Intra- Und Interspezifische Chemische Kommunikation Von Insekten

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Intra- Und Interspezifische Chemische Kommunikation Von Insekten Intra- und interspezifische chemische Kommunikation von Insekten Identifizierung und Synthese flüchtiger Signalstoffe Dissertation zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades des Fachbereichs Chemie der Universität Hamburg Vorgelegt von Fernando Ibarra aus Hamburg Hamburg 2002 Gutachter: Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. W. Francke Prof. Dr. W. A. König II Die vorliegende Arbeit wurde in der Zeit vom März 1998 bis Dezember 2001 unter der Betreuung von Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. W. Francke am Institut für Organische Chemie der Universität Hamburg durchgeführt. Meinem Doktorvater, Herrn Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Wittko Francke danke ich für die Überlassung des interessanten Themas und für die organisatorische Freiheit, die er mir bei der Gestaltung dieser Arbeit ließ. Auch für die Ermöglichung der vielen Forschungsreisen, die entscheidend zum Erfolg dieser interdisziplinären Arbeit beigetragen haben, möchte ich mich an dieser Stelle herzlich bei ihm bedanken. III Para Jana y Nahuel por la fuerza y alegría que siempre me regalaron. IV 1 Einleitung 1 2 Themenübersicht 6 2.1 Intra- und interspezifische Kommunikation bei Hymenopteren 6 2.2 Attraktivität von Blütenduftstoffen für Insekten 7 3 Interaktionen zwischen Blütenpflanzen und deren Bestäubern 8 3.1 Sexualmimikry in der Orchideengattung Ophrys 9 3.1.1 Ophrys speculum - Campsoscolia ciliata 12 3.1.2 Ophrys sphegodes - Ophrys fusca - Ophrys bilunulata 27 3.1.3 Ophrys panattensis - Osmia rufa 31 3.1.4 Ophrys bertolonii - Chalicodoma sicula 35 3.2 Sexualmimikry bei australischen Orchideen der Gattung Chiloglottis 38 3.2.1 Chiloglottis trapeziformis 40 3.2.2 Massenspektrometrische Untersuchung von alkylierten 1,3-Cyclohexandionen 49 3.3 Gemeinsamkeiten im Duftbukett verschiedener Blütenpflanzen mit dem gleichen Bestäuberinsekt: Autographa gamma 54 4 Untersuchungen von brutparasitierenden Hymenopteren und ihren Wirten 62 4.1 Nomada marshamella - Andrena scotica 63 4.2 Polyergus rufescens - Formica cunicularia 73 4.3 Psithyrus vestalis - Bombus terrestris 78 4.4 Psithyrus norvegicus - Bombus hypnorum 83 V 5 Dominanzverhalten bei sozialen Bienen 88 5.1 Bombus impatiens 90 5.2 Bombus occidentalis 97 5.3 Evylaeus albipes 100 5.4 Lasioglossum marginatum 104 5.5 Apis mellifera 107 6 Chemische Kommunikation im Paarungsverhalten von Hymenopteren 111 6.1 Osmia rufa 112 6.2 Osmia cornuta 117 6.3 Bombus terrestris 120 7 Zusammenfassung 124 8 Summary 128 9 Experimenteller Teil 129 9.1 Allgemeines 129 9.2 Derivatisierung der Naturextrakte 130 9.3 Synthesen 131 10 Literatur 151 11 Abkürzungsverzeichnis 158 12 Sicherheitshinweise 159 13 Anhang 168 VI To that gaunt House of Art which lacks for naught Of all the great things men have saved from Time, The withered body of a girl was brought Dead ere the world’s glad youth had touched its prime, And seen by lonely Arabs lying hid In the dim womb of some black pyramid. But when they had unloosed the linen band Which swathed the Egyptian’s body,- lo! was found Closed in the wasted hollow of her hand A little seed, which sown in English ground Did wondrous snow of starry blossoms bear, And spread rich odors through our springtide air. With such strange arts this flower did allure That all forgotten was the asphodel, And the brown bee, the lily’s paramour, Forsook the cup where he was wont to dwell, For not a thing of earth it seemed to be, But stolen from some heavenly Arcady. [...] (Aus "Athanasia" von Oscar Wilde, 1890) VII 1 Einleitung Das als chemische Ökologie bezeichnete interdisziplinäres Forschungsfeld gehört zu den faszinierendsten Gebieten der Naturwissenschaften. Es verknüpft verschiedene Disziplinen der Biologie, wie Ökologie, Evolution oder Ethologie mit unterschiedlichsten Bereichen der Chemie. Dazu gehören die Isolierung und Reinigung von Naturstoffen im Nanogrammbereich, deren Identifizierung mit modernen Analysetechniken ebenso wie die Synthese von Substanzen nahezu aller Naturstoffklassen. Diese Substanzen müssen nach erfolgreicher Identifizierung und Synthese auf biologische Aktivität getestet werden. Eine solche Herausforderung kann nur durch intensive Zusammenarbeit zwischen Chemikern und Biologen gelöst werden. Als relativ junge Wissenschaft beschäftigt sich die chemische Ökologie mit inter- oder intraspezifischen Wechselwirkungen von Organismen. Am Beginn ihrer Entwicklung lag das Interesse in den vielfältigen Lebensgemeinschaften der Insekten. Dazu dürfte beigetragen haben, daß Insekten für den Menschen in vielerlei Weise wirtschaftlich relevant sind. Andererseits zeigen Insekten häufig eindeutige Reaktionen auf Signalstoffe, wodurch verhaltensbiologische Untersuchungen erleichtert werden. Von den zahlreichen Beispielen sollen auf der Seite der für menschliche Interessen nützlichen Tiere nur der Seidenspinner Bombyx mori und die Honigbiene Apis mellifera genannt sein. (E)-10-(Z)-12-Hexadecadienol (Bombykol, (1)), das Sexualpheromon des weiblichen Seidenspinners, war das erste Pheromon welches überhaupt identifiziert wurde1. Butenandt benötigte in dieser Geburtsstunde der chemischen Ökologie* die enorme Menge von 500 000 Seidenspinnerweibchen, um die relevanten Substanzen zu isolieren und zu identifizieren. Die Honigbiene spielt als Honiglieferant schon seit Menschengedenken eine Rolle in unserer Ernährung und ist als prominentestes staatenbildendes Insekt hinsichtlich der chemischen Kommunikation sicherlich am besten untersucht. Auch für die Honigbiene sind schon Anfang der sechziger Jahre Botenstoffe identifiziert worden2, die wie 9-Oxo-(E)-2-decensäure (9-ODA, (2)) nicht nur eine Rolle in der Paarungsbiologie spielen3, sondern auch wichtige Funktionen in der Schwarmstabilisierung4 und zur Unterdrückung der Fertilität von Arbeiterinnen besitzen5. * Zwar hatte es im Bereich der Insektenkommunikation schon lange vorher enorme Anstrengungen sowohl von Biologen als auch von Chemikern gegeben, die Identifizierung des Bombykols lieferte jedoch den ersten eindeutigen Beweis für die Signalwirkung chemischer Substanzen und verhalf diesem Forschungszweig zu starkem Auftrieb. 1 O O OH OH (1) (2) Abb. 1-1: Bombykol (1) und 9-Oxo-(E)-2-decensäure (2) als Beispiele für Insekten- pheromone von Nützlingen. Schadinsekten stellen selbstverständlich ebenso eine Herausforderung in der chemischen Ökologie dar, da diese erheblichen wirtschaftlichen Schaden anrichten können. Auch hier seien mit Borkenkäfern und Termiten nur zwei der bekannteren Beispiele genannt. Borkenkäfer wurden schon frühzeitig untersucht, da man sich erhoffte, eine Möglichkeit der biologischen Kontrolle dieser Holzschädlinge zu erhalten. Baumharz und die darin enthaltenen Terpene wurden schon in den fünfziger Jahren als Lockmittel erkannt6. In der Folgezeit fand man bei Borkenkäfern eine Reihe weiterer Verbindungen, die für die intraspezifische Kommunikation eine herausragende Rolle spielen. Insbesondere bicyclische Acetale wie das schon 1968 beschriebene Brevicomin (3) des nordamerikanischen Borkenkäfers Dendroctonus brevicomis7 und Spiroacetale sind in diesem Zusammenhang erwähnenswert8,9. Auch Termiten spielen als holzschädigende Insekten eine wichtige Rolle. Als Destruenten von totem Holz sind sie in natürlichen Biotopen zwar von außerordentlicher Bedeutung da sie den Kreislauf organischer Materie unterstützen, doch laufen ihre Freßgewohnheiten menschlichen Bestrebungen zuwider, möglichst langlebige Bauwerke zu errichten und zu erhalten. In warmen Klimaten, wo Termiten ihre stärkste Verbreitung finden, verursachen sie jährlich Schäden in Milliardenhöhe10,11. Im Falle der Borkenkäfer haben die Bemühungen chemischer Ökologen dazu geführt, daß für einige Arten Lockstofffallen entwickelt wurden, die durch Massenfang wenigstens zu einer Verminderung der Schäden führen können. Dies ist bei Termiten bislang noch nicht gelungen. Bei deren Bekämpfung ist man nach wie vor auf Insektizide angewiesen, die sowohl aus toxikologischer als auch aus ökologischer Sicht als äußerst bedenklich eingestuft werden müssen. Das Verständnis der chemischen Ökologie dieser Tiere ist bisher nur wenig erschlossen und schreitet nur langsam voran. So wurde erst kürzlich bei einer Reihe nicht verwandter Termitenarten Hydrochinon (4) als universelles fraßstimulierendes chemisches Signal identifiziert12. Inwieweit die Verbindung zur biologischen Kontrolle von Termiten nutzbar ist, muß noch durch Feldversuche geklärt werden. 2 OH O O OH (3) (4) Abb. 1-2: (1R,5S,7R)-Brevicomin (3) und Hydrochinon (4) als Beispiele für Pheromone von Schädlingen. Die in dieser Arbeit untersuchten Insekten zählen hauptsächlich zu den Hautflüglern (Ordnung: Hymenoptera) und werden mehrheitlich als ökonomisch nicht relevant eingestuft. Ausnahmen bilden jedoch die Honigbiene, einige Hummelarten und in der biologischen Kontrolle von Schadinsekten erfolgreich eingesetzte Parasitoide sowie einige obstschädigende Pflanzenwespen. Gleichwohl bietet diese überaus artenreiche Ordnung - in Mitteleuropa sind mehr als 11 000 verschiedene Hymenopterenarten bekannt - eine Fülle unterschiedlicher Lebensweisen, die sie zu einem faszinierenden Studienobjekt machen. So findet man abgesehen von den Termiten, die eine eigene Ordnung im Tierreich bilden (Isoptera), alle bekannten Fälle von hoch eusozialer Lebensweise bei Insekten in der Ordnung der Hautflügler. Die eusoziale Lebensweise zeichnet sich unter anderem durch eine Aufteilung der Reproduktion und anderer Aufgaben innerhalb eines Volkes aus. Das Monopol für die Fortpflanzung liegt bei einer Königin (in den selteneren Fällen der Polygynie kommen mehrere Königinnen in einem Volk vor). Ihre überwiegend weiblichen Nachkommen übernehmen
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