, remittances can also lead Casamance is an important commer- origin and destination, including in to increasing inequalities in commu- cial hub for the sub-region thanks to the areas of income, education and nities of origin, including a 60 per cent its geographic position and the vari- health. While migrants tend to rely income disparity between households ety of its products. This trans-bound- on their social/community network receiving remittances and those that ary dimension makes this region the to limit the exposure to precarious- do not (IOM 2009). perfect environment to research the ness and vulnerability, the protection impact of migration on local develop- of migrant rights through an institu- The impact of social remittances, ment in Senegal (Dièye Gueye 2014). tionalized social protection system namely “the flows of ideas, knowl- and their inclusion in host commu- edge, attitudes, behaviours, identities 3 This section is based on the study nities are preconditions to enabling and social capital transmitted through by Dièye Gueye, D. “Transferts immateri- positive contributions of migrants to migrants to family, friends and be- els et migrations sud-sud: Quel impact sur human development (Coulibaly et al. yond in the sending country commu- le developpement local en Casamance, 2013; Marzo and Melde 2013). nities” (Levitt 1988) is particularly im- Gambie et Guinée Bissau?”. ACP Obser- vatory on Migration/IOM, 2014.

Figure 3: Casamance region of Senegal. Source: DGTC in Dièye Gueye 2014.

G A M Pata B BANJUL I Ndiamakouta E Medina-Yorofoula Némataba

N4 Ndoma Vélingara Fafakourou Diouloulou Djibidione Bounkiling Kandia Oulampane Diaroum Abéné Djinaki Sindian Bona Suel Saré Bidji Kafountine N5 KOLDA Bagadadji N6 Kounka Kartiak Sakar Diana Malari Mampatim BIGNONA Sansamba Kolibantang Dabo Balingor Tangori MARSASSOUM Djindé Dioulacolon Wassadou THIONK-ESSYL Tankanto Escale N4 Karantaba Koumbakara Ouonk Sédhiou Sandinier Salikéni Afiniam Nianga Diogué Bambali Tanaf Miomp ZIGUINCHOR N6 GOUDOMP Diattakounda Karabane B I S S A Niaguis E E - U Elinkine Oussouye Djibanar N Samine Escale I G U 0 10 20 km Cap Skirring www.ausegenegal.com - D'après carte DTGC

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Hailing from the region of Cacheu in ean migrants has led to a visible de- allowing them to attend school also Guinea-Bissau, the Manjack ethnic velopment of the fishery industry during menstruation. group has a long migratory tradition with positive repercussions for the within West Africa. Emigration to local economy in Casamance. In fact, In Elinkine, the Ghanaian community Senegal started at the end of 19th cen- while the local population had no exis also well integrated in the village tury; the country was offering work perience with offshore fishery, Gha- and the enrollment in the Ghanaian opportunities and representing an es- naian fishermen have introduced not primary school is open to Senegalese cape from the brutality of Portuguese only new fishing techniques but also children, who can therefore benefit colonization. This migratory trend their know-how on fish drying, an ex- from a bilingual education in English further increased in the 1960s and pertise which guarantees an increased and French at an early age. In this continues today. Similarly, Ghanaian sanitary standard and eventually fa- case, the integration of Ghanaian mi- fishermen started settling in Dakar cilitates the export of this product. grants has thus led to positive effects and more recently in the western is- Furthermore, the increased demand for both the migrants and the commu- lands of Ziguinchor (Casamance) to for this product has had a positive nity of destination. carry out fishing and fish processing impact also on the transport sector, as activities since the 1950s. Currently, convoys of trucks of dried fish regu- Intangible transfers can have a posi- more than 2,000 Ghanaian fishermen larly head off from the coast of Casa- tive impact also on art and cultural are estimated to live in the areas of mance to Ghana and Ivory Coast. The traditions. A case in point is the Abé- Cap-Skirring, Elinkine, Diogué, Kaf- potential of fishermen migrants has né Festival, initiated by migrants and ountine, and Saloulou (Dièye Gueye been recognised by Senegalese local the local rural community, which pro- 2014). authorities in Kafountine through the motes the artistic scene of the area. In establishment of a partnership be- terms of traditions, migrants abroad The study reveals that South-South tween the Ghanaian community and are initiating a change in cultural migration towards the Casamance re- the inhabitants of the village. This values with regards to funerary ritu- gion has had positive impacts on hu- collaboration aimed at promoting the als. Often financing these ceremonies man development in Senegal thanks insertion of young unemployed Sen- through remittances, migrants abroad to the intangible transfers from these egalese in the fishery sector demon- are advocating for cost reduction so two migrant communities to the lo- strates how inclusion is a key element as to enable increased investment in cal population. Intangible transfers for maximizing the positive impact more productive causes. can have a multiplier effect which is of migration and that efforts by local often missing in the case of financial government or community actors can Impacts on health and the environment transfers. Social remittances transmit- help promote such positive contribu- Awareness-raising sessions on differ- ted back to their community of origin tions. ent topics related to health are held by by Senegalese migrants abroad and immigrants on a regular basis in dif- returnees also emerge as a key feature Lastly, positive impacts of social re- ferent locations in Casamance, rang- for development. mittances have been observed also in ing from the use of impregnated mos- the cattle breeding sector. In Nyassia, quito nets to the importance of hand- Based on the findings of the study, for instance, returned migrants have washing with soap after defecation. it can be argued that intangible and transmitted their knowledge to local social transfers originating from mi- pork farmers who now supply pork Finally, the impact of intangible trans- gration (both towards and from Casa- meat in Guinea Bissau, where the de- fers on the environment is less evident mance) do have a positive impact mand is high especially during fes- and not necessarily positive. In fact, on human development and should tivities. deforestation is being experienced therefore be taken into consideration in Casamance because firewood is in development plans. In particular, Impacts on education and culture needed for the process of smoking intangible and social transfers have In the region of Kolda, migrants are fish. Yet positive impacts related to positive effects in the following fields: active members of community life this process can also be observed. In and participate in local radio broad- the region of Ziguinchor, for instance, Impact on economic activities casting. In particular, they take part in techniques introduced by Ghanaian In the agricultural sector, Manjack sessions aimed at stressing the impor- fishermen have led to an enhanced re- migrants have introduced innovative tance of schooling, especially for girls, spect for the environment in the fish- techniques for cashew nut process- and the registration of new births in ing industry thanks to the recycling of ing in Senegal. Despite the fact that the State records. As a result, the lo- scales and other fish guts into animal the potential of this sector is not fully cal population of Kolda considers mi- feed. exploited, the Manjack are recognized grants veritable actors of local devel- as playing a key role in the produc- opment. The high school graduation Conclusion tion and retail of this product both in rate has increased from less than 30 South-South migration can represent Senegal and in Guinea-Bissau. per cent to more than 60 per cent, in many positive, but currently largely part thanks to the involvement of mi- unexplored, impacts for migrants, In the fishery sector, the transfer of grants, who promoted, inter alia, the their families and communities. More knowledge from Ghanaian and Guin- building of separate toilets for girls, research and informed policy efforts

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are necessary in the global South, es- BN05. http://www.acpmigration-obs. ment and human rights in African, Ca- pecially in regions like West Africa, org/Background%20notes. Accessed ribbean and Pacific countries. ACP Ob- where South-South flows account for on 28 February 2014. servatory on Migration/IOM. http:// the majority of mobility. www.acpmigration-obs.org/sites/de- Coulibaly O.K. et al., 2013. Protection fault/files/BN%2011%20Migrants%20 Given that migrants often face similar sociale des migrants sénégalais en Rights%20EN.pdf. Accessed on 11 challenges in both the global North Gambie et en Côte D’Ivoire: Atouts et March 2014. and South, policy initiatives in both contraintes. ACP Observatory on Mi- developing and developed countries gration/IOM, Brussels. http://www. Ponce, P., 2010. Aperçu national sur must place emphasis on ensuring mi- acpmigration-obs.org/sites/default/ les migrations sud-sud et le dévelop- grants’ rights and promoting their so- files/Senegal-Droits-Report-corr.pdf. pement au Sénégal. Tendances et be- cial inclusion. Only then, can migra- Accessed on 11 March 2014. soins en recherche. ACP Observatory tion have sustained positive impacts on Migration/IOM. http://www.acp- for both migrants and their commu- Daffé, L., 2012. Gold rush in Kédou- migration-obs.org/sites/default/files/ nities of origin and destination. As gou, Senegal: Protecting migrants and Senegal-CtryOverview-15022013.pdf. shown in several examples above, local communities. In Global Accessed on 11 March 2014. when local and national governments Eye on Human Trafficking, Is- engage with migrants as actors of de- sue 11, March 2012, http://pub- Projet «Mobilités»,2011. 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The Master of Arts in from 2 July 2014, non EU [email protected] Human Rights and Conflict January 2015 17 September 2014, EU www.humanrights.sssup.it Management

88 ITPCM International Commentary DecemberApril 20132014 ISSN. 2239-7949

THE ITPCM

Staff members & Contacts:

Director: Prof. Andrea de Guttry [email protected]

Peace Keeping Branch the ITPCM venue in Pisa, archive photo

Rossella Altamura Project Officer [email protected] Matteo Bartolini Project Officer [email protected] Annalisa Creta Research Fellow [email protected] Alessia Lenci Project Officer [email protected] Emanuele Sommario Research Fellow [email protected]

International Disasters Decentralised Cooperation Editing & Media Response Branch Branch Michele Gonnelli Matteo Bonfanti Fabrizio Coticchia Editor in Chief, Research Fellow Research Fellow The ITPCM [email protected] [email protected] International Commentary, Francesca Capone Annarosa Mezzasalma Media Manager Research Fellow Project Officer [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Enrica Pautasso Luisa Nardi Project Manager Research Fellow Secretariat & Logistics [email protected] [email protected] Serena Rossignoli Federica Faldella Project Officer [email protected] Address [email protected] Pasqualetta Campus [email protected] Via Cardinale Maffi, 27 56127 Pisa - ITALY tel: +39 050 882685 fax: +39 050 882665 [email protected]; International Training Programme www.itpcm.sssup.it for Conflict Management

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91 The ITPCM International Commentary

ISSN. 2239-7949 Vol. X no. 35