16 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 10

M a c q u Rylstone a

r i e Coricudgy

R i v e

r

e g

n CC a Orange R

Wyong

g n i Gosford

Bathurst d

i Lithgow

v Mt Tomah i

Blayney D R. y

r Windsor C t u

a o b Oberon s e x r e s G k Penrith

w

a R Parramatta CT H i

ve – Sydney

r n a

Abe e Liverpool rcro p

m e b Botany Bay ie N R Camden iv Picton er er iv R y l l i Wollongong

d

n

o l l o W N Berry

NSW Nowra 050 Sydney kilometres

Map of the Sydney region

For the Ecology of Sydney Plant Species the Sydney region is defined as the Central Coast and Central Tablelands botanical subdivisions. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 10 17

Ecology of Sydney plant species

Part 10 Monocotyledon families Lemnaceae to Zosteraceae

Doug Benson and Lyn McDougall

Royal Botanic Gardens and Domain Trust, Sydney, AUSTRALIA 2000. Email: [email protected]

Abstract: Ecological data in tabular form are provided on 668 plant species of the families Lemnaceae to Zosteraceae, 505 native and 163 exotics, occurring in the Sydney region, defined by the Central Coast and Central Tablelands botanical subdivisions of New South Wales (approximately bounded by Lake Macquarie, Orange, Crookwell and Nowra). Relevant Local Government Areas are Auburn, Ashfield, Bankstown, Bathurst, Baulkham Hills, Blacktown, Blayney, Blue Mountains, Botany, Burwood, Cabonne, Camden, Campbelltown, Canada Bay, Canterbury, Cessnock, Crookwell, Evans, Fairfield, Greater Lithgow, Gosford, Hawkesbury, Holroyd, Hornsby, Hunters Hill, Hurstville, Kiama, Kogarah, Ku-ring-gai, Lake Macquarie, Lane Cove, Leichhardt, Liverpool, Manly, Marrickville, Mosman, Mulwaree, North Sydney, Oberon, Orange, Parramatta, Penrith, Pittwater, Randwick, Rockdale, Ryde, Rylstone, Shellharbour, Shoalhaven, Singleton, South Sydney, Strathfield, Sutherland, Sydney City, Warringah, Waverley, Willoughby, Wingecarribee, Wollondilly, Wollongong, Woollahra and Wyong. The study area falls within the Sydney Basin IBRA Bioregion. Families are: Lemnaceae, Liliaceae, Lomandraceae, Luzuriagaceae, Najadaceae, Orchidaceae, Philydraceae, Phormiaceae, Poaceae, Pontederiaceae, Posidoniaceae, Potamogetonaceae, Restionaceae, Ripogonaceae, Smilacaceae, Sparganiaceae, Thismiaceae, Typhaceae, Uvulariaceae, Xanthorrhoeaceae, Xyridaceae, Zingiberaceae, Zosteraceae. Data are derived from herbarium collections, literature and field observations. It is hoped that the many, often alarming gaps in the information available will stimulate much-needed research into the ecology of more of the species. Information is provided so far as available to us for each plant species in the following categories: Life History: Growth form, vegetative spread, longevity, primary juvenile period (time from germination to fruiting), reproduction, flowering and fruiting times, fruit/seed type, dispersal, establishment and growth, fire response, interaction with other organisms. Distribution: Status/origin (native/naturalised), botanical subregions, distribution in Sydney area, selected locations. Habitat: Habitat, altitude, annual rainfall, typical local abundance, vegetation, substrate, exposure. Conservation: Conservation status. Cunninghamia (2005) 9(1): 16Ð212

Introduction Part 10 of the Ecology of Sydney plant species covers the Monocotyledon families alphabetically from Lemnaceae The Ecology of Sydney plant species aims to provide to Zosteraceae and includes Poaceae. ecological information on native and naturalised Sydney plants. Particular emphasis has been given to data that are Methods relevant for ecologists and natural area managers, for people involved in bush regeneration, land rehabilitation and Part 10 follows the format used in Parts 1Ð9 (Benson & landscape design, for researchers in many fields and for a McDougall 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 1998, 1999, 2000, wide range of people who are interested in bushland and 2001. 2002). The Sydney region is defined as the Central native plants. Species-specific information is also relevant to Coast and Central Tablelands botanical subdivisions (i.e. environmental impact assessment and to studies involving approximately bounded by Lake Macquarie, Orange, changes in drainage, water movement, wind exposure, Crookwell and Nowra) (Fig. 1). This is the area broadly nutrient conditions and fire regimes on plant species and plant covered by Flora of the Sydney Region (Carolin & Tindale communities. Information included covers growth form, 1993), with the exception that the Hunter Valley is not flowering and fruiting times, longevity and maturation included here since it lies within the North Coast and Central periods, pollination and seed dispersal data, distribution, Western Slopes subdivisions. Relevant Local Government habitat and plant community, as well as responses to fire and Areas are Auburn, Ashfield, Bankstown, Bathurst, Baulkham disturbance where available and is complementary to the Hills, Blacktown, Blayney, Blue Mountains, Botany, descriptive texts in taxonomic handbooks such as the Flora Burwood, Cabonne, Camden, Campbelltown, Canada Bay, of New South Wales (Harden 1990Ð93). Canterbury, Cessnock, Crookwell, Evans, Fairfield, Greater 18 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 10

Lithgow, Gosford, Hawkesbury, Holroyd, Hornsby, Hunters Information categories Hill, Hurstville, Kiama, Kogarah, Ku-ring-gai, Lake Macquarie, Lane Cove, Leichhardt, Liverpool, Manly, For each species or subspecies, information is presented Marrickville, Mosman, Mulwaree, North Sydney, Oberon, under headings relating to different life-history aspects, each Orange, Parramatta, Penrith, Pittwater, Randwick, Rockdale, with further subdivisions. Emphasis has been given to Ryde, Rylstone, Shellharbour, Shoalhaven, Singleton, South understanding the species in its wild habitat. For this reason Sydney, Strathfield, Sutherland, Sydney City, Warringah, data on cultivation and artificial propagation, available in Waverley, Willoughby, Wingecarribee, Wollondilly, horticultural books, are generally not included. Likewise Wollongong, Woollahra and Wyong. The study area falls information on weed control is not given. Generally, the within the Sydney Basin IBRA bioregion (Interim categories are broadly interpreted and since the project aims Biogeographic Regionalisation for Australia). to stimulate further investigation, we welcome the addition of extra data on any other aspects of the plant’s ecology. The Sydney region, as defined here, includes approximately 3500 plant species, both native and naturalised. To deal A ‘comments’ section has been deliberately avoided; for all effectively with this number, the work has been divided into information retrieval purposes, all ecological material should parts each of approximately 350 species based on plant be attributable to some life history aspect of the plant or its families beginning with ferns, Cycads and Gymnosperms, habitat although, even with our broad categories there have and then Dicotyledon and Monocotyledon families. Within been problems with ‘Vegetation‘ and ‘Substrate’ sections for these groups, families, genera and species are arranged specialised lifeforms such as mistletoes. The main purpose alphabetically: of this information is to give a picture of the ecology of particular species as is currently known. It is not primarily Part 1: Ferns, Fern allies, Cycads and Conifers, for comparative purposes although it can be used in this way. Dicotyledon families Acanthaceae to One of our original aims was to demonstrate that closely Asclepiadaceae (Cunninghamia 3(2) 1993) related species may have different ecologies and that to Part 2: Dicotyledon families Asteraceae to Buddlejaceae generalise within genera, for example, rather than look at a (Cunninghamia 3(4) 1994) particular species, is an over simplification. We have also Part 3: Cabombaceae to Eupomatiaceae (Cunninghamia included reference to individualistic information resulting 4(2) 1995) from specific research that will not necessarily be available for all species. Part 4: Fabaceae (Cunninghamia 4(4) 1996) Part 5: Flacourtiaceae to Myrsinaceae (Cunninghamia 5(2) Similarly where we have observations on the effects of 1997) factors such as drought on particular species we have included these, though we have not included a category for ‘drought’ Part 6: Myrtaceae (Cunninghamia 5(4) 1998) because of difficulties in definition. One of our aims is to be Part 7a: Nyctaginaceae to Primulaceae (Cunninghamia 6(2) open-ended, to point out that there are many gaps in the 1999) ecological knowledge and to indicate areas and species where Part 7b: Proteaceae to Rubiaceae (Cunninghamia 6(4) 2000) future work may be particularly useful. Part 8: Rutaceae to Zygophyllaceae (Cunninghamia 7(2) 2001) Botanical nomenclature Part 9: Monocot families Agavaceae to Juncaginaceae Family/Genus/Species: Names currently recognised at the (Cunninghamia 7(4) 2002) National Herbarium of NSW and mostly as used in Flora of Part 10: Monocotyledon families Lemnaceae to New South Wales and Plantnet: Zosteraceae, including Poaceae http://plantnet.rbgsyd.nsw.gov.au/ Common name: Names used in Flora of New South Wales. For each species (and generally for subspecies) a data sheet is prepared incorporating life history, distribution and habitat Life history data from specimens in the National Herbarium of New South Wales; this information is entered in a database together with Growth form: Brief description. data from literature sources both published and unpublished. Source: Flora of New South Wales. References have been cited where appropriate but for Vegetative spread: Indication of whether localised unreferenced data responsibility has been assumed by the expansion or spread is possible from an individual by rhizome, authors. A provisional compilation sheet with the available stolon, rootsucker etc. Important in determining ability of information is then prepared and distributed to interested species to colonise immediate local area. Does not include persons for comments and additions/alterations. vegetative distance-dispersal which is included under ‘Dispersal, establishment & growth’ (diaspore). Source: Flora descriptions, Herbarium specimens, field observations. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 10 19

Longevity: Average potential life-span under natural Gill 1981, Gill & Bradstock 1992). Seedling recruitment conditions — range in years where possible, indefinite, where associated with fire is included under establishment and death is not a result of inherent growth e.g. continued growth. Entries such as ‘probably killed’ mean that a species rhizomatous growth. Longevity may be shorter in cultivation. has no obvious morphological characteristics likely to assist There are very few references in the literature to the in surviving and resprouting following fire. While species longevity of species or records of individual plants, that resprout after fire may be readily noted, the death of particularly of the longer-lived species, yet this is an individuals may not be observed unless the occurrence of the important factor in assessing importance of recruitment and species in the area was well known prior to the fire. changes in plant communities. For a given species some populations may be capable of Most of the estimates given are based on the authors’ resprouting while other populations may be killed. This may judgement, based on the shape, size and growth rates of explain cases where contradictory evidence has been given individuals, and the authors’ experience in the field over 25 though response to fire in some species may depend on fire years, together with any historical data available. The figures intensity. given are conservative and represent minimal average ages. In view of the limited information available for many species, The authors would not be surprised if much greater ages are the categories of Gill and Bradstock (1992) have not been achieved in many cases. applied at this stage. Source: literature, authors’ assessment from field Source: field observations, literature. observations. Interaction with other organisms: symbiosis, predators, Primary juvenile period: time taken from germination to diseases etc. produce first fruits or spores. Gill (1975) uses the term for the period from germination to flowering but the period to Source: mainly literature. fruit maturity is more significant ecologically. Secondary juvenile period is time taken for an individual to recover to Distribution produce fruit after major damage e.g. from fire, but Status/origin: native or naturalised, region of origin, source applicable only if species regularly resprouts. The time and date of introduction/naturalisation. Naturalised species required to accumulate a seedbank sufficient to ensure indicated by an asterisk following the botanical name. reasonable recruitment in the event of mass mortality is also Source: Flora of New South Wales, literature. an important consideration. Primary and secondary juvenile periods should not be considered as absolute and they may Botanical subregions: occurrence of species in botanical vary spatially as a function of habitat factors (moisture subdivisions of NSW, other states and countries. availability, nutrients etc.) and temporally (e.g. climatic Source: National Herbarium of New South Wales. variation). Distribution in Sydney region: main geographic regions Source: literature, field observations. occupied by species. Reproduction: for Angiosperms, reproduction is separated Source: Herbarium specimen records. into: Selected locations: restricted to about 10 localities for each Flowers: predominant flower colour, flowering period — taxon reflecting natural geographical range of species in the range of months and, where possible, peak month based on Sydney area. Earliest collection dates are given for some frequency of herbarium collections. Pollination vectors. species, particularly exotic species. Recent collection sites Fruit: fruit shape and size, particularly with respect to indicated where possible. Locality data must be interpreted potential dispersal agents. Maturation period. Seed size and carefully. The record may be based on an old specimen or number. observation record and the species may no longer be present Source: Herbarium specimens, field observations, Flora of at the site. However a knowledge of the original distribution New South Wales, literature. may be important in showing up particular habitat requirements of the species. Dispersal, establishment and growth: diaspore type (including vegetative), dispersal agent. Germination Source: Herbarium specimen records. requirements: seedbank presence, dormancy, growth rates, seasonality, deciduousness etc. [notes on propagation in Habitat cultivation may be given where these imply similar Specific data refer to Sydney area unless stated otherwise. behaviour under natural field conditions e.g. insights into seed Habitat: brief generalised description. germination inhibition]. Source: Herbarium specimen records, field observations. Source: literature, field observations. Altitude: approximate altitudinal range (m +/- 100 m) Fire response: general response of mature plant to fire, in occupied by the species, particular whether it generally resprouts or is killed (see also Source: Herbarium specimen records. 20 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 10

Annual rainfall: approximate annual rainfall range (mm +/- The largest families in this part are Poaceae (347 species) 100 mm) for sites occupied by the species. and Orchidaceae (220 species). The large grass family Poaceae Source: Bureau of Meteorology (1979). provides many opportunities for ecological work as, although a few species, mainly exotics are known well, the ecology of Typical local abundance: most frequent recordings (scale: most native species is poorly known. Ecological aspects of dominant/frequent/occasional/rare) Orchidaceae biology are discussed in a separate paper (Weston Source: Herbarium specimen records. et al. this issue). Vegetation: main structural type with typical associated Of the other families very little ecological work has been done. species where available. Our main knowledge on families such as Lomandraceae, Source: Herbarium specimen records, field observations, Restionaceae, Xanthorrhoeaceae and Xyridaceae is confined literature. to a general knowledge of their distributions, while for the Substrate: geology, soil, moisture supply. water plants such as families Najadaceae, Pontederiaceae, Soil nutrient rating scale: very fertile (high nutrient) (e.g. Posidoniaceae, Potamogetonaceae and Zosteraceae, our basalt soils)/ fertile (moderate nutrient)/ infertile (low records still give us only a sketchy idea of this. There is more nutrient)/ very infertile (very low nutrient) (e.g. sands). ecological knowledge on groups in the Liliaceae, particularly coming out of work on restoration of grassy woodland and Soil salinity scale: hypersaline/ saline/ brackish/ fresh. other remnant vegetation types. Such work stimulates Source: Herbarium specimen records, field observations, studies on pollination, seed dispersal and establishment, and literature. fire and herbivore regimes, as well as the genetic patterns in Exposure: populations. Exposure scale: exposed/ indifferent/ sheltered. Concluding remarks on the Ecology of Sydney Shading scale: deep shade/ mid shade/ light shade/ no shade. Plants project Source: Herbarium specimen records, field observations, literature. With the completion of the final part (Part 10), the Ecology of Sydney Plants project as originally envisaged in 1993, Conservation comes to a conclusion. How we develop it from here is still to be decided, but it is hoped that it will be made available Conservation: listing as Endangered or Vulnerable, or as electronically. In the meantime there are sufficient hardcopy Endangered Population on schedules of the NSW Threatened back issues of Cunninghamia for all Parts. These are Species Conservation Act 1995; national significance listing available through the Gardens Shops at Sydney, Mount Annan (Briggs & Leigh 1996), Rare or Threatened Australian Plants and Mount Tomah, or through phone orders to Mount Annan (ROTAP) database; comments on regional significance and (phone 02 4634 7935). Copies from Part 8 onwards are also adequacy of conservation within Sydney area are based on available on the Botanic Gardens Trust Website as PDF files, authors’ knowledge of the abundance of species and their (earlier issues will be added later). primary occurrence in major conservation areas. These comments apply to the Sydney region; a species may be The ten part series (actually 11 parts as Part 7 is divided into common or rare elsewhere. ‘Probably’ is used in many cases Parts 7a and 7b) has provided ecological data in tabular form as it is the authors’ views that a definite categorisation of is on 3550 plant species, 2626 native and 924 exotics (mostly ‘adequately conserved’ needs to be based on a better naturalised) occurring in the Sydney region, defined by the knowledge of the species’ biology and distribution than we Central Coast and Central Tablelands botanical subdivisions have at present for most species. of New South Wales. This compares with approximately 3500 species that we anticipated in 1993. In concluding we would Source: Herbarium records, field observations, literature. like to make some general observations on research needed to fill some of the gaps we have encountered in our work. General comments on part 10 Longevity Part 10 covers 668 plant species of the monocotyledon families Lemnaceae to Zosteraceae, 309 native and 4 Despite its prime importance in terms of population and naturalised exotics. community dynamics we have found longevity to be a very neglected field. While resprouting species may be very long- Plant families in this part are Lemnaceae, Liliaceae, lived or of indefinite lifespan, many fire-sensitive shrub Lomandraceae, Luzuriagaceae, Najadaceae, Orchidaceae, species and early colonizer species have relatively short life Philydraceae, Phormiaceae, Poaceae, Pontederiaceae, spans, and may need locally altered conditions to provide Posidoniaceae, Potamogetonaceae, Restionaceae, conditions for new recruitment. Even more so for herbaceous Ripogonaceae, Smilacaceae, Sparganiaceae, Thismiaceae, species, yet most lifeform descriptions in handbooks limit Typhaceae, Uvulariaceae, Xanthorrhoeaceae, Xyridaceae, descriptions to either annual or perennial (i.e. 1 year or many Zingiberaceae, Zosteraceae. years). Indeed the rarest lifeform category amongst native Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 10 21

Sydney plants is annual, of which we have very few; most Distribution in Sydney area are really short lived perennials. Studies of longevity do take We need to develop mapping of individual species time but we should at least begin marked referencestudies distributions.This is likely to lead to the observation of that can be continued by other workers. interesting patterns and revealing correlations with Primary juvenile period environmental features. There is still very little information on this aspect, though its Altitude importance in fire regimes affecting fire sensitive plants, We had previously considered altitude important only in terms particularly shrubs, is being broadly recognised. of understanding a species’ habitat range. However altitudinal Unfortunately actions are more likely to be based on range will be an important component in determining a generalisations. We need more actual observational data. species’ vulnerability to climate change, particularly through Flowers/ Fruits increased temperatures and decreased rainfall. Indeed Studies on Pollination vectors and plant/ insect and plant/ species limited to high elevations may be some of the most bird interactions are increasing. Fruit is still probably the most potentially threatened species. neglected descriptive field. Most handbooks ignore fruiting Annual rainfall times, particularly for species which lack traditional coloured Like altitude, annual rainfall is another parameter that that fruit, such as rainforest species. Yet timing of fruiting is will have implications in terms of potential climate change. important for seed collecting. The size of a potential seed Species with narrow rainfall requirements are likely to be crop may also be important for predicting potential species more susceptible to climate change than species with broader seedbanks, There are very few plants for which there is requirements. information in the literature on the number o of seed per plant (averages or ranges etc), yet some species have a few seeds Substrate while others have thousands. Geological and soil information has been generally available from recent specimens though it is generally lacking from Dispersal, establishment and growth old collections. Geological information is more readily Dispersal mechanisms have aroused some interest in terms available for tree and shrub species than for herbaceous of disperser but we need distance estimates etc. This is species, with grass specimens in particular having very particularly important in relation to species in small or limited collecting information. In general we need more isolated sites research on herbaceous and grassy species. Fire response Conservation Fire research is the main area where we have made Since 1996 listing species of conservation significance using substantial progress in recent years. There is now an ROTAP criteria (Briggs & Leigh 1988), has been replaced in increasing number of observations on fire responses and the NSW by the Threatened Species Conservation Act which direct implications of fire, but there is still little known about gives legislative protection to species listed under the subsequent responses such as amount of recruitment, affects Schedules of the Act. Under the Threatened Species of herbivory on seedlings etc. Conservation Act, taxa may be listed as endangered or vulnerable species or endangered populations. Some Interaction with other organisms publications of new species still only provide ROTAP Still little on aspects other than pollination and seed dispersal. criteria (Briggs & Leigh 1988), rather than assessing threats There is a need more observations on seed predation. in terms of the TSC act. Alternatively, IUCN Criteria should be provided as these can be directly related to the TSC act Status/origin determinations. More emphasis on regional conservation significance is needed. Many exotic species are represented by only a few specimens in herbaria, and old collections are often not clearly Acknowledgements indicated as naturalized or planted. This may lead to an over- estimate of the number of truly naturalized species. We need The authors would like to thank Poul Kubiak who supplied better collections of exotics with comments on their his observations and post-fire recordings, and especially Rod populations local origin, extent etc. We need more research Roberts who devoted many hours recording Herbarium data on distribution and genetic makeup of some exotic species. and assisted with proof reading. Some previously accepted exotic weed species may indeed We also thank Barbara Briggs, Garry Chapple, Michael be native cosmopolitan, while others may have both native Clarke, Bob Coveny, Katherine Downs, Penny Farrant, and exotic forms e.g Cynodon dactylon. Miguel Garcia, Peter Hind, Jocelyn Howell, Surrey Jacobs, Phillip Kodela, Teresa James, Alan Leishman, Bob Makinson, Catherine Wardrop, Peter Weston, Karen Wilson for assistance, advice and information. 22 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 10

References Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (1996) Ecology of Sydney plant species part 4: dicotyledon family Fabaceae. Cunninghamia 4(4): Adams & Lawson (1993) Pollination in Australian orchids: a critical 553Ð752. assessment of the literature 1882Ð1992. Australian Journal of Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (1997) Ecology of Sydney plant Botany 41: 553Ð575. species part 5: dicotyledon families Flacourtiaceae to Myrsinaceae. Adams, P.B. (1986) Fire damage and regeneration of Dendrobium Cunninghamia 5(2): 330Ð544. speciosum Sm. (Orchidaceae) in eastern Victoria. Victorian Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (1998) Ecology of Sydney plant Naturalist 103:142Ð146. species part 6: dicotyledon family Myrtaceae. Cunninghamia 5(4): Adams, P.B. (1991) Variation, multiple pollinators and breeding 808Ð987. system in Dendrobium speciosum Smith: a biological review. The Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (1999) Ecology of Sydney plant Orchadian 10: 124Ð140. species part 7a: dicotyledon families Nyctaginaceae to Agriculture & Resource Management Council of Australia & New Primulaceae. Cunninghamia 6(2): 402Ð509. Zealand, Australia & New Zealand Environment & Conservation Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (2000) Ecology of Sydney plant Council & Forestry Ministers (2000) Weeds of national species part 7b: dicotyledon families Proteaceae to Rubiaceae. significance Serrated Tussock (Nassella trichotoma) strategic plan Cunninghamia 6(4): 1017Ð1202. (National Weeds Strategy Exective Committee: Launceston). Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (2001) Ecology of Sydney plant Anderson, G.D. (1984) The after-ripening period of Great Brome species part 8: dicotyledon families Rutaceae to Zygophyllaceae. (Bromus diandrus). Proceedings 7th Australian Weeds Conference, Cunninghamia 7(2): 241Ð462. 179Ð82. Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (2002) Ecology of Sydney plant Annable, T.J. (1989) A new locality for the eastern underground orchid, species part 9: monocotyledon families Agavaceae to Rhizanthella slateri. Victorian Naturalist 106(2): 43Ð44. Juncaginaceae. Cunninghamia 7(4): 695Ð930. Backhouse & Jeanes (1995) The orchids of Victoria (Miegunyah Press: Bernhardt, P. (1995) Notes on the anthecology of Pterostylis curta Carlton). (Orchidaceae). Cunninghamia 4(1): 9Ð20. Banks, D.P. (1996) Notes on the distrubution of Adenochilus nortonii Bernhardt, P. (1995) Notes on the anthecology of Pterostylis curta Fitz. The Orchadian 12(1): 26Ð27. (Orchidaceae). Cunninghamia 4(1): 1Ð8. Banks, D.P. (1996) Notes on the ‘Prawn Greenhood’, Pterostylis Bernhardt, P. & Burns-Balogh, P. (1983) Pollination and pollinarium pedoglossa Fitzg. The Orchadian 12(2): 68Ð70. of Dipodium punctatum (Sm.) R.Br. Victorian Naturalist 100: 197Ð Barker, R.D. & Vestjens, W.J.M. (1989) The food of Australian birds. 199. Vol. 1 (CSIRO Australia: Melbourne). Bernhardt, P. & Burns-Balogh, P. (1986) Floral mimesis in Thelymitra Barker, R.D. & Vestjens, W.J.M. (1990) The food of Australian birds. nuda (Orchidaceae). Plant Systematics and Evolution 151(3Ð4): Vol. 2 (CSIRO Australia: Melbourne). 187Ð202. Barnett, P. & Beattie, S. (1986) Host species of Gunn’s orchid Bernhardt, P. & Burns-Balogh, P. (1986) Observations of the floral (Sarcochilus australis) from Otway National Park. Victorian biology of Prasophyllum odoratum (Orchidaceae, Spiranthoideae). Naturalist 103(6): 168Ð169. Plant Systematics and Evolution 153(1Ð2): 65Ð76. Barton, E.V. (1965) Orchids near Bairnsdale. Victorian Naturalist Bishop, A. (1996) Field guide to the orchids of NSW and Victoria 82(8): 228. (University of New South Wales Press: Kensington). Bass, D. (1987) Weeds and human health, unpublished report Bishop, A.D. (1992) Conservation of Prasophyllum uroglossum at (Department of Allergy, Royal North Shore Hospital: St Leonards). Wingecarribee Swamp: report of survey 26/11/92 and Bass, D.J. & Wrigley, C.W. (1984) Pollen allergens around Australia: recommendations for management. a survey of clinician’s experience. The Medical Journal of Blood, K. (2001) Environmental weeds: a field guide for SE Australia Australia, special supplement. (Cooperative Research Centre for Weed Management Systems: Bates, R. (1994Ð95) Report on the results of field investigations of Adelaide). pollinators of the genus Caladenia (Orchidaceae: Caladeniinae) Bower, C.C. (n.d.) Determination of pollinators of sexually deceptive in 1994Ð95 orchids in the subtribe Caladeniinae. Australian Orchid Foundation: Bates, R.J. (1999) Self pollinated sun orchids of the Thelymitra technical summary 1996Ð97. paucifloraÐT. longifolia alliance in Australia. The Orchadian 13(2): Briggs, B.G. & Johnson, L.A.S (1997) New combinations arising from 65Ð72. a new classificaltion of non-African Restionaceae. Telopea 8(1): Beardsell, D.V. & Bernhardt, P. (1982) Pollination biology of 21Ð31. Australian terrestrial orchids. In Pollination 82 (University of Briggs, B.G. & Johnson, L.A.S. (1998) New genera and species of Melbourne: Parkville, Victoria). Australian Restionaceae (Poales). Telopea 7(4): 345Ð373. Bell, S.A.J. (2001) Notes on population size and habitat of the Briggs, B.G. & Johnson, L.A.S. (2004) New combinations in vulnerable Cryptostylis hunteriana (Orchidaceae) from the Chordiflex (Restionaceae) from eastern Australia and new Central Coast of New South Wales. Cunninghamia 7(2): 195Ð species from Western Australia. Telopea 10: 683Ð700. 204. Briggs, J.D. & Leigh, J.H. (1996) Rare or threatened Australian plants Benson, D.H. (1981) Vegetation at Agnes Banks sand deposit, (CSIRO: Canberra). Richmond, New South Wales. Cunninghamia 1(3): 35Ð57. Britton, D.L. & Brock, M.A. (1994) Seasonal germination from Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (1993) Ecology of Sydney plant wetland seed banks. Australian Journal of Marine and species part 1: Ferns, fern-allies, cycads, conifers and dicotyledon Freshwater Research 45: 1445Ð1457. families Acanthaceae to Asclepiadaceae. Cunninghamia 3(2): 257Ð Buchanan, R.A. (1989b) Bush regeneration: recovering Australian 422. landscapes (TAFE: Sydney). Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (1994) Ecology of Sydney plant Buckley, R.C. (ed.) (1982) Ant-plant interactions in Australia (Junk species part 2: dicotyledon families Asteraceae to Buddlejaceae. Publishers: The Hague). Cunninghamia 3(4): 789Ð1004. Bureau of Meteorology (1979) Climatic survey Sydney, region 5, New Benson, D.H. & McDougall, L. (1995) Ecology of Sydney plant South Wales (Australian Govt. Pub. Service: Canberra). species part 3: dicotyledon families Cabombaceae to Eupomatiaceae. Cunninghamia 4(2): 217Ð431. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 10 23

Burke, J.M. & Adams, P.B. (2002) Variation in the Dendrobium Floyd, A.G. (1966) Effect of fire upon weed seeds in the wet sclerophyll speciosum (Orchidaceae) complex: a numerical approach to the forest of northern New South Wales. Australian Journal of Botany species problem. Australian Systematic Botany 15: 63Ð80. 14: 243Ð256. Cady, L. (1988) The genus Pterostylis in Australia and New Zealand: Fox, M.D. (1988) Understorey changes following fire at Myall Lakes, part 2. The Orchadian 9(3): 52Ð62. New South Wales. Cunninghamia 2(1): 85Ð95. Calder, D.M. (1988) The pollination biology of Dendrobium speciosum Gill, A.M. & Bradstock, R.A. (1992) A national register for the fire Smith: a case of false advertising. Australian Journal of Botany responses of plant species. Cunninghamia 2 (4): 653Ð660. 36(2): 145Ð158. Gill, A.M. & Ingwersen, F. (1976) Growth of Xanthorrhoea australis Calder, D.M. & Sydes, M.A. (1993) Comparative reproductive R.Br. in relation to the fire. Journal of Applied Ecology 13: 195Ð biology of two sun-orchids; the vulnerable Thelymitra circumsepta 203. and the widespread T. ixioides (Orchidaceae). Australian Journal Gill, G.S. and Blacklow, W.M. (1985) Variations in seed dormancy of Botany 41: 577Ð589. and rates of development of Great Brome, Bromus diandrus Roth., Carolin, R.C. & Tindale, M. D. (1993) Flora of the Sydney region. as adaptations to the climates of southern Australia and Fourth Edition (Reed: Chatswood). implications for weed control. Australian Journal of Agricultural Carr, G.W. (1988) New species of Caladenia R.Br. (Orchidaceae) from Research 36: 295Ð304. Victoria and New South Wales, Australia. Muelleria 6(6): 439Ð Gramshaw, D. (1972) Germination of annual ryegrass seeds (Lolium 447. rigidum Gaud.) as influenced by temperature, light, storage Carr, G.W., Yugovic, J.V. & Robinson, K.E. (1992) Environmental environment, and age. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research weed invasions in Victoria: conservation and management 23: 779Ð87. implications (Dept. of Conservation & Environment: East Gramshaw, D. (1976) Temperature/light interactions and the effect of Melbourne). seed source on germination of annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum Chapman, G.P. & Peat, W.E. (1992) An introduction to the grasses Gaud.) seeds. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 27: 779Ð (Redwood Press: Melksham, UK). 86. Cheam, A.H. (1987) Longevity of Bromus diandrus Roth. seed in soil Gramshaw, D. and Stern, W.R. (1977) Survival of annual ryegrass at three sites in Western Australia. Plant Protection Quarterly. (Lolium rigidum Gaud.) seed in a Mediterranean-type environment. Ciba-Geigy (1968Ð) Weed tables (Ciba-Geigy: Basel). II. Effects of short-term burial on persistence of viable seed. Clarke, L.D. & Hannon, N.J. (1970) The mangrove swamp and salt Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 28: 93Ð101. marsh communities of the Sydney district: 3. Plant growth in Greening Australia, Victoria (1996a) Seed germination data sheet 3. relation to salinity and waterlogging. Journal of Ecology 58: 351Ð Indigenous grasses (www.google.com). 369. Greening Australia, Victoria (1996b) Seed germination data sheet 6. Cocks, P.S. & Donald, C.M. (1973) The germination and the Lily family (Liliaceae) (www.google.com). establishment of two annual pasture grasses (Hordeum leporinum Groves, R.H. (2002) Robert Brown and the naturalised flora of Link and Lolium rigidum Gaud.) Australian Journal of Australia. Cunninghamia 7(4): 623Ð629. Agricultural Research 24: 1Ð10. Harden, G.J. (Ed.) (1990Ð93) Flora of New South Wales. Vols 1Ð4 Coleman, E. (1927) Pollination of the orchid Cryptostylis leptochila. (New South Wales University Press: Kensington). Victorian Naturalist 44: 20Ð22. Harradine, A.R. (1986) Seed longevity and seedling establishment of Coleman, E. (1929) Pollination of Cryptostylis subulata (Labill.) Bromus diandrus Roth. Weed Research 26: 173Ð80. Reichb. Victorian Naturalist 46: 62Ð66. Harrison, M. (1988) The Dendrobium tetragonum complex. The Coleman, E. (1930) Pollination of Cryptostylis erecta R.Br. Victorian Orchadian 12(7): 352Ð370. Naturalist 46: 236Ð238. Haslam, S.M. (1972) Phragmites communis Trin (Arundo phragmites Common, I.F.B. (1990) Moths of Australia (Melbourne University L., ? Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steudel). Journal of Press: Collingwood). Ecology 60: 585Ð610. Common, I.F.B. & Waterhouse, D.F. (1981) Butterflies of Australia. Hatch, E.D. (1985) Pterostylis plumosa (barbata) in the Cornwallis Rev. ed. (Angus & Robertson: Sydney). area, New Zealand. The Orchadian 8(3): 62. Common, I.F.B. & Waterhouse, D.F. (1982) Butterflies of Australia: Hayman, D.L. (1960) The distribution and cytology of the field edition (Angus & Robertson: Sydney). chromosome races of Themeda australis in southern Australia. Conn, B.J. & Doust, A.N.L. (1997) Xyris L. Section Pomatoxyris Endl. Australian Journal of Botany 8: 58Ð68. (Xyridaceae) in Australia. Australian Systematic Botany 10: 189Ð Holm, L., Doll, J., Holm, E., Pancho, J. & Herberger, J. (1997) World 248. weeds: natural histories and distribution (John Wiley & Sons Inc: Cribb, A.B. & Cribb, J.W. (1982) Useful wild plants in Australia New York). (Collins: Sydney). Hutchinson, J.F, Beardsell, D.V., Clements, M.A. & Williams, E.G. Cronk, W.C.B. & Fuller, J. (1995) Plant invaders: the threat to natu- (1986) Pollination of Diuris maculata R. Br. (Orchidaceae) by ral ecosystems (Chapman & Hall: London). floral mimicry of the native legumes Daviesia spp. and Pultenaea Dillon, S.P. and Fawcella, A.F. (1984) Germination, emergence, scabra R. Br. Australian Journal of Botany 34: 165Ð173. vegetative growth and flowering of two silver grasses, Vulpia Jacobs, S.W.L. (2001) Four new species of Agrostis (Gramineae) from bromoides (L.) S.F. Gray & V. Myuros (L.) C.C. Gmel. Australia. Telopea 9(3): 679Ð683. Australian Journal of Botany 32, 165Ð75. Jacobs, S.W.L., McClay, K.L. & Simon, B.K. (1993) Review of Dockrill, A.W. (1992) Australian indigenous orchids. Vols 1 & 2 Rev. Dichelachne (Gramineae) in Australia. Telopea 5(2): 325Ð328. (Surrey Beatty & Sons: Chipping Norton). James, T.A., McDougall, L. & Benson, D.H. (1999) Rare bushland Doust, A.N. & Conn, B.J. (1994) Xyris L. Section Xyris (Xyridaceae) plants of western Sydney (Royal Botanic Gardens: Sydney). in Australia. Australian Systematic Botany 7: 455Ð484. Jones (1999) Orchadian 13(1): 16Ð17. Environmental Protection & Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 Jones, D.J. (1991) New taxa of Australian Orchidaceae (Australian (Commonwealth of Australia). Orchid Foundation: Canberra). Evans, O.D. (1970) Some observations on the Lemnaceae or Jones, D. & Jones, B. (2000) A field guide to the native orchids of ‘duckweeds’ of New South Wales. Contributions NSW National southern Australia (Bloomings Books: Hawthorne, Vic.). Herbarium 4: 87Ð94. 24 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 10

Jones, D.L. (1972) The self-pollination of Prasophyllum beaugleholei. McIntyre, S., Lavorel, S., & Tremont, R.M. (1995) Plant life-hisory Victorian Naturalist 89: 144Ð146. attributes: their relationship to disturbance response in herbaceous Jones, D.L. (1983) The pollination and occurrence of natural hybrids vegetation. Journal of Ecology 83: 31Ð44. in Australian species of the genus Dendrobium. Proceedings 8th McKay, A.C., Fisher, J.M., Giesecke, & Crosby, J. (1985) Are farmers Australian Orchid Conference: 127Ð131. controlling annual ryegrass toxicity in South Australia? In: Plant Jones, D.L. (1985) The pollination of Gastrodia sesamoides R.Br. in toxicology: Proceedings of the AustraliaÐUSA Poisonous Plants southern Victoria. Victorian Naturalist 102: 52Ð54. Symposium, Brisbane, Australia, May 14Ð18, 1984 (Animal Re- Jones, D.L. (1994) New species of Orchidaceae from south-eastern search Institute: Yeerongpilly, Qld). Australia. Muelleria 8: 177Ð192. McLoughlin, L. & Rawling, J. (1990) Making your garden bush Jones, D.L. (2000) The Orchadian 13(4): 162Ð167. friendly: how to recognise and control garden plants which Jones, D.L. (2004a) Corybas Dowling (Orchidaceae), a new species invade Sydney’s bushland (McLoughlin-Rawling: Killara). from north-eastern New South Wales. The Orchadian 14(9): 418Ð Meney, K.A., Pate, J.S., Dixon, K.W., Briggs, B.G. & Johnson, L.A.S. 420. (1999) Conservation of Australian Restionaceae pp. 465Ð479. In: Jones, D.L. (2004b) The Orchadian 14(8) Scientific supplement viiiÐ Meney, K.A. & Pate, J.S. Australian Rushes, biology, ix. identification and conservation of Restionaceae and allied Jones, D.L. & Clements, M.A. (1988) Reinstatement of the genus families (University WA Press: Nedlands). Cyrtostylis R. Br. and its relationships with Acianthus R. Br. Meney, K.A. & Pate, J.S. (eds) (1999) Australian rushes, biology, (Orchidaceae). The Orchadian 9(5): 98Ð102. identification and conservation of Restionaceae and allied Jones, D.L. & Clements, M.A. (1997) Characterisation of Pterostylis families (University Western Australia Press: Nedlands). gibbosa R. Br. (Orchidaceae) and description of P. saxicola, a rare Middleton, M.J., Bell, J.D., Burchmore, J.J., Pollard, D.A. & Pease, new species from New South Wales. The Orchadian 12(3): 128Ð B.C. (1984) Structural differences in the fish communities of 135. Zostera capricorni and Posidonia australis seagrass meadows in Jones, D.L. & Clements, M.A. (2002) A review of Pterostylis Botany Bay, New South Wales. Aquatic Botany 18: 89Ð109. (Orchidaceae). Australian Orchid Research 4. Morrison, D.A. & Weston, P.H. (1985) Analysis of morphological Keith, D. (1996) Fire-driven extinction of plant populations: a variation in a field sample of Caladenia catenata (Smith) Druce synthesis of theory and review of evidence from Australian (Orchidaceae). Australian Journal of Botany 33(2): 185Ð195. vegetation. Proceedings of the Linnean Society of NSW 116: 37Ð Neil, J. (2002) Gumnuts newsletter 46. http://farrer.csu.edu.au/ASGAP/ 78. chest.html Klaphake, V. (2002) Key to the grasses of Sydney (Van Klapake: Bulli NPWS (2002) Illawarra Greenhood Orchid Pterostylis gibbosa draft Ck Rd, Byabarra, NSW). recovery plan. PDF available on www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au Knowles, H. (2002) Gumnuts newsletter 43. http://farrer.csu.edu.au/ NPWS (2003) Draft recovery plan for the Jervis Bay Leek Orchid ASGAP/chest.html (Prasophyllum affine). NPWS: www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au Kodela, P.G., James, T.A., Coveny, R.G. & Hind, P.D. (1992) NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service (1999) Threatened species Reconnaissance survey of the vegetation at Long Swamp, near information: Genoplesium plumosum. Penrose, Central Tablelands, NSW. Unpub. (Royal Botanic Gar- PDF on www.npws.nsw.gov.au dens Sydney). NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service (1999) Threatened species Lamp, C.A., Forbes, S.J. & Cade, J.W. (1990) Grasses of temperate information: Prasophyllum affine. Australia, a field guide (Inkata Press: Melbourne). PDF available on www.npws.nsw.gov.au Lepschi, B.J. (1993) Food of some birds in eastern New South Wales: NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service (2000) Pterostylis sp. 15. additions to Barker & Vestjens. Emu 93: 195Ð199. Botany Bay Bearded Greenhood recovery plan. MagcaleÐMacandog, D.B. and Whalley, R.D.B. (1991) Distribution PDF available on www.npws.nsw.gov.au of Microlaena stipoides and its association with intrduced NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service (2001) Botany Bay Bearded perennial grasses in a permanent pasture on the Northern Greenhood recovery plan. PDF on www.npws.nsw.gov.au Tablelands of NSW. Australian Journal of Botany 39: 295Ð303. NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service (2001) Recovery plan for the Maiden, J.H. (1909) Sir Joseph Banks, the ‘Father of Australia’ Tallong Midge Orchid (Genoplesium plumosum). PDF on (Government Printer: Sydney). www.npws.nsw.gov.au Mant, J.G., Schiestl, F.P., Peakall, R. & Weston, P.H. (2002) A NSW National Parks & Wildlife Service (2003) Draft recovery plan phylogenetic study of pollinator conservatism among sexually for the Jervis Bay Leek Orchid (Prasophyllum affine) (NSW deceptive orchids. Evolution 56: 888Ð898. National Parks & Wildlife Service: Hurstville NSW). Maze, K.M. & Whalley, R.D.B. (1992) Effects of salt spray and sand Oakwood, M. (n.d.) Population genetics and pollination ecology of burial on Spinifex sericeus R.Br. Australian Journal of Ecology Chiloglottis trapezeformis Fitzg. (Orchidaceae). BSc (Hons) 17: 9Ð19. thesis Macquarie University. Maze, K.M. & Whalley, R.D.B. (1992) Germination, seedling Organic Matters: http://www.organicmatters.com.au occurrence and seedling survival of Spinifex sericeus R.Br. Parsons, W.T. & Cuthbertson, E.G. (1992) Noxious weeds of (Poaceae). Australian Journal of Ecology 17 : 189Ð194. Australia (Inkata: Melbourne). McBarren, E.J. (1955) An enumeration of plants in the Albury, Pate, J.S., Rasins, E., Thumfort, P.P., McChesney, C.J. & Meney, K.A. Holbrook and Tumbarumba districts of New South Wales. (1995) Occurrence of the unusual amino compound S-methyl Contributions NSW National Herbarium 2: 89Ð247. cysteine in Australian members of the Restionaceae: biological McGowan, A.A. (1970) Comparative germination patterns of annual and taxonomic significance. Australian Jounal of Botany 43: 73Ð grasses in north-eastern Victoria. Australian Journal of 84. Experimental Agriculture and Animal Husbandry 10: 401Ð4. Paterson, J.G., Goodchild, N.A. and Boyd, W.J.R. (1976) Effect of McIntyre, S. & Ladiges, P.Y. (1985) Aspects of the biology of Ehrharta storage temperature, storage duration, and germination erecta Lam. Weed Research 25: 21Ð32. temperature on the dormancy of seed of Avena fatua L. and Avena barbata Pott ex Link. Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 27: 373Ð9. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney plant species 10 25

Payne, R. (1992) A short note of interest. National Trust Bush Man- Steenbeeke, G.L. (1997) Orchids of the middle Kowmung River valley, agement Newsletter, MarchÐJuly (National Trust: Sydney). NSW. The Orchadian 12: 101Ð106. Peakall, R. & Beattie, S.N. (1989) Pollination of the orchid Microtis Stephenson, A.W. (1997) A new recording of the eastern underground parviflora R.Br. by flightless worker ants. Functional Ecology 3: orchid, Rhizanthella slateri at sea level. The Orchadian 12(4): 515Ð522. 188Ð189. Perkins, A.J., Masuhara, G. & McGee, P.A. (1995) Specificity of the Thiele, K.R. & Jordan, P. (2002) Thismia clavarioides (Thismiaceae), associations between Microtis parviflora (Orchidaceae) and its a new species of fairy Lantern from New South Wales. Telopea Mycorrhizal fungi. Australian Journal of Botany 43: 85Ð91. 9(4): 765Ð771. Perkins, A.J. & McGee, P.A. (1995) Distribution of the orchid Tozer, M. (2003) The native vegetation of the Cumberland Plain, mycorrhizal fungus Rhizoctonia solani in relation to its host western Sydney: systematic classification and field identification Pterostylis acuminata in the field. Australian Journal of Botany of communities. Cunninghamia 8(1): 1Ð75. 43(4): 565Ð575. van der Cingel (1995) An atlas of orchid pollination (A.A. Balkema: Pridgeon, A.M. & Chase (1995) Subterranean axes in tribe Diurideae Rotterdam). (Orchidaceae): morphology, anatomy, and systematic significance. Van Viersen, W., Van Wijk, R.J. & Van der Zee, J.R. (1982) On the American Journal of Botany 82: 1473Ð1495. pollination mechanism of some eurysaline Potamogetonaceae. Pridgeon, A.M., Cribb, P.J., Chase, M.W. & Rasmussen, F.N. (eds) Aquatic Botany 14: 339Ð347. (2001) Genera Orchidacearum Vol. 2 Orchidoideae (Part 1) Vigilante, T., Dixon, K., Sieler, I., Roche, S. & Tieu, A. (1998) Smoke (Oxford University Press: Oxford). germination of Australian plants (Rural Industries Research and Purcell, D.A. (1985) Annual Ryegrass toxicity: a review In: Plant Development Corporation: Kingston ACT). toxicology: Proceedings of the AustraliaÐUSA Poisonous Plants Wace, N. (1977) Assessment of dispersal of plant species — the Symposium, Brisbane, Australia, May 14Ð18, 1984 (Animal car-borne flora in Canberra. Proceedings of the Ecological Research Institute: Yeerongpilly, Qld). Society of Australia 10: 167Ð186. Quail, P.H. and Carter, O.G. (1969) Dormancy in seeds of Avena Wallace, B.J. (1974) The pollination of Liparis reflexa. The Orchadian ludoviciana and A. fatua. Australian Journal of Agricultural 4: 106Ð108. Research 20: 1Ð11. Walsh. G. (1996) A bit about Liparis coelogynoides (F. Muell.) Benth. Quality Environmental Management Pty Ltd (1994) Conservation The Orchadian 12(2): 84Ð85. research statement and species recovery plan for the endangered Walsh, G. (2001) A bit about Sarcholchilus australis. The Orchadian Illawarra Greenhood Orchid Pterostylis gibbosa R.Br. Australian 13(9): 425Ð428. Nature Conservation Agency Endangered Species Program project Waters, C., Whaley, W. & Huxtable, C. (2000) Grassed-up: no. 250 (unpublished) Guidelines for revegetating with Australian native grasses (NSW Rahman, M. & Ungar, I.A. (1994) The effect of competition and Agriculture: Dubbo). salinity on shoot growth and reproductive biomass of Echinochloa Waters, C., Whalley, W. & Huxtable, C. (2000) Grassed-up: crus-galli. Aquatic Botany 48: 343Ð353. guidelines for revegetating with Australian native grasses (NSW Rice, B. & Westoby, M. (1981) Myrmecochory in sclerophyll Agriculture: Dubbo). vegetation of the West Head, New South Wales. Australian Westoby, M., Rice, B. & Howell, J. (1990) Seed size and plant growth Journal of Ecology 6: 291Ð298. form as factors in dispersal spectra. Ecology 71: 1307Ð1315. Rupp, H.M.R. (1948) The section Genoplesium in the genus Wheeler, D.J.B., Jacobs, S.W.L. & Norton, B.E. (1990) Grasses of Prasophyllum (Orchidaceae). Victorian Naturalist 65(6): 141Ð154. New South Wales (University of New England: Armidale). Sainty, G.R. & Jacobs, S.W.L. (1981) Waterplants of New South Wales White, S. (2002) Gumnuts newsletter 43. http://farrer.csu.edu.au/ (Water Resources Commission: Sydney). ASGAP/chest.html Schwartz, O.M. (1997) The anatomy of the pseudobulb cavities of Bulbophyllum minutissimum F. Muell. and B. globuliforme Manuscript accepted 22 August 2005 Nicholls (Orchidaceae). Semple, W.S. (1993) Native and naturalised plants of some saline sites in the central west of NSW. Technical Report No. 31 (Department of Conservation & Land Management: Sydney). 26 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 Monocotyledon families Lemnaceae to Zosteraceae

LEMNACEAE LEMNACEAE Lemna disperma (L. minor) Spirodela punctata Duck Weed (Lemna oligorrhiza var. oligorrhiza, Spirodela pusilla) Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Herb floating on surface of water, with solitary root and GROWTH FORM: Herb floating on surface of water, with 1Ð11 roots per solitary thalli, or connected to form small groups. thallus and thalli solitary or connected to form small groups. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: New leaf-like thallus emerges from a budding pouch VEGETATIVE SPREAD: New leaf-like thallus emerges from a budding pouch on margin of thallus. on margin of thallus. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: April, May, monoecious. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. FRUIT/SEED: Reproduction usually vegetative. Abundant fruiting appears FRUIT/SEED: Reproduction usually vegetative. Fuiting enables the to enable the species to survive periodic droughts (Evans 1970). species to survive long droughts when surface waters disappear, also a DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: minute live growing point may persist in fronds that had largely FIRE RESPONSE: decayed (Evans 1970). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Black Swan Cygnus DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: atratus, Pacific Black Duck Anas superciliosa, Grey Teal Anas FIRE RESPONSE: gibberifrons (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). Provides food for INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Pacific Black Duck crustaceans and molluscs and cover for fish (Wetlands: resource Anas superciliosa (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). material for teachers www.dse.vic.gov.au) Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST CWS SWS SWP; Qld, Vic., BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Tas., S.A., S.A., W.A., India, China, SE Asia, Polynesia, NZ. W.A., N.Z. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Pitt Town, Penrith, Waterloo (1886), Cabramatta SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lurnea (1987). Creek, Liverpool, Kogarah (1888), Cronulla to Kurnell, Windang, Bulli, Habitat Upper Nattai River. CT: Bathurst, Coxs River. HABITAT: Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900 mm HABITAT: Creeks, dams, ponds. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SUBSTRATE: Still or flowing fresh water. VEGETATION: With creekside vegetation e.g. Triglochin, Myriophyllum, EXPOSURE: Eleocharis sphacelata, Cotula coronopifolia, Casuarina glauca. Conservation SUBSTRATE: On the surface of still or slowly moving fresh water. Grows Conservation status unknown. in waters enriched by drainage from sources such as abattoirs (Evans 1970). LEMNACEAE EXPOSURE: Spirodela polyrhiza (Lemna oligorrhiza var. pleiorrhiza) Conservation Conservation status unknown. Life history GROWTH FORM: Herb floating on surface of water, with 5Ð18 roots per LEMNACEAE thallus and thalli solitary or connected to form small groups. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: New leaf-like thallus emerges from a budding pouch Wolffia angusta on margin of thallus. Life history LONGEVITY: Indefinite. GROWTH FORM: Rootless herb floating on surface of water, with thalli PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: solitary or connected in pairs. FLOWERS: Not recorded in Australia. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: New leaf-like thallus emerges from a budding pouch FRUIT/SEED: Reproduction vegetative only. on margin of thallus. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: February. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Reproduction usually vegetative. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC SWS; Qld, N.T., temp & trop. regions. FIRE RESPONSE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kogarah (1899). Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Vic. ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gosford, Glenorie, Kellyville, Kogarah, The VEGETATION: Oaks. SUBSTRATE: Still or slowly moving fresh water. EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation status unknown. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 27

Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Fresh water dams and waterholes. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Taiwan. ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; LHI, Vic. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread Blue Mountains and coast. VEGETATION: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kariong, Kurrajong, Springwood, Frenchs SUBSTRATE: On the surface of still water. Forest, Royal NP, Mt Keira, Glen Davis. CT: Mount Tomah. EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Disturbed sites, roadsides. Conservation status unknown. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. LEMNACEAE VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: Clay to sandy soils on shale, sandstone, low to medium Wolffia australiana nutrients, well-drained. Life history EXPOSURE: Light shade to full sun. GROWTH FORM: Rootless herb floating on surface of water, with thalli Conservation solitary or connected in pairs. Listed as an environmental weed in Blue Mountains City Council area. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: New leaf-like thallus emerges from a budding pouch Extent elsewhere unknown. on margin of thallus. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. LOMANDRACEAE PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: April. Lomandra brevis FRUIT/SEED: Reproduction usually vegetative. Life history ISPERSAL ESTABLISHMENT GROWTH D , & : Fronds sometimes observed to GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous, perennial herb to 15 cm high, forming sink in winter, appearing on the surface again in spring (B. Briggs pers. tussocks to 20 cm diam., leaves long, narrow, with inrolled margins. comm.). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Clump-forming. IRE RESPONSE F : LONGEVITY: Indefinite. NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS I : PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution FLOWERS: Small, inconspicuous, yellow, male and female flowers on STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. separate plants, spring and autumn. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST CWS; Vic, S.A., N.Z. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Seed with ant-adapted elaiosome. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Casula, Mount Annan. CT: Orange. FIRE RESPONSE: Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: HABITAT: Fresh water dams and waterholes. Appears to flourish best in Distribution waters enriched by drainage from the surface of grazing land or from STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. cattle yards (Evans 1970). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC. ALTITUDE: 0Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð900 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and lower Blue Mountains. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cowan, Berowra, Hornsby, Ingleside, Blaxland, VEGETATION: For example with Typha, Cotula coronopifolia. Kogarah, Sutherland. SUBSTRATE: Floating on still or running water. Habitat XPOSURE E : HABITAT: Damp sandy soils or sheltered areas. Conservation ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm Conservation status unknown. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: OccasionalÐfrequent. VEGETATION: Open-forest to woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi, E. LILIACEAE haemastoma, E. piperita, Angophora costata, Corymbia gummifera, Allocasuarina torulosa, Allocasuarina littoralis, Banksia serrata, Lilium formosanum * Leptospermum trinervium, Grevillea buxifolia. Formosan Lily SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil from sandstone, low nutrients. Life history EXPOSURE: GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, annual aerial stem; bulbs with numerous Conservation thickened, imbricate fleshy scales and fibrous roots. Local endemic species, uncommon, coded 2RC- on national rare VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Clump-forming. species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Threatened by bushrock removal LONGEVITY: Indefinite. (NPWS 1999) and clearing for housing development e.g. at Hornsby. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Muogamarra NR, Royal NP. FLOWERS: Fragrant, white, bell-shaped, JanuaryÐApril, peak March. FRUIT/SEED: Cylindrical capsule 5Ð8 cm long, with numerous winged seeds. LOMANDRACEAE DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Prolific seeder and germinator (Anon 1991); seed wind-dispersed along roadsides possibly assisted by Lomandra confertifolia subsp. pallida turbulence from heavy vehicles (A. Rodd pers. comm. 1994). Bulbs Life history dispersed by gravity and water. GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, with tufted stems, short or elongated, FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted after fire (1/1994) at Lane Cove, secondary erect or decumbent. juvenile period about 9 months (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Control by spraying with 1: 70Ð100 LONGEVITY: glyphosate between flowering and fruiting period or 1: 1 using wiper or PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: weed wand (NSW Agriculture Environmental Weed Control Permit: FLOWERS: Small, inconspicuous, male and female flowers on separate www.northcoastweeds.org.au). plants, late winter to spring. 28 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule, SeptemberÐNovember. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Ant-adapted food body for FIRE RESPONSE: dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Recruitment mainly after fire (D. Keith INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of butterflies Trapezites pers. comm.). species (Common & Waterhouse 1982). FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith Distribution pers. comm., P. Kubiak pers. comm.). NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. I : Eaten by rabbits (P. Kubiak pers. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT CWS; Qld. comm.). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Blue Mountains. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Howes Mountain. CT: Running Stream, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Genowlan Mountain, Marangaroo Creek, Glen Davis. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST; Vic. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. ELECT LOCATIONS HABITAT: Rocky places, hillsides. S : CC: Lake Macquarie, Palm Beach, Asquith, Hornsby, ALTITUDE: 300Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1000 mm Rookwood, Glenbrook, Mulgoa, Kentlyn, Darkes Forest. CT: Rylstone, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Lithgow, Wentworth Falls, Hill Top. VEGETATION: Dry eucalypt forest. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained. HABITAT: Ridges, hillsides. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Sydney is southern geographical limit (Harden 1993). Conservation VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus status unknown. piperita, Angophora costata; heath e.g. with Banksia oblongifolia, Banksia ericifolia, Angophora hispida. LOMANDRACEAE SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, gravelly shale, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: Full sun to mid-shade. subsp. Lomandra confertifolia rubiginosa Conservation Life history Rylstone is northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, with stems elongated usually somewhat decumbent, stout. LOMANDRACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Lomandra filiformis subsp. coriacea PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: Small, inconspicuous, male and female flowers on separate GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb forming sparse or short tussocks, plants, autumnÐspring. occasionally in short, dense mats to 20 cm diam. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Ant-adapted food body for LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouts. FLOWERS: Small, yellow, inconspicuous, male and female flowers on INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of butterfly larvae separate plants, mainly SeptemberÐNovember. Trapezites eliena, T. maheta praxedes and T. phigalioides (Common & FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. Waterhouse 1981). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular morphology for Distribution dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). Recruitment mainly after fire (D. Keith STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. pers. comm.). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST CWS. FIRE RESPONSE: Regrowth from rhizomes (Fox 1988, D. Keith pers. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. comm.). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Berowra, Terrey Hills, Campbelltown, Bargo. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of butterflies Trapezites CT: Coricudgy, Gospers Mountain, Capertee, Hazelbrook, Colo Vale. species (Common & Waterhouse 1982). Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Slopes, hillsides. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1200 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; Qld, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Vic. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Corymbia eximia, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Eucalyptus pilularis, Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus punctata, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wisemans Ferry, Richmond, Hornsby, Lidcombe, Syncarpia glomulifera. Waterfall, Helensburgh, Austinmer, Thirlmere. CT: Mullions Range, SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone. Orange, Oberon, Capertee Valley, Hartley, Lithgow, Mt Armour, EXPOSURE: Mittagong, Robertson. Conservation Habitat Conservation status unknown. HABITAT: Hillsides. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm LOMANDRACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Angophora bakeri, Eucalyptus fibrosa, Lomandra cylindrica E. punctata, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus viminalis, E. melliodora, Life history E. agglomerata. GROWTH FORM: Sparsely tufted perennial herb. SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils from shale, igneous rocks, Tertiary VEGETATIVE SPREAD: alluvium, sandstone, low nutrients. LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). EXPOSURE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Conservation FLOWERS: Small, yellow, inconspicuous, male and female flowers on Conservation status unknown. separate plants, JulyÐDecember, peak October. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 29

LOMANDRACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Eucalyptus stricta; open-forest e.g. with Lomandra filiformis subsp. filiformis Eucalyptus tereticornis, E. fibrosa. Life history SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, sandy alluvium, low nutrients. GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb forming sparse or short tussocks, EXPOSURE: occasionally in short, dense mats to 20 cm diam. Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Conservation status unknown. LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LOMANDRACEAE FLOWERS: Small, yellow, inconspicuous, male and female flowers on separate plants, AugustÐOctober, peak October. Lomandra fluviatilis FRUIT/SEED: Capsule, OctoberÐNovember. Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Ant-adapted food body for GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb. Possibly hybridizes with dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Lomandra longifolia (Harden 1993). FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from rhizomes, secondary juvenile period 1 VEGETATIVE SPREAD: year (D. Keith pers. comm., P. Kubiak pers. comm.). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of butterfly larvae PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Trapezites eliena, T. phigalia phigalia, T. luteus leucus and T. phigalioides FLOWERS: Yellow or cream, male and female flowers on separate plants, (Common & Waterhouse 1981). Eaten by rabbits (P. Kubiak pers. SeptemberÐNovember, peak October. comm.). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule, December. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994) at Lane BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP; Cove (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Qld, Vic. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kulnura, Woy Woy, Wondabyne, Scheyville, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Castlereagh, Glenbrook, Berowra Waters, Palm Beach, Beecroft, North BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT. Ryde, Malabar, Glenfield, Silverdale, Kiama. CT: Mt Coricudgy, North DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Tomah, Robertson. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Howes Valley, Colo River, Bowen Mountain, Habitat Marramarra Creek, Galston Gorge, Middle Harbour Creek, Waterfall, HABITAT: Hillsides, slopes, headlands. O’Hares Creek, Bargo River, Glenbrook Creek, Nortons Basin, The ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Woolwash. CT: Wentworth Falls. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Habitat VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, E. piperita, E. HABITAT: Creekbeds or rocky creekbanks, dry rocky hillsides. punctata, Angophora costata, Syncarpia glomulifera; woodland e.g. with ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm Eucalyptus fibrosa, E. crebra; scrub e.g. with Banksia aemula, seacliff TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. scrub. VEGETATION: Riparian scrub e.g. Tristaniopsis laurina, Lomandra SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, sand, shale, low nutrients. longifolia, Callicoma serratifolia, Casuarina cunninghamiana. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Sandstone rocks or sand along creeks in flood zone, low Conservation nutrients. Well-drained, not in standing water. Water table permanently Conservation status unknown. high. EXPOSURE: LOMANDRACEAE Conservation Lomandra filiformis subsp. flavior Coded 3RCa on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Reported in Life history Marramarra NP, Garigal NP, Royal NP. GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb forming sparse or short tussocks, occasionally in short, dense mats to 20 cm diam. LOMANDRACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Lomandra glauca PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Pale Mat-rush FLOWERS: male and female flowers on separate plants, AugustÐ Life history November. GROWTH FORM: Caespitose perennial herb or stems shortly decumbent FRUIT/SEED: Capsule in small dense mats. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular morphology for VEGETATIVE SPREAD: dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of butterflies Trapezites FLOWERS: Yellow, male and female flowers on separate plants, species (Common & Waterhouse 1982). SeptemberÐNovember. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Capsule, OctoberÐNovember. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Ant-adapted food body for BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT NWS NWP. dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. FIRE RESPONSE: Stems killed, reprouts from base, secondary juvenile SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Putty, Vineyard. CT: Currant Mountain Gap, period almost 1 year after high intensity fire (1/1994) at Lane Cove (P. Orange, Mt Hay. Kubiak pers. comm.). Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Leaves apparently eaten by rabbits HABITAT: Hillsides, ridges, tocky outcrops. (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm 30 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Distribution FRUIT/SEED: OctoberÐJanuary. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed with ant-adapted BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST CWS; Vic., S.A. food body for dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990, Rice & Westoby 1981). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. FIRE RESPONSE: Foliage killed but resprouts from rhizomes (Fox 1988), SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Howes Valley, Bouddi, Maroota, Agnes Banks, no seedlings recorded less than 1 year after fire (Purdie 1977), Castlereagh SF, Bilgola Heights, Pennant Hills, Mosman, Centennial secondary juvenile period 1 year after high intensity fire (1/1994) at Park, Malabar. CT: Olinda, Clarence, Kanangra, Katoomba, Lane Cove (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Springwood, Yerranderie. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Larvae of moth Lophocalama Habitat neurites feed at night on the leaves and shelter deep in the plant during HABITAT: Hillsides, rocky ridges. the day; leaves mined by larvae of moth Apatetris miarodes (Common ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm 1990). Foodplant of butterfly larvae Trapezites eliena, T. phigalioides, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. T. petalia and Trapezites symmomus symmomus, which feed on leaves VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Angophora hispida, Banksia serrata, during winter and pupate in leaves in springÐsummer (Common & Banksia aemula; open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora Waterhouse 1981). Leaves apparently eaten by rabbits (P. Kubiak pers. costata, Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus haemastoma, E. fibrosa. comm.). Leaves used by Aboriginal people for basket making; early SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on dunes, sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained. settlers used leaves to tie grape vines (Cribb & Cribb 1982). EXPOSURE: Distribution Conservation STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Royal BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP; Qld, NP. Vic., Tas., S.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread on coast and Blue Mountains. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mt Yengo, Ourimbah, Gordon, Manly, Bradleys LOMANDRACEAE Head, Springwood, Kogarah Bay, Kemps Creek, Menai, Stanwell Park, Lomandra gracilis Thirlmere, Albion Park. CT: Mt Coricudgy, Wolgan Gap, Clarence, Mt Life history Wilson, Hill Top, Moss Vale. GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb forming sparse tussocks. Habitat VEGETATIVE SPREAD: HABITAT: Gullies, creeks. LONGEVITY: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. FLOWERS: Male and female flowers on separate plants, mainly October. VEGETATION: Heath and riparian scrub e.g. with Leptospermum dune FRUIT/SEED: Capsule scrub with Banksia; woodland and moist eucalypt forest e.g. with DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Ant-adapted food body for Eucalyptus pilularis, E. saligna. dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). ? Myrmecochore (Rice & Westoby 1981). SUBSTRATE: Variety of situations on sand, sandstone, shale, basalt and FIRE RESPONSE: Stems killed, reprouts from base. Resprouted after high alluvium, low to high nutrients. intensity fire (1/1994), secondary juvenile period 1 year at Lane Cove EXPOSURE: Full sunÐto light shade. (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Conservation INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Possibly eaten by rabbits (P. Kubiak Widespread and probably adequately conserved. Reported in Blue pers. comm.). Mountains NP, Brisbane Water NP, Lion Is NR, Marramarra NP, Distribution Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Sydney Harbour NP. Often a persistent survivor in disturbed bush. Its BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT; Qld. recent increased use in urban landscaping and roadside planting has DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. resulted in the introduction of non-local forms, which are inappropriate SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Putty, Bouddi, Wondabyne, Dharug NR, Bowen when used in or near bushland areas. Mountain, Springwood, Terrey Hills, Berowra, Narrabeen, Centennial Park, Homebush, Padstow Heights, Waterfall, Campbelltown, O’Hares LOMANDRACEAE Creek, Nowra. CT: Mt Solitary, Hazelbrook. subsp. Habitat Lomandra micrantha tuberculata HABITAT: Rocky situations, ridges, hillsides. Small-flowered Mat-rush ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Corymbia VEGETATIVE SPREAD: gummifera, Syncarpia glomulifera. LONGEVITY: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: EXPOSURE: FLOWERS: Greenish yellow to dark red, male and female flowers on Conservation separate plants, MarchÐApril, AugustÐSeptember. Royal NP is southern geographical limit. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. Viability of fresh seed 96% (Vigilante et al. 1998). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: LOMANDRACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (Vigilante et al. 1998), flowering 15 months Lomandra longifolia after intensity fire (1/1994) at Lane Cove (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Spiny-headed Mat-rush Distribution Life history STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. GROWTH FORM: Tufted, rhizomatous perennial herb to 1 m tall, dioecious. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST; Vic., S.A., W.A. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Very limited spread. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Upper Blue Mountains. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wisemans Ferry, Bilpin, Pennant Hills, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: About 2Ð3 years. Willoughby, Heathcote, Minnamurra Falls. CT: Blackheath, Kanangra FLOWERS: Dense clusters of tiny yellow flowers in a panicle, perfumed, Walls, Lawson. male and female flowers similar on separate plants, AugustÐNovember. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 31

Habitat Distribution HABITAT: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. SWP; Qld, Vic., N.T, ?S.A. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. piperita, Banksia serrata; moist scrub e.g. with Gleichenia microphylla. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Berowra, Como, Rookwood, Kemps Creek, SUBSTRATE: sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, moist. Liverpool, Glenbrook, Heathcote, Bargo River, Coaldale, Bomaderry. EXPOSURE: CT: Rylstone, Mt Coricudgy, Cadia, Lewis Ponds, Bathurst, Pantoneys Conservation Crown, Lithgow, Hartley, Katoomba, Yerranderie. Gosford is northern geographical limit (Harden 1993). Conservation Habitat status unknown. HABITAT: Hillsides, crests. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm LOMANDRACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Lomandra montana VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus fibrosa, E. mannifera, E. rossii, E. bridgesiana, E. albens; open-forest e.g. with Syncarpia Life history glomulifera, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, basalt, metamorphics, occasionally on VEGETATIVE SPREAD: sandstone, low to medium nutrients, well-drained. LONGEVITY: EXPOSURE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Conservation FLOWERS: Male and female flowers on separate plants, March, August. Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Reported in FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. Brisbane Water NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: NP, Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP, Sydney Harbour NP. FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: LOMANDRACEAE Distribution Lomandra obliqua STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT CWS. Life history DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Restricted areas of Blue Mountains, Rylstone. GROWTH FORM: Low stoloniferous perennial herb, stems to 50 cm, may SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bilpin, Linden. CT: Coorongooba Creek, Mount be glaucous. Tomah, Blackheath, Wentworth Falls. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Plants capable of vegetative spread. Habitat LONGEVITY: Indefinite. HABITAT: Near creeks, waterfalls, moist cliffs, rock crevices. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm FLOWERS: Male and female flowers on separate plants, OctoberÐ TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. December. VEGETATION: Rainforest e.g. with Doryphora sassafras, Acmena smithii, FRUIT/SEED: Capsule; seed 3 mm diam. Ceratopetalum apetalum; moist eucalypt forest e.g. with Eucalyptus DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed. Ant-adapted food deanei. body for dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Recruitment mainly after fire SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, basalt, lowÐmedium nutrients, (D. Keith pers. comm.). moist. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from base, secondary juvenile period almost EXPOSURE: 1 year after high intensity fire (1/1994) at lane Cove (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Conservation INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Sometimes heavily cropped by Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP. rabbits (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Distribution LOMANDRACEAE STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Lomandra multiflora BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST; Qld. Many-flowered Mat-rush DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Putty, Kulnura, Mogo Creek, Springwood, Life history Hornsby, Beecroft, Mosman Bay, Parramatta, Nortons Basin, Picton, GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb. Bargo River, Darkes Forest. CT: Rylstone, Wentworth Falls, Kanangra, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Kangaloon, Wombeyan Caves. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Habitat FLOWERS: Male and female flowers on separate plants, SeptemberÐ HABITAT: Rocky slopes. November. Grasshopper fed on pollen (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1600 mm FRUIT/SEED: Capsule, SeptemberÐFebruary. Viability of fresh seed 96% TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. (Vigilante et al. (1998). VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus punctata, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Dispersal: ant-adapted food body Corymbia gummifera, Syncarpia glomulifera; open-forest e.g. with (Westoby et al. 1990). Eucalyptus pilularis, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita. FIRE RESPONSE: Regrowth from rhizomes, no seedlings recorded within SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained. 1 year after fire (Purdie 1977, Vigilante et al. (1998), secondary EXPOSURE: juvenile period 1 year after high intensity fire (1/1994) at Lane Cove (P. Conservation Kubiak pers. comm.). Widespread and probably adequately conserved. Reported in Brisbane INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of butterfly larvae Water NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Trapezites eliena and T. petalia (Common & Waterhouse 1981). Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP, Sydney Harbour NP. 32 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

LUZURIAGACEAE (PHILESIACEAE) BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ?ST; LHI, Qld, Vic., Pac.Is., Malesia. Eustrephus latifolius DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Wombat Berry SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Ourimbah, Mona Vale, Balmoral, Razorback, Life history Otford, Dapto, Shellharbour, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Mt Wilson, Jenolan Caves, Robertson. GROWTH FORM: Vine with stems to 6 m long, sometimes much branched, and with tuberous roots, narrow-leaved forms occur occasionally. Habitat VEGETATIVE SPREAD: HABITAT: Gullies, slopes. LONGEVITY: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1600 mm PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. FLOWERS: Pink to mauve or white, SeptemberÐNovember. Probably VEGETATION: Moist rainforest e.g. with Doryphora sassafras; dry pollinated by honeybees Apis mellifera; small beetles (Coleoptera) seen rainforest e.g. with Cassine australis, moist eucalypt forest e.g. with on flowers (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Eucalyptus pilularis, E. piperita, Syncarpia glomulifera; coastal sites FRUIT/SEED: Globular, fleshy, yellow-orange capsule,10Ð20 mm diam. e.g. with Casuarina glauca, Myoporum. Seeds numerous, black, with prominent white aril, JanuaryÐSeptember. SUBSTRATE: Clay loam from shale, basalt, limestone, occasionally on DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed/fruit, bird-dispersed sandstone, medium to high nutrients, well-drained. e.g. Currawongs (Wallace 1997). EXPOSURE: Sheltered sites, mid-shade. FIRE RESPONSE: Stems killed, resprouts from base (after high-intensity Conservation fire at Narrabeen 1/1994), secondary juvenile period 3 months (P. Kubiak Probably adequately conserved. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Bouddi pers. comm.). NP, Brisbane Water NP, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Moth larvae Cryptoptila immersana Chase NP, Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP, Sydney Harbour NP, Robertson feed between joined leaves (Common 1990). White tuberous roots NR. edible raw (Cribb & Cribb 1984). Distribution NAJADACEAE STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Najas browniana BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT NWS CWS; Qld, Vic., Pac.Is, Malesia. Waternymph DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Life history SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mooney Mooney, Hornsby, Manly, Cooks River, GROWTH FORM: Submerged aquatic monoecious annual or short-lived Auburn, Grose Vale, Razorback, Mt Keira, Bass Point, Minnamurra Falls. perennial with stems to 1 m long. CT: Mount Tomah, Jenolan Caves, Robertson. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Habitat LONGEVITY: Short-lived. HABITAT: Gullies and moist hillsides. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm FLOWERS: Warmer months. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule, with one seed 1 mm long. VEGETATION: Moist rainforest e.g. with Doryphora sassafras, dry DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: rainforest e.g. with Aphanopetalum apetalum; moist eucalypt forest e.g. FIRE RESPONSE: with Eucalyptus pilularis, E. saligna, E. obliqua, E. piperita. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SUBSTRATE: Clay loam from shale, basalt, volcanic necks, mediumÐhigh Distribution nutrients, well-drained. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. EXPOSURE: Sheltered sites, mid-shade. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld, Vic., N.T., W.A., N. Caledonia. Conservation DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: HawkesburyÐ Nepean River. Probably adequately conserved. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Bouddi SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lower Portland (1994). NP, Brisbane Water NP, Lion Island NR, Marramarra NP, Muogamarra Habitat NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Dalrymple Hay NR, Lane Cove HABITAT: Rivers. NP, Sydney Harbour NP, Robertson NR. ALTITUDE: 0Ð2 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: LUZURIAGACEAE (PHILESIACEAE) VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: Static to slow moving fresh water less than 3 m deep. Geitonoplesium cymosum EXPOSURE: Scrambling Lily Conservation Life history Conservation status unknown. GROWTH FORM: Vine with stems to 8 m long. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. NAJADACEAE LONGEVITY: Najas tenuifolia PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Mauve to white, SeptemberÐNovember, peak September. Waternymph, Thin-leaved Naiad FRUIT/SEED: Fleshy purple-black berry, 10Ð20 mm diam., with Life history numerous black seeds, aril absent, AugustÐNovember, MarchÐApril. GROWTH FORM: Submerged aquatic herb, with stems to 1 m long. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: fleshy fruit, vertebrate- VEGETATIVE SPREAD: adapted dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). LONGEVITY: Annual or short-lived perennial. FIRE RESPONSE: Stems killed, reprouts from base (after high-intensity PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: fire Narrabeen 1/1994), flower buds after 3 months (P. Kubiak pers. FLOWERS: FebruaryÐMay. comm.). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule, with one seed 2 mm long, FebruaryÐApril. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 33

Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growing period FebruaryÐ STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. August. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWS CWS SWS SWP SFWP; Qld, FIRE RESPONSE: Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wisemans Ferry, Patonga Creek, Villawood, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Duck Creek, Penrith Weir, Luddenham, Menangle, Cobbitty, The Oaks, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT. Burragorang Valley. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Boyd Plateau. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: KanangraÐBoyd. HABITAT: Wetland. Habitat ABITAT ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm H : Grassy ridge. LTITUDE NNUAL RAINFALL TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. A : 1000 m A : 1100 mm YPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE VEGETATION: Aquatic vegetation e.g. with Potamogeton crispus, Hydrilla T : Frequent. verticillata, Limnosella australis. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pauciflora. UBSTRATE SUBSTRATE: Fresh water less than 3 m deep. S : XPOSURE EXPOSURE: E : South and east aspects (Steenbeeke 1997). Conservation Conservation Conservation status unknown. Rare, Boyd Plateau is southern geographical limit. Coded 2R on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Reported in Kanangra- Boyd NP. ORCHIDACEAE Acianthus amplexicaulis ORCHIDACEAE Life history Acianthus caudatus GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers often on stolons and a single heart-shaped leaf, dark green above and reddish Mayfly Orchid purple below; flowering stem to 8 cm high with up to 20 tiny flowers Life history (Bishop 1996). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). tubers and daughter tubers on stolons, a single heart-shaped leaf, dark LONGEVITY: Indefinite. green above and reddish purple below; flowering stem to 25 cm high PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: with up to 9 flowers (Bishop 1996). FLOWERS: MarchÐMay. Self-pollinating (Jones 1988). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous, forming colonies by vegetative FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. multiplication of tubers (P. Weston, Herb. note, James 1988, Pridgeon DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growing period FebruaryÐ & Chase 1995). August. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Purple with odour of rotting meat (P. Weston, Herb. note), Distribution JulyÐSeptember, peak August. Possibly pollinated by tiny flies (Bishop 1996). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growing period FebruaryÐ DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Gosford area. August. Grows in loose, open colonies (Jones & Jones 2000). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wyrrabalong. FIRE RESPONSE: Abundant following fire (P. Weston, Herb. note), pre- Habitat sumably resprouting from tubers. Secondary juvenile period 10 months, HABITAT: after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Distribution VEGETATION: Moist coastal scrub; littoral rainforest. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SUBSTRATE: Dune sand, low nutrients. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A. EXPOSURE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Conservation SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wondabyne, Glenorie, Cowan, Springwood, Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wyrrabalong NP, the Frenchs Forest, Pymble, Roseville, Longeville, Cronulla, Waterfall. southern geographical limit. CT: Katoomba, Hill Top. Habitat ORCHIDACEAE HABITAT: Acianthus apprimus ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. EGETATION GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired V : Low scrub; open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus punctata, E. tubers and daughter tubers on stolons, a single heart-shaped leaf, dark piperita, Angophora costata, Corymbia gummifera. green above and reddish purple below; flowering stem to 20 cm high SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. with up to 9 flowers (Bishop 1996). EXPOSURE: Light shade (Bishop 1996). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (P. Hind pers. comm., Jones 1991). Conservation LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Dharug NP, Blue Mountains PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: NP, Royal NP. FLOWERS: Pinkish and dark purplish, FebruaryÐApril. Possibly pollinated by tiny flies (Bishop 1996). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. 34 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ORCHIDACEAE VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus sclerophylla, E. sieberi, Acianthus collinus Corymbia gummifera; moist forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita, Syncarpia glomulifera; rainforest e.g. with Life history Doryphora sassafras, Acmena smithii. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers and SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, trachyte, volcanic breccia, lowÐ daughter tubers on stolons, a heart-shaped leaf, dark green above and medium nutrients. reddish purple beneath; flowering stem to 15 cm high with up to 9 EXPOSURE: Mid-shade. S and E aspects (Steenbeeke 1997). flowers (Bishop 1996). Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (P. Hind pers. comm.). Conservation status unknown. Reported in Yengo NP, Dharug NP, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Georges River NR, Royal NP. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: JuneÐAugust. Possibly pollinated by tiny flies (Bishop 1996). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. ORCHIDACEAE DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growing period FebruaryÐ Acianthus fornicatus August. Pixie Caps FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired Distribution tubers and daughter tubers on stolons, a single heart-shaped leaf, dark STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. green above and reddish purple below; flowering stem to 30 cm high BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST NWS CWS. with up to 10 translucent flowers (Bishop 1996). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: OrangeÐMolong area. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (P. Hind pers. comm., Jones 1988). SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Molong. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Habitat PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: HABITAT: Moist areas. Relatively dry habitats (Bishop 1996). FLOWERS: Pinkish, insect-like (Jones & Jones 2000), MayÐAugust, peak ALTITUDE: 600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700 mm June. Possibly pollinated by tiny flies (Bishop 1996). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. VEGETATION: Low forest e.g. with Callitris and Eucalyptus sideroxylon. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Grows in dense, often extensive SUBSTRATE: Grey clay loam. colonies (Jones & Jones 2000). Active growing period FebruaryÐAugust. EXPOSURE: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts at base or below (Fox 1988). Fruit 8 months Conservation after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Only one record for Sydney area at Molong. Conservation status INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: unknown. Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ORCHIDACEAE BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld. Acianthus exsertus DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wamberal, Duffys Forest, Mona Vale, Hornsby, Mosquito Orchid Turramurra, Berrys Bay, Gladesville, Bankstown, Rookwood, Kurnell, Life history Jannali, Heathcote, Bundeena, Campbelltown, Burragorang Valley, GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired Cordeaux Dam. CT: Mt Wilson, Hartley. tubers and daughter tubers on stolons, a single heart-shaped leaf, dark Habitat green above and reddish purple below; flowering stem to 20 cm high HABITAT: with up to 20 flowers (Bishop 1996, Jones 1988). ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (P. Hind pers. comm.). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: piperita, Syncarpia glomulifera; woodland e.g. with Corymbia FLOWERS: Pale green with purplish labellum, possibly pollinated by tiny gummifera, Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus melliodora, E. macrorhyncha; flies (Bishop 1996), MarchÐJuly, peak AprilÐMay. edge of rainforest. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, dune sand, metamorphics, basalt, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for dis- low to medium nutrients. persal (Westoby et al. 1990). Active growing period FebruaryÐAugust. EXPOSURE: FIRE RESPONSE: Conservation INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ORCHIDACEAE BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Acianthus pusillus SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mogo Creek, Glenbrook, Kurrajong Heights, Gnat Orchid Glenhaven, West Head, Pennant Hills, Middle Harbour, Lindfield, Rouse Life history Hill, Gladesville, Ingleburn, Waterfall, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Cullen GROWTH FORM: Small seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired Bullen, Winburndale, Kanimbla Valley, Jenolan Caves, Woodford, tubers and daughter tubers on stolons, one heart-shaped leaf, dark green Mittagong, Mt Gibraltar. above and reddish purple or greenish beneath; flowering stem to 18 cm Habitat high with up to 18 flowers (Bishop 1996). HABITAT: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Backhouse & Jeanes 1995). ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm LONGEVITY: Indefinite. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Dull green to pinkish or reddish, insect-like, MarchÐAugust. Possibly pollinated by tiny flies (Bishop 1996). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 35

FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. FLOWERS: Bronzy to reddish green, NovemberÐMarch, peak January. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Growing period FebruaryÐAugust. Pollinated by the sexual deception of male thynnine wasps, FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Arthrothynnus huntianus; the flowers mimic both appearance and sex Lane Cove), fruit 26Ð30 weeks later (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). pheromones of wingless females (Jones & Jones 2000, Mant et al. 2002). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds, released 8Ð12 weeks Distribution after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). ISPERSAL ESTABLISHMENT GROWTH STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. D , & : Plants grow as scattered individuals BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A. or in loose groups (Jones 1988). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. FIRE RESPONSE: NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Norah Head, Kulnura, Waterfall. I : Habitat Distribution TATUS ORIGIN HABITAT: Moist habitats. S / : Native. OTANICAL SUBREGIONS ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm B : CC NT CT SWS; Vic. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: D S : Sporadic. ELECT LOCATIONS VEGETATION: Heath; open-forest; rainforest margins. S : CT: Mt Victoria, Jenolan Caves. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils (Bishop 1996). Habitat EXPOSURE: Shade. HABITAT: Ridgetops, with plentiful leaf litter and often extensive bare Conservation ground (Bishop 1996). ALTITUDE: 800Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1000 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. ORCHIDACEAE VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g with Eucalyptus sieberi, E. piperita, E. Adenochilus nortonii sclerophylla with shrubby understorey. Life history SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. GROWTH FORM: Slender evergreen terrestrial herb, with fleshy rhizome, EXPOSURE: few roots and 1 leaf per shoot; flowering stem to 15 cm high with 1 Conservation flower (Bishop 1996, Jones 1988). Conservation status unknown. May be inconspicuous and readily over- VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes (P. Hind pers. comm.). looked (Jones & Jones 2000). Conservation status unknown. Reported LONGEVITY: Indefinite. in Blue Mountains NP. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: NovemberÐDecember. Possibly pollinated by bees or wasps ORCHIDACEAE (Pridgeon et al. 2001), not self-pollinated (Jones 1988). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Arthrochilus prolixus (prev. conf. with A. irritablilis) DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Life history FIRE RESPONSE: GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous, leafless terrestrial herb, with paired INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: tuberoids and daughter tubers; flowering stem to 32 cm with up to 20 Distribution flowers (Bishop 1996). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (Jones 1991). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Blue Mountains. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Helensburgh. CT: Mt Victoria, Blackheath, FLOWERS: Pale green with purple to reddish hairs, DecemberÐMay. Wentworth Falls, Woodford. Probably pollinated by sexual deception of male thynnine wasps Habitat Arthrothynnus. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. HABITAT: Wet rocky crevices of rock faces, leaf litter, rock overhangs, near creeks. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growth period summer ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm (Pridgeon et al. 2001). FIRE RESPONSE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS VEGETATION: Grows with Sphagnum moss, Gleichenia, Blechnum, Todea I : barbara, Bauera rubioides, Callicoma serratifolia. Distribution SUBSTRATE: Moist sandstone overhangs, low nutrients, permanent STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. moisture. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. EXPOSURE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Conservation SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Narrabeen. Helensburgh is southern geographical limit. Conservation status Habitat unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP. HABITAT: Ridges, slopes. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm ORCHIDACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Arthrochilus huntianus VEGETATION: Open-forest. SUBSTRATE: Reported from rotting sawdust heaps. Elbow Orchid EXPOSURE: Life history Conservation GROWTH FORM: Saprophytic, leafless, seasonal terrestrial herb, with paired Manly is the southern geographical limit (Harden 1993). Conservation tuberoids and slender wiry, reddish flowering stem to 15 cm high with status unknown. up to 10 flowers. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: 36 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Bulbophyllum elisae Bulbophyllum minutissimum Pineapple Orchid Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous epiphytic or epilithic evergreen herb, GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous, evergreen epiphytic or epilithic terrestrial forming dense mats. Leaves minute, scale-like deciduous; the entire herb, forming dense mats. photosynthetic portion of the plant consists of hollow pseudobulbs and VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. the minute leaf (Schwartz 1997). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FLOWERS: Green, MayÐDecember. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. FLOWERS: OctoberÐNovember. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC NT CT CWS; Qld. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue Mountains. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT; Qld. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Corricudgy (1897), Rylstone. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kiama. Habitat HABITAT: Habitat ALTITUDE: 600Ð1300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm HABITAT: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: Rainforest. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SUBSTRATE: Trees or exposed rocks. VEGETATION: Rainforest; open-forest. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Trees and rocks. Commonly found on the undersides of branches of Ficus macrophylla or mangroves (Schwartz 1997). Conservation EXPOSURE: Blue Mountains is southern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. Reported from Blue Mountains NP (P. Weston pers. comm.). Conservation Regionally rare in Illawarra region (Mills 1988). ORCHIDACEAE Bulbophyllum exiguum ORCHIDACEAE (B. crassulifolium) Life history Bulbophyllum shepherdii GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous epiphytic or epilithic evergreen herbs, Wheat-leaved Orchid forming dense mats. Pseudobulbs topped with a single flat, dark green Life history leaf (Jones & Jones 2000). GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous epiphytic or epilithic evergreen herb, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. Forming extensive spreading patches prostrate, forming dense mats. (Jones & Jones 2000). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Greenish to cream, with 1Ð5 flowers, MarchÐMay. FLOWERS: Whitish, SeptemberÐNovember. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT; Qld. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT; Qld. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Culoul Range, Wyong, Wisemans Ferry, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Matcham, Waterfall, Springwood. Maroota, Springwood, Wahroonga, Waterfall, Bulli, Bomaderry Creek. CT: Robertson. Habitat HABITAT: Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Near streams. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: Rainforest e.g. with Backhousia myrtifolia, Trochocarpa TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. laurina. VEGETATION: Rainforest e.g. with Tristaniopsis laurina, Ceratopetalum SUBSTRATE: Rocks or trees. apetalum, Callicoma serratifolia; moist open-forest e.g. with Syncarpia EXPOSURE: Deep shade. glomulifera, Backhousia myrtifolia. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Sandstone boulders, trees. Reported in Blue Mountains NP. Conservation status unknown. EXPOSURE: Deep shade. Conservation Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Royal NP. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 37

ORCHIDACEAE SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil over sandstone, low nutrients. Burnettia cuneata EXPOSURE: Conservation Lizard Orchid Conservation status unknown. Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonal leafless terrestrial, saprophytic herb to 13 cm ORCHIDACEAE when flowering. Tuber present and capable of surviving many seasons underground without producing a leaf or flowers (Bishop 1996). Caladenia australis (C. reticulata, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Life history LONGEVITY: 2Ð4 years (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally dormant terrestrial herb, with underground PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: paired tubers, narrow leaf to 12 cm long, sparsely hairy. FLOWERS: WhiteÐpinkish, outside with dark striations on veins, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. SeptemberÐOctober. Probably pollinated by native bees (Pridgeon et al. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. 2001), not self-pollinating (Jones 1988). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. FLOWERS: Greenish cream with red stripes, flower stalk to 40 cm high, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: SeptemberÐOctober. FIRE RESPONSE: Flowers exclusively after fire (Bishop 1996), with plants FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. dying after flowering. No replacement tubers (Pridgeon et al. 2001). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Associated with Melaleuca FIRE RESPONSE: More easily found after fire (Bishop 1996). squarrosa (Pridgeon et al. 2001). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT; Vic., Tas. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: IllawarraÐSouthern Highlands. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CT ST CWS SWS; Vic., S.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Waterfall, Bulli Pass, Jamberoo Mountain, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Robertson, Mt Kembla. SELECT LOCATIONS: Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Swampy thickets. HABITAT: ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm ALTITUDE:ANNUAL RAINFALL: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: Shrubby swamps dominated by Melaleuca and VEGETATION: Woodland or low open-forest (Bishop 1996). Leptospermum, possibly partly parasitic on Melaleuca squarrosa (Bishop SUBSTRATE: 1996). EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Wet peaty soil, low nutrients. Conservation EXPOSURE: Conservation ORCHIDACEAE Coded 3RC- on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). (C. filamentosa var. tentaculata) Waterfall is northern geographical limit. Reported in Royal NP, Barren Caladenia capitellata Grounds NR. Green Comb, Fringed Spider Orchid Life history ORCHIDACEAE GROWTH FORM: Terrestrial seasonally deciduous herb, with underground Caladenia alata (C. holmesii) paired tubers, siingle hairy leaf and flowering stems to 45 cm high. Fairy Orchid VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ROWTH FORM G : Terrestrial seasonal deciduous herb, with underground FLOWERS: Greenish, SeptemberÐDecember, peak October. paired tubers, single leaf. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous, minute winged seeds. EGETATIVE SPREAD V : No. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: ONGEVITY L : Indefinite. FIRE RESPONSE: RIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD P : INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Short-lived, white or pink, SeptemberÐOctober, peak September. Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: ?SFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A. FIRE RESPONSE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Bathurst/Orange area. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gladesville, Cooks River, Jann ali. CT: Orange, Distribution Hill End, Marrangaroo, Wentworth Falls, Hill Top, Abercrombie Caves. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; Qld, Vic., Tas., N.Z. HABITAT: Rocky hillsides. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wyong, Calga, Wahroonga, Grose Vale, Avoca Reserve, Grose Wold (R.G Coveny), Marsfield, Kurnell, Loddon River. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. CT: Belmore Falls. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus rossii, E. polyanthemos, E. macrorhyncha. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Stony soils on shales, slate porphyry, low nutrients. ABITAT H : Moist sites, edge of sandstone outcrops, swamps, near lakes. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Rare, last Coastal record is Janali 1933. Conservation status elsewhere VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus piperita; scrub e.g. with Kunzea ambigua. unknown. 38 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ORCHIDACEAE EXPOSURE: SW aspect, bright light but protected locations (Steenbeeke Caladenia carnea 1997). Conservation Pink Fairy, Pink Fingers Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status Life history elsewhere unknown. Reported in Royal NP. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground paired tubers, single leaf. ORCHIDACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Caladenia clavigera PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Clubbed Spider Orchid, Small Spider Orchid FLOWERS: Pink, AugustÐOctober, peak September. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Winter-growing. paired tubers, single leaf, flowering stem to 40 cm high. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts at base or below (Fox 1988). Flowering 9 VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. months after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove (P. Kubiak pers. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. comm.). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Green with maroon stripes, usually only one flower, with Distribution metallic odour (Bishop 1996), OctoberÐNovember. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Blue Mountains. FIRE RESPONSE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Agnes Banks, Villawood, Sutherland, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Holsworthy, Loddon River. CT: Coricudgy, Mt Victoria, Katoomba Falls, Distribution Mt Werong, Mittagong. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST CWS; Vic., Tas., S.A. HABITAT: Often in or recolonising cleared areas. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Bathurst area. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Yetholme, Abercrombie Caves, Tarana. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐrare. Habitat VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus haemastoma, Corymbia HABITAT: Ridges. gummifera, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus sclerophylla, E. cannonii, ALTITUDE: 500Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð800 mm E. amplifolia, E. obliqua, Banksia serrata, Banksia ericifolia. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, granite, slates, low nutrients. VEGETATION: Eucalypt open-forest, woodland. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Skeletal clayey soil, low nutrients. Conservation EXPOSURE: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP. Conservation Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wambool NR. ORCHIDACEAE Caladenia catenata (C. alba) ORCHIDACEAE White Caladenia, White Fingers Caladenia congesta Life history Black Tongue Caladenia GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground Life history paired tubers, single leaf. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. paired tubers and a single leaf; flowering stem to 60 cm high with 1Ð4 LONGEVITY: Indefinite. flowers (Bishop 1996). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FLOWERS: White, mainly AugustÐOctober, peak September. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for FLOWERS: Bright pink, OctoberÐDecember, peak November. dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990), probably wind-dispersed. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Lane Cove), green fruit 10 months later (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld, Vic., N.Z. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST CWS; Vic., Tas., S.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and hinterland. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Bathurst area, Southern Highlands. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Ourimbah, Terrigal, Mt Irvine, Richmond, SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Yetholme, Mullion Creek, Wildes Meadow. Glenbrook, Hornsby, Ryde, Rookwood, St Marys, Bankstown, Tempe, Habitat La Perouse, Oatley, Kurnell, Bola Creek, Waterfall, Mt Kembla. HABITAT: Ridges. Habitat ALTITUDE: 700Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Hillsides, slopes. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: RareÐoccasional. ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus rossii, E. goniocalyx. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. SUBSTRATE: Shallow stony soils on sandstones, shales, low nutrients. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus EXPOSURE: sieberi, E. piperita, Syncarpia glomulifera; woodland with Eucalyptus Conservation fibrosa, E. parramattensis, Melaleuca decora. Rare (Bishop 1996), conservation status unknown. SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on sandstone, Tertiary alluvium, low nutrients. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 39

ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Caladenia cucullata Caladenia dimorpha Hooded Caladenia Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground paired tubers and a single leaf; flowering stem to 30 cm high with up to paired tubers and a single leaf; flowering stem to 25 cm high with up to 3 flowers (Bishop 1996). 5 flowers. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Not stoloniferous (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: White inside, outside surfaces greenish to light brown, with FLOWERS: Cream inside, outer surfaces greenish-brown or purplish, scent of cumarin (Bishop 1996), SeptemberÐOctober. SeptemberÐNovember. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Winter-growing vegetative shoots FIRE RESPONSE: Some records from areas previously burnt. from tubers. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Associated with mycorrhizal fungi STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. (Jones & Elliot 1986). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST CWS SWS; Vic. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue Mountains to Orange. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Mullions Range, Orange, Capertee, Wallerawang, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST CWS SWS; Vic., S.A. Bowenfels, Mt Cameron, Clarence, Mt Irvine, Bell, Woodford, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains. Katoomba, Trunkey Creek, Abercrombie Caves, Mittagong, Taralga. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Yetholme, Newnes, Katoomba, Abercrombie Habitat Caves. HABITAT: Slopes. Habitat ALTITUDE: 700Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Ridges, slopes. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. ALTITUDE: 700Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus viminalis, E. radiata; TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus mannifera. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus rossii; margins of shrub SUBSTRATE: Gravelly soil on metamorphics, basalt, low to medium swamps e.g. with Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus. nutrients, well-drained. SUBSTRATE: Shallow stony soils on sandstone, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: Mid-shade. EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation Uncommon, Blue Mountains is northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. Conservation status unknown.

ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Caladenia curtisepala (prev. incl. in C. carnea) Caladenia filamentosa Life history Daddy Long-legs GROWTH FORM: Seasonally dediduous terrestrial herb, with underground Life history paired tubers and a single leaf; flowering stem to 20 cm high with 1 GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground flower (Bishop 1996). paired tubers and a single leaf; flowering stem to 40 cm high with up to VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. 4 flowers (Bishop 1996). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FLOWERS: Pale pink or white inside, yellowish green on outside, with PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: musky or spicy scent (Bishop 1996), AugustÐSeptember. FLOWERS: Maroon to cream, SeptemberÐNovember. Flowers visited by FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. thynnine wasps, Chilothynnus trochanterinus, Aeolothynnus sp. (at DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Mullion Creek, Bower n.d.). FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mt Ku-ring-gai. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mt Ku-ring-gai. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread, sporadic. HABITAT: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Manly, Como, Wedderburn. CT: Abercrombie Caves. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100Ð1200 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. HABITAT: VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus haemastoma, Corymbia ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm gummifera. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on Hawkesbury sandstone, low nutrients. VEGETATION: Eucalypt woodland. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. Conservation EXPOSURE: Restricted to dry sclerophyll forest on Hawkesbury Sandstone (Harden Conservation Conservation status unknown. Occurrence is very 1993). Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP. unpredictable (Bishop 1996). 40 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Caladenia fitzgeraldii Caladenia gracilis (C. angustata) Spider Orchid Musky Caladenia Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground paired tubers and a single narrowish leaf to 14 cm long; flowering stem paired tubers and a single narrow leaf to 30 cm long, sparsely hairy; to 35 cm high with 1 flower (Bishop 1996). flowering stem to 40 cm with up to 6 flowers (Bishop 1996). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Not stoloniferous (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Yellowish green with red markings, AugustÐNovember. FLOWERS: White, often pinkish or bronzy markings, with musky to soapy FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. scent, OctoberÐNovember, peak October. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Winter-growing, producing vegetative shoots from bulbs, Distribution some records after fire. NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. I : Associated with mycorrhizal fungi BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST CWS. (Jones & Elliot 1986). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: WellingtonÐBathurst area (Harden 1993). Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Clarence. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST; Vic., Tas., S.A. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA HABITAT: D S : Mainly Upper Blue Mountains. ELECT LOCATIONS ALTITUDE: 600Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1000 mm S : CT: Clarence, Hassans Walls, Mt Irvine, Mt Wilson, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Katoomba, Bullaburra, Mt Werong, Trunkey Creek, Oberon, Mittagong, VEGETATION: Open-forest Abercrombie Caves. SUBSTRATE: Gravelly or rocky soil. Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Ridges and slopes. Conservation ALTITUDE: 600Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm Only Sydney area record is Clarence in 1961. Conservation status TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. unknown. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi, E. macrorhyncha; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus mannifera, E. radiata. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. ORCHIDACEAE EXPOSURE: Caladenia fuscata Conservation Life history Conservation status unknown. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground paired tubers, single narrow leaf to 15 cm long, sparsely hairy; ORCHIDACEAE flowering stem to 15 cm with 1 flower (Bishop 1996). Caladenia hillmanii (Caladenia sp. B) VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: GROWTH FORM: Seasonally dormant terrestrial herb, with underground FLOWERS: Inner surface white to pink, out surface reddish brown, paired tubers, narrow leaf to 6Ð12 cm long, sparsely hairy. Broadly SeptemberÐOctober. overlaps geographically with C. species C but no intergrades recorded FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. (Harden 1993). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution FLOWERS: Light pink with red-purple blotches, AugustÐOctober. RUIT SEED STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. F / : Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Qld, Vic. FIRE RESPONSE: NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. I : SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Ourimbah, Yarramalong, Terrey Hills, Distribution Riverstone, Wedderburn, Burragorang. CT: Yetholme, Blackheath, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Wentworth Falls, Megalong Valley, Bowral, Abercrombie Caves. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal, sporadic (Bishop 1996). ELECT LOCATIONS HABITAT: Hillsides. S : ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. HABITAT: VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus mannifera, E. radiata, E. ALTITUDE:ANNUAL RAINFALL: rossii, Melaleuca decora, with grassy or shrubby understorey. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SUBSTRATE: Gravelly sandy to clay soils on sandstone, Tertiary alluvium, VEGETATION: Low open-forest with heathy understorey (Bishop 1996). low nutrients. SUBSTRATE: Pale grey sandy soils (Bishop 1996). EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation Conservation status unknown. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 41

ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Caladenia iridescens Caladenia picta (Caladenia alba var. picta) Bronze Caladenia Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Terrestrial seasonally deciduous herb, with underground GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrrestrial herb, with underground paired tubers and a single sparsely hairy narrow leaf to 8 cm long; paired tubers and a sparsely hairy, single narrow leaf to 10 cm long; flowering stem 15 cm high, usually with 1 flower (Bishop 1996). flowering stem to 15 cm with 1 flower (Bishop 1996). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: White and pinkish, mainly MayÐJune. FLOWERS: Greenish yellow, unscented, SeptemberÐNovember. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Appears to be Autumn-growing. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: One record from recently burnt area. FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Vic. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT; Vic., Tas., N.Z. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Blue Mountains. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wisemans Ferry, Springwood, Narrabeen, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Elanora Heights. CT: Mt Wilson, Blackheath, Kurnell, Picnic Point, Lugarno, Burragorang Valley. Wentworth Falls, Lawson, Woodford. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: HABITAT: Ridgetops, slopes. ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, E. sieberi, E. sieberi, Syncarpia glomulifera. sclerophylla. SUBSTRATE: Shallow, clay- loam on sandstone, low nutrients. SUBSTRATE: Stony sand over sandstone, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation Newcastle is northern geographical limit, conservation status unknown. Mainly Blue Mountains, only one record from the Coast (Elanora Heights Reported in Royal NP. 1953). Conservation status unknown. ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Caladenia phaeoclavia Caladenia quadrifaria (Caladenia sp. C) Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground paired tubers and a single sparsely hairy narrow leaf to 16 cm long; paired tubers and a narrow hairy leaf to 13 cm long, with red-purple flowering stem to 20 cm high with 1Ð2 flowers (Bishop 1996). blotches; flowering stem 10Ð25 cm high, usually with 1 flower (Bishop VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. 1996). Often grows with C. tentaculata, which it closely resembles LONGEVITY: Indefinite. (Harden 1993). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FLOWERS: Inner surface bright pink, outer surface greenish pink, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. SeptemberÐOctober. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. FLOWERS: With dark red stripes, OctoberÐNovember. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: North from Bateau Bay. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST CWS SWS; Vic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lake Macquarie, Bateau Bay. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Bathurst area. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Yetholme, O’Connell. Habitat HABITAT: Slopes and ridges. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100Ð1200 mm HABITAT: Grassy or rocky sites on slopes or ridges. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: ALTITUDE: 800Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700 mm VEGETATION: Open-forest often under Allocasuarina species TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SUBSTRATE: Sandy or shallow clay loams. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus macrorhyncha, E. EXPOSURE: goniocalyx; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus melliodora, E. bridgesiana, E. blakelyi. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Loamy soil on alluvium, low nutrients. Bateau Bay is southern geographical limit. EXPOSURE: Conservation Bathurst is northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wamberal NR. 42 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ORCHIDACEAE Habitat Caladenia tessellata HABITAT: Slopes. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm Thick Lip Spider Orchid TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. Life history VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus haemastoma, E. piperita, GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground Corymbia gummifera, E. melliodora, E. rossii, E. macrorhyncha; heath paired tubers and a single sparsely hairy narrow leaf to 6 cm long; e.g. with Eucalyptus stricta, Leptospermum. flowering stem to 30 cm high with 1Ð2 flowers (Bishop 1996). SUBSTRATE: Sandy, stony soils on sandstone, slates, low nutrients. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. EXPOSURE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Newcastle is northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. FLOWERS: Cream-coloured with reddish stripes, flower stalk to 25 cm high, AugustÐNovember, peak September. ORCHIDACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Calanthe triplicata FIRE RESPONSE: Reported to be evident only after a fire (Bishop 1996). Christmas Orchid INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Life history Distribution GROWTH FORM: Terrestrial evergreen herb, with pseudobulb 3Ð8 cm long; STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. leaves 25Ð90 cm long, 6Ð18 cm wide, inflorescence to 1.5 cm long, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC ST; Vic. with up to 40 flowers. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast, Swansea to Loftus. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, rhizomatous. SELECT LOCATIONS: C: Wyong, Berowra, Castlecrag, Tempe, Como, Suth- LONGEVITY: erland, Loftus. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Habitat FLOWERS: White, OctoberÐJanuary. HABITAT: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100Ð1400 mm DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATION: Heath. Often in very dense shrubbery (Bishop 1996). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SUBSTRATE: Clay, loam or sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients. Distribution EXPOSURE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Conservation BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT; Qld, Asia, Malesia, Melanesia. Listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) under the NSW Threatened Species DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Conservation Act 1995, as most of Sydney habitat has been destroyed SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cooranbong, Yarramalong, Somersby. by urban development. It is now only known from 3 populations in the Habitat Wyong area (and one population near Braidwood), with a total HABITAT: Rainforest floor, creek bank. population size is less than 50 individuals (Final Determination 2002 ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1600 mm NSW Scientific Committee). It is not known to occur in any TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: conservation area. Swansea is the northern geographical limit. VEGETATION: Rainforest; moist open-forest Continuing decline of individuals and populations, threatened by SUBSTRATE: habitat degradation and pedestrian activity; not known to occur within EXPOSURE: Dense shade. any conservation reserve (NPWS website: Conservation www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au). Illawarra district is southern geographical limit. Conservation status ORCHIDACEAE unknown. Caladenia testacea ORCHIDACEAE Honey Caladenia Caleana major Life history Large Duck Orchid GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground paired tubers and a single sparsely hairy narrow leaf to 5 cm long; Life history flowering stem to 18 cm high with 1Ð2 flowers, a variable species (Bishop GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with narrow leaf, 1996). underground paired tubers and stolons, with daughter tubers; flowering VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. stem to 40 cm high with up to 5 flowers (Bishop 1996). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FLOWERS: White or pale green to greenish yellow, unscented, SeptemberÐ PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: February. FLOWERS: Reddish brown to shiny purple (or rarely greenish with dark FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. spots), flower stalk 40 cm high, SeptemberÐFebruary, peak OctoberÐ DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: November. Flowers may last for up to 2 months (Pridgeon & Chase FIRE RESPONSE: Flowering 18 months after high intensity fire (1/1994 at 1995). Pollinated by pseudocopulation by male sawfly Pterygophorus Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). (Bishop 1996). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for Distribution dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts at base or below (Fox 1988). Fruit 12 months BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; Vic., Tas. after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bilpin, Glenorie, Lower Portland, Fox Valley, North Rocks. CT: Hill End, Lithgow, Fitzroy Falls, Penrose, Abercrombie Caves. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 43

Distribution ORCHIDACEAE STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Calochilus gracillimus BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Slender Beard Orchid, Late Beard Orchid SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Upper Colo, Glenbrook, Bilpin, Linden, Life history Sackville, Agnes Banks, Pittwater, Hornsby, Frenchs Forest, Manly, GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with narrow leaf Bondi, La Perouse, Kurnell, Waterfall, Bundeena, Mt Jamberoo, Nowra, and underground paired tubers; flowering stem to 45 cm high with up to Hill Top. CT: Mt Wilson, Mt Victoria, Wentworth Falls, Werong, 9 flowers (Bishop 1996). O’Connell. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Jones 1988). Habitat LONGEVITY: Indefinite. HABITAT: Ridges. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm FLOWERS: Green with purple stripes and purple to bronze beard, flower TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: RareÐoccasional. stalk to 45 cm high, late OctoberÐearly February. Probably self- VEGETATION: Open-forest; woodland e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, pollinating. Eucalyptus sieberi, E. piperita, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds, JanuaryÐ sclerophylla, E. parramattensis, E. mannifera, E. rossii; swampy heath February. e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Banksia serrata, Lambertia formosa. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: SUBSTRATE: Sandy or gravelly soil on sandstone, low nutrients. FIRE RESPONSE: EXPOSURE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Conservation STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT CWS; Qld. elsewhere unknown. Reported in Agnes Banks NR, Royal NP. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woy Woy, Sackville, Middle Cove. ORCHIDACEAE CT: Mt Irvine, Wentworth Falls, Woodford. Calochilus campestris (Calochilus saprophyticus) Habitat HABITAT: Ridgetops, slopes. Copper Beard Orchid ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers; VEGETATION: Open-forest; woodland e.g. with Casuarina. flowering stem to 60 cm high with up to 15 flowers (Bishop 1996). SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm., Jones 1988), not EXPOSURE: stoloniferous (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). Conservation LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation status unknown. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Pale green, with purple stripes and purplish beard; flower stalk to 60 cm high, SeptemberÐOctober, peak October. Self-pollinating, ORCHIDACEAE also pollinated by scolis wasps Campsomeris, by sexual deception Calochilus paludosus (Pridgeon et al. 2001). Red Beard Orchid FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds, OctoberÐ December. Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with narrow leaf dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). and paired tubers; flowering stem to 35 cm high with up to 9 flowers FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at (Bishop 1996). Lane Cove and Narrabeen), flowering 10 months later (P. Kubiak pers. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm., Jones 1988). comm.). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Green, often with reddish veins and red to coppery beard, Distribution flower stalk to 35 cm high, September, peak October. Self-pollinating, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. occasionally insect-pollinated (Van de Cingel 2001). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP; FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Qld, Vic., Tas. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Upper Colo, Lower Portland, Maroota, Gosford, Lane Cove and Narrabeen), green fruit 41 weeks later (P. Kubiak pers. Mulgoa, Castlereagh, Hornsby, Frenchs Forest, Lindfield, Gladesville, comm.). Maroubra, Cooks River, East Hills. CT: Wentworth Falls (1889). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Ridges, slopes. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. N.Z. VEGETATION: Forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Corymbia gummifera; DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus sclerophylla, E. parramattensis, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gosford, Pearl Beach, Agnes Banks, Glenbrook, Angophora bakeri. Berowra, Pennant Hills, Mosman, Gladesville, Centennial Park, SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clayey soil on sandstone, Tertiary alluvium, low Cambridge Park, Bankstown, Royal NP, Bargo. CT: O’Connell, Bell, nutrients. Victoria Falls, Wentworth Falls (1898), Woodford. EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation status unknown. 44 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Habitat FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. HABITAT: Dry ridges. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm FIRE RESPONSE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, Syncarpia Distribution glomulifera, Acmena smithii; woodland e.g. with Angophora costata, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Eucalyptus piperita, E. sclerophylla, E. parramattensis; heath e.g. with BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC ?ST. Banksia ericifolia. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Jamberoo Mountain. CT: Kanangra. EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Moist sheltered slopes. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: ORCHIDACEAE VEGETATION: Calochilus robertsonii (C. imberbis) SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: Purplish Beard Orchid Conservation Life history Boyd Plateau is northern geographical limit (Bishop 1996). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with narrow leaf Conservation status unknown. and paired tubers; flowering stem to 45 cm high with up to 9 flowers, a variable species (Bishop 1996). ORCHIDACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm., Jones 1988). Not stoloniferous (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). Chiloglottis diphylla LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Life history RIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD P : GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with 2 basal leaves, FLOWERS: Reddish brown with darker stipes and purple-maroon or bronzy tubers and stolons with daughter tubers, flowering stem to 10 cm high beard, flower stalk 46 cm high, SeptemberÐOctober. Self-pollinating, with 1 flower (Bishop 1996). occasionally insect-pollinated (Van de Cingel 2001). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous forming clonal colonies. RUIT SEED F / : Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: IRE RESPONSE F : Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at FLOWERS: Yellowish, with insect-like black callus, JanuaryÐMay. Lane Cove), flowering 39Ð41 weeks later (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Thynnine wasps Neozeloboria, Eirone, attracted to flowers (Bower n.d.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollinated by the sexual deception of male thynnine wasps, Distribution Arthrothynnus latus; the flowers mimic both appearance and sex STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. pheromones of wingless females (Mant et al. 2002). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A., N.Z. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. FIRE RESPONSE: Reported flowering 6 months after fire. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woy Woy, Agnes Banks, Blaxland, Hornsby, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Longeville, East Hills, Kurnell, Sutherland. CT: Dunns Swamp, Distribution Mullion Range, Capertee, Yetholme, Lawson, Abercrombie Caves, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Mittagong. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT ST NWS; Qld. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. HABITAT: Gentle slopes. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Govetts Leap Creek, Royal NP. ALTITUDE: 0Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm Habitat YPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE T : Occasional. HABITAT: Moist areas in forest. EGETATION V : Eucalypt woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus sclerophylla, ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 mm ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Angophora costata, Eucalyptus parramattensis, Angophora bakeri, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Eucalyptus rossii; heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Eucalyptus obstans. VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus deanei, Syncarpia SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, Tertiary alluvium, low nutrients. glomulifera. XPOSURE E : SUBSTRATE: Loamy soil on shale, medium nutrients. Conservation EXPOSURE: Conservation status unknown. Conservation Conservation status unknown, reported in Royal NP. ORCHIDACEAE Chiloglottis chlorantha ORCHIDACEAE Life history Chiloglottis formicifera GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with 2 basal leaves, Ant Orchid tubers and stolons with daughter tubers, flowering stem to 5 cm high with 1 flower (Bishop 1996). Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous, forming clonal colonies. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with 2 basal leaves, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. tubers and stolons with daughter tubers; flowering stem to 10 cm high PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: with 1 flower (Bishop 1996). FLOWERS: Yellowish green, SeptemberÐNovember. Pollinated by the VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.), sexual deception of male thynnine wasps, Neozeleboria sp.; the flowers forming clonal colonies. mimic both appearance and sex pheromones of wingless females (Mant LONGEVITY: Indefinite. et al. 2002). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 45

PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ORCHIDACEAE FLOWERS: Greenish brown with shiny black ant-like callus, AugustÐ Chiloglottis reflexa November, peak September. Pollinated by the sexual deception of male thynnine wasps, Neozeleboria sp.; the flowers mimic both appearance Life history and sex pheromones of wingless females (Mant et al. 2002). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with 2 basal leaves, FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. tubers and stolons with daughter tubers; flowering stem to 18 cm high DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: with flower (Bishop 1996). FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.), INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: forming clonal colonies. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FLOWERS: Reddish or greenish, with black insect-like callus, JanuaryÐ BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS. May, peak March. Thynnine wasps (Neozeloboria sp.) attracted to flow- DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: ers (at Mt Wilson, Bower n.d.). Pollinated by the sexual deception of SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cattai Creek, Burns Bay, Audley, Loftus, Bola male thynnine wasps; the flowers mimic both appearance and sex Creek, Woronora, Waterfall, Burragorang Valley, Springwood. pheromones of wingless females (Mant et al. 2002). CT: Mt Irvine, Mt Cameron. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Habitat DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: May colonise the fibrous trunk of HABITAT: Moist areas in forest. tree fern Dicksonia antarctica (Pridgeon et al. 2001). ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm FIRE RESPONSE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, E. saligna, Distribution Syncarpia glomulifera, Acacia melanoxylon, E. viminalis, E. radiata. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SUBSTRATE: Loamy soil on shales, basalt, sandstone, low to high nutrients. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST; Vic., Tas. EXPOSURE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Conservation SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Windsor, Glenhaven, Glenbrook, Springwood, Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. Asquith, Hornsby, Lane Cove, Waterfall, Jamberoo Mountain. CT: Running Stream, Belah Swamp, Winburndale, Porters Retreat, Mt ORCHIDACEAE Wilson, Wentworth Falls, Woodford, Kanimbla Valley, Mittagong, Chiloglottis palachila Penrose. Habitat Life history HABITAT: Gullies, hillsides. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with 2 basal leaves, ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm tubers and stolons with daughter tubers; flowering stem to 16 cm high TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. with 1 flower (Bishop 1996). VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (Jones 1991), forming clonal colonies. piperita, E. deanei, Syncarpia glomulifera; woodland e.g. with LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Eucalyptus pauciflora, Acacia melanoxylon. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. FLOWERS: Brownish with blackish ant-like callus, NovemberÐFebruary. EXPOSURE: Pollinated by the sexual deception of male thynnine wasps, Chilothynnus Conservation palachilus, the flowers mimicking both appearance and sex pheromones Blue Mountains is northern geographical limit. Conservation status of wingless females (Mant et al. 2002). unknown. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: ORCHIDACEAE INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Chiloglottis seminuda Distribution Life history STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with 2 basal leaves, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT. tubers that may be at the end of stolons, and daughter tubers, flowering DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Bathurst area. stem to 6 cm high with 1 flower (Bishop 1996). SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Sunny Corner. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (P. Weston pers. comm.), forming Habitat clonal colonies. HABITAT: Ridgetop. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. ALTITUDE: 800Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. FLOWERS: Green to reddish, with black insect-like callus, JanuaryÐApril. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus rubida, Poa, Pteridium Attempted mating with flowers by thynnine wasps, Neozeloboria, esculentum. Aeolothynnus westwoodi (Bower n.d.).Pollinated by the sexual SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on basalt, high nutrients. deception of male thynnine wasps, Neozeleboria sp.; the flowers mimic EXPOSURE: both appearance and sex pheromones of wingless females (Mant et al. Conservation 2002). Rare in Central Tablelands, known only from Sunny Corner near FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Bathurst, its southern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Southern Highlands. 46 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wedderburn. CT: Woodford, Bowral, Fitzroy FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Capsule Falls, Bundanoon. mature, and seeds released 1 month after pollination (Oakwood n.d.). Habitat DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Grows to maximum hight after HABITAT: Moist areas of forest. pollination (Oakwood n.d.). IRE RESPONSE ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm F : Recorded from one site burnt several years previously. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus radiata. Distribution SUBSTRATE: Sandy loam on sandstone, low nutrients. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. EXPOSURE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., Conservation S.A. Woodford is the northern geographical limit. Conservation status DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread but sporadic. unknown. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mill Creek, Burns Bay (1887). CT: Mt Victoria, Bowral, Penrose. ORCHIDACEAE Habitat Chiloglottis sylvestris HABITAT: Sheltered hillsides. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional, occurring as small discrete GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with 2 basal leaves, patches. tubers that may be at the end of stolons, with daughter tubers, VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, Syncarpia flowering stem to 5 cm high with 1 flower (Bishop 1996). glomulifera, Allocasuarina torulosa. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (P. Weston pers. comm.), forming SUBSTRATE: Loams on shale, sandstone, low nutrients. clonal colonies. EXPOSURE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Dharug NP. FLOWERS: Greenish pink, with reddish black insect-like callus, DecemberÐMay. Thynnine wasps (Neozeloboria proxima, Eirone sp.) ORCHIDACEAE attracted to flowers (Bower n.d.). Pollinated by the sexual deception of male thynnine wasps, Neozeleboria sp.; the flowers mimic both Chiloglottis trilabra appearance and sex pheromones of wingless females (Mant et al. 2002). Life history FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers, stolons DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: with daughter tubers, and 2 basal leaves; flowering stem to 8 cm high FIRE RESPONSE: with 1 flower (Bishop 1996). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (Pridgeon & Chase 1995), forming Distribution clonal colonies. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ?SC NT; Qld. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Woronora Plateau. FLOWERS: Greenish brown, with a black insect-like callus, DecemberÐ SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Appin Road. May. Pollinated by the sexual deception of male thynnine wasps, Habitat Neozeleboria proxima; the flowers mimic both appearance and sex HABITAT: Moist situations. pheromones of wingless females (Mant et al. 2002). ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. ISPERSAL ESTABLISHMENT GROWTH TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. D , & : IRE RESPONSE VEGETATION: Dry eucalypt forest e.g. with Doryanthes excelsa, Imperata F : cylindrica INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SUBSTRATE: Sandy clay loam on shale, medium nutrients. Distribution EXPOSURE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Conservation BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST CWS; ?Vic. Robertson is the southern geographical limit (Harden 1993). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains. Conservation status unknown. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Mt Wilson, Kanangra Walls, Wombeyan Caves. Habitat ORCHIDACEAE HABITAT: Moist areas. Chiloglottis trapeziformis ALTITUDE: 1000Ð1200 mANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Life history VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus dalrympleana, E. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with 2 basal leaves, pauciflora. tubers and stolons with daughter tubers; flowering stem to 8 cm high SUBSTRATE: Gravelly loam on granite, low nutrients. with 1 flower (Bishop 1996). EXPOSURE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (Prideon & Chase 1995), forming Conservation clonal colonies. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Kanangra-Boyd NP. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ORCHIDACEAE FLOWERS: Brownish, with a short shiny black ant-like callus, AugustÐ October, peak October. Pollinated by the sexual deception of male Corybas aconitiflorus thynnine wasps, Neozeleboria sp., flowers mimicking both appearance Spurred Helmet Orchid and sex pheromones of wingless females (Mant et al. 2002). Flowers are self-compatible but pollinated by Neozeloboria cryptoides (Oakwood Life history n.d.). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb with underground replacement and daughter tubers and a single leaf, the lower surface purplish; short erect flowering stem (Bishop 1996). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 47

VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes (P. Hind pers. comm.), stoloniferous (Pridgeon ORCHIDACEAE & Chase 1995). Corybas fimbriatus LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Fringed Helmet Orchid FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, purplish, MarchÐJuly, peak May. Flowers Life history probably mimic small toadstools and may be pollinated by fungus gnats GROWTH FORM: Seasonal terrestrial herb with underground replacement (Bishop 1996). and daughter tubers and a single leaf, the lower surface transparent; FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. flowering stem short, leaning back (Bishop 1996). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growing period MarchÐ VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). August. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FIRE RESPONSE: Some reports from recently burnt areas. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, reddish purple, AprilÐAugust, peak June. Distribution Flowers probably mimic small toadstools and may be pollinated by STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. fungus gnats (Bishop 1996). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; Qld, Vic., Tas. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growing period MarchÐ SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woy Woy, Kurrajong Heights, Springwood, August. Hornsby, Terrey Hills, Pennant Hills, Ryde, Nattai, Woronora River, FIRE RESPONSE: Loftus, Bulli Pass. CT: Mt Wilson, Woodford. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Gullies, rock ledges. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mangrove Creek, Hornsby, Bobbin Head, piperita, E. globoidea, Corymbia gummifera; heath e.g. with Corymbia Kurnell, Moorebank, Como, Waterfall, Burragorang Valley, Woronora gummifera, Acacia suaveolens, Banksia ericifolia, with leaf mould and River, Kiama. CT: Jenolan Caves, Cullen Bullen. thick undergrowth. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, laterite, low nutrients. HABITAT: Moist forest. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent, often in extensive colonies (Bishop Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. 1996). VEGETATION: Moist open-forest, woodland e.g. with Banksia serrata. ORCHIDACEAE SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on dune sand, sandstone, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: Corybas barbarae Conservation Life history Poorly known local forms occur in the Liverpool area and in GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb with replacement Corymbia maculata forest at Appin (Bishop 1996). Conservation status and daughter tubers, a single round leaf, the lower surface purplish and unknown. a short, erect flowering stem (Bishop 1996). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes (P. Hind pers. comm.). ORCHIDACEAE LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Corybas fordhamii FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, white to pinkish, MayÐJuly. Flowers probably Banded Helmet Orchid mimic small toadstools and may be pollinated by fungus gnats (Bishop Life history 1996). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb with replacement FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. and daughter tubers and a single leaf, the lower surface transparent; DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growing period MarchÐ flowering stem fine, to 12 mm high with 1Ð2 flowers, curving August. backwards (Bishop 1996). FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, reddish purple and white, JulyÐSeptember. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. Needs very high humidity for flower development, flowers with a strong DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Northern edge of Sydney (Bishop 1996). scent of mushrooms, probably mimic small toadstools and attracting SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hornsby. fungus gnats (Bishop 1996). Habitat FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. HABITAT: Rocky ridges (Bishop 1996). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growing period MarchÐ ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm August. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FIRE RESPONSE: Often flowers prolifically in season following fire (Bishop VEGETATION: Open-forest. 1996). SUBSTRATE: Poor sandy soil, low nutrients. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: EXPOSURE: Distribution Conservation STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Hornsby is southern geographical limit. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld, Vic., S.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Scattered on coast and tablelands (Keith 1994). 48 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bedford Creek, O’Hares Creek (Keith 1994), Distribution Lodden River. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC. HABITAT: Damp shady situations. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woodford, Glenbrook, West Head, Hornsby, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: West Pennant Hills, Ryde, Gladesville, Waverley, Royal NP. VEGETATION: Wet heathland e.g. with Banksia robur, Gymnoschoenus Habitat sphaerocephalus, Hakea teretifolia. HABITAT: Moist sheltered forest. SUBSTRATE: Black peaty soil on sandstone, low nutrients, poorly-drained. ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Conservation VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, Syncarpia Uncommon in Sydney region (Keith 1994). glomulifera, with moist shrubby or fern understorey; rainforest margins. SUBSTRATE: Clay and loam soils on shale, sandstones, low to medium nutrients. ORCHIDACEAE EXPOSURE: Corybas hispidus Conservation Bristly Helmet Orchid Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Royal Life history NP. GROWTH FORM: Terrestrially deciduous seasonal herb with underground replacement and daughter tubers and a single round leaf, the lower ORCHIDACEAE surface transparent; flowering stem short, leaning back (Bishop 1996). Corybas undulatus VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes (P. Hind pers. comm.). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Tailed Helmet Orchid PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, reddish purple and white, FebruaryÐMay. GROWTH FORM: Terrestrially deciduous seasonal herb with underground Flowers probably mimic small toadstools and may be pollinated by replacement and daughter tubers and a single round leaf, the lower fungus gnats (Bishop 1996). surface reddish; flowering stem short, leaning back (Bishop 1996). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Smallest of the helmet orchids. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growing period MarchÐ VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Probably (P. Hind pers. comm.). August. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, purplish red and white, MayÐJuly. Flowers Distribution probably mimic small toadstools and may be pollinated by fungus gnats STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. (Bishop 1996). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST; Qld, Vic. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growing period MarchÐ SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Cullen Bullen, Victoria Pass, Woodford. August. FIRE RESPONSE: Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: HABITAT: Sheltered slopes, gullies. ALTITUDE: 500Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1000 mm Distribution TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent, forming large loose colonies STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. (Bishop 1996). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld. VEGETATION: Moist eucalypt forest e.g. with Pteridium esculentum. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast, sporadic. SUBSTRATE: Loamy soils on sandstone, low nutrients. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Terrey Hills (1976), Duffys Forest (1976), EXPOSURE: Frenchs Forest, Warumbul (RNP). Conservation Habitat Conservation status unknown. HABITAT: Ridges ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm ORCHIDACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Scattered. VEGETATION: Wet heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Allocasuarina Corybas pruinosus distyla, Angophora hispida, Corymbia gummifera. Toothed Helmet Orchid SUBSTRATE: Damp sand or leaf mould on sandstone, low nutrients, Life history periodically moist. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb with underground EXPOSURE: replacement and daughter tubers and a single leaf, the lower surface Conservation transparent; flowering stem short, leaning back (Bishop 1996). Rarely recorded and easiest to find after bushfires (Bishop 1996), only VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes (P. Hind pers. comm.). 8 specimens redorded with most recent collection 1976. Coded 3KC- LONGEVITY: Indefinite. on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, reddish purple and grey green, AprilÐJuly, peak ORCHIDACEAE MayÐJune. Flowers probably mimic small toadstools and may be pollinated by fungus gnats (Bishop 1996). Corybas unguiculatus FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Small Helmet Orchid DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growing period MarchÐ Life history August. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb with underground FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at replacement and daughter tubers and a single leaf, the lower surface Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). purplish; flowering stem straight, leaning strongly backwards (Bishop INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: 1996). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 49

VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). Conservation LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Dharug NP, Ku-ring-gai PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Chase NP, Sydney Harbour NP. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, purple, MayÐJuly. Flowers probably mimic small toadstools and may be pollinated by fungus gnats (Bishop 1996). ORCHIDACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Cryptostylis hunteriana DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growing period MarchÐ August. Leafless Tongue Orchid FIRE RESPONSE: Reported from sites burnt in previous year. Life history INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: GROWTH FORM: Terrestrial leafless saprophytic herb, with a tuberous Distribution rhizome and fleshy roots; flowering stem pale yellow to 45 cm high STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. with up to 10 flowers (Bishop 1996). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC; Vic., Tas., S.A. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast south from Gosford. LONGEVITY: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woy Woy, Terrey Hills, Pennant Hills, Kurnell, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Heathcote, Helensburgh, Bulli Pass, Jamberoo Mountain, Seven Mile FLOWERS: Maroon, conspicuously hairy, NovemberÐFebruary, sporadic, Beach. not repeated over subsequent seasons (Bell 2001). Pollinated by Habitat pseudocopulation by ichneumonid wasp Lissopimpla excelsa (Bishop 1996). HABITAT: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1600 mm DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. FIRE RESPONSE: Reported from areas burnt 1Ð3 years previously (Bell VEGETATION: Coastal heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Angophora hispida; open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus haemastoma, Corymbia 2001). gummifera, Syncarpia glomulifera. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, laterite, low nutrients. Distribution EXPOSURE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Conservation BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT; Vic. Gosford in northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Lake Macquarie to Pittwater. Reported in Royal NP, Seven Mile Beach NP. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Chain Valley Bay, Vales Point, Freemans Waterhole, Wyee, Charmhaven, West Head (Bell 2001). Habitat ORCHIDACEAE HABITAT: Coastal plains. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100Ð1200 mm Cryptostylis erecta TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. Tartan Tongue Orchid VEGETATION: Coastal Plains Scribbly Gum Woodland e.g. with Life history Eucalyptus haemastoma, Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus capitellata, Angophora inopina, Angophora costata, with shrubby understorey (Bell GROWTH FORM: Terrestrial evergreen herb, with a tuberous rhizome, fleshy roots and basal leaves with lower surfaces purple; flowering stem to 2001). 50 cm high with up to 12 flowers (Bishop 1996). SUBSTRATE: Dry sandy loams on Triassic Narrabeen geology, low nutrients. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous, growing in small, spreading clumps (Jones 1988). EXPOSURE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) under the NSW Threatened Species FLOWERS: Forming a hood, lilac with maroon lines, NovemberÐFebruary. Conservation Act 1995. Inadequately conserved and threatened by habitat Pollinated by pseudocopulation by ichneumonid wasp Lissopimpla loss and fragmentation, frequent fire during the flowering season, weed excelsa attracted initially by scent (Coleman 1930). invasion and modification of habitat by nutrient enrichment (Bell 2001). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at ORCHIDACEAE Lane Cove), flowering 12 months later (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Cryptostylis leptochila INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Small Tongue Orchid STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Life history BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; Vic. GROWTH FORM: Terrestrial evergreen herb, with a tuberous rhizome, fleshy DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Coast. roots and basal leaves, the lower surfaces purple; flowering stem to 40 cm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Munmorah, Burralow Creek, Pittwater, Berowra, high with up to 15 flowers (Bishop 1996). Narrabeen, Forestville, Manly, Lindfield, Lane Cove, Mosman, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous, growing in small, spreading clumps Centennial Park, Kogarah, Kurnell. CT: Katoomba. (Jones 1988). Habitat LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: HABITAT: Slopes, creekbanks. FLOWERS: Maroon, minutely hairy, NovemberÐMarch, peak January. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Pollinated by pseudocopulation by ichneumonid wasp Lissopimpla TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. excelsa attracted initially by scent (Coleman 1927). VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, Angophora costata, E. piperita, Syncarpia glomulifera; heath. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. FIRE RESPONSE: EXPOSURE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: 50 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Distribution VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue Mountains and Southern Highlands. FLOWERS: Blue or rarely white, JulyÐOctober. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Bathurst, Bell, Mt Wilson, Katoomba, Carrington FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Falls, Kangaroo Valley, Robertson, Mittagong. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Winter-growing. Habitat FIRE RESPONSE: NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS HABITAT: I : ALTITUDE: 300Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm Distribution TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATION: Open-forest. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone. SWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. EXPOSURE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Conservation SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bateau Bay, Forresters Beach, Glenbrook, Conservation status unknown. Castle Hill, Beecroft, Killara, Lane Cove, Rose Bay, Saltpan Creek, Oatley, Wedderburn, Woronora River. CT: Capertee Valley, Turondale, Yetholme, Abercrombie Caves. ORCHIDACEAE Cryptostylis subulata Habitat HABITAT: Ridges or slopes. Large Tongue Orchid ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1200 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. GROWTH FORM: Terrestrial evergreen herb, with a tuberous rhizome, fleshy VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus rossii; shrubland. roots and basal leaves, with both surfaces dark green to yellow green; SUBSTRATE: Shallow stony soils on sandstone, metamorphics, low flowering stem to 80 cm high with up to 14 flowers (Bishop 1996). nutrients, periodically moist. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous, growing in small, spreading clumps EXPOSURE: (Jones 1988). Conservation LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: elsewhere unknown. FLOWERS: Red brown, minutely hairy, OctoberÐMarch, peak DecemberÐ January. Pollinated by pseudocopulation by ichneumonid wasp ORCHIDACEAE Lissopimpla excelsa attracted initially by scent (Coleman 1929). Cymbidium suave FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for Snake Orchid dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Life history FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (D. Keith pers. comm.), fruit beginning to GROWTH FORM: Epiphytic herb, with narrow leathery leaves 10Ð60 cm form 2 years after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak long, stems not prominently differentiated to form pseudobulbs. pers. comm.). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, rhizomatous and stoloniferous (Jones 1988). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Leaves eaten by rabbits, LONGEVITY: considerable damage by scratching, possibly seeking roots (P. Kubiak PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: pers. comm.). FLOWERS: Influorescence 10Ð35 cm long, with 10Ð50 olive green flowers, Distribution OctoberÐDecember, peak November. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: N.Z. FIRE RESPONSE: Probably killed by high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Blue Mountains. and Narrabeen), plant burnt by low intensity fire (1/1994) resprouted, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Toukley, Bilpin, Woodford, Glenbrook, and flowered 92 weeks later (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Cheltenham, Narrabeen, Centennial Park, Como, Nowra, Hill Top, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Kangaroo Valley. CT: Mt Wilson, Katoomba, Wentworth Falls, Lawson, Distribution Barren Grounds. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT NWS CWS; Qld. HABITAT: Slopes, rock outcrops. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mooney Mooney, Glenbrook, Luddenham, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Pittwater, Hornsby, Penshurst, Waterfall, Martinsville, Burragorang VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus Valley, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Leura. sieberi, E. piperita. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. HABITAT: Epiphytic on hollow limbs and tree trunks. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Conservation status unknown. VEGETATION: Moist open-forest; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus fibrosa. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. ORCHIDACEAE EXPOSURE: Conservation (Caladenia caerulea) Cyanicula caerulea Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Blue Caladenia, Blue Fairy, Parson-in-the-pulpit Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Royal NP. Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with underground paired tubers, single narrow leaf to 7 cm long. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 51

ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Cyrtostylis reniformis (Acianthus reniformis) Dipodium hamiltonianum Gnat Orchid Life history GROWTH FORM: Terrestrial, leafless mycoheterotrophic evergreen herb; Life history inflorescence to 90 cm long with up to 35 flowers. GROWTH FORM: Erect seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb 5Ð27 cm high, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Weston pers. comm.). with paired tubers and daugher tubers on stolons; a single, basal heart- LONGEVITY: Indefinite. shaped leaf; flowering stem 8 cm high with up to 4 flowers (Bishop 1996). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). FLOWERS: Flowers generally bright yellow, or sometimes dull LONGEVITY: Indefinite. yellowish green (Dockrill 1992), SeptemberÐFebruary. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous, minute seeds. FLOWERS: Light reddish brown or darker, or rarely light yellowish green, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: JuneÐOctober. Pollinated by minute species of Diptera, attracted by FIRE RESPONSE: abundance of nectar (Van der Cingel 2001). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growth period MarchÐ Distribution September (Pridgeon et al. 2001). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ?ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, Vic. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Orange area. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Ophir (1965). Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., HABITAT: Tas., S.A., W.A. ALTITUDE: 900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð900 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Baulkham Hills, Hornsby, Lane Cove, Como. VEGETATION: Saprophytic species of Dipodium appear to have a strong CT: Jenolan Caves, Abercrombie Caves. dependence on eucalypts (Bishop 1996). SUBSTRATE: Acidic, sandy soils Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Conservation status unknown. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus rossii, E. macrorhyncha; heath. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. ORCHIDACEAE EXPOSURE: Dipodium punctatum Conservation Life history Conservation status unknown. GROWTH FORM: Terrestrial, leafless mycoheterotrophic herb, inflorescence to 100 cm long, with up to 60 flowers. ORCHIDACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). Dendrobium schoeninum (Dockrillia schoenina) LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Pencil Orchid FLOWERS: Pink with purple blotching, DecemberÐApril. Pollinated by Life history native bee Chalicodoma derelicta (Bernhardt & Burns-Balogh 1983). GROWTH FORM: Spreading epiphytic or lithophytic evergreen herb with FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. wiry branching stems, grooved leaves and flowering stem to 3 cm high DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for with up to 4 flowers (Bishop 1996). dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, rhizomatous (P. Weston pers. comm.). FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts at base or below (Fox 1988), flowering 2 years LONGEVITY: Indefinite. after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Pale green or mauve with red or purple markings. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, FIRE RESPONSE: Vic. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Blue Mountains. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Yarramalong, St Albans, Springwood, Vineyard, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Berowra, Longeville, Ryde, North Head, Helensburgh, Kiama, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. Foxground. CT: Lithgow, Bathurst, Robertson. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Watagans. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Click Creek. HABITAT: Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Rainforest margins, swamps, along streams. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, E. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. amplifolia; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus crebra. Saprophytic species VEGETATION: Rainforest e.g. with Acmena smithii, Sloanea woollsii. of Dipodium appear to have a strong dependence on eucalypts (Bishop SUBSTRATE: On Casuarina glauca, Casuarina cunninghamiana, 1996). rainforest trees and rocks (Bishop 1996). SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shales. EXPOSURE: Shade. EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation Reported in Watagans NP, the northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. 52 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ORCHIDACEAE SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. Dipodium roseum EXPOSURE: Conservation Life history Conservation status unknown. GROWTH FORM: Terrestrial leafless mycoheterotrophic herb; flowering stem to 80 cm high, with up to 40 flowers. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). ORCHIDACEAE LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Diuris aequalis (Diuris maculata var. concolor) PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Pink, flower stalk without spots, inflorescence 30Ð80 cm long, Buttercup Doubletail DecemberÐJanuary. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous, minute seeds. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers, 2 DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: narrow leaves 10Ð20 cm long in a basal tuft, and flowering stem to FIRE RESPONSE: 45 cm high with up to 5 flowers. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). Distribution LONGEVITY: Indefinite. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A. FLOWERS: Golden yellow to orange, OctoberÐDecember. Short DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. flowering season, usually no more than 2 weeks; pollinators attracted SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Howes Mountain, Glenbrook, Bradleys Head. by mimickry of small-flowered Gompholobium species; probably CT: Dunns Swamp, Winburndale NR, Cullen Bullen, Newnes SF, Mt pollinated mainly by small bees, and possibly syrphiid flies and beetles Wilson, Mt Piddington, Wingello, Bundanoon, Wombeyan Caves, (Bishop 1996). Mittagong FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous, minute winged seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Habitat FIRE RESPONSE: HABITAT: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: OccasionalÐfrequent. Distribution VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus radiata, E. dives, E. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. mannifera, E. globoidea, E. sieberi, E. piperita. Saprophytic species of BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST. Dipodium appear to have a stong dependence on eucalypts (Bishop DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly ranges and Tablelands. 1996). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Castlereagh. CT: Boyd River, Yetholme. SUBSTRATE: Variety of soils, sandy soils from sandstone, conglomerate. Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Amongst grass Conservation ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1100 mm Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus dalrympleana, E. pauciflora, E. fibrosa, E. parramattensis. ORCHIDACEAE SUBSTRATE: Clay loam on granite, Tertiary alluvium, low nutrients. Dipodium variegatum EXPOSURE: Life history Conservation GROWTH FORM: Terrestrial mycoheterotrophic herb, with short rhizome Listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) under the NSW Threatened Species and thick fleshy roots (Dockrill 1992); flowering stem to 80 cm long, Conservation Act 1995 and listed nationally under Environment with up to 50 flowers. Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Extinct in western VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). Sydney (Bishop 1996). Reported in Kanangra Boyd NP. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ORCHIDACEAE FLOWERS: Cream to pale pink, usually spotted with maroon blotches, mainly AugustÐJanuary. Diuris alba (Diuris punctata var. alba) FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous, minute seeds. Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: GrowtH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers, 1Ð3 FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts at base or below (Fox 1988), flowering 1 year narrow leaves in a basal tuft and flowering stems to 40 cm, with up to 7 after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). flowers. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). Distribution LONGEVITY: Indefinite. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic. FLOWERS: White with lilac or purple markings, AugustÐOctober, peak DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. September. Short flowering season, usually no more than 2 weeks; SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bateau Bay, Woy Woy, Killcare, Springwood, pollinators attracted by mimickry of other nearby plants; probably Warrimoo, Hornsby, Belrose, Manly, Lane Cove, Tempe, Penshurst, pollinated mainly by small bees, and possibly syrphiid flies and beetles Waterfall, Berry. CT: Katoomba. (Bishop 1996). Probably pollinated by halictine bees (Coleman 1930). Habitat FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. ISPERSAL ESTABLISHMENT GROWTH HABITAT: D , & : IRE RESPONSE ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm F : NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. I : VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, Angophora Distribution costata, Corymbia gummifera; heath. Saprophytic species of Dipodium STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. appear to have a stong dependence on eucalypts (Bishop 1996). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT NWS; Qld. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 53

DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: North from Gosford. FIRE RESPONSE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Doyalson, Putty, Wamberal. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Grassy slopes. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Lower North Shore, Gosford. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus haemastoma, Corymbia SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gladesville (1889), Gosford. gummifera, Angophora costata, with grassy understorey e.g. Themeda Habitat australis. HABITAT: UBSTRATE S : Grey sandy soil on conglomerate. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm XPOSURE E : TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Conservation VEGETATION: Wamberal is southern geographical limit, conservation status unknown. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone. EXPOSURE: ORCHIDACEAE Conservation Diuris aurea Previously known only from the original collection near Gladesville on the Parramatta River before 1889, but recently rediscovered in Gosford Life history area. Listed as presumed Extinct (Schedule I) NSW Threatened Species GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers, 1 or 2 Conservation Act 1995; listed nationally Extinct by the Commonwealth narrow leaves 10Ð20 cm long in a basal tuft, and flowering stems to 60 Endangered Species Protection Act 1992. Coded IX on national rare cm high, with up to 5 flowers. species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Not stoloniferous (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. ORCHIDACEAE PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Golden yellow to orange with dark markings, SeptemberÐ Diuris brevissima October. Short flowering season, usually no more than 2 weeks; Life history pollinators attracted by mimickry of other nearby plants; probably GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers and 2 pollinated mainly by small bees, and possibly syrphiid flies and beetles narrow leaves 30 cm long in a basal tuft. (Bishop 1996). Probably pollinated by halictine bees (Coleman 1930). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). RUIT SEED F / : Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. ISPERSAL ESTABLISHMENT GROWTH D , & : PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: IRE RESPONSE F : Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (11/1994 at FLOWERS: Light yellow with red-brown markings, October. Short Narrabeen), green fruit 10 months later (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). flowering season, usually no more than 2 weeks; pollinators attracted INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: by mimickry of other nearby plants; probably pollinated mainly by small Distribution bees, and possibly syrphiid flies and beetles (Bishop 1996). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CT ST. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: FIRE RESPONSE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Chain Valley Bay, Lake Haven, Lower Portland, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Castlereagh, Londonderry, Marsden Park, North Rocks, Douglas Park, Distribution Thirlmere, Bargo. CT: O’Connell. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT. HABITAT: Moist grassland. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue Mountains. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð900 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Wentworth Falls. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Habitat EGETATION V : Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus fibrosa, E. sclerophylla, E. HABITAT: haemastoma, Angophora costata, Corymbia gummifera. ALTITUDE: 1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1400 mm UBSTRATE S : Sandy loam on conglomerate, claystone, Tertiary alluvium. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: XPOSURE E : VEGETATION: Conservation SUBSTRATE: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Castlereagh NR, Dharug NP. EXPOSURE: Conservation ORCHIDACEAE Recorded from only one site in the Blue Mountains. Bishop (1996) Diuris bracteata regards this species merely as a form of D. maculata. Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with 2 narrow ORCHIDACEAE leaves in a basal tuft, and tubers. Diuris chryseopsis VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Small Snake Orchid LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: Yellow with blackish markings, September. Short flowering GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb. Grows singly or season, usually no more than 2 weeks; pollinators attracted by mimickry in tufts of up to 5 plants, with stems to 30 cm high with 1Ð4 nodding of other nearby plants; probably pollinated mainly by small bees, and flowers (Jones & Jones 2000). possibly syrphiid flies and beetles (Bishop 1996). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: 54 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

FLOWERS: Bright lemon yellow with brown streaks and markings, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. AugustÐOctober (Jones & Jones 2000), SeptemberÐOctober. Short PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: flowering season, usually no more than 2 weeks; pollinators attracted FLOWERS: Pale yellow to bright yellow, nodding, SeptemberÐOctober. by mimickry of other nearby plants; probably pollinated mainly by small Short flowering season, usually no more than 2 weeks; pollinators bees, and possibly syrphiid flies and beetles (Bishop 1996). attracted by mimickry of other nearby plants; probably pollinated mainly FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. by small bees, and possibly syrphiid flies and beetles (Bishop 1996). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Often grows in loose colonies FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. (Jones & Jones 2000). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST SWS; Vic., Tas. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST; Vic., Tas., ?S.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Tablelands. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Putty. CT: Wattle Flat, Sofala, Jenolan Caves, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Ingleburn. CT: Sofala, Orange, Mt Victoria, Mt Werong, Abercrombie Caves, Bowral, Burrawang. Burrawang, Abercrombie Caves, Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Moist grassy areas. HABITAT: Moist grassy areas. ALTITUDE: 300Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1600 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: Grassland; woodland. VEGETATION: Eucalypt woodland, cleared areas. SUBSTRATE: Sandy loam, shallow clay loams (Jones 1998). SUBSTRATE: Clay or peaty soils on shale, alluvium, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Probably full sun. Conservation Conservation Conservation status unknown. Conservation status unknown.

ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Diuris dendrobioides (Diuris punctata var. minor) Diuris maculata Life history Spotted Doubletail GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers, 2 Life history narrow leaves 10Ð25 cm long in a basal tuft, and flowering stems to GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers, 2Ð3 40 cm, with up to 6 flowers. narrow leaves in a basal tuft, and flowering stems to 40 cm high, with VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). up to 10 flowers. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FLOWERS: Mauve with purple markings, OctoberÐJanuary. Short PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: flowering season, usually no more than 2 weeks; pollinators attracted FLOWERS: Yellow with brown markings, AugustÐOctober. Self- by mimickry of other nearby plants; probably pollinated mainly by small compatible and attracts pollinators e.g. native bees Leioproctus sp., by bees, and possibly syrphiid flies and beetles (Bishop 1996). floral mimicry of Daviesia species and Pultenaea scabra — they are FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. remarkably similar in colour and shape to D. maculata (Hutchinson et DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: al. 1986). FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Summer-dormant species Distribution producing vegetative shoots from bulbs during winter, no seedlings STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. recorded less than 1 year after fire (Purdie 1977). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWP; Qld, Vic. FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Lane Cove), green fruit 33Ð36 weeks later; flowering appeared to peak SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Penrose. in the first year after fire (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Dramatic increase in Habitat flowering after hot summer fires (Beardsell et al. 1986). NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS HABITAT: I : ALTITUDE: 700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm Distribution TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATION: Grassy open-forest. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; ?Vic. SUBSTRATE: Sandy clay loam. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney. EXPOSURE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Riverstone, North Ryde, Casula, Holsworthy, Conservation BulliÐAppin Road. Only CT record is Penrose. Habitat HABITAT: Hilltops, slopes. ORCHIDACEAE ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1000 mm Diuris lanceolata TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: Amongst grass in woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus fibrosa, Snake Orchid, Golden Moths Melaleuca decora. Life history SUBSTRATE: Sandy clay on Tertiary alluvium, low nutrients, well-drained. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with 3Ð9 narrow EXPOSURE: leaves in a basal tuft, and tubers. Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.), not stoloniferous Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 55

ORCHIDACEAE DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Hawkesbury River (Bishop 1996). Diuris pardina (Diuris maculosissima) SELECT LOCATIONS: No specimens available. Habitat Leopard Orchid HABITAT: Moist grassy areas. Life history ALTITUDE:ANNUAL RAINFALL: GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers, 2Ð3 TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: narrow leaves in a basal tuft, and flowering stems to 40 cm high, with VEGETATION: Open-forest up to 10 flowers. SUBSTRATE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). EXPOSURE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Listed as Endangered (Schedule I) NSW Threatened Species FLOWERS: Yellow, heavily marked with red-brown, AugustÐOctober. Conservation Act 1995; listed nationally Endangered by the Short flowering season, usually no more than 2 weeks; pollinators Commonwealth Endangered Species Protection Act 1992; listed attracted by mimickry of other nearby plants; probably pollinated mainly nationally under the Environment Protection and Biodiversity by small bees, and possibly syrphiid flies and beetles (Bishop 1996). Conservation Act 1999. Coded 2E on national rare species list (Briggs No nectar produced but possibly pollinated by food deception of food- & Leigh 1996). Port Jackson is southern geographical limilt; now rare seeking insects such as bees (Pridgeon et al. 2001). due to destruction of habitat (Harden 1993). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: ORCHIDACEAE INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Diuris platichila Distribution Life history STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST CWS SWS SWP; Tas., S.A. usually with 2 narrow leaves 35 cm long in a basal tuft, and flowering DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. stems 60 cm high with up to 8 flowers. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Glenorie, Blaxland, Marsden Park, Rosehill, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). Kentlyn, Wedderburn, Darkes Forest. CT: Mullion Range, Cullen LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Bullen, Yetholme, Clarence, Katoomba, Abercrombie Caves, Hill Top, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Mittagong, FLOWERS: Yellow with dark markings, October. Short flowering season, Habitat usually no more than 2 weeks; pollinators attracted by mimickry of other HABITAT: Slopes, ridges. nearby plants; probably pollinated mainly by small bees, and possibly ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1000 mm syrphiid flies and beetles (Bishop 1996). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. VEGETATION: Amongst grass in open-forest e.g. with Corymbia DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: gummifera, Eucalyptus punctata, E. pilularis, E. sclerophylla, FIRE RESPONSE: Angophora costata. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SUBSTRATE: Sandy loam on sandstone, metamorphics, low nutrients, Distribution well-drained. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. EXPOSURE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT CWS. Conservation DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue Mountains. Conservation status unknown. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Kandos, Glen Alice, Capertee, Mt Victoria, Blackheath. ORCHIDACEAE Habitat Diuris pedunculata HABITAT: Hilltops, slopes. ALTITUDE: 500Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1200 mm Small Snake Orchid TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Life history VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus rossii, E. sideroxylon. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers, SUBSTRATE: Sandy clay. usually with 2 narrow leaves 4Ð12 cm long in a basal tuft, and flowering EXPOSURE: stem to 18 cm high with 1Ð2 flowers (Bishop 1996). Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Restricted to the Blue Mountains (Harden 1993), conservation status LONGEVITY: unknown. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Drooping, bright yellow with dark markings, AugustÐ ORCHIDACEAE September. Short flowering season, usually no more than 2 weeks; pollinators attracted by mimickry of other nearby plants; probably Diuris praecox pollinated mainly by small bees, and possibly syrphiid flies and beetles Life history (Bishop 1996). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers, 2 or 3 FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. narrow leaves in a basal tuft, and flowering stems to 40 cm high with up DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: to 10 flowers (Bishop 1996). FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Palatable to rabbits (Leigh et al. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. 1987). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution FLOWERS: Yellow, nodding, with dark brown markings, AugustÐ STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. September. Short flowering season, usually no more than 2 weeks; BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST CWS SWS SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., pollinators attracted by mimickry of other nearby plants; probably S.A. pollinated mainly by small bees, and possibly syrphiid flies and beetles (Bishop 1996). 56 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. ORCHIDACEAE DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diuris sulphurea (Diuris latifolia) FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Tiger Orchid, Hornet Orchid Distribution Life history STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers, 1Ð3 BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC. linear leaves to 50 cm long in a basal tuft, and flowering stem to 60 cm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Wyong area. high with up to 7 flowers. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Doyalson, Bateau Bay. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.), not stoloniferous (Pridgeon & Chase 1995), this is uncertain, but some clumps are so Habitat dense and so localised that vegetative spread seems likely (P. Weston HABITAT: Hills, slopes (Jones 1991). pers. comm.). ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100Ð1200 mm LONGEVITY: Indefinite. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATION: Shrubland e.g. with Allocasuarina distyla, stunted FLOWERS: Bright yellow, SeptemberÐDecember. Short flowering season, eucalypt woodland. usually no more than 2 weeks; pollinators attracted by mimickry of other SUBSTRATE: Loam to ironstone clay soil on sandstone, low nutrients, nearby plants; probably pollinated mainly by small bees, and possibly periodically wet. syrphiid flies and beetles (Bishop 1996). EXPOSURE: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Conservation DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened Species FIRE RESPONSE: Conservation Act 1995; listed nationally Vulnerable by the INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Commonwealth Endangered Species Protection Act 1992. Ourimbah is Distribution southern geographical limit. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; ORCHIDACEAE Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A. Diuris punctata var. punctata DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Howes Swamp, Bilpin, Riverstone, Kenthurst, Purple Donkey Orchid Quakers Hill, Ingleburn, Douglas Park, Bargo. CT: Orange, Blackheath, Life history Wentworth Falls, Mt Werong. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers, 2 Habitat narrow leaves 15Ð30 cm long in a basal tuft, and flowering stems to HABITAT: Grassland 60 cm high with up to 10 flowers. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.), not stoloniferous TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: RareÐfrequent. (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). VEGETATION: Open-forest and woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus fibrosa, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. E. sclerophylla, E. tereticornis, E. melliodora, E. blakelyi, E. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: parramattensis, Angophora floribunda, often with grassy understorey. FLOWERS: Mauve to purple, with darker markings or yellow, SeptemberÐ SUBSTRATE: Loamy soils on sandstone, Tertiary alluvium, low nutrients. December. Short flowering season, usually no more than 2 weeks; EXPOSURE: pollinators attracted by mimickry of other nearby plants; probably pollinated mainly by small bees, and possibly syrphiid flies and beetles Conservation (Bishop 1996). Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: ORCHIDACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: (Dendrobium cucumerinum) INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Dockrillia cucumerina Distribution Cucumber Orchid STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Life history BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic., GROWTH FORM: Epiphytic or epilithic evergreen herb with prostrate, wiry, S.A. creeping stems rooting freely along most of the length. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, rhizomatous (P. Weston pers. comm.). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Tinda Creek, Marsden Park, Londonderry, Ryde, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Glenfield, Douglas Park, Thirlmere, Bargo. CT: Tallong. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Habitat FLOWERS: Cream to pale yellow or green and white with reddish purple HABITAT: Slopes. striations, NovemberÐFebruary. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Angophora bakeri, Eucalyptus fibrosa; FIRE RESPONSE: shrubswamp. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SUBSTRATE: Sandy loam on Tertiary alluvium, Recent alluvium, low Distribution nutrients. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. EXPOSURE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT; Qld. Conservation DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Reported in Wollemi SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Campbelltown. CT: Kanangra Walls, Megalong. NP. Habitat HABITAT: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1000 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 57

VEGETATION: Riverflat Forest. Distribution SUBSTRATE: Almost exclusively epiphytic on Casuarina cunninghamiana STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. but also occasionally on other tree species, including Backhousia BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT ST NWS CWS; Qld. myrtifolia, and on rocks (Harden 1993). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread on coast. EXPOSURE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Drews Creek, Mill Creek, Mogo Creek, Conservation Mangrove Creek, Springwood, Hornsby, Narrabeen, Manly, Kogarah, Campbelltown is southern geographical limit. Conservation status Wedderburn, Waterfall, Nowra. unknown. Habitat HABITAT: On tree trunks and rocks. ORCHIDACEAE ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Dockrillia fairfaxii (Dendrobium fairfaxii) VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. on Casuarina cunninghamiana; rainforest. Rat’s Tail Orchid SUBSTRATE: Rocks, tree trunks or soil. EXPOSURE: Exposed on rocks. Life history GROWTH FORM: Epiphytic or rarely epilithic evergreen herb with Conservation pendent to spreading, wiry stems. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Yengo NP, Dharug NP. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, rhizomatous (P. Weston pers. comm.). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. ORCHIDACEAE PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Dockrillia pugioniformis (Dendrobium pugioniforme) FLOWERS: White to cream with red or purple striations, SeptemberÐ October. Dagger Orchid FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. Life history ISPERSAL ESTABLISHMENT GROWTH D , & : GROWTH FORM: Epiphytic or epilithic evergreen herb with pendent, wiry FIRE RESPONSE: stems. Sporadically hybridizes with D. striolatum (Harden 1993). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, rhizomatous (P. Weston pers. comm.). Distribution LONGEVITY: Indefinite. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC NT CT; Qld. FLOWERS: Green to pale brown and white to cream with markings brown DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains. and purple, SeptemberÐNovember. Probably bee-pollinated (Jones 1983). SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Wentworth Falls, Jenolan Caves, Oberon. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. Habitat DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: HABITAT: FIRE RESPONSE: ALTITUDE: 800Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Distribution VEGETATION: Rainforest. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SUBSTRATE: Slatey rock. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld. EXPOSURE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Conservation SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Olney SF, Mount Tomah, Mount Riverview, Blue Mountains is southern geographical limit. Conservation status Clifton, Cambewarra. CT: Mt Coricudgy, Mt Wilson, Kanangra, unknown. Robertson. Habitat ORCHIDACEAE HABITAT: On trees and sandstone rocks. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: Dockrillia linguiformis (Dendrobium linguiforme) TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Life history VEGETATION: Rainforest e.g. with Doryphora sassafras; open-forest e.g. GROWTH FORM: Evergreen herb with prostrate stems and flattened with Angophora costata, Corymbia gummifera, Syncarpia glomulifera. succulent leaves. Extensive creeping and branching rhizomes, forming SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on sandstone, shale, basalt, lowÐhigh extensive mats (Dockrill 1992). nutrients. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous (P. Weston pers. comm.), forming EXPOSURE: extensive mats. Conservation LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Robertson NR. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: White, spidery, with musk-like scent, nectarless, SeptemberÐ ORCHIDACEAE October. Pollinated by various insects including hover flies, ichneumon wasps, thynnid wasps and native bees, attracted by scent (Van de cingel Dockrillia striolata (Dendrobium striolatum) 2001). Life history RUIT SEED F / : Capsule with numerous, minute seeds. GROWTH FORM: Epilithic evergreen herb, with spreading to pendent, wiry DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: As an epiphyte it does not attain stems and narrow, terete succulent leaves 4Ð11 cm long. Sporadically the dimensions that it sometimes does as a lithophyte, it may grow into hybridizes with D. pugioniforme (Harden 1993). a large mat or a long strand (Dockrill 1992). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Mat-forming (Bishop 1996). IRE RESPONSE Killed by high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove and F : LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Narrabeen); few partly scorched plants resprouted at Lane Cove (P. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Kubiak pers. comm.). FLOWERS: Cream to dull yellow, SeptemberÐNovember. NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS I : Leaves eaten by Swamp Wallaby FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous, minute seeds. (at Katandra Bushland Sanctuary, L.McD.) DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: 58 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Lane Cove), flowering 16 months later (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST CWS; Vic., Tas. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woodford, Glenbrook, Coalcliff. CT: Mt Banks, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Mount Tomah, Katoomba, Bundanoon, Tallong. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; Qld. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. HABITAT: Growing on rocks, in gullies, cliff faces. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lower Portland, Pittwater, Asquith, Woodford, ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: Glenbrook, Fox Valley, Pennant Hills, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Capertee, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. O’Connell, Abercrombie Caves. VEGETATION: Open-forest; rainforest, heath. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Rocky outcrops of sandstone, low nutrients. HABITAT: Ridgetops, rock platforms. EXPOSURE: Exposed situations (Harden 1993). ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Hunter River is northern geographical limit. Conservation status VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Angophora hispida, Banksia ericifolia; unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP. woodland e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus haemastoma, E. piperita, E. melliodora, E. blakelyi. On sandstone ledges with moss ORCHIDACEAE (Bishop 1996). SUBSTRATE: Shallow sandy soils on Hawkesbury Sandstone, low Dockrillia teretifolia (Dendrobium teretifolium) nutrients, moist. Rat’s Tail Orchid EXPOSURE: Life history Conservation GROWTH FORM: Epiphytic and epilithic evergreen herb growing on rocks Uncommon. Nowra is southern geographical limit. or trees, with spreading to pendent, wiry stems and narrow, terete, succulent leaves 10Ð60 cm long. ORCHIDACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, rhizomatous (P. Weston pers. comm.). Eriochilus cucullatus LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: White to pale yellow, JulyÐOctober. Probably pollinated by GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers, a Trigona bees (Jones 1983). basal solitary leaf often not fully developed at flowering; flowering stem FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous, minute seeds. to 25 cm high with up to 5 flowers (Bishop 1996). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: White to deep pink, DecemberÐMay. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growth period autumnÐ BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CWS; Qld. winter. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coast. Fire response: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Tuggerah Lakes, Woy Woy, Pittwater, Rhodes, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Undercliffe, Loftus, The Basin RNP, Calderwood. Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: Growing on rocks and trees. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm Vic., Tas., S.A. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. VEGETATION: Estuarine swamp woodland e.g. with Casuarina glauca, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gospers Mountain, Gladesville, Parramatta, Avicennia marina. Orchard Hills, Liverpool, Menangle, Broughton Pass. CT: Mullions SUBSTRATE: Rocks and trees, mainly on Casuarina glauca (Harden 1993). Range, Jenolan Caves, Capertee, Cullen Bullen, Mt Victoria, Blackheath, EXPOSURE: Wentworth Falls, Leura, Woodford, Penrose, Abercrombie Caves. Conservation Habitat Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. HABITAT: Moist open habitats. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm ORCHIDACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Eriochilus autumnalis VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus deanei, Syncarpia glomulifera; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus punctata, Angophora Life history costata, Angophora bakeri, Eucalyptus sclerophylla, E. moluccana, E. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers, a tereticornis; heath e.g. with Kunzea capitata. single basal leaf sometimes often not fully developed at flowering; SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, clay soil on shale. flowering stem to 12 cm high with up to 3 flowers (Bishop 1996). EXPOSURE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Not stoloniferous (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status FLOWERS: White to pale pink, MarchÐApril. elsewhere unknown. Reported in Yengo NP. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growth period autumnÐ winter. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 59

ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Erythrorchis cassythoides (Galeola cassythoides) Gastrodia sesamoides Life history Cinnamon Bells, Potato Orchid GROWTH FORM: Leafless climbing mycoheterotrophic herb, with stems Life history 6 m long and roots at nodes, usually attached to tree trunks. Aerial roots GROWTH FORM: Slender terrestrial mycoheterotrophic herb 18Ð75 cm act as hooks; stems die back annually (P. Weston Herb. note) ?after high, with shoots from a tuberous rhizome and scale-like leaves. flowering and fruiting. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Weston pers. comm.). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Brown/white, cinnamon-scented, AugustÐJanuary. Pollinated FLOWERS: Yellow to greenish, SeptemberÐDecember. Pollinated by small by Exoneura bees that gather pseudopollen from the labellum (Jones bees attracted by the perfume (Jones 1994). 1985). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule 6Ð20 cm long, with numerous minute seeds. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule 10Ð15 cm long, with numerous minute seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore mobile (McIntyre et al. FIRE RESPONSE: 1995). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Fleshy tubers roasted and eaten by STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Aboriginal people (Cribb & Cribb 1984). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT; Qld. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lane Cove, Kentlyn. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, Habitat Vic., Tas., S.A., N.Z. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA HABITAT: Hillsides. D S : Coast and mountains. ELECT LOCATIONS ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm S : CC: Somersby, Lane Cove, Loftus, Mt Kembla. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. CT: Orange, Mt Cameron, Mt Wilson, Blackheath, Leura, Jenolan Caves, VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus Wombeyan Caves. piperita, E. pilularis, Corymbia gummifera, Syncarpia glomulifera, Habitat Allocasuarina littoralis and shrubby understorey. HABITAT: In accumulated litter or dead trees. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, attached to bark of trees, eucalypts, ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm stumps and longs. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. EXPOSURE: VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus radiata, E. sieberi, E. Conservation piperita, E. viminalis; gallery rainforest. Regionally rare in Illawarra region, its southern geographical limit (Mills SUBSTRATE: Loamy soils on sandstone, alluvium, basalt, low to high 1988). Conservation status elsewhere unknown. nutrients. EXPOSURE: ORCHIDACEAE Conservation Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. Gastrodia procera (Gastrodia entomogama) Life history ORCHIDACEAE GROWTH FORM: Robust seasonal terrestrial mycoheterotrophic herb, with Genoplesium apostasioides shoots from an underground tuberous rhizome, stem 90 cm high with up to 75 flowers. (Prasophyllum apostasioides, P. anomalum, P. bowdeniae) VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Weston pers. comm.). Life history LONGEVITY: Indefinite. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: single basal leaf per shoot and flowering stem to 30 cm high with up to FLOWERS: Light to dark brown, OctoberÐJanuary. 15 flowers. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule 25Ð30 cm long, with numerous minute seeds. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Yellowish green and reddish, DecemberÐApril, flowers Distribution apparently apomictic and seldom opening (Bishop 1996). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT ST; Vic., Tas. 6Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and mountains. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woy Woy, Hornsby, Middle Harbour, Hunters FIRE RESPONSE: Hill, Oatley, Heathcote, Bulli Pass. CT: Mt Wilson, Mount Tomah, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Exeter. Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: In accumulated litter. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1600 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue Mountains. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Woodford, Wentworth Falls. VEGETATION: Moist open-forest Habitat SUBSTRATE: Loamy soils on basalt, high nutrients. HABITAT: Slopes, moss gardens. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. VEGETATION: Open-forest; heath. 60 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

SUBSTRATE: Sandstone outcrops, low nutrients. ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. Conservation VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Acacia suaveolens, Conservation status unknown. Acacia myrtifolia; Kunzea ambigua open-forest. SUBSTRATE: Sandy or clayey soil on sandstone, laterite low nutrients. EXPOSURE: ORCHIDACEAE Conservation Genoplesium archeri (Prasophyllum archeri) Proposed listing as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened Species Life history Conservation Act 1995. Species has declined as a result of urban GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, development, and is likely to be affected by inappropriate fire regimes with single basal leaf per shoot and flowering stem to 20 cm high with (P. Adam NPWS website). Rare, only 6 records in the last 50 years, up to 20 flowers. though recorded from 7 locations prior to that. Listed as Vulnerable VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Threatened by urban and infrastructure development; likely to be PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: affected by inappropriate fire regimes. Coded 3RC- on national rare FLOWERS: Yellowish and purplish to purplish red with darker stripes, species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Reported in Berowra Valley NovemberÐMarch. Probably pollinated by small (vinegar) flies Regional Park, Lane Cove NP, Royal NP. (Drosopholids or Chironomids) (Van der Cingel 2001). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed ORCHIDACEAE 6Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). Genoplesium citriodorum DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: Life history INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: GROWTH FORM: Seasonal terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, single basal leaf per shoot and stem to 35 cm with up to 33 crowded flowers. Distribution VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT; Vic., Tas. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Blue Mountains. FLOWERS: Dark purplish black, lemon-scented, JanuaryÐFebruary. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Dural, Oxford Falls, Rookwood. CT: Kanimbla Probably pollinated by small (vinegar) flies (Drosopholids or Valley, Mittagong, Woodford, Boyd River, Yetholme. Chironomids) (Van der Cingel 2001). Habitat FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed HABITAT: Mossy sites. 6Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATION: Open-forest and woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus rossii, E. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: goniocalyx. Distribution SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, low nutrients. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. EXPOSURE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT. Conservation DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue Mountains. Conservation status unknown. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bilpin, Faulconbridge. CT: Woodford. Habitat ORCHIDACEAE HABITAT: Near mossy seepage areas. Genoplesium baueri ALTITUDE: 300Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Life history VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Kunzea ambigua, Hakea GROWTH FORM: Leafless, saprophytic terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, teretifolia; woodland e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus flowering stem to 15 cm with 1Ð3 flowers. burgessiana. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. EXPOSURE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Green and red or reddish, DecemberÐMarch. Probably Conservation pollinated by small (vinegar) flies (Drosopholids or Chironomids) (Van Local endemic, restricted to Blue Mountains. Conservation status der Cingel 2001). unknown. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed 6Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). ORCHIDACEAE DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Noted as generally rare and (Prasophyllum despectans) easiest to find after fire (Bishop 1996). Older Herbarium records Genoplesium despectans indicate local populations persisted for up to 7 years e.g. Gladesville, Sharp Midge Orchid recorded 1884, 1885, 1887 and Cowan recorded 1948, 1949, 1950, 1955. Life history FIRE RESPONSE: GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: single basal leaf per shoot and flowering stem to 25 cm high with up to Distribution 45 flowers. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CT SC. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Pittwater to Nowra. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cowan, Pittwater, Pennant Hills, Gladesville, FLOWERS: Dark purple or green with purple markings, JanuaryÐApril. Loftus, Waterfall, Yanderra. In the IllawarraÐJervis Bay region is a form that has tiny, very short- Habitat lived and apparently self pollinating flowers with a recurved labellum HABITAT: Ridges, ‘moss gardens’. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 61

tip (Bishop 1996). Probably pollinated by small (vinegar) flies LONGEVITY: Indefinite. (Drosopholids or Chironomids) (Van der Cingel 2001). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed FLOWERS: Greenish to purple, FebruaryÐApril. Probably pollinated by 6Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). small (vinegar) flies (Drosopholids or Chironomids) (Van der Cingel DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: 2001). Flowers abundantly only after fire (Keith 1996). FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: 6Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: One record for area burnt in previous year. NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC; Vic., Tas., S.A. I : DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Illawarra area. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Heathcote, Jervis Bay. CT: Carrington Falls. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT; Qld. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA HABITAT: Often on slopes and ridges. D S : Coast and hinterland. ELECT LOCATIONS ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm S : CC: Howes Valley, Wisemans Ferry, West Head, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Ingleburn, Loftus, Waterfall. VEGETATION: Open-forest Habitat SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients. HABITAT: Ridgetops, ‘moss gardens’. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Heathcote is the northern geographical limit. Conservation status VEGETATION: Open-forest; heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia; woodland unknown. e.g. with Corymbia eximia. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil over sandstone, laterite, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: ORCHIDACEAE Conservation Genoplesium eriochilum (Prasophyllum eriochilum) Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. Life history GROWTH FORM: Terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, single basal leaf per ORCHIDACEAE shoot and flowering stem to 20 cm with up to 20 flowers. Genoplesium fimbriatum VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: GROWTH FORM: Seasonal terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, single FLOWERS: Nodding, dark brown to purple, NovemberÐJanuary. basal leaf per shoot and flowering stem to 35 cm with up to 30 flowers. Probably pollinated by small (vinegar) flies (Drosopholids or VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). Chironomids) (Van der Cingel 2001). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: 6Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). FLOWERS: Green and pale red, lemon-scented, JanuaryÐMay. Flowers DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: visited by very small black flies (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Probably FIRE RESPONSE: One record from burnt area, others from undisturbed pollinated by small (vinegar) flies (Drosopholids or Chironomids) (Van sites. der Cingel 2001). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed 5 months after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT. Narrabeen), fruit 21Ð22 weeks later (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mt WilsonÐBlackheath. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Mt Wilson, Mt Irvine, Mt Victoria, Blackheath. Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: Ridges, slopes. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT; Qld. ALTITUDE: 900Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Asquith, Crosslands, Frenchs Forest, Lindfield, VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Allocasuarina nana, Leptospermum Castle Hill, Loftus, Waterfall, Nowra. CT: Blackheath, Penrose. trinervium. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil over sandstone, low nutrients. Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Rocky outcrops. ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Local endemic species. Restricted to Upper Blue Mountains. VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil over sandstone, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: ORCHIDACEAE Conservation Genoplesium filiforme Nowra is southern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. Life history Reported in Brisbane Water NP, Royal NP. GROWTH FORM: Seasonal terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, single basal leaf per shoot and flowering stem to 30 cm high with up to 30 flowers. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). 62 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ORCHIDACEAE Conservation Genoplesium insignis Local endemic, known only from Kanangra Boyd NP, conservation status unknown. Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonal terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, single ORCHIDACEAE basal leaf per shoot and flowering stem to 18 cm with 5Ð12 flowers (Jones 2001). Similar to G. archeri (Jones 2001). Genoplesium nudiscapum (Prasophyllum nudiscapum) VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). Dense Midge Orchid LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: Dark purple to dark reddish, AugustÐNovember (Jones 2001). GROWTH FORM: Seasonal terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, single Probably pollinated by small (vinegar) flies (Drosopholids or basal leaf per shoot and flowering stem to 18 cm with up to 20 flowers. Chironomids) (Van der Cingel 2001). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule not seen. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: Jones (2001) reports ‘flowering of this orchid may be FLOWERS: Nodding, yellowish, brownish or dark purple, JanuaryÐMarch. stimulated by fire (or at least flowering plants are more readily Probably pollinated by small (vinegar) flies (Drosopholids or discerned on burnt ground’. Chironomids) (Van der Cingel 2001). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed 6Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: CharmhavenÐWyong. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: CharmhavenÐWyong. Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT; Vic., Tas. HABITAT: Ridgetops. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Asquith, Yanderra. CT: Mt Victoria, Woodford. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: Heathland e.g. with shrubs and patches of Themeda Habitat australis (Jones 2001). HABITAT: Ridgetops. SUBSTRATE: Grey to white sand, low nutrients. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: RareÐoccasional. VEGETATION: Heath, woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus oreades, E. stricta. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay loam over sandstone, low nutrients. Known from only 3 populations, totalling less than 20 plants between EXPOSURE: Charmhaven and Wyong; protected to some extent in the Lake Macquarie SRA (Jones 2001). Listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) NSW Conservation Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Royal NP. ORCHIDACEAE Genoplesium morinum ORCHIDACEAE Life history Genoplesium nudum (Prasophyllum nudum) GROWTH FORM: Seasonal terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, single Tiny Midge Orchid basal leaf per shoot and flowering stem to 24 cm with up to 20 flowers. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). GROWTH FORM: Seasonal terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, single LONGEVITY: Indefinite. basal leaf per shoot and flowering stem to 30 cm high with up to 40 PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: flowers. FLOWERS: Nodding, dark reddish purple, DecemberÐJanuary. Probably VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). pollinated by small (vinegar) flies (Drosopholids or Chironomids) (Van LONGEVITY: Indefinite. der Cingel 2001). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed FLOWERS: Nodding, green and red, or reddish purple, DecemberÐMarch. 6Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). Self-pollinated (Jones 1972). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed FIRE RESPONSE: 6Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Boyd Plateau. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Boyd Plateau. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Vic., Tas., N.Z. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. HABITAT: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Central Mangrove. CT: Bell, Boyd Crossing. ALTITUDE: 1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1000 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: HABITAT: Ridges. VEGETATION: Montane forests; sedgeland e.g. with Empodisma minus. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm SUBSTRATE: Peaty soils, low nutrients. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. EXPOSURE: VEGETATION: Open-forest, heath. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 63

SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil over sandstone, low nutrients. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: EXPOSURE: FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Conservation Narrabeen), fruit 17 weeks later (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Conservation status unknown. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution ORCHIDACEAE STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas., N.Z. Genoplesium plumosum (Prasophyllum plumosum) DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. Tallong Midge Orchid SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: West Head, Coal and Candle Creek, Oxford Falls, Collaroy, Castlecrag, Mt Keira. CT: Woodford. Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonal terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, single Habitat basal leaf per shoot and flowering stem to 15 cm high, with up to 8 HABITAT: Ridgetops. crowded flowers (Bishop 1996). ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. VEGETATION: Moss gardens in heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Kunzea PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ambigua. FLOWERS: Green and purplish, MarchÐApril. Observed flowering 4Ð6 SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients. weeks after good autumn rains, may not flower if rainfall does not EXPOSURE: occur prior to flowering period (NPWS 2001). Probably pollinated by Conservation small (vinegar) flies (Drosopholids or Chironomids) (Van der Cingel Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, 2001). Brisbane Water NP, Royal NP. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed 6Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). ORCHIDACEAE DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Dies back after flowering and fruiting, existingas a dormant tuber for most of the year (NPWS 2001). Genoplesium rufum (Prasophyllum rufum) FIRE RESPONSE: Red Midge Orchid INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Fruiting stems eaten by native herbivores, but also possibly by rabbits (NPWS 2001). Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonal terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, single Distribution basal leaf per shoot and flowering stem to 25 cm with up to 25 flowers. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.), not stoloniferous BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT. (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA D S : LONGEVITY: Indefinite. ELECT LOCATIONS S : CC: Kurnell (1928,1947), NPWS (2001). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: CT: Tallong. FLOWERS: Light red to dark red, JanuaryÐApril. Probably pollinated by Habitat small (vinegar) flies (Drosopholids or Chironomids) (Van der Cingel HABITAT: Forest margins, ridges. Areas with exposed rock and stunted 2001). woodland with open-heath understorey, areas with bare ground (NPWS FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed 6 2001). months after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at VEGETATION: Low scrub/heath e.g. with Kunzea parvifolia, Calytrix Lane Cove and Narrabeen), fruit 24Ð26 weeks later (P. Kubiak pers. tetragona, Dillwynia sp. comm.). SUBSTRATE: Very shallow moss-covered soils over sandstone sheets INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: (NPWS 2001). Distribution XPOSURE E : STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Conservation BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., First discovered on Kurnell Peninsula in January 1928 but now believed S.A. to be extinct there (NPWS 2001). Now known in the Tallong area. Listed DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. as Endangered (Schedule 1) under the NSW Threatened Species SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Dural, Heathcote, Bargo. CT: Yetholme, Conservation Act 1995 . Reported in Morton NP (NPWS 2001). Capertee, Blackheath, Boyd Plateau, Woodford, Yerrinbool, Bowral. Habitat ORCHIDACEAE HABITAT: Ridges. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Genoplesium pumilum (Prasophyllum pumilum) TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Green Midge Orchid VEGETATION: Open-forest; heath e.g. with Angophora hispida, Life history Leptospermum trinervium. GROWTH FORM: Seasonal terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, single SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils over sandstone, shales. basal leaf per shoot and flowering stems to 20 cm with up to 20 flowers. EXPOSURE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). Conservation LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation status unknown. Reported from Kanangra Boyd NP, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Heathcote NP. FLOWERS: Green to yellow-green, sometimes with red markings, JanuaryÐMay. Probably pollinated by small (vinegar) flies (Drosopholids or Chironomids) (Van der Cingel 2001). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed 4 months after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). 64 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Genoplesium ruppii Genoplesium simulans Life history (Prasophyllum morrisii var. intermedium) GROWTH FORM: Deciduous terrestrial herb, 12Ð23 cm tall. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb 16Ð46 cm high, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. with paired tubers and a single basal leaf per shoot. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FLOWERS: Greenish with a dark purple labellum, in a raceme, pollinator LONGEVITY: Indefinite. unknown, JanuaryÐApril. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with dust-like seeds. FLOWERS: Dark purplish black, JanuaryÐMarch. Probably pollinated by DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed, wind-dispersed. small (vinegar) flies (Drosopholids or Chironomids) (Van der Cingel FIRE RESPONSE: Possibly resprouts. 2001). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed Distribution 6Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: FIRE RESPONSE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: North from Hornsby. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wyong. Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: Range of habitats, in swamp, grassland, and forest. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT. ALTITUDE:ANNUAL RAINFALL: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Blue Mountains. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bell, Bilpin, Bowen Mountain, Cheltenham, VEGETATION: Melaleuca-dominated semi-swamp; Themeda australis Oxford Falls, Douglas Park, Mt Keira. CT: Clarence, Mount Tomah, grassy areas adjacent to low sites dominated by Banksia robur and heathy Mt Wilson, Mt Irvine, Wentworth Falls, Woodford. forest. Habitat SUBSTRATE: On clay soils, lateritic and gravelly soils. HABITAT: Ridges. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Suggested 2R (Jones 2001). VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi, E. piperita, Corymbia gummifera; scrub e.g. with Kunzea ambigua. Favours moss ORCHIDACEAE gardens of low heathy vegetation around sandstone outcrops (Bishop 1996). (Prasophyllum sagittiferum) Genoplesium sagittiferum SUBSTRATE: Shallow sandy soil over sandstone rock, low nutrients, Life history periodically wet. GROWTH FORM: Seasonal terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, single EXPOSURE: basal leaf per shoot and floweriing stem to 20 cm with up to 15 flowers. Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). Local endemic species, conservation status unknown. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ORCHIDACEAE FLOWERS: Green with reddish stripes, DecemberÐApril. Probably pollinated by small (vinegar) flies (Drosopholids or Chironomids) (Van Genoplesium woollsii (Prasophyllum woollsii) der Cingel 2001). Life history FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, 6Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). single basal leaf per shoot and flowering stem to 40 cm with up to 35 DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: flowers. FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FLOWERS: Nodding, dark purple with darker stripes, MarchÐApril. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST; Vic. Probably pollinated by small (vinegar) flies (Drosopholids or DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Tablelands. Chironomids) (Van der Cingel 2001). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Howes Swamp. CT: Yetholme, O’Connell, Boyd FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seeds shed Hill Swamp, Woodford, Tallong. 6Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). Habitat DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: HABITAT: Ridges, swamps. FIRE RESPONSE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Distribution VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus rossii, E. mannifera, E. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. macrorhyncha; heath e.g. with Hakea teretifolia; sedgeland e.g. with BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT. Empodisma minus. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil over sandstone, low nutrients. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Asquith, Cheltenham, Heathcote. CT: Fitzroy EXPOSURE: Falls, Carrington Falls. Conservation Habitat Blue Mountains is northern geographical limit. Conservation status HABITAT: Ridgetops, ‘moss gardens’. unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP, Wambool NR. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 65

VEGETATION: ‘Moss gardens’ in woodland and heath e.g. with Banksia INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: oblongifolia, Leptospermum trinervium. Distribution SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils over sandstone, low nutrients. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. XPOSURE E : BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CWS; Qld, Vic. Conservation DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. Conservation status unknown. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Swansea, Bateau Bay, Glenbrook, Cowan, Bilgola, Fox Valley, Lindfield, Epping, Rose Bay, Kurnell, Jannali, ORCHIDACEAE Sutherland, Wedderburn. CT: Mittagong. Glossodia major Habitat HABITAT: Waxlip Orchid ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. GROWTH FORM: Very slender seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Banksia serrata, Kunzea tubers and hairy leaf to 15 cm long; flowering stem to 30 cm with 1Ð2 ambigua, Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus haemastoma. flowers. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). EXPOSURE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. FLOWERS: Purple, AugustÐOctober. Pobably pollinated by native bees by food deception (Pridgeon et al. 2001). ORCHIDACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Liparis coelogynoides FIRE RESPONSE: Fire is not an essential pre-requisite for flowereing, but Life history it enhances flowering (Pridgeon et al. 2001). Apparently resprouted GROWTH FORM: Evergreen epiphytic or rarely an epilithic herb, with after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Narrabeen), flowering 7 Months later pseudobulbs, clump-forming. (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous (P. Weston pers. comm.). NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS I : LONGEVITY: Distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: TATUS ORIGIN S / : Native. FLOWERS: Pale green, NovemberÐMarch, flower with unpleasant urine- BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, like scent, pollinated by small flies that feed on nectar produced by the Vic., Tas., S.A. labellum (Bishop 1996). Produces flowers only from new growth (Walsh DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. 1996). ELECT LOCATIONS S : CC: Bateau Bay, Colo Heights, Blaxland, Wisemans FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. Ferry, Maroota, Asquith, Frenchs Forest, Kentlyn, Marsden Park, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Kogarah, Villawood, Waterfall, Wedderburn, Wallacia, Burragorang FIRE RESPONSE: Valley. CT: Yetholme, Hill End, Capertee, Lithgow, Mullion Range, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Caterpillars consume new growth, Jenolan Caves, Abercrombie Caves. young leaves and juvenile racemes; case-moth larvae eat leaves (Walsh Habitat 1996). HABITAT: Ridges, hillsides. Distribution ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT; Qld. VEGETATION: Open-forest and woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus punctata, E. piperita, E. sclerophylla, E. rossii, E. viminalis, E. bridgesiana, E. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Colo area. macrorhyncha; coastal heath. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Upper Colo. SUBSTRATE: Clay loam on sandstone, metamorphics, quartzite, Habitat conglomerate, low nutrients. HABITAT: EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1000 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. VEGETATION: Rainforest SUBSTRATE: On trunks and branches, occasionally on rocks. ORCHIDACEAE EXPOSURE: Heavy to light shade (Walsh 1996). Glossodia minor Conservation Upper Colo River is southern geographical limit. Conservation status Small Waxlip Orchid unknown. Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonal slender terrestrial herb, with tubers, very hairy ORCHIDACEAE leaf to 3 cm long and flowering stem 5Ð16 cm high with a single flower. Liparis reflexa VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: GROWTH FORM: Evergreen epilithic or rarely a terrestrial herb, with FLOWERS: Deep violet blue, AugustÐSeptember. Pobably pollinated by pseudobulbs, clump-forming. native bees by food deception (Pridgeon et al. 2001). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous (P. Weston pers. comm.). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. LONGEVITY: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Active growth period autumnÐwinter. FLOWERS: Greenish, cream or yellow with age, with a strong unpleasant FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (D. Keith pers. comm.). Fire is not an odour, FebruaryÐJune. Pollinated by sarcophagid (Wallace 1974) or essential pre-requisite for flowereing, but it enhances flowering (Pridgeon mycetophilid (Adams & Lawson 1993) flies (P. Weston pers. comm.). et al. 2001). Fruit 9 months after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). 66 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: ORCHIDACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: Severely burnt plants killed, whereas more lightly burnt Microtis angusii pseudobulbs resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Narrabeen) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Life history INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: GROWTH FORM: Stout seasonally deciduous herb 25Ð60 cm high, with paired tubers 8Ð10 mm diam. and stolons with daughter tubers. Distribution Flowering stems with 20Ð60 flowers (Jones 1996). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT CWS. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Springwood, Woodford, Culoul Ranges, FLOWERS: MayÐOctober (Jones 1996). Wisemans Ferry, Windsor, Berowra, Pittwater, Mt Ku-ring-gai, Oatley, FRUIT/SEED: Capsule 5Ð6 mm long, with numerous minute seeds (Jones Heathcote, Bomaderry Creek, Hill Top. CT: Coricudgy, Yerranderie. 1996). Habitat DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: HABITAT: Usually on rocks in gullies, creeklines. FIRE RESPONSE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Distribution VEGETATION: Rainforest e.g. with Backhousia myrtifolia; open-forest STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC. SUBSTRATE: Sandstone boulders, rock faces. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Ingleside. EXPOSURE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Ingleside. Conservation Habitat Conservation status unknown. Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP. HABITAT: ALTITUDE: 200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm ORCHIDACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Lyperanthus suaveolens VEGETATION: Low woodland with grass species. SUBSTRATE: Lateritic shale on Wianamatta Shale (Jones 1996). Life history EXPOSURE: GROWTH FORM: Slender seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with tubers and daughter tubers on stolons, a single narrow leaf, and Conservation flowering stem to 45 cm high with up to 8 flowers (Bishop 1996). Listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) NSW Threatened Species VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Pridgeon & Chase 1995, P. Conservation Act 1995 . Known from only one locality close to a major Weston pers. comm.). road; site has suffered considerable degradation and invasion by Coolatai LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Grass Hyparrhenia hirta (Jones 1996). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Yellowish brown or dark reddish brown, mainly AugustÐ ORCHIDACEAE September. Can be very sweetly and strongly fragrant (Bishop 1996). Possibly bee-pollinated (Pridgeon et al. 2001). Microtis parviflora (Microtis bipulvinaris) FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Seed Slender Onion Orchid dispersal occurs 8Ð12 weeks after pollination (Pridgeon et al. 2001). Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growth period autumnÐ GROWTH FORM: Slender to robust seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb winter. 15Ð50 cm high, with paired tubers and stolons with daughter tubers, a FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts at base or below (Fox 1988), flowered 9 months single narrow basal leaf. after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: 1Ð2 years (Pridgeon et al. 2001). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FLOWERS: Green, SeptemberÐDecember. Pollinated by worker ants, of BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT. the genus Iridomyrmex, attracted to nectar at the base of the labellum DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread, coast. (Peakall & Beattie 1989). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Doyalson, Bateau Bay, Mooney Mooney, FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Castlereagh, Springwood, Glenbrook, Hornsby, Frenchs Forest, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Seeds readily germinate and can Gladesville, Centennial Park, Kurnell, Oatley, Voyager Point, Kentlyn, quickly colonise new sites, especially areas of disturbance (Pridgeon et Bundeena. CT: Abercrombie Caves. al. 2001). Habitat FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (Fox 1988). HABITAT: Grassy slopes. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: In the field, Microtis parviflora has ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm a narrow ecological specificity, with Epulorhiza repens and Epulorhiza TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. sp. the mycorrhizal fungi of M. parviflora. VEGETATION: Open-forest to woodland e.g. with Angophora costata, Distribution Eucalyptus haemastoma, Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus sclerophylla, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. E. fibrosa, Melaleuca nodosa. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT CWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, dune sand, Tertiary alluvium, shale, NZ, N. Caledonia. low nutrients, well-drained. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. EXPOSURE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Howes Swamp, Cattai Ridge, Agnes Banks. Conservation CT: Lidsdale, Bathurst, Wentworth Falls, Wingecarribee Swamp, Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). reported in Ku-ring- Penrose. gai Chase NP, Royal NP. Habitat HABITAT: Wet places. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 67

TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Distribution VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus haemastoma, Corymbia STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. gummifera, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus fibrosa; grassland e.g. with BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP Themeda australis. SWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A., Norfolk Is., N.Z., N. Caledonia, SUBSTRATE: Sandy loam over sandstone, shale, alluvium, lowÐmedium E Asia. nutrients, moist. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. EXPOSURE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Forresters Beach, Springwood, Woodford, Conservation Castlereagh, Terrey Hills, Hornsby, Fox Valley, Mosman, Centennial Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation Park, Kurnell, Kentlyn, Mulgoa, Liverpool, Stanwell Park. CT: Clarence, elsewhere unknown. Reported in Wambool NR. O’Connell, Blackheath, Wingecarribbee Swamp, Moss Vale, Penrose. Habitat ORCHIDACEAE HABITAT: Rock outcrops, swamp margins. Microtis rara ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Scented Onion Orchid VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Corymbia Life history gummifera, Eucalyptus haemastoma, E. melliodora, E. blakelyi, E. GROWTH FORM: Slender, seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired bridgesiana; heath e.g. with Kunzea ambigua, Leptospermum trinervium, tubers and stolons with daughter tubers, and a single narrow basal leaf Calytrix tetragona. 20Ð50 cm long. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, peaty soil on alluvium, low VEGETATIVE SPREAD: nutrients, moist. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. EXPOSURE: Full sun to light shade. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Conservation FLOWERS: Fragrant, green, OctoberÐJanuary. Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. elsewhere unknown. Reported in Botany Bay NP, Royal NP, Cecil DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Hoskins NR. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts at base or below (Fox 1988). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: ORCHIDACEAE Distribution Orthoceras strictum STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. Horned Orchid DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Life history SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mt Irvine, Woodford, Glenbrook, Windsor, GROWTH FORM: Rigid erect, seasonally deciduous herb with tubers, 2Ð5 Pittwater, St Ives, Longeville, East Hills, Kurnell, Woronora River, narrow leaves in a basal tuft, and stem to 60 cm high with up to 9 flowers. Liverpool, Darkes Forest, Loddon River. CT: Penrose. May be confused with Lyperanthus suaveolens (Bishop 1996). Habitat VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). HABITAT: Ridges, plateaus. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. FLOWERS: Yellowish green to very dark brown, late spring to summer. VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Banksia oblongifolia; woodland e.g. with Obligately self-pollinating with no opportunity for outcrossing (Pridgeon Melaleuca decora, Eucalyptus fibrosa. et al. 2001). SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, alluvium, low nutrients, moist. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. EXPOSURE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growing period late autumnÐwinter (Pridgeon et al. 2001). Conservation FIRE RESPONSE: Fruit forming 2 years after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Conservation status unknown. Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: ORCHIDACEAE Distribution Microtis unifolia STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Life history BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic., GROWTH FORM: Slender to robust seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb Tas., S.A. 20Ð60 cm high, with paired tubers and stolons with daughter tubers, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: and a single narrow basal leaf 8Ð60 cm long, . SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Culoul Range, Terrigal, Somersby, Riverstone, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). Pittwater, Bobbin Head, Frenchs Forest, Manly, Willoughby, Glenbrook, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Parramatta, Bundeena, Waterfall. CT: Bell, Mt Victoria, Mt Irvine, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: 1Ð2 years (Pridgeon et al. 2001) Little Hartley, Blackheath, Leura, Hill Top, Mittagong, Penrose. FLOWERS: Lightly scented, green or yellow-green, springÐsummer. Habitat Pollinated by worker ants, of the genus Iridomyrmex, attracted to nectar HABITAT: Moist to wet sites in open areas, ridges, slopes. at the base of the labellum (Bishop 1996). ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Seeds readily germinate and can VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus quickly colonise new sites, especially areas of disturbance (Pridgeon et punctata, E. piperita, E. sieberi, E. radiata, E. mannifera; moist heath al. 2001). e.g. with Hakea teretifolia, Leptospermum trinervium. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (Fox 1988). Green fruit 10 months after high SUBSTRATE: Gravelly loam on sandstone, low nutrients. intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove), flowering much diminished in EXPOSURE: subsequent years (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Conservation INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Conservation status unknown. 68 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Papillilabium beckleri Plectorrhiza tridentata Life history Tangle Orchid GROWTH FORM: Epiphytic evergreen herb, with one shoot, often Life history suspended by one of the numerous tangled aerial roots. GROWTH FORM: Hanging, evergreen epiphyte, often suspended by one VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. of the numerous aerial roots, leaves green to purplish. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rarely by branching. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: Green and white, sometimes with purple or crimson markings, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SeptemberÐNovember. Not self-pollinating but pollinators unknown FLOWERS: White with green or brown markings, SeptemberÐJanuary. (Van der Cigel 2001). Not self-pollinating (Van der Cingal 2001). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT; Qld, Vic. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Calna Creek, Waterfall. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kincumber, Mill Creek, Calna Creek, Habitat Springwood, Waterfall, Mt Kembla. CT: Mount Tomah. HABITAT: Along creeks. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Along creeks. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. ALTITUDE: 0Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: Gallery rainforest e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Tristaniopsis laurina. VEGETATION: Rainforest. SUBSTRATE: On outer twigs of trees. SUBSTRATE: On outer branches of trees e.g. Ceratopetalum apetalum, EXPOSURE: Tristaniopsis laurina, Backhousia myrtifolia, rarely on rocks. Sandy Conservation alluvium from sandstone, low nutrients. A monotypic genus. Royal National Park is the southern geographical EXPOSURE: limit. Conservation status unknown. Conservation Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP, Blue ORCHIDACEAE Mountains NP, Dharug NP, Royal NP. Paracaleana minor (Caleana minor) ORCHIDACEAE Small Duck Orchid Life history Prasophyllum affine GROWTH FORM: Terrestrial seasonally deciduous herb, with underground Life history paired tubers narrow leaf and stolons, with daughter tubers. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (Pridgeon et al. 2001). a single narrow basal leaf 50 cm long, and stem 40 cm with up to 40 LONGEVITY: Indefinite. flowers. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). FLOWERS: Reddish brown to yellowish green, flower stalk to 18 cm LONGEVITY: Indefinite. high, NovemberÐJanuary. Pollination by pseudocopulation by male PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: thynnine wasps Thynnoturneria armiger, attracted by pheromones FLOWERS: Tints of green, red, brown, and purple, OctoberÐNovember, (Pridgeon et al. 2001). Some populations in the Blue Mountains are strongly perfumed (Harden 1993). Does not flower unless rainfall likely to be opmictic (Jones 1977). occurs prior to flowering period; flowers open progressively from FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. lowest to topmost buds; pollinated mainly by Flower Wasps (Thynninae: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Neozeloboria, Lopohocheilus anilitatus), and ants (NPWS 2003). FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds, mature mid- INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: December, wind-dispersed (NPWS 2003). Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed, wind-dispersed. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Plant persists for most of the year as a dormant tuber; leaf begins to BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic., appear in late winter, plant only visible for about a month after Tas., S.A., N.Z. flowering (NPWS 2003). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: FIRE RESPONSE: Flowers more freely after fire (Harden 1993). NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Upper Colo, Hornsby, Pittwater, Narrabeen, I : Wahroonga, Gladesville, Bundeena, Menai, Darkes Forest, Mt Kembla, Distribution Nowra. CT: Yetholme, Bell, Blackheath, Mt Irvine, Mt Victoria. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC; Vic. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA HABITAT: Slopes and ridges. D S : South Head to Botany Bay. ELECT LOCATIONS ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm S : CC: Port Jackson (1803). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Habitat VEGETATION: Open-forest, heath e.g. with Kunzea ambigua. HABITAT: Coastal heathland (Bishop 1996). SUBSTRATE: Gravelly soils on sandstone, low nutrients. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Conservation Conservation status unknown. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 69

VEGETATION: Low heathland, sedgeland e.g. with Allocasuarina BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A. paludosa, Lambertia formosa, Lomandra obliqua, Ptilothrix deusta and DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal to Blue Mountains. sedges (NPWS 2003). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: La Perouse, Long Bay, O’Hares Creek, Loddon SUBSTRATE: GreyÐbrown clay soils, low nutrients, poorly-drained (NPWS River. CT: Mt Irvine, Blackheath, Wentworth Falls. 2003). Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Swamps, peat bogs. Conservation ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) under the NSW Threatened Species TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Conservation Act 1995 and Commonwealth Environmental Protection VEGETATION: Moist heath e.g. with Banksia robur, Gleichenia, & Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. Type locality is Port Jackson Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus. between South Head and Botany Bay but it has not been collected there SUBSTRATE: Peaty sandy soils over sandstone, low nutrients, since 1803. The only known existing occurrence in NSW is Jervis Bay permanently moist. area where it is threatened by proposed development and stock grazing EXPOSURE: (NPWS 1999); disturbance such as fire and slashing is likely to be a Conservation threatening process during growth and reproductive period, winterÐ Conservation status unknown. December (NPWS 2003). ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Prasophyllum brevilabre Prasophyllum appendiculatum Short-lipped Leek Orchid Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, single narrow basal leaf 30 cm long and stem to 40 cm high. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, a single narrow basal leaf to 35 cm long, and stem to 48 cm high with up to 30 flowers. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Up to 20 flowers, strongly 2-coloured red-brown and pale green, sweetly scented, OctoberÐNovember, with or without fire. FLOWERS: Greenish with red markings or dark purplish green, JulyÐ December. Flowers abundantly only after fire (Keith 1996). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. FIRE RESPONSE: Keith pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith Distribution pers. comm.). Flowered within 10 months after medium intensity fire STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT; Vic. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Southern Highlands. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Budderoo Creek. CT: Carrington Falls. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic., HABITAT: Damp places. Tas. ALTITUDE: 500Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Castle Hill, Wahroonga, Castlereagh, Water- VEGETATION: Moist heathland, often fringing swamps. fall, O’Hares Creek. CT: Yetholme, Mt Wilson, Blackheath, Katoomba, SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil over sandstone, low nutrients, moist. Oberon, Jenolan Caves, Wanganderry, Bowral, Barbers Creek. EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Ridges, plateaus. Mittagong is northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. ORCHIDACEAE VEGETATION: Moist heath e.g. with Banksia paludosa, Banksia Prasophyllum australe oblongifolia; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi, E. sclerophylla, E. rossii, Angophora bakeri, E. parramattensis. Southern Leek Orchid SUBSTRATE: Sandy, often lateritic soil over sandstone, conglomerate, Life history low nutrients, moist. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, EXPOSURE: a single narrow basal leaf 35 cm long and stem to 90 cm high with up to Conservation 50 flowers. Conservation status unknown. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. ORCHIDACEAE PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: White with reddish brown and geen stipes, highly fragrant, Prasophyllum elatum SeptemberÐJanuary. Flowers abundantly only after fire (Keith 1996). Tall Leek Orchid, Piano Orchid Pollinated by Ichneumon and thynnine wasps (Van der Cingel 2001). Life history FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, variable, with DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: paired tubers, a single narrow basal leaf to 120 cm long, and stem to FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith pers. comm.). 150 cm high with up to 60 flowers. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. 70 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

FLOWERS: Pale yellowish green to brownish or purplish black, sweetly VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). scented, AugustÐOctober. Flowers abundantly only after fire (Keith LONGEVITY: Indefinite. 1996). Pollinated by thynnine wasps (Van der Cingel 2001). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. FLOWERS: Greenish often with purple tints, sweetly fragrant, OctoberÐ DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: December, not particularly fire-stimulated. FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Lane Cove), flowering appeared to be stimulated, secondary juvenile DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: period 10 months (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Associated with mycorrhizal fungi INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: (Jones & Elliot 1986). Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT CWS NWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue Mountains and Hawkesbury. S.A., W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Port Jackson (1802Ð5). CT: Bell, Mt Victoria, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Wentworth Falls, Leura. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Doyalson, Wyong, Tuggerah, Bateau Bay, Habitat Somersby, Hazelbrook, Hornsby, Fox Valley, Frenchs Forest, HABITAT: Moist areas, often along seepage lines Willoughby, Kentlyn, Kurnell, Sutherland, Appin, Helensburgh, ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Thirlmere. CT: Blackheath, Barbers Creek, Robertson. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. Habitat VEGETATION: Moist sedgeland e.g. with Hakea. HABITAT: Slopes. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on Hawkesbury sandstone, low nutrients, moist. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Conservation VEGETATION: Heath and scrub e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Angophora Local endemic species listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) under the NSW hispida, Allocasuarina littoralis. Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995, now apparently confined SUBSTRATE: Sandy stony soils on sandstone, low nutrients. to the Upper Blue Mountains. EXPOSURE: Conservation ORCHIDACEAE Conservation status unknown. Prasophyllum odoratum ORCHIDACEAE Rogers Scented Leek Orchid, Sweet Leek Orchid Prasophyllum flavum Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, Life history a single narrow basal leaf to 70 cm long and stem to 50 cm high. GROWTH FORM: Seasonal, leafless terrestrial herb with paired tubers, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). and stem to 90 cm high with up to 50 flowers. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FLOWERS: Green and white or with reddish stripes, very fragrant to spicy, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SeptemberÐNovember. Self-pollinated but primarily pollinated by flies FLOWERS: Green or yellow and red-brown, NovemberÐJanuary. (Syrphidae) and also male native bees Leioproctus sp.; ants and flies FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. remove nectar but do not appear to transport pollen (Bernhardt & Burns- DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Balogh 1986). FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Approximately 52% of flowers per stem set seed (Bernhardt & Burns- Distribution Balogh 1986). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS; Qld, Vic., Tas. FIRE RESPONSE: Flowers profusely 6Ð8 months after fire (Bernhardt & DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Blue Mountains. Burns-Balogh 1986). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bowen Mountain, Glenbrook, Hornsby, Lane INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Cove, Loftus. CT: Mount Tomah, Mt Wilson, Wentworth Falls, Distribution Katoomba, Leura, Hill Top. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT ST SWS SWP; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. HABITAT: Hillsides. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Frenchs Forest. CT: Mt Canobolas, Lithgow, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: RareÐoccasional. Penrose. VEGETATION: Moist and drier open-forest Habitat SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. HABITAT: EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Conservation status unknown. VEGETATION: Woodlands e.g. with Eucalyptus dives, E. rubida, E. sieberi; ORCHIDACEAE heathy grassland e.g. with Brachyloma daphnoides. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, clay soil on basalt, low to high Prasophyllum fuscum nutrients. Slaty Leek Orchid EXPOSURE: Life history Conservation GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 40 cm high with A complex of several as yet undetermined taxa. Some forms flower paired tubers, a single narrow basal leaf to 45 cm long, and stem to only after fires, others flower freely without fire (Bishop 1996). 40 cm high with up to 30 flowers. Conservation status unknown. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 71

ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Prasophyllum pallens Prasophyllum rogersii Life history Marsh Leek Orchid GROWTH FORM: Deciduous terrestrial herb 20Ð40 cm tall. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. a single narrow basal leaf to 30 cm long and stem to 30 cm high with up PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: to 15 well-spaced flowers. FLOWERS: Tawny green to greenish white in a raceme, with a ‘rather VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). unpleasant musty fragrance, which is very noticeable in warm to hot LONGEVITY: Indefinite. weather’, November–December. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with dust-like seeds. FLOWERS: Yellowish green, rarely purple, with pinkish to reddish brown DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed, wind-dispersed. tints, fainly scented, DecemberÐFebruary. FIRE RESPONSE: Possibly resprouts. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Higher parts of Blue Mountains, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. particularly BlackheathÐMt Banks. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT; Vic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Mt Banks, Blackheath. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Boyd Plateau. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Boyd Plateau. HABITAT: Habitat ALTITUDE: 1000Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: mm HABITAT: Marshy places, swamps. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: . ALTITUDE: 1000Ð1200 mANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100 mm VEGETATION: Dense low heath. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. SUBSTRATE: Shallow sandy soils over sandstone, moist to wet. VEGETATION: Hummocky sedgeland e.g. with Empodisma minus, EXPOSURE: Full sun. Baloskion australe, Xyris. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Loamy peaty soils, low nutrients. Suggested 2R (Jones 2000). EXPOSURE: Conservation ORCHIDACEAE Conservation status unknown. Reported in Kanangra Boyd NP. Prasophyllum patens Broad-lipped Leek Orchid ORCHIDACEAE Life history Prasophyllum striatum GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, Streaked Leek Orchid a single narrow basal leaf to 30 cm long and stem10Ð30 cm high. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. a single narrow basal leaf to 20 cm long and stem to 30 cm high. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). FLOWERS: Green and white, lemon-scented, AugustÐDecember. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FLOWERS: Up to 10 flowers with white, green and red-brown stripes, FIRE RESPONSE: Usually flowers after fires. musky odour, MarchÐJune. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST ?NWS CWS SWS NWP Narrabeen), fruit forming 4 months later (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., N.Z. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lake Macquarie, Dangar Island, Lindfield, Lane STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Cove, Jannali. CT: Portland, Wentworth Falls, Jenolan Caves. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: HABITAT: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woy Woy, West Head, Oxford Falls, Royal NP, ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Dapto, Cambewarra. CT: Mt Wilson, Katoomba, Blackheath, Woodford, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Kanangra. VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Grevillea oleoides. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. HABITAT: Damp places, depressions on rocks, swamp margins. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Conservation status unknown. VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Leptospermum trinervium, Darwinia fascicularis, Allocasuarina nana. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil over sandstone, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. 72 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ORCHIDACEAE Distribution Prasophyllum uroglossum STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST CWS SWS; Vic. Life history DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Tablelands, Southern Highlands. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: O’Connell, Abercrombie River, Burrawang, a single narrow basal leaf to 20 cm long and stem to 45 cm high. Wingecarribee Swamp. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). Some vegetative Habitat reproduction (NPWS 1999). HABITAT: Ridges, slopes, swamp margins. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. ALTITUDE: 600Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1600 mm PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. FLOWERS: Brown, purple-red and green, with strong sweet scent, VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus rossii, E. polyanthemos, OctoberÐNovember. Intense Gardenia-like perfume; probably pollinated E. blakelyi; sedgeland of Baumea rubiginosa. by thynnid wasps and possibly hover flies (Syrphiidae) (Bishop 1996). SUBSTRATE: Peaty silty loam, lowÐmedium nutrients. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. EXPOSURE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Leaf emerges in April and remains until after seed dispersal, probably late DecemberÐJanuary Conservation (Bishop 1996). Dormant phase during summer (NPWS 1999). Conservation status unknown. FIRE RESPONSE: Good flowering response after fire 3 months earlier (at Wingecarribee Swamp, P. Kodela pers. comm.). ORCHIDACEAE INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis acuminata Distribution Pointed Greenhood STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT. Life history DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Southern Highlands. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 24 cm high, SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Wingecarribee Swamp, Burrawang. with paired tubers and stolons with daughter tubers. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous. Habitat LONGEVITY: Indefinite. HABITAT: Bogs, sometimes in running water, wetland margin. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ALTITUDE: 680 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1500 mm FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect, green and white, MarchÐMay. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Baumea rubiginosa and scattered pollinators have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae Leptospermum obovatum. Open heathland; ecotone between grassy (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). woodlandÐforest and swamp (NPWS 1999). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. SUBSTRATE: Peaty silty loam, medium nutrients. Moist but not wet soils DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: (Bishop 1992). FIRE RESPONSE: EXPOSURE: Full sun, slight shelter from scattered low shrubs (Bishop INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally 1992). associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Conservation to germinate (Cady 1988). Host to mycorrhizal fungus Rhizoctania solani Local endemic population, restricted to Burrawang district, very rare, (Perkins & McGee 1994). listed as Endangered (Schedule I) NSW Threatened Species Distribution Conservation Act 1995. Threatened during growth period from AprilÐ STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. January by disturbance and by direct competition from shrubs or weeds; BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld. some disturbance such as burning and weed control during short DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: dormant period FebruaryÐMarch could be beneficial, however repeated SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kurrajong Heights, Kenthurst, Asquith, burning may destroy germinating seeds (Bishop 1992). Not known to Baulkham Hills, Lindfield, Gladesville, Kurnell, Bundeena, Waterfall, occur in any conservation reserve (NPWS 1999). Thirlmere. CT: Woodford. ORCHIDACEAE Habitat HABITAT: Hillsides. Pterostylis aciculiformis ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, to 25 cm high, VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus with paired tubers that may be at the end of stolons. piperita, Syncarpia glomulifera, Eucalyptus fibrosa, E. eugenioides, E. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Jones & Clements 2002). maculata. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, sometimes with shale influence, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: low to medium nutrients, well-drained. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, transparent, with green and tan, SeptemberÐ EXPOSURE: November. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all Conservation known Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). ORCHIDACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Pterostylis aestiva FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted, flowering 18Ð28 weeks after high Life history intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 35 cm high, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally with with rosette and stem leaves, paired tubers and stolons with associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus daughter tubers. to germinate (Cady 1988). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 73

PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ORCHIDACEAE FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect, bluish green and white, JanuaryÐApril. Pterostylis alveata Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae Life history (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 16 cm high, FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. with rosette and stem leaves, paired tubers and stolons with daughter DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: tubers. FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally LONGEVITY: Indefinite. associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: to germinate (Cady 1988). FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect, green and white, shiny, MarchÐJune. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis Distribution pollinators have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST; Vic. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Orange area. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Canobolas. FIRE RESPONSE: Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally HABITAT: Grassy slopes. associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus ALTITUDE: 800Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm to germinate (Cady 1988). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Distribution VEGETATION: Montane woodland e.g. with Poa sp. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SUBSTRATE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Vic. EXPOSURE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. Conservation SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Colo, Seven Mile Beach. Mt Canobolas is northern geographical limit. Conservation status Habitat unknown. HABITAT: Dune crests and slopes. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: ORCHIDACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Pterostylis alata VEGETATION: Scrub e.g. with Leptospermum laevigatum. SUBSTRATE: Dune sand, low nutrients. Life history EXPOSURE: GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 25 cm high, with rosette and stem leaves, and paired tubers and stolons with Conservation daughter tubers. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Seven Mile Beach NP. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. ORCHIDACEAE PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Pterostylis baptistii FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect, green and white with brown, MarchÐ August. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known King Greenhood Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families Life history Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 40 cm high, 1996). paired tubers and stolons with daughter tubers. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, green and white, with brown, JulyÐOctober. associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis to germinate (Cady 1988). pollinators have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae Distribution (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST CWS; Vic., Tas., S.A. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Bathurst to Orange area. FIRE RESPONSE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Winburndale, Orange. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Habitat to germinate (Cady 1988). HABITAT: Moist, shady slopes. ALTITUDE: 700Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð900 mm Distribution TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATION: Open-forest BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld, Vic. SUBSTRATE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast, sporadic. EXPOSURE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lake Macquarie, Wallarah Creek, Porters Creek Swamp, Woy Woy, Narrabeen, La Perouse, Oatley, Bundeena, Dapto, Conservation Nowra. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Winburndale NR. Habitat HABITAT: Sheltered slopes. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. 74 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus robusta, FIRE RESPONSE: E. longifolia; scrub e.g. with Melaleuca nodosa, M. sieberi, M. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally linariifolia. associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus SUBSTRATE: Sandy to silty loams on alluvium, sandstone, low nutrients, to germinate (Cady 1988). moist to wet soils. Distribution EXPOSURE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Conservation BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC. Conservation status unknown. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Eastern suburbs, Botany Bay. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Maroubra (1908), Kurnell. ORCHIDACEAE Habitat Pterostylis bicolor HABITAT: Coast. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 40 cm high, VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Melaleuca nodosa, Baeckea imbricata. with paired tubers and flowering stem to 40 cm high with up to 20 SUBSTRATE: Skeletal sandy soils derived from sandstone, low nutrients, flowers (Bishop 1996). moist (Bishop 1996). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Jones & Clements 2002). EXPOSURE: Light shade. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Rare, listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) NSW Threatened Species FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, green with darker lines, shiny, SeptemberÐ November. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all Conservation Act 1995; first recorded in Maroubra 1908 although now known Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families extinct there. Currently known from only one small population in Botany Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop Bay NP where it is threatened by human activity as it is close to a major 1996). fire trail (NPWS 2000). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: ORCHIDACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: Pterostylis coccina INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Life history to germinate (Cady 1988). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 20 cm high, with rosette and stem leaves, paired tubers and stolons with daughter Distribution tubers. TATUS ORIGIN S / : Native. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA D S : Riverstone. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ELECT LOCATIONS S : CC: Riverstone. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, white and bluish green, reddish or reddish Habitat brown, FebruaryÐJuly. Pollination is almost certainly by HABITAT: Hilltop. pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis pollinators have been male ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð800 mm insects of the families Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus sp., Melaleuca sp. with FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. grassy understorey. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: SUBSTRATE: Gravelly loam on shale, low nutrients. FIRE RESPONSE: EXPOSURE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally Conservation associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Conservation status unknown. to germinate (Cady 1988). Distribution ORCHIDACEAE STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Vic. Pterostylis Botany Bay Bearded Greenhood DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. (Pterostylis sp. 15) SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gladesville, Rouse Hill, Bass Hill, La Perouse, Life history Botany, Rookwood, Bundeena, Burragorang Valley, Seven Mile Beach. CT: Yetholme, Boyd Crossing, Mt Gibraltar, Blackheath, Mt Jellore, GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 20 cm high, with paired tubers and rosette leaves. Oberon. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Habitat LONGEVITY: Indefinite. HABITAT: Amongst grass. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm FLOWERS: Helmet-like shape, translucent green with dark green veins, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. AugustÐSeptember, pollinated by insects (NPWS 2000). Pollination is VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, E. radiata, E. almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis pollinators fastigata, Angophora costata. have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) SUBSTRATE: Clay loam on basalt, sandstone, medium to high nutrients. and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). EXPOSURE: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds, possibly taking up to Conservation 3 months to ripen and dehisce, depending on weather conditions (NPWS Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Royal 2000, 2001). NP. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Mid-winter growth followed by flowering, then plant dies back to tubers (NPWS 2000). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 75

ORCHIDACEAE SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Glen Davis, Barbers Creek, Putty, Yarramalong, Pterostylis concinna Ourimbah, Bateau Bay, Glenbrook, Sackville, Hornsby, Manly, Gladesville, Holsworthy, Heathcote, Mt Kembla, Macqarie Pass, Trim Greenhood Yerranderie, Wombeyan Caves. CT: Katoomba, Kangaroo Valley. Life history Habitat GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous, very slender terrestrial herb, paired HABITAT: Hillsides. tubers and stolons with daugher tubers. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1600 mm VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous, may form large colonies (Jones TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. & Clements 2002). VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora floribunda, Eucalyptus LONGEVITY: Indefinite. umbra, Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus globoidea, E. botryoides; PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: rainforest margins. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect, white and dark green, with brown, MayÐ SUBSTRATE: Sandy loamy soil on sandstone, shale, lowÐmedium nutrients. September. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all EXPOSURE: known Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families Conservation Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. 1996). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: ORCHIDACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted, beginning to fruit 30 weeks after Pterostylis cycnocephala high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Swan Greenhood INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Life history to germinate (Cady 1988). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 20 cm high, with paired tubers. Distribution VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Jones & Clements 2002). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CWS; Vic., Tas., S.A. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coast. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, green with darker lines, shiny, AugustÐJanuary. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Sackville, Castlereagh (P. H.), Kenthurst, Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis Lindfield, Boronia Park, La Perouse, Bass Hill, Georges River, pollinators have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae Holsworthy, Warumbul, Seven Mile Beach. (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). Habitat FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. HABITAT: Moist areas. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm FIRE RESPONSE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata and grassy associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus understorey; shrubland e.g. with Kunzea ambigua. to germinate (Cady 1988). SUBSTRATE: Sandy to loamy soil on sandstone, sand, shale, low nutrients. Distribution EXPOSURE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Conservation BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status S.A., N.Z. elsewhere unknown. Reported in Royal NP, Blue Mountains. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Abercrombie Caves. ORCHIDACEAE Habitat Pterostylis curta HABITAT: ALTITUDE:ANNUAL RAINFALL: Blunt Greenhood TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Life history VEGETATION: Open-forest; grassland GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 30 cm high, SUBSTRATE: paired tubers and stolons with daughter tubers. EXPOSURE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). Conservation LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation status unknown. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect, white and green, with brown, JulyÐ October, peak May. Pollination by pseudocopulation of male fungus ORCHIDACEAE gnats (Mycetophilidae) (Bernhardt 1995). Pterostylis daintreana FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 30 cm high, FIRE RESPONSE: with with rosette and stem leaves, and paired tubers. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus LONGEVITY: Indefinite. to germinate (Cady 1988). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, green and white, shiny, MarchÐJuly, peak May. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; LHI, pollinators have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., N. Caledonia. (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). 76 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted, fruiting 31 weeks after high VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). intensity fire (1/1994 at Narrabeen) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect, white to greenish brown to dark brown to germinate (Cady 1988). markings, JulyÐSeptember. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudo- Distribution copulation; all known Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. the families Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT; Qld. (Bishop 1996). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: CC: Calga, Woy Woy, Wondabyne, Cowan, FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. Lindfield, Castle Cove, Manly, Lane Cove, Lugarno, Waterfall, Dapto, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Nowra. CT: Woodford. FIRE RESPONSE: SELECT LOCATIONS: Mainly coast. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Habitat to germinate (Cady 1988). HABITAT: Ridgetops, ‘moss gardens’. ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm Distribution TATUS ORIGIN TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. S / : Native. OTANICAL SUBREGIONS VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Kunzea ambigua, B : NC CC SC; Qld. Leptospermum trinervium, Darwinia fascicularis. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast, sporadic. ELECT LOCATIONS SUBSTRATE: On sandstone sheets and flat rocks, low nutrients. S : CC: Pittwater, Lindfield, Audley, Waterfall. EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Sheltered sites. Conservation status unknown. R eported in Royal NP, Heathcote NP. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata. ORCHIDACEAE SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients. Pterostylis decurva EXPOSURE: Summer Greenhood Conservation Life history Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 30 cm high, with with rosette and stem leaves, paired tubers and stolons with ORCHIDACEAE daughter tubers. Pterostylis fischii VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 25 cm high, FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, pale green to dark green and white, with brown, with rosette and stem leaves, paired tubers and stolons with daugher OctoberÐMarch. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; tubers. all known Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop LONGEVITY: Indefinite. 1996). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect green, white and rusty brown, FebruaryÐ DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: May. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known FIRE RESPONSE: Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus 1996). to germinate (Cady 1988). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST; Vic., Tas. associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Kanangra area. to germinate (Cady 1988). SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Jenolan Caves, Kanangra, Porters Retreat. Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: Ridges. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: ?NC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic. ALTITUDE: 1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Yetholme, Mount York, Grose Valley, Murruin VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus pauciflora, E. Creek. dalrympleana. SUBSTRATE: Gravelly loam on granite, low nutrients, moist. Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Valleys, slopes. ALTITUDE: 600Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Kanangra Boyd NP. VEGETATION: Amongst grass and low shrubs in open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Acacia falciformis. ORCHIDACEAE SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, metamorphics. Pterostylis erecta EXPOSURE: Life history Conservation GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 35 cm high, Conservation status unknown. paired tubers and stolons with daugher tubers. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 77

ORCHIDACEAE associated with a soil fungus and require its presence to germinate (Cady Pterostylis furcata 1988). Associated with micorrhizal fungus Ceratobastidium cornigerum, its growth stimulated in autumn by cooler temperatures and moist Sickle Greenhood conditions; inflorescence of P. gibbosa grazed by rabbits and stock (QEM Life history 1994). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 30 cm high, Distribution with rosette and stem leaves, paired tubers and stolons with daugher STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. tubers. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Lake Illawarra area. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Prospect to South Creek (1803), Yallah, Albion PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Park, Nowra. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect, dark green and white, DecemberÐMarch. Habitat Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis HABITAT: Woodland, ridgetops, grassy understorey. pollinators have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae ALTITUDE: 10Ð150 m (Jones & Clements 1997). (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1100 mm FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional to frequent. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: VEGETATION: Woodland with grassy understorey e.g. with Melaleuca FIRE RESPONSE: decora, M. styphelioides, Eucalyptus amplifolia, E. tereticornis, E. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally longifolia, Angophora floribunda (QEM 1994). Woodland e.g. with associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Acacia falcata, Corymbia maculata, Eucalyptus paniculata, Leucopogon to germinate (Cady 1988). juniperinus, Themeda australis (NPWS 2002). Distribution SUBSTRATE: Silty loams and sandy clay loams, poorly drained (Jones & STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Clements 1997). Red or yellow podzolic soils on siltstones, shales and BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC ST; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A. fine sandstones of Berry formation, poorly drained, only likely to be DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Southern Highlands, Kanangra. waterlogged for short periods following heavy rain (QEM 1994). In SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Burrawang. CT: Penrose, Bowral, Kanangra abundant to deep leaf litter (at Nowra); soils all leached and acidic with Boyd, Hampton, Yetholme. clay subsoils that impair drainage (NPWS 2002). Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Creeks, swamps. Conservation ALTITUDE: 600Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1600 mm Listed as Endangered (Schedule I) NSW Threatened Species TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Conservation Act 1995. Extinct in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Empodisma minus, Hydrocotyle, Now confined to relict patches of vegetation around Lake Illawarra, Ranunculus. one site near Nowra and one site at Milbodale in the Hunter Valley. SUBSTRATE: Peaty to sandy soils, sandy alluvium, wet areas, low nutrients. Threatened by grazing, trampling, weed invasion, frequent late-winter EXPOSURE: hazzard reduction burns, development and chemicals from adjacent Conservation industrial or urban property that could kill the associated fungus (QEM Conservation status unknown. Reported in Kanangra Boyd NP. 1994).

ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Pterostylis gibbosa (Pterostylis ceriflora) Pterostylis grandiflora Illawarra Greenhood Cobra Greenhood Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 40 cm high, GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 45 cm high, with rosette leaves, paired tubers and stolons with daugher tubers. Similar with rosette and stem leaves, and paired tubers with stolons and daugher to Pterostylis saxicola (Jones & Clements 1997). Occurs in clumps or tubers. scattered clusters (NPWS 2002). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Jones & Clements 2002). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect, green and white with deep red-brown, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: AprilÐAugust. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, bright green with transparent patches, AugustÐ November. Usually 9Ð10 flowers per spike, the lowest opening first; known Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families pollination is generally by pseudocopulation, male insects of the Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop families Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats, Mycoma sp.) (NPWS 2002), or 1996). Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Capsules brownish, erect, 7Ð8 mm long, (Jones & Clements 1997), with numerous minute seeds, wind-dispersed; seed may remain FIRE RESPONSE: dormant for up to two seasons; seed set in spring does not germinate INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally until autumn and requires specific strain of the mycorrhizal fungus associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Ceratobasidium cornigerum for successful germination (Quality to germinate (Cady 1988). Environmental Management 1994); this widespread fungus is Distribution associated with leaf litter (NPWS 2002). High seed viability (76% in STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. one study), seed set 11% (NPWS 2002). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; Qld, Vic., Tas. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. FIRE RESPONSE: Tubers allow fire survival; occasional fire may be SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Pearl Beach, Wamberal, Springwood, West Head, necessary for establishment of seeds and seedlings (NPWS 2002). Warriewood, Duffys Forest, Lindfield, Centennial Park, Macquarie INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally Fields, Kogarah, Rookwood, Heathcote, Woronora, Waterfall, Darkes Forest, Mt Kembla. CT: Mount Tomah, Katoomba, Woodford. 78 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Moist shady slopes. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; Qld. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bulli Pass. CT: Mount Tomah, Bundanoon. piperita, Syncarpia glomulifera, E. globoidea. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Sandy loam over sandstone, sandy alluvium, low nutrients. HABITAT: Moist areas, ridgetops. XPOSURE E : ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1400Ð1600 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. VEGETATION: Eucalypt open-forest SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil over sandstone, low nutrients. ORCHIDACEAE EXPOSURE: Pterostylis hildae Conservation Conservation status unknown. Reported in Morton NP. Rainforest Greenhood Life history ORCHIDACEAE GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 15 cm high, with rosette leaves, paired tubers and stolons with daugher tubers, and Pterostylis laxa flowering stem to 15 cm high (Bishop 1996). Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 40 cm high, LONGEVITY: with rosette and stem leaves, paired tubers and stolons with daughter PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: tubers. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, white and green with brown, JulyÐSeptember. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis LONGEVITY: Indefinite. pollinators have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, slightly nodding, green and white with dark FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. green or brown, MarchÐMay. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudo- DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: copulation; all known Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of FIRE RESPONSE: the families Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally (Bishop 1996). associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. to germinate (Cady 1988). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT; Qld. associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: to germinate (Cady 1988). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mt Kembla, Macquarie Pass. CT: Bundanoon. Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST CWS; Vic. ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1600 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Southern Highlands, Blue Mountains. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Mt Gibraltar, Grose Valley, Bungonia Gorge. VEGETATION: Moist open-forest; rainforest Habitat SUBSTRATE: Sandy loam over sandstone, low nutrients. HABITAT: Amongst grass on slopes. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 500Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Conservation status unknown. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, E. radiata. SUBSTRATE: Stony brown loam from trachyte. EXPOSURE: ORCHIDACEAE Pterostylis hispidula Conservation Conservation status unknown. Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with rosette leaves, ORCHIDACEAE paired tubers and stolons with daughter tubers. Pterostylis longifolia VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Tall Greenhood PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history LOWERS F : Hood-shaped, nodding, translucent with green and brown, GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb 15Ð40 cm high, MarchÐJuly. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all with rosette and stem leaves and paired tubers. known Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Jones & Clements 2002). Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop LONGEVITY: Indefinite. 1996). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, green and white, shiny, AprilÐAugust. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis FIRE RESPONSE: pollinators have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. to germinate (Cady 1988). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 79

DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: ORCHIDACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted, flowering 24Ð33 weeks after high Pterostylis mutica intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally Midget Greenhood associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Life history to germinate (Cady 1988). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 35 cm high, Distribution with rosette and stem leaves and paired tubers. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Jones & Clements 2002). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., LONGEVITY: Indefinite. S.A. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, pale green to yellowish green, AugustÐ SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Broken Back, Bateau Bay, Gibba Swamp, November. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation by Kurrajong Heights, Pittwater, Dural, Hornsby, Wahroonga, Ryde, fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae) (Van der Cingel 2001). Bankstown, Oakdale, Heathcote, Mt Keira, Bomaderry, O’Hares Creek. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. CT: Mt Irvine, Medlow Bath, Wentworth Falls, Woodford, Abercrombie DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Caves. FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally Habitat associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus HABITAT: Depressions. to germinate (Cady 1988). ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Distribution VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. costata, Syncarpia glomulifera, Eucalyptus globoidea; coastal scrub. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, moist areas. Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. EXPOSURE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Riverstone, Glenbrook, Killara, East Hills, Conservation Ingleburn, Kentlyn. CT: Rylstone, Bathurst, Wentworth Falls, Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wyrrabalong NP, Yengo NP, Abercrombie River, Capertee. Royal NP. Habitat ORCHIDACEAE HABITAT: Ridges, slopes. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Pterostylis longipetala TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Life history VEGETATION: Open-forest; grassland; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 25 cm high, rossii, E. polyanthemos, E. viminalis, E. bridgesiana, E. crebra. with rosette and stem leaves, paired tubers and stolons with daughter SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on sandstone, Tertiary alluvium, low nutrients. tubers. EXPOSURE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). Conservation LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation status unknown. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, slightly nodding, green and white, with pink to ORCHIDACEAE red or red-brown, AprilÐJune. Probably pollinated by pseudocopulation by fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae) (Adams & Lawson 1993). Pterostylis nutans FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. Nodding Greenhood DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Life history FIRE RESPONSE: GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 30 cm high, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally with rosette leaves, paired tubers and stolons with daugher tubers. associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Hybridizes with P. furcata (Harden 1993). to germinate (Cady 1988). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). Distribution LONGEVITY: Indefinite. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT; Qld, Vic. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, nodding, translucent with green and brown, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. MarchÐOctober, peak JuneÐSeptember. Pollination is almost certainly SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Douglas Park. by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis pollinators have been male Habitat insects of the families Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae HABITAT: Moist slopes (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð900 mm FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Seed, no special morphology for VEGETATION: Open-forest dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). SUBSTRATE: FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted, some plants beginning to fruit 36 EXPOSURE: weeks after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Conservation INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally Only record in areas is Douglas Park in 1992. Conservation status associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus unknown. to germinate (Cady 1988). Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., N.Z. 80 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, white with tan or reddish stripes, AprilÐJune. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Terrigal, Wamberal, Kurrajong Heights, Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis Glenbrook, Patonga Creek, Ingleside, Gladesville, Kurnell, Long Bay, pollinators have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae Rookwood, Mortlake, Bass Hill, Loftus, Campbelltown, Bulli Pass, (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). Barrengarry, Minnamurra Falls, Bomaderry, Yerranderie. CT: Orange, FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. Jenolan Caves, Mt Wilson, Blackheath, Katoomba, Woodford. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Habitat FIRE RESPONSE: NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS HABITAT: Gullies, creekbanks. I : Pterostylis species are generally ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1600 mm associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. to germinate (Cady 1988). VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Syncarpia Distribution glomulifera, Eucalyptus piperita, E. deanei; coastal scrub e.g. with STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Kunzea ambigua, Melaleuca nodosa. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, medium nutrients. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. EXPOSURE: Mid-shade. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wilberforce, Riverstone, Agnes Banks, Mt Druitt Conservation (P.H.), Gladesville, Rookwood, Burragorang Valley. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status Habitat elsewhere unknown. Reported in Royal NP. HABITAT: ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1100 mm ORCHIDACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Pterostylis obtusa VEGETATION: Open-forest; scrub SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale. Life history EXPOSURE: Sheltered. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 25 cm high, Conservation with rosette and stem leaves, paired tubers and stolons with daughter Conservation status unknown. tubers. Hybridizes with P. ophioglossa (Harden 1993). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). ORCHIDACEAE LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Pterostylis parviflora FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, dark green and white, shiny, FebruaryÐJune. Tiny Greenhood Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae Life history (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb 8Ð15 cm high, with rosette and stem leaves, paired tubers and stolons with daughter tubers. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. A complex of variants including a brown-flowered group (Harden 1993). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (P. Hind pers. comm.). FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: to germinate (Cady 1988). FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect, green and white, FebruaryÐJune, peak April. Probably pollinated by fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae) (Van der Distribution Cingel 2001). Can set seed without pollination. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST WS; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Summer-dormant species DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. producing vegetative shoots from bulbs during winter, no seedlings SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Drews Creek, Culool Range, Kurrajong, Avalon, recorded less than 1 year after fire (Purdie 1977). Baulkham Hills, Hornsby, Kurnell, Razorback, Burragorang Valley, Mt FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith Keira, Nowra. CT: Capertee, Mt Wilson, Grose Valley, Woodford. pers. comm.). Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally HABITAT: Moist slopes and ridges, gullies. associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm to germinate (Cady 1988). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Distribution VEGETATION: Grassland, dry rainforest, moist eucalypt forest. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SUBSTRATE: Loamy soils on sandstone, dune sand, shale, basalt. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, EXPOSURE: Vic., Tas., S.A. Conservation DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Yengo NP. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Colo Heights, Wisemans Ferry, West Head, Hornsby, Cheltenham, Epping, Ryde, Rockdale, Kurnell, Waterfall, ORCHIDACEAE Dapto. CT: Rylstone, Yetholme, Capertee, O’Connell, Mt Canobolas, Mt Wilson, Mt Irvine, Wentworth Falls, Woodford, Kanangra Walls, Pterostylis ophioglossa Abercrombie Caves, Fitzroy Falls, Mittagong. Snake Tongue Greenhood Habitat Life history HABITAT: Plateaus, slopes. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 20 cm high, ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm with rosette leaves, paired tubers and stolons with daugher tubers. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Hybridizes with P. concinna (Harden 1993). VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Corymbia VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2002). gummifera, Syncarpia glomulifera; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus rossii, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. E. macrorhyncha, E. mannifera; heath e.g. with Kunzea ambigua, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Baeckea imbricata, Darwinia fascicularis, Banksia ericifolia. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 81

SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally EXPOSURE: associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Conservation to germinate (Cady 1988). Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status Distribution elsewhere unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Royal NP, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Kanangra Boyd NP. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT; ?Qld, Vic., Tas. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. ORCHIDACEAE SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mill Creek, Sackville, Longueville, McMahons Lookout, Macquarie Pass, Bundeena, Mt Kembla, Seven Mile Beach. Pterostylis pedoglossa CT: Mt Canobolas, Mount Tomah, Mt Irvine, Wombeyan Caves, Mt Prawn Greenhood Werong, Kanimbla Valley. Life history Habitat GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb 15 cm high, very HABITAT: Moist sheltered sites, dunes. slender, with rosette leaves, paired tubers and stolons with daughter ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm tubers. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (P. Hind pers. comm.). Colony- VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus radiata, Syncarpia forming, mutiplying slowly (Banks 1996). glomulifera; littoral rainforest e.g. with Cupaniopsis anacardioides, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Banksia integrifolia; gallery rainforest e.g. with Backhousia myrtifolia. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SUBSTRATE: Sandy to loamy soils on sand, sandstone, granite, basalt, FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, green and white, MarchÐJuly. Pollination is medium to high nutrients. almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis pollinators EXPOSURE: have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) Conservation and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Dharug FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. NP, Royal NP. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: ORCHIDACEAE INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Pterostylis plumosa (P. barbata) to germinate (Cady 1988). Bearded Greenhood Distribution Life history STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb 15 cm high, with BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC; Vic., Tas. rosette and stem leaves and paired tubers. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coast, sporadic. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Jones & Clements 2001). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woy Woy, Maroubra, Waterfall, Kurnell, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Heathcote (Banks 1996), Bundeena. CT: Capertee. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Habitat FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect, translucent with dark green lines, AugustÐ HABITAT: Ridges. October. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1400 mm Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia. 1996). SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. EXPOSURE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Does not reproduce by multiple tubers but spreads only by seed, germinating readily in freshly-turned Conservation soil (Hatch 1985). Apparently isolated non-coastal population in the LithgowÐNewnes area FIRE RESPONSE: e.g. Capertee (Bishop 1996). Sydney is northern geographical limit. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP (Banks 1996). associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus to germinate (Cady 1988). ORCHIDACEAE Distribution Pterostylis pedunculata STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Maroonhood BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT; Vic., Tas., S.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: KurnellÐPort Jackson, BathurstÐ Life history Abercrombie. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb 25 cm high, with SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Maroubra Bay, Kurnell. CT: Abercombie Caves. rosette leaves, paired tubers and stolons with daughter tubers. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2001). Habitat LONGEVITY: Indefinite. HABITAT: Sheltered slopes, plateaus. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect, white and green, JulyÐNovember. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis VEGETATION: Coastal scrubs e.g. with Melaleuca nodosa, Baeckea pollinators have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae imbricata; open-forest. (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. EXPOSURE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for Conservation dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Bathurst is northern geographical limit (Harden 1993). Conservation FIRE RESPONSE: status unknown. 82 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ORCHIDACEAE Habitat Pterostylis pulchella HABITAT: Amongst litter. ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1000 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired VEGETATION: Open-forest tubers and stolons with daugher tubers, and stems to 15 cm high with SUBSTRATE: rosette and stem leaves. EXPOSURE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2001). Conservation LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect, white with green and red to red-brown, ORCHIDACEAE FebruaryÐMay. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all Pterostylis reflexa known Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families Life history Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 20 cm high, 1996). with rosette and stem leaves, and paired tubers with stolons and daugher FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. tubers. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2001). FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, erect, green and white with red-brown, to germinate (Cady 1988). FebruaryÐJune, peak April. Probably pollinated by fungus gnats Distribution (Mycetophilidae) (Van der Cingel 2001). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Southern Highlands. FIRE RESPONSE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Belmore Falls, Minnamurra Falls. CT: Fitzroy INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally Falls. associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Habitat to germinate (Cady 1988). HABITAT: Close to waterfalls, moist sheltered ridges. Distribution ALTITUDE: 200Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1400Ð1600 mm STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT. VEGETATION: Rainforest below falls e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Callicoma serratifolia. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Culoul Range, Woy Woy, West Head, Avalon, SUBSTRATE: Killara, Gladsville, Bundeena, Wedderburn. CT: Capertee, O’Connell, EXPOSURE: Bimlow, Mittagong, Tallong. Conservation Habitat Listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW Threatened Species HABITAT: Ridges, slopes, gullies. Conservation Act 1995. Reported in Budderoo NP, Morton NP. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. ORCHIDACEAE VEGETATION: Open-forest, woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus melliodora, Pterostylis pusilla E. bridgesiana, E. blakelyi. SUBSTRATE: Clay loam on sandstone, low nutrients. Ruddyhood EXPOSURE: Life history Conservation GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 30 cm high, Conservation status unknown. Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP. with rosette leaves, and paired tubers. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Jones & Clements 2001). ORCHIDACEAE LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Pterostylis revoluta FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, pointed outwards, transparent with green and Life history red markings, SeptemberÐNovember. Pollination is almost certainly by GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 15 cm high, pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis pollinators have been male with rosette and stem leaves, and paired tubers with stolons and daugher insects of the families Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae tubers. (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2001). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, slightly nodding, pale green and white, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally FebruaryÐJune. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus known Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families to germinate (Cady 1988). Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop Distribution 1996). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT CWS SWS; Vic., S.A. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: FIRE RESPONSE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kurrajong, Londonderry, Riverstone, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally Burragorang Valley. CT: Portland. associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus to germinate (Cady 1988). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 83

Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Capsules brownish, erect, 7Ð8 mm long, (Jones & Clements STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. 1997), with numerous minute seeds. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. FIRE RESPONSE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woy Woy, Sackville North, Glenbrook, Bass INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally Hill, Kurnell, Cronulla. CT: Winburndale, Yetholme, Capertee, Bowral. associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Habitat to germinate (Cady 1988). HABITAT: Sheltered slopes, ridges, dunes. Distribution ALTITUDE: 0Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1200 mm STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Banksia serrata, Eucalyptus rossii. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on dunes, sandstone, low nutrients. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: South Creek/Toongabbie (1804), Emu Plains EXPOSURE: (1835), Campbelltown (1989, CANB), Kentlyn (1996, CANB). Conservation Habitat Conservation status unknown. Reported in Yengo NP. HABITAT: Forest, woodland, close to streams, among rocks (Jones & Clements 1997). ORCHIDACEAE ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1000 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional; scattered individuals or small Pterostylis rufa (Pterostylis pusilla var. prominens) groups and loose colonies. Rusty Hood VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus crebra. Life history SUBSTRATE: Shallow sandy clay loams, sandy soil over flat sheets of GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 30 cm high, sandstone and crevies between sandstone boulders (Jones & Clements with rosette and stem leaves, and paired tubers. 1997). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Jones & Clements 2001). EXPOSURE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Local endemic species, listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) NSW FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, dark reddish brown and translucent, SeptemberÐ Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995. Development pressures, November. Probably pollinated by fungus gnats (Mycetophilidae) (Van increased access and increased use of sites are likely to resut in habitat der Cingel 2001). losss and degradaation, directly threatening existing populations and FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. reducing the area of available habitat. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: ORCHIDACEAE INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally (Pterostylis revoluta) associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Pterostylis sp. B to germinate (Cady 1988). Life history Distribution GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 25 cm high, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. with rosette and stem leaves, and paired tubers with stolons and BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CT. daughter tubers. EGETATIVE SPREAD DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney, Bathurst. V : Stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2001). ONGEVITY SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Freemans Reach, Riverstone, Marayong, L : Indefinite. Rookwood, Bankstown, Cow Pasture (1803), Wilton. CT: Glanmire, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Yetholme. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, slightly nodding, green and white with red or red-brown, MarchÐJune. Pollination is almost certainly by Habitat pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis pollinators have been male HABITAT: Ridges. insects of the families Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð900 mm (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus crebra, Themeda australis. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, laterite, lowÐmedium nutrients. FIRE RESPONSE: EXPOSURE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally Conservation associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus Conservation status unknown. to germinate (Cady 1988). Distribution ORCHIDACEAE STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Pterostylis saxicola (Pterostylis sp. E) BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS; Qld, Vic. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Sydney Plains Greenhood SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Colo Heights, Killara. CT: Bowral. Life history Habitat GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, HABITAT: Ridges, slopes. a rosette and stem leaves. Similar to Pterostylis gibbosa (Jones & ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm Clements 1997). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Jones & Clements 2001). VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Leptospermum trinvervium, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Allocasuarina. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, transparent and red-brown, with dark red-brown EXPOSURE: markings, OctoberÐDecember (Jones & Clements 1997). Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis pollinators Conservation have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) Conservation status unknown. and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). 84 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ORCHIDACEAE Habitat Pterostylis truncata HABITAT: Moist areas. ALTITUDE: 700Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Little Dumpies TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Life history VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 15 cm high, SUBSTRATE: Sandy loam over sandstone, low nutrients. with rosette and stem leaves, and paired tubers with stolons and EXPOSURE: daughter tubers. Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2001). Robertson is northern geographical limit (Harden 1993). Conservation LONGEVITY: Indefinite. status unknown. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, semi-erect, white with green and brown stripes, FebruaryÐJuly, peak April. Pollination is almost certainly by ORCHIDACEAE pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis pollinators have been male Pterostylis woollsii insects of the families Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae Long-tailed Greenhood (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 45 cm high, FIRE RESPONSE: with rosette and stem leaves, and paired tubers. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Jones & Clements 2001). associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus LONGEVITY: Indefinite. to germinate (Cady 1988). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, transparent with green reddish tonings, Distribution OctoberÐDecember. Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. all known Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS; Vic. Mycetophilidae (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: 1996). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Colo Heights, Thirlmere. CT: Winburndale, FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. Capertee, Cullen Bullen, Grose Valley, Kanimbla Valley, Wombeyan DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Caves, Yerranderie, Mittagong, Bowral, Mt Gibraltar. FIRE RESPONSE: Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally HABITAT: Sheltered ridges, slopes. associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm to germinate (Cady 1988). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Distribution VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, E. radiata, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Syncarpia glomulifera, Eucalyptus ovata. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT NT NWS CWS; Qld, Vic. SUBSTRATE: Sandy to gravelly loam on sandstone, trachyte. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. EXPOSURE: Sheltered. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Abercrombie Caves. Conservation Habitat Conservation status unknown. HABITAT: Among rocks, on ridges, slopes. ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700 mm ORCHIDACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Pterostylis tunstallii VEGETATION: Open-forest, amongst grass SUBSTRATE: Life history EXPOSURE: GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb 15Ð50 cm high, with paired tubers, rosette and stem leaves, and flowering stem to 50 cm Conservation high with up to 10 flowers (Bishop 1996). Rare, one record for the area is Abercrombie Caves, although there is an VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (Jones & Clements 2001). old record for Richmond. Coded 3RC- on national rare species list LONGEVITY: (Briggs & Leigh 1996). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Hood-shaped, green and white, shiny, JulyÐAugust. ORCHIDACEAE Pollination is almost certainly by pseudocopulation; all known Pterostylis pollinators have been male insects of the families Mycetophilidae Pyrochoris nigricans (Lyperanthus nigricans) (fungus gnats) and Culicidae (mosquitoes) (Bishop 1996). Life history FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. GROWTH FORM: Robust terrestrial herb 10Ð30 cm high, with tubers and DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: daughter tubers on stolons; whole plant dries to jet black colour. FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous (Jones & Clements 2001). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pterostylis species are generally LONGEVITY: Indefinite. associated with a soil fungus; seeds require the presence of this fungus PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: to germinate (Cady 1988). FLOWERS: Red and white, AugustÐNovember. Bee-pollinated (Jones Distribution 1981). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: SC CT; Vic. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Active growing period autumnÐ DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains. winter (Pridgeon et al. 2001). SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Wentworth Falls, Woodford. FIRE RESPONSE: Mass flowering events follow hot summer fires, especially where there have been long intervals between burns (Pridgeon et al. 2001). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 85

Distribution ORCHIDACEAE STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Rimacola elliptica BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. Green Beaks, Green Rock Orchid DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bunnerong. Life history GROWTH FORM: Epilithic evergreen herb, with basal leaves, Habitat inflorescence to 10 cm long, and fleshy roots but no tubers. HABITAT: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, rhizomatous, forming localised congested ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm clumps (P. Hind, P. Weston pers. comm.). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. VEGETATION: Heath; woodland; scrub PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SUBSTRATE: FLOWERS: White or green with reddish brown markings, NovemberÐ EXPOSURE: December. Possibly pollinated by small black wasps (Jones 1988). Conservation FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. Only Sydney area record is for Bunnerong in 1946. Conservation status DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: unknown. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (Bantry Bay 1991). Flowering 9 months after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Narrabeen) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). ORCHIDACEAE INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Rhizanthella slateri (Cryptanthemis slateri) Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Underground Orchid BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT. Life history DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Blue Mountains. GROWTH FORM: Subterranean, holomycotropic herb with fleshy under- SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bilpin, Dural, Pittwater, Narrabeen, Middle ground stem to 15 cm long, whitish, often branching, with prominent, Harbour. CT: Blackheath, Wentworth Falls, Katoomba, Woodford. fleshy, overlapping bracts; no roots. Head of about 25Ð35 flowers Habitat (Annable 1989), covered by leaf litter or just protruding above soil level. HABITAT: Wet crevices, damp ledges of sandstone cliffs. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, by branching rhizomes (P. Weston pers. comm.). ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm LONGEVITY: Indefinite. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATION: Amongst mosses, grasses and ferns e.g. with Gleichenia FLOWERS: Purplish, tubular, up to 30, maturing below the soil surface or rupestris, Dracophyllum secundum, Baeckea linifolia. extending 2 cm above the ground, OctoberÐNovember. Pinkish flowers SUBSTRATE: Peaty soils on sandstone, low nutrients, moist. turn purple after exposure to sunlight (Stephenson 1997). EXPOSURE: FRUIT/SEED: Fleshy indehiscent, reddish berry with 50Ð150 non-winged Conservation seeds, protruding just above soil surface. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Almost entire life cycle spent underground (Annable 1989). Fleshy fruits may be ingested by small Brisbane Water NP, Royal NP. herbivores. ORCHIDACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Not associated with any single Sarcochilus australis species of host, found with Tristaniopsis laurina, Syncarpia glomulifera, Butterfly Orchid Casuarina species (Bishop 1996). Life history Distribution GROWTH FORM: Semi-pendant evergreen epiphyte, usually with 1 shoot, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. stems 0.5Ð7 cm long. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ?SC CT; Qld. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue Mountains, Dharug NP (Harden 1993). LONGEVITY: Short-lived (Walsh 2001). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mill Creek, Wattagan Mountains, Wisemans PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Ferry, Agnes Banks, Blue Mountains, Nowra. FLOWERS: Green to brown or rarely yellow, OctoberÐDecember. Habitat Flowers seen on tiny plants 3 cm high (Walsh 2001). HABITAT: Creekbed, slopes. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800 mm DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Prolific germination (Walsh 2001). VEGETATION: Gallery rainforest with Ceratopetalum apetalum, FIRE RESPONSE: Tristaniopsis laurina; open-forest with tussock grass (Bishop 1996). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Epiphytic on Tristaniopsis laurina. SUBSTRATE: Shallow to deep loams, sandy alluvium, low nutrients. Distribution EXPOSURE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Conservation BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC ST; Vic., Tas. Listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) under the NSW Threatened Species DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Conservation Act 1995. Reported in Dharug NP. Seldom seen, usually SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Marramarra Creek, Coal and Candle Creek. only isolated plants found accidentally while excavating (Bishop 1996). Habitat Recently reported from the Nowra area (1997) where a property owner HABITAT: Creekbanks. In gullies (Walsh 2001). was removing Leptospermum (Stephenson 1997). ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional to frequent. VEGETATION: Temperate rainforest e.g. with Tristaniopsis laurina, Lomandra fluviatilis. SUBSTRATE: On outer branches of trees, Tristaniopsis laurina. EXPOSURE: Conservation Hunter River is northern geographical limit. Reported in Marramarra NP. 86 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Sarcochilus falcatus Sarcochilus olivaceus Orange Blossum Orchid Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Semi-pendant evergreen epiphytic, or rarely an epilithic GROWTH FORM: Semi-pendant evergreen piphytic, or rarely an epilithic herb with creeping roots, 1 or rarely 2 or more shoots and stems to 7 cm herb, with 1 or rarely 2 or more shoots and stems to 8 cm long. long. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rarely, by branching. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rarely, by branching. LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: White with purple mid-line, JuneÐOctober. FLOWERS: Green to yellow, NovemberÐDecember. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; Qld. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Tablelands. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coast. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kangaroo Valley, Bulli, Mt Kembla. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mountain Lagoon, Waterfall, Bulli Pass. CT: Mount Tomah, Mt Wilson, Oberon. CT: Wentworth Falls. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: HABITAT: Gullies, creekbanks. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1600 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1600 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: Grows on a variety of rainforest tree species, but also VEGETATION: Rainforest on Doryphora sassafras, Pittosporum undulatum and Backhousia SUBSTRATE: On trees e.g. Trochocarpa laurina, more rarely on rocks. myrtifolia. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: On tree trunks, commonly Acacia melanoxylon, rarely on Conservation rocks. Reported in Royal NP. EXPOSURE: Conservation ORCHIDACEAE Spiranthes sinensis subsp. australis ORCHIDACEAE Sarcochilus hillii (Spiranthes australis) Ladies’ Tresses Life history GROWTH FORM: Semi-pendant evergreen epiphytic, or rarely an epilithic Life history herb with creeping roots, linear leaves, 1 or rarely several shoots and GROWTH FORM: Slender deciduous terrestrial herb, with fleshy roots, stems to 2 cm long. stem16Ð50 cm high, and basal leaves. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rarely, by branching. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995), not stoloniferous LONGEVITY: (Pridgeon & Chase 1995). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Short-lived, 5 years (P. Hind pers. comm.). FLOWERS: White to pale pink, OctoberÐDecember. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. FLOWERS: Bright pink in dense spiral, mainly NovemberÐMarch. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Pollinated by small native bees but apparently self-pollinating forms FIRE RESPONSE: are not uncommon around Sydney and probably elsewhere (Bishop INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: 1996). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore mobile (McIntyre et al. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. 1995). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT; Qld. FIRE RESPONSE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mill Creek, Pittwater, Church Point, Kentlyn, Hill Top. Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., HABITAT: Along creeks. Tas., S.A. ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bilpin, Waterfall, Mt Keira. CT: Hill Top, VEGETATION: Gallery rainforest on sandstone, alluvium with a variety of Lidsdale, Woodford, Luthers Creek, Wingecarribee Swamp, Penrose, hosts including Tristaniopsis laurina, Pittosporum undulatum, Fitzroy Falls. Backhousia myrtifolia. SUBSTRATE: On tree trunks, mostly Backhousia myrtifolia, rarely on rocks. Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Boggy places, wetland margins, creeks. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1600 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Regionally rare in Illawarra region (Mills 1988), conservation status VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus radiata, E. sclerophylla; elsewhere unknown. Reported in Dharug NP. wet heath; montane sedgeland e.g. with Lythrum salicaria, Centella asiatica, Phragmites australis. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 87

SUBSTRATE: Loamy sand to clay on alluvium, sandstone, low nutrients, Habitat moist. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). HABITAT: Along streams. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Kanangra Boyd NP, Royal VEGETATION: Rainforest NP. SUBSTRATE: On rainforest trees. EXPOSURE: ORCHIDACEAE Conservation Tetrabaculum melaleucaphilum Regionally rare in Illawarra region (Mills 1988), the southern geographical limit. (Dendrobium melaleucaphilum) Spider Orchid ORCHIDACEAE Life history Thelychiton gracilicaulis (Dendrobium gracilicaule) GROWTH FORM: Epiphytic or epilithic evergreen herb, with succulent Life history stems. GROWTH FORM: Epyphytic or epilithic evergreen herb, with succulent VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, rhizomatous (P. Weston pers. comm.). cylindrical stems and creeping roots. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, rhizomatous (P. Weston pers. comm.). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FLOWERS: Green to deep dull yellow, SeptemberÐOctober. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous, minute seeds. FLOWERS: Dull yellow, SeptemberÐOctober. Probably pollinated by DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Trigona bees (Jones 1983). FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wheeny Creek, Gosford. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. HABITAT: On trees or on rocks. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gosford, Wisemans Ferry, Kiama. ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: HABITAT: On rainforest trees and occasionally on rocks. VEGETATION: ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm SUBSTRATE: Frequently on Melaleuca styphelioides, less commonly on rainforest trees or on rocks. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Conservation EXPOSURE: Listed as Endangered (Schedule 1) NSW Threatened Species Conservation Conservation Act 1995. Main threat is illegal collection and bark- stripping of host Melaleuca trees; also threatened by repeated burning, Kiama is southern geographical limit, conservation status unknown. clearing and draining resulting in degradation of habitat (NPWS website). Lower Blue Mountains is southern geographical limit. ORCHIDACEAE Thelychiton speciosus (Dendrobium speciosum) ORCHIDACEAE Rock Lily Tetrabaculum tetragonum (Dendrobium tetragonum) Life history Tree Spider Orchid GROWTH FORM: Epilithic or rarely epiphytic robust evergreen herb with Life history erect to spreading succulent stems and creeping or aerial roots; leaves thick and leathery. GROWTH FORM: Epiphytic evergreen herb with succulent stems. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, rhizomatous (P. Weston pers. comm.). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, rhizomatous (P. Weston pers. comm.). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: White to deep dull yellow, SeptemberÐOctober. Provides a FLOWERS: Green, dull yellow and cream with reddish lines, SeptemberÐ October. ‘big bang’ effect or gregarious flowering through visual display of over 1000 flowers per plant and by fragrance (Van de Cingel 2001). Self- FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. infertile, pollinated by Trigona bees (Jones 1983). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from base, stimulating a tenfold increase in INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: number of new shoots after moderate burning (Adams 1986). Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Leaves eaten by Swamp Wallaby STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. (at Katandra Bushland Sanctuary, L.McD.). Shoots, inflorescences eaten BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld by Dendrobium Beetle Stethopachys formosa (P. Weston pers. comm.). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Illawarra area. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Somersby, Waterfall, Helensburgh, Otford, Mt Kembla. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT CWS; Vic. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. 88 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Peats Ridge, Cowan Creek, Glenbrook, Hornsby, Distribution Hunters Hill, Wedderburn, Burragorang Valley. CT: Coricudgy Range. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ; Qld, Vic, Tas., S.A., N.Z. HABITAT: On rocks. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 m SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Somersby, Cowan, Wahroonga, Willoughby, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Gladesville, La Perouse, Rookwood, Jannali, Engadine. CT: Rylstone, VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus Bathurst, Wentworth Falls,Woodford. piperita, E. punctata. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Rock crevices, shelves, on sandstone boulders, low nutrients, HABITAT: Ridgetops. well-drained. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm EXPOSURE: Light shade to full sun. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Conservation VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Kunzea ambigua; Populations of D. speciosum compex comprise a single but highly woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus haemastoma, E. piperita, Corymbia variable species; it is strongly recommended that individuals be gummifera, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus sclerophylla. specified by their geograpical origin for identification (Burke & Adams SUBSTRATE: Sandy stony soil on sandstone, low nutrients, moist. 2002). D. speciosum is under heavy pressure from collecting (Burke & EXPOSURE: Adams 2002). Conservation Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wambool NR. ORCHIDACEAE Thelychiton tarberi (Dendrobium tarberi) ORCHIDACEAE Rock Lily Thelymitra circumsepta (Thelymitra retecta) Life history Naked Sun Orchid GROWTH FORM: Epilithic or epiphytic evergreen herb, with succulent Life history stems 20Ð100 cm long. Sometimes hybridizes with D. gracilicaule. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, rhizomatous (P. Weston pers. comm.). tuberoids, a thick to leathery lanceolate leaf 20 cm long and stem to LONGEVITY: Indefinite. 60 cm high, with up to 10 flowers. RIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD P : VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LOWERS F : White to cream, AugustÐOctober. Pollinated by bees in the LONGEVITY: Indefinite. genera Trigona, Homalictus, Lasioglossum, Hylaeus (Adams 1991). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: RUIT SEED F / : Capsule with numerous, minute seeds. FLOWERS: White or pale blue lilac, DecemberÐJanuary. Self-pollinated, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: opening on hot days or not at all, rarely more than one flower open per FIRE RESPONSE: spike on any one day, probably cleistogamous (Calder & Sydes 1993). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Shoots and inflorescences eaten by FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. Dendrobium Beetle Stethopachys formosa Baly (P. Weston pers. comm.). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT; Qld. Distribution ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA D S : Gosford area. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ELECT LOCATIONS S : CC: Peats Ridge. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Vic., Tas., S.A. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Upper Blue Mountains. HABITAT: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: O’Hares Creek. CT: Newnes Plateau, Mt Irvine, ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm Mt Victoria, Blackheath. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Habitat VEGETATION: Rainforest; open-forest HABITAT: Ridges, seepage areas. Sedgeland swamp (Calder & Sydes SUBSTRATE: On trees e.g. Ficus macrophylla, and rocks. 1993). XPOSURE E : ALTITUDE: 400Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Peats Ridge is southern geographical limit, conservation status unknown. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi, E. piperita, E. macrorhyncha. ORCHIDACEAE SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, laterite, low nutrients, moist. Thelymitra carnea EXPOSURE: Conservation Tiny Sun Orchid, Pink Sun Orchid Conservation status unknown. Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired ORCHIDACEAE tuberoids, a linear leaf to 15 cm long and stem to 35 cm high, with up to 4 flowers. Thelymitra cyanea VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Veined Sun Orchid LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Life history RIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD P : GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired FLOWERS: Pink to reddish or rarely yellow, opening on hot, sunny often tuberoids, a thick to fleshy linear leaf 25 cm long and stem to 50 cm humid days (Bishop 1996), SeptemberÐNovember. high. RUIT SEED F / : Capsule with numerous minute seeds. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. IRE RESPONSE F : PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 89

FLOWERS: Blue and veined or white to pink with darker veins, opening FLOWERS: Blue to pinkish, opening on hot, sunny often humid days on hot, sunny often humid days (Bishop 1996), NovemberÐFebruary. (Bishop 1996), AugustÐDecember, peak September. Many flowers on FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. the spike open at one time, self-compatible but pollinated by native bees, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Exoneura and Lasioglossum species; also frequently visited by hoverflies FIRE RESPONSE: but they are not pollinators; the scattered occurrence of T. ixodes in INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: communities, where other plants contribute more to the floral display, Distribution ensure that the deception of floral mimicry (see T. nuda) is not easily STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. learnt by its pollinators (Calder & Sydes 1993). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: SC NT CT ST; Vic., Tas., S.A., N.Z. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute winged seeds. In the field, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Southern Highlands, upper Blue Mountains. 28% of flowers set fruit and mature to release seed (Calder & Sydes SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woronora Plateau. CT: Clarence, Blackheath, 1993). Penrose. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Habitat FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted, fruiting 10 months after high HABITAT: intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove and Narrabeen) (P. Kubiak pers. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm comm.). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATION: Sphagnum bogs, open-forest among grasses and sedges. SUBSTRATE: Peaty soils on sandstone, low nutrients, moist. Distribution TATUS ORIGIN EXPOSURE: S / : Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST ; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., N.Z. Conservation DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast, Blue Mountains. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wyee, Ourimbah, Forresters Beach, Springwood, Cowan, Mt Colah, Pittwater, Frenchs Forest, Lane Cove, Manly, Como ORCHIDACEAE (1887), Waterfall. CT: Corricudgy Range, Wallerawang, Blackheath, Thelymitra erosa (subsp. alpicola, J. Jeanes ms) Wentworth Falls, Woodford, Mittagong. Habitat (Thelymitra pulchella) HABITAT: Often along roadsides. Life history ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 60 cm high, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. with fleshy dark green leaf to 12 cm long. Thelymitra pulchella is now VEGETATION: Heath; open-forest. regarded as NZ endemic (J. Jeans pers. comm.). SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: EXPOSURE: LONGEVITY: Conservation PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Conservation status unknown. FLOWERS: Pink to blue, veined, opening on hot, sunny often humid days (Bishop 1996), JanuaryÐFebruary. Autogamous (J. Jeans pers. comm.). ORCHIDACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Thelymitra malvina FIRE RESPONSE: Life history INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous, slender to robust terrestrial herb, Distribution with paired tubers, a stout fleshy leaf 10Ð30 cm long and stem 30Ð65 cm STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. high, with up to 15 flowers. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST; Vic., N.Z. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Boyd Plateau (Bishop 1996). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Boyd Plateau. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Habitat FLOWERS: Blue, pink, white or mauve to deep violet, sweetly fragrant, AugustÐNovember. Flowers open, usually all at once on hot, sunny day; HABITAT: Bogs, beside streams or in soaks and swamps (J. Jeans pers. comm.). self-pollinated or pollinated by bees (Bishop 1996). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. ALTITUDE: 800Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATION: Heathy Sphagnum bogs. Moist alpine heathlands e.g. with Baeckea gunniana (Bishop 1996). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SUBSTRATE: Distribution EXPOSURE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Conservation BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC; Qld, Vic., ?Tas., N.Z. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kurnell. ORCHIDACEAE Habitat Thelymitra ixioides var. ixioides HABITAT: Seepage areas. Dotted Sun Orchid ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1400 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, VEGETATION: Tall open-forest; seepage areas in heath e.g. with Melaleuca variable, with narrow leaf to 20 cm long and stem to 60 cm high with nodosa, Baeckea imbricata. up to 9 flowers. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. EXPOSURE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Botany Bay NP. 90 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ORCHIDACEAE ORCHIDACEAE Thelymitra media var. media Thelymitra nuda Tall Sun Orchid Plain Sun Orchid Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired tubers, GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired a lanceolate leaf to 30 cm long and stems to 90 cm high, with up to 25 tuberoids, a narrow leaf 10Ð30 cm long and stems to 60 cm high, with flowers. up to 20 sweetly fragrant flowers, often forming extensive colonies; VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. extremely variable. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FLOWERS: Blue with streaks of pink, opening on hot, sunny often humid PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: days (Bishop 1996), OctoberÐJanuary, especially after fire. FLOWERS: Blue, white to pink, or mauve to deep violet, sweetly fragrant, FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. opening on hot, sunny often humid days (Bishop 1996), AugustÐ DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: November. Flowers open when temperature exceeds 20¡C, are FIRE RESPONSE: commonly visited by syrphid flies but pollinated by female bees, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Lasioglossum sp., that apply thoracic vibration; T. nuda appears to mimic Distribution blue-purple flowered plants that are typically buzz-pollinated e.g. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Thysanotus patersonii, Dichopogon fimbriatus (Bernhardt & Burns- BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT; Vic. Balogh1986). Also self-pollinating (Van der Cingel 2001). RUIT SEED DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. F / : Capsule with numerous minute seeds. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lindfield, Uloola Track. CT: Fitzroy Falls. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (Fox 1988). Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: HABITAT: Plateaus, near swamps. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Distribution TATUS ORIGIN TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. S / : Native. OTANICAL SUBREGIONS VEGETATION: Swamp margins. B : CC SC NT CT ST NWS SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, moist. S.A., W.A. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA EXPOSURE: D S : Sporadic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Corrabare SF, Jamberoo Mountain. Conservation Hawkesbury River is northern geographical limilt. Conservation status Habitat unknown. Reported in Royal NP. HABITAT: ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. ORCHIDACEAE VEGETATION: Heath; woodland e.g. with Angophora costata, Thelymitra merraniae Allocasuarina torulosa. Sun Orchid SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained. EXPOSURE: Life history GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 20 cm high, Conservation with linear leaf to 12 cm long. Intergrades with T. ixioides and maybe a Conservation status unknown. hybrid (Harden 1993). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: ORCHIDACEAE LONGEVITY: Thelymitra pauciflora (complex) PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Pale greenish blue, opening on hot, sunny often humid days Slender Sun Orchid (Bishop 1996), OctoberÐNovember. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb, with paired DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: tuberoids, a narrow leaf to 20 cm long and stems to 50 cm high, with up FIRE RESPONSE: to 25 but usually about 4 flowers. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, local vegetative spread (P. Hind pers. comm.) Distribution in some populations (P. Weston pers. comm.). ONGEVITY STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. L : Indefinite. RIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC; Vic., S.A. P : LOWERS DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: F : Greyish blue to bright blue, white to pink, or purple, AugustÐ SELECT LOCATIONS: January. Flowers open on hot, sunny often humid days, a self- pollinating species that has developed many distinctive forms (Bishop Habitat 1996, Bates 1999). HABITAT: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. ALTITUDE:ANNUAL RAINFALL: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Summer-dormant species TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: producing vegetative shoots from bulbs during winter, no seedlings VEGETATION: Wet heath recorded up to 1 year after fire (Purdie 1977). SUBSTRATE: Peaty soils FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted, green fruit 10 months after high EXPOSURE: intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove and Narrabeen) (P. Kubiak pers. Conservation comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Palatable to rabbits (Leigh et al. 1987). Tubers eaten by Aboriginal people (Herb. note 1981). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 91

Distribution ORCHIDACEAE STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Tropilis aemula (Dendrobium aemulum) BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A., N.Z. Ironbark Orchid, White Feather Orchid DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Life history SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kenthurst, Killara, Marsden Park, Castlereagh GROWTH FORM: Epiphytic evergreen herb, with radiating cylindrical, SF, Cape Solander, Bundeena. CT: Bathurst, Capertee, Blackheath, succulent stems, leathery leaves and warty roots. Three ‘ecological’ forms Wentworth Falls, Kanangra Walls, Wildes Meadow, Penrose. recognised in NSW, Ironbark form: usually on Eucalyptus paniculata Habitat and close relatives; Brush Box form: almost exclusively on Lophostemon HABITAT: Gentle slopes, sandstone pavements. confertus; rainforest form: on a variety of rainforest trees, particularly ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Backhousia myrtifolia (Harden 1993). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous, forming compact clumps (P. Weston VEGETATION: Open-forest and woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus radiata, pers. comm.). E. dives, E. haemastoma, E. piperita, Corymbia gummifera, Angophora LONGEVITY: Indefinite. costata; heath e.g. with Allocasuarina distyla, Banksia ericifolia, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Baeckea imbricata. FLOWERS: White to pale yellow but often aging to pink, inflorescence SUBSTRATE: Sandy stony soil on sandstone, Tertiary alluvium. 2Ð10 cm long, JulyÐOctober. EXPOSURE: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Conservation FIRE RESPONSE: Possibly the most common Thelymitra species, often persisting in areas INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: where original vegetation has been severely disturbed (Harden 1993). Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status Distribution elsewhere unknown. Reported in Wambool NR, Wollemi NP, Garigal STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. NP, Botany Bay NP. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. ORCHIDACEAE SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Upper Colo, Somersby Falls, Mill Creek, Hornsby, Woodford, Glenbrook, Hunters Hill. Thelymitra venosa Habitat Large Veined Sun Orchid HABITAT: Life history ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm GROWTH FORM: Seasonally deciduous terrestrial herb to 70 cm high, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. with tubers and a thick to fleshy linear leaf to 30 cm long; stem to 70 cm VEGETATION: Gallery rainforest e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum, high with up to 6 flowers. Tristaniopsis laurina, Backhousia myrtifolia. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. SUBSTRATE: Epiphyte on trees e.g. Ceratopetalum apetalum, Backhousia LONGEVITY: Indefinite. myrtifolia. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: EXPOSURE: FLOWERS: Bright blue with darker veins or rarely white to pink or greenish Conservation blue, opening on hot, sunny often humid days (Bishop 1996), OctoberÐ Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP. December. Self-pollinating (Van der Cingel 2001). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with numerous minute seeds. PHILYDRACEAE DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: Philydrum lanuginosum INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Frogsmouth Distribution Life history STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. GROWTH FORM: Erect, rhizomatous, perennial aquatic herb to 2 m high; BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT. leaves mostly basal, linear to 60 cm long. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Blue Mountains. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Castlecove (1940), Mt Kembla (1891). LONGEVITY: Probably short-lived CT: Mt Banks, Blackheath, Katoomba, Wentworth Falls, Lawson. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Yellow, NovemberÐMarch, peak March. Habitat FRUIT/SEED: Oblong capsule, about 10 mm long, with many tiny seeds, HABITAT: Damp areas, creek edges. matures JanÐMay. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100Ð1400 mm DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed, probaby wind- TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. dispersed. VEGETATION: In damp clumps of cushion mosses or in low vegetation FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted, fruiting 5 months after high e.g. heath. intensity fire (1/1994 at Narrabeen (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). SUBSTRATE: Peaty soil over sandstone, low nutrients. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: EXPOSURE: Distribution Conservation STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Local endemic, conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT CWS SWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., Mountains NP. W.A., Asia. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Mellong Swamp, MacDonald River, Wyong, Tuggerah, Annangrove, West Head, Hornsby, Agnes Banks, Shane Park, Glenfield, Glenbrook, Botany, Fairy Meadow, Berry. CT: upper Cudgegong River, Paddys River, Mittagong. 92 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Fruit reported from pellets of HABITAT: Wetlands, margins of ponds. Currawongs (Buchanan 1989a). Leaves eaten by rabbits (P. Kubiak pers. ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm comm.). Food plant of butterfly larvae Toxidia peron (Common & TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Waterhouse 1981). VEGETATION: With other wetland species e.g. Eleocharis sphacelata, Distribution Viminaria juncea, Chorizandra cymbaria, Typha, Persicaria. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SUBSTRATE: Sandy alluvium, low to medium nutrients, water table mostly BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT CWS; Qld, Vic., Tas. high, moisture supply intermittent, fresh. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. EXPOSURE: Full sun. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Hornsby, Avalon, Rose Bay, Maroubra, Conservation Oatley, Hill Top, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Mount Tomah, Mt Solitary, Conservation status unknown. Fitzroy Falls, Bundanoon. Habitat PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) HABITAT: Hillsides. Dianella caerulea var. assera ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Life history VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, Angophora GROWTH FORM: Perennial, tufted herb to 1.8 m high, scaly stems with floribunda; heath. extra shoots from leaf sheaths, strap-like leaves to 75 cm long, and SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, volcanics, medium nutrients. fibrous roots EXPOSURE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Conservation LONGEVITY: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Pale to mid-blue, OctoberÐJanuary. Buzz-pollinated by PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) female bees primarily in the families Anthophoridae (Exoneura spp.) and Halictidae (Lasioglossum, Nomia spp.) (Bernhardt 1995). Only 20% Dianella caerulea var. cinerascens of all flowers on an inflorescence set fruit suggesting they do not self- pollinate (Bernhardt 1995). Life history GROWTH FORM: Perennial, tufted herb, with stems less than 10 cm long, FRUIT/SEED: Berry 7Ð12 mm long. fibrous roots. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Probably vertebrate-dispersed. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution FLOWERS: Creamy-green to pale blue, SeptemberÐNovember. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Berry 7Ð12 mm long. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT; Qld. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Probably vertebrate-dispersed. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. FIRE RESPONSE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mooney Mooney, Royal NP (Bernhardt 1995), INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Thirlmere Lakes, Mt Cambewarra. CT: Yerranderie. Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: Riverbanks, hillsides. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CT NWS CWS. ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Putty area. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Laguna, Putty. VEGETATION: Rainforest, riverine forest, moist forest e.g. with Syncarpia glomulifera. Habitat HABITAT: Hillsides, rock outcrops. SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on basalt, volcanic necks, alluvium, medium to high nutrients. ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð800 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. EXPOSURE: VEGETATION: Eucalypt open-forest and woodland. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Shallow sandy loam on sandstone, low nutrients. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. EXPOSURE: Conservation PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) Putty is southern geographical limit, conservation status unknown. Dianella caerulea var. caerulea PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb, to 0.5 m high, with fibrous roots. Dianella caerulea var. producta VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Life history LONGEVITY: GROWTH FORM: Perennial, tufted herb to 1.3 m high, conspicuously PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: elongated scaly stems with extra shoots from leaf sheaths on old stems, FLOWERS: Mid to dark blue, SeptemberÐNovember. fibrous roots. FRUIT/SEED: Berry 7Ð12 mm long, NovemberÐDecember. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: fruit, vertebrate- dispersed e.g. Currawongs, seeds attractive to ants, flesh and some seeds LONGEVITY: consumed in situ (French & Westoby 1996). Germination may be PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: seasonal triggered by temperature/humidity (K. Townsend, Gumnuts FLOWERS: Greenish white to bright blue, OctoberÐDecember. Probably 43), requires no pre-treatment but is sometimes slow to germinate e.g. pollinated by native bees gathering pollen (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). one month (H. Knowles, Gumnuts 43). FRUIT/SEED: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Probably vertebrate-dispersed. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts at base or below (Fox 1988), (Bantry Bay, LMcD). Secondary juvenile period 11Ð12 months after high intensity FIRE RESPONSE: fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 93

Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: Valleys, rock outcrops. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT; Qld. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Blue Mountains. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bucketty, Cheltenham, Narrabeen, Manly, La VEGETATION: Open-forest; rainforest Perouse, Hurstville, Nowra. CT: Mount Tomah, Blackheath. SUBSTRATE: Sandy alluvium. Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Rocky hillsides, gullies, rock cracks. Conservation ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm Southern geographical limit Blue Mountains. Conservation status TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. unknown. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita, E. radiata, E. sieberi, E. oreades. PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained. Dianella congesta EXPOSURE: Conservation Life history Conservation status unknown. GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb to 1 m high, with fibrous roots. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Forming mats to 20 m diam. LONGEVITY: PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Dianella caerulea var. protensa FLOWERS: Mid- to dark blue, springÐsummer. FRUIT/SEED: Berry 6Ð12 mm long. Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Probably vertebrate-dispersed. GROWTH FORM: Perennial, tufted herb to 0.5 m high, with elongated FIRE RESPONSE: scaly stems, fibrous roots. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: An effective sand-binder (Harden VEGETATIVE SPREAD: 1993). LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution FLOWERS: Pale blue STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Berry 7Ð12 mm long. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Probably vertebrate-dispersed. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. FIRE RESPONSE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wamberal (1911), Robinsville Beach, Bulli INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: (1891). Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: Coastal sand dunes. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; Qld. ALTITUDE: 0Ð20 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hill Top. CT: Mount Tomah. VEGETATION: e.g. with Lomandra longifolia. SUBSTRATE: Coastal sand dunes, low nutrients. Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: ALTITUDE: 500Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare, last collected in 1911 at Wamberal. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus radiata, E. sieberi. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained. PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) EXPOSURE: Dianella crinoides Conservation Life history Conservation status unknown. GROWTH FORM: Perennial, tufted herb to 0.8 m high, roots fleshy-fibrous. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) LONGEVITY: Dianella caerulea var. vannata PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Mid- to dark blue, NovemberÐDecember. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Berry 6Ð8 mm long, springÐsummer. GROWTH FORM: Perennial, tufted herb to 1.3 m high, with elongated DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Probably vertebrate-dispersed. stems, fibrous roots. FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: LONGEVITY: Distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FLOWERS: Very pale to mid-blue BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld. FRUIT/SEED: Berry 7Ð12 mm long. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Probably vertebrate-dispersed. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Barrack Point, Kiama. FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Habitat HABITAT: Coastal headlands. Distribution ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CT; Qld, N.G. VEGETATION: Headland grassland. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue Mountains SUBSTRATE: Loamy grey soils, rock crevices on basalt, high nutrients. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Manly, Woodford. CT: Mt Victoria. EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation status unknown. Reported from Killalea State Park in 1996. 94 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) Dianella longifolia var. longifolia (Dianella laevis) Dianella prunina Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Perennial, tufted herb, with fleshy-fibrous or tuberous GROWTH FORM: Perennial tufted herb to 2 m high, with glaucous strap- roots; leaves to 80 cm long. like leaves to 90 cm long, roots fleshy-fibrous. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Whitish to dark blue or blue-green, mainly OctoberÐDecember. FLOWERS: Mid-blue to dark violet, OctoberÐDecember. FRUIT/SEED: Berry 3Ð7 mm long, mature, mainly NovemberÐJanuary. FRUIT/SEED: Berry 5Ð8 mm long, OctoberÐNovember. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore vertebrate-dispersed by DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Probably vertebrate-dispersed. ingestion (McIntyre et al. 1995). Germination takes approx. 4 months FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (Bantry Bay, LM cD). Secondary juvenile (with 52 seedlings per gram seed); germinates well with or without period 51 weeks after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak fermentation (Greening Australia 1996b). pers. comm.). FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Leaves used by Aboriginal people Distribution for making baskets (Cribb & Cribb 1982). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue MountainsÐWollombi. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP; all SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: South Maroota, Canoelands, Kulnura, Wollombi, states. Glenbrook, Hornsby, Wahroonga, Castlecove. CT: Howes Mountain, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Lawson, Woodford, Bundanoon. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Grose Vale, Barrenjoey, Richmond, Marayong, Habitat Kemps Creek, Milperra, Rockdale, Campbelltown, Menangle, Bass HABITAT: Dry ridges. Point, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Hampton, Yerranderie, Bowral. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. HABITAT: Creeks, riverbanks, coastal headlands. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Angophora costata, Corymbia ALTITUDE: 0Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm gummifera, Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus punctata, E. sparsifolia. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, EXPOSURE: E. dives, E. fastigata with grassy understory; coastal headland grassland. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, medium nutrients, well- Local endemic species, conservation status unknown. drained. EXPOSURE: PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) Conservation var. Conservation status unknown. Dianella revoluta revoluta Life history PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) GROWTH FORM: Perennial tufted herb to 1 m high, with fibrous roots and strap-like leaves to 85 cm long, often glaucous, sometimes reddish at Dianella longifolia var. stenophylla base. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Clump-forming to 1.5 m diam. GROWTH FORM: Perennial tufted herb to 0.5 m high, with strap-like leaves LONGEVITY: Indefinite. to 80 cm long and tuberous roots. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FLOWERS: Mid to dark blue or violet, OctoberÐNovember. Probably LONGEVITY: pollinated by native bees gathering pollen (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Blue berry 4Ð10 mm long. Mature DecemberÐJanuary FLOWERS: Pale blue to whitish, OctoberÐNovember. (Greening Australia 1996b). Viability of fresh seed 80% (Vigilante et FRUIT/SEED: NovemberÐFebruary. al. (1998). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore vertebrate-dispersed by DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore vertebrate-dispersed by ingestion (McIntyre et al. 1995). ingestion (McIntyre et al. 1995). Germination takes approx. 2 years (with FIRE RESPONSE: 66 seedlings per gram seed); seed should be smoked for 1 hour (Greening INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Australia 1996b,c). FIRE RESPONSE: Regrowth from rhizomes, no seedlings recorded more Distribution than 1 year after fire (Purdie 1977, Vigilante et al. (1998). Flowering 94 STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. weeks after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT NWS CWS; Qld. comm.). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Pitt Town (1984), St Marys (1886), Werrington (1968). Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS SWS NWP SWP HABITAT: SFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð800 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wollombi, Kulnura, Lower Portland, Agnes VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus crebra, E. tereticornis. Banks, Londonderry,Glenbrook, Barrenjoey, Cheltenham, Vaucluse, SUBSTRATE: Clay loam soils on Wianamatta Shale, medium nutrients. Centennial Park, Kogarah, Taren Point, Rookwood, Concord, Chullora, EXPOSURE: Willmot, Couridjah, Bimlow. Conservation Rare, not recorded in James et al. (1999). Conservation status unknown. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 95

Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: May be toxic to livestock if eaten HABITAT: Eucalypt woodland, seacliffs. when flowering (Harden 1993). ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Distribution TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP piperita, E. punctata, Syncarpia glomulifera; woodland e.g. with SWP NFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A., ?N.Cal. Eucalyptus haemastoma, Corymbia gummifera, E. fibrosa, E. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. sclerophylla; seacliff scrub e.g. with Banksia integrifolia. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Newnes, Sackville, Wheeny Creek, Yarramundi, SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soil on sandstone, sand, shale, low nutrients, Grose River, Bankstown, Ingleburn, Cobbitty, Menangle, Burragorang. well-drained. CT: Currant Mountain Gap, Cargo, Capertee, Bathurst, Blackheath, EXPOSURE: Jenolan Caves, Mt Werong, Hill Top, Bowral. Conservation Habitat Conservation status unknown. Reported in Sydney Harbour NP. HABITAT: Hillsides, moist gullies, ridges. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Dianella tasmanica VEGETATION: Open-forest; woodland e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus punctata, Angophora floribunda. Life history SUBSTRATE: Shallow stony soil or clayey soils on sandstone, quartzite, GROWTH FORM: Perennial tufted herb to 0.9 m high, to 0.3 m high, roots alluvium, granite, often with clay influence, low to medium nutrients. fibrous, leaves to 95 cm long. EXPOSURE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Conservation LONGEVITY: Conservation status unknown. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Lavender to violet, October. FRUIT/SEED: Berry 12Ð25 mm long. Mature JanuaryÐFebruary (Greening PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) Australia 1996b). Thelionema caespitosum (Stypandra caespitosa) DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Probably vertebrate-dispersed. Germination takes approx. 83 days (with 127 seedlings per gram seed); Life history germinates well without fermentation (Greening Australia 1996b). GROWTH FORM: Perennial tufted herb 30Ð90 cm high, to 20 cm diam. at FIRE RESPONSE: base; forms hybrids with T. umbellatum. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Distribution LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FLOWERS: Deep blue to white or pale yellow, OctoberÐDecember. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST; Vic., Tas. Probably pollinated by native bees gathering pollen (P. Kubiak pers. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Southern Highlands and Upper Blue comm.). Mountains. FRUIT/SEED: Dark brown or black capsule 4Ð10 mm long, with shiny SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Yengo. CT: Hassans Walls, Mount Tomah, seeds 2Ð3 mm long. Mature NovemberÐFebruary. Blackheath, Boyd Plateau, Nattai Creek, Burrawang, Cambewarra DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Mountain, Wingello. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted, fruiting 2 years after high intensity fire (1/ Habitat 1994 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). HABITAT: Creekbanks. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: ALTITUDE: 100Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm Distribution TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus agglomerata, E. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A. sclerophylla, E. pauciflora, E. dalrympleana, E. radiata. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SUBSTRATE: Shallow, often sandy alluvial soils, low nutrients. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Yarramundi, Londonderry, Cheltenham, Manly, EXPOSURE: Centennial Park, La Perouse, Oatley, Woodford, Loddon Falls, Conservation Bomaderry. CT: Currant Mountain Gap, Sunny Corner, Blackheath, Mt Conservation status unknown. Reported in Yengo NP, Wollemi NP. Werong, Kanangra Walls, Yerranderie, Barbers Creek. Habitat PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) HABITAT: Damp heaths. Stypandra glauca ALTITUDE: 0Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Kunzea ambigua; GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb, usually 1.5 m high, often flowering when less than 30 cm high, variable according to stage of woodland e.g. with Angophora bakeri, Eucalyptus parramattensis, E. growth. sclerophylla. SUBSTRATE: Sandy or peaty soils on sandstone, Tertiary alluvium, low VEGETATIVE SPREAD: nutrients, moist sites. LONGEVITY: EXPOSURE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Deep blue to white, JulyÐNovember, peak October. Conservation FRUIT/SEED: Black capsule 3Ð12 mm long, with seeds 1.5Ð3 mm long. Uncommon on Central Coast, and apparently more conspicuous in past Mature NovemberÐDecember. Viability of fresh seed 71% (Vigilante et (14/18 Herbarium specimens from Central Coast collected prior to 1960, al. 1998). 14/21 Tablelands specimens collected prior to 1960). Conservation DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: status unknown. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from rhizome (Vigilante et al. (1998). 96 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

PHORMIACEAE (LILIACEAE) POACEAE Thelionema umbellatum (Stypandra umbellata) Agrostis capillaris * (A. tenuis *) Life history Browntop Bent GROWTH FORM: Perennial tufted herb to 40 cm high, to 20 cm diam. at Life history base; forms hybrids with T. caespitosum. GROWTH FORM: Tufted or rhizomatous perennial herb to 0.5 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Sometimes stoloniferous. LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: White, spring. Flowers SeptemberÐDecember, peak FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. September (Barren Grounds 1990). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. FRUIT/SEED: Dark brown or black capsule 5Ð7 mm long, shiny seeds 2Ð DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Animal, vegetative and wind- 3 mm long. dispersal (Carr et al. 1992), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: Some plants flowering in October, 10 months after high FIRE RESPONSE: intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Palatable to sheep and cattle (Herb. Distribution record 1955). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST; Vic., Tas. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe, Asia & N Africa. Probably DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Upper Blue Mountains. introduced as a turf species. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Swansea, Hornsby, Curl Curl, Watsons Bay, La BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. Perouse, Kurnell, Waterfall, Sublime Point, Carrington Falls. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread but mainly Tablelands. CT: Narrow Neck, Wentworth Falls. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1910), Arncliffe (1910), La Perouse, Habitat Kentlyn. CT: Orange, Capertee, Yetholme, Blackheath, Hampton, HABITAT: Rock ledges, ridges. Katoomba, Wentworth Falls, Woodford, Mittagong, Moss Vale, ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm Robertson, Barrengarry. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Habitat VEGETATION: Coastal heath e.g. with Melaleuca nodosa, Leptospermum HABITAT: Roadsides, creekbanks, wet places. laevigatum, Banksia ericifolia; montane heath e.g. with Allocasuarina ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1600 mm nana, Leptospermum trinervium. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. SUBSTRATE: Shallow sandy or peaty soils on sandstone, low nutrients, VEGETATION: Montane sedgeland e.g. with Juncus, Carex, Lycopus moist to poorly-drained. australis; coastal sedgeland e.g. with Isolepis nodosa. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Clay loam from coal measures, alluvium, basalt, sandy soils Conservation on sandstone, sand, granite. Acid soils, low nutrients. Swansea is northern geographical limit, conservation status unknown. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Major turf species. Weed of pastures. Agrostis bettyae (Agrostis species A sensu ) POACEAE Life history Agrostis gigantea * Redtop Bent GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted perennial herb to 90 cm tall, sometimes with short horizontal rhizome (Jacobs 2001). Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: GROWTH FORM: Erect, tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FLOWERS: Spikelets often strongly purplish (Jacobs 2001). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Probably mainly dispersed by INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: rhizome fragments in garden waste. Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. I : Grazed by cattle. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST NWS SWS; Qld, Vic. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains, Boyd Plateau, STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, Native to Europe & Asia. Probably introduced Wingello. as turf grass. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Katoomba, Boyd Plateau, Oberon, Wingello. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. ELECT LOCATIONS HABITAT: Montane sedgeland. S : CC: Narrara (1898), Wyong (1905), Richmond ALTITUDE: 900Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm (1911), Neutral Bay, Kogarah (1899), Menai, Picton, Berry. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: CT: Mt Wilson, Katoomba (1922). VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Carex appressa; wet heath e.g. with Habitat Leptospermum, Baeckea utilis, Empodisma minus. HABITAT: Near water, creeks. SUBSTRATE: Clay to organic sediments on granite, low nutrients. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Conservation VEGETATION: Riparian vegetation e.g. with Paspalum distichum. Conservation status unknown. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: Conservation Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 97

POACEAE POACEAE Agrostis stolonifera * Agrostis viridis * (A. semiverticillata) Creeping Bent Water Bent Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Erect or ascending, tufted, stoloniferous perennial herb GROWTH FORM: Erect or ascending, robust, stoloniferous perennial herb to 0.4 m high. to 0.6 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous, forming dense turf. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: DecemberÐMarch. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: Some plants flowering in October, 10 months after high FIRE RESPONSE: intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to northern N America. Introduced as lawn BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC ST SWS SFWP; Vic., S.A. grass. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Suburban areas, sporadic. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas., W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Dulwich Hill (1934), Riverwood, La Perouse DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Tablelands. (1948). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Centennial Park (1934). Habitat CT: Oberon, Orange, Blackheath, Katoomba (1898). HABITAT: Near or in water, wasteland. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Lawns, urban areas. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SUBSTRATE: VEGETATION: Common in lawns EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on basalt. Conservation EXPOSURE: First recorded in 1934, recent recording from Saltpan Creek (1994), Conservation weed potential unknown. Minor weed of pastures, roadsides, waste areas (Harden 1993). POACEAE POACEAE Aira caryophyllea * Agrostis venusta Silvery Hairgrass Graceful Bent Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Slender, erect annual herb to 0.3 m high. GROWTH FORM: Very slender, erect, tufted annual herb to 0.4 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: OctoberÐNovember. FLOWERS: Summer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive, animal and DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: wind-dispersed (McIntyre et al. 1995, Carr et al. 1992). FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST NWS SWS; Vic., Tas. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST CWS SWS SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Orange. N.T., S.A., W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Orange (1906). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gladesville (1884), Glenfield, Nowra. HABITAT: CT: Fitzroy Falls (1930). ALTITUDE: 800Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: HABITAT: Pastures, disturbed grassland. VEGETATION: ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm SUBSTRATE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. EXPOSURE: VEGETATION: Pastures, grassland. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. Rare, only record is from Orange in 1906. EXPOSURE: Conservation Weed in pastures, roadsides. 98 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE POACEAE Aira cupaniana * Aira praecox * Silvery Hairgrass Early Hairgrass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Delicate, slender herb to 0.5 m high, stems solitary or GROWTH FORM: Delicate slender herb to 0.2 m high. tufted. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Spring. FLOWERS: Spring. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et FIRE RESPONSE: al. 1995). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Little value as stock feed (Harden STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. 1993). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC; Vic., Tas., W.A. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coast. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bellevue Hill (1913), Centennial Park (1909), BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP Bronte (1913). CT: Blackheath (1991). SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. Habitat ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA D S : Coast. HABITAT: ELECT LOCATIONS S : CC: Wyong, Wahroonga, Ryde (1884), Cooks River ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm (1909), Kangaroo Valley. CT: Bathurst (1963), Woodford (1947). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Habitat VEGETATION: HABITAT: Pastures, disturbed areas. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sand, sandstone, low nutrients. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Conservation VEGETATION: Grassland, open-woodland. Appears to have been widely established in the Eastern Suburbs by 1920 SUBSTRATE: Clay soils from shales, medium nutrients. but to have only been reported recently from the Upper Blue Moun- EXPOSURE: tains. Conservation Relatively uncommon weed of disturbed sites. POACEAE Aira provincialis * POACEAE Life history Aira elegantissima * (Aira elegans) GROWTH FORM: Delicate, slender, erect annual to 0.5 cm high, stems Delicate Hairgrass solitary or tufted. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Life history LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. GROWTH FORM: Delicate, slender, erect herb to 0.5 m high, stems soli- PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. tary or tufted. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FIRE RESPONSE: FLOWERS: Spring. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue Mountains. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Woodford (1948). STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., HABITAT: Parkland, disturbed areas. W.A. ALTITUDE: 600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1100 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: BathurstÐOrange area. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Blayney, Orange, Newbridge, Abercrombie VEGETATION: Woodland. Caves (1959). SUBSTRATE: Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Pastures, disturbed areas. Conservation ALTITUDE: 800Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm Only record is for Woodford in 1948. Current status unknown. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: Grassland; woodland. SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 99

POACEAE POACEAE Alopecurus myosuroides * (Alopecurus agrestis) Ammophila arenaria * Slender Foxtail Marram Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Erect, slender tufted herb, to 0.7 m high. GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted rhizomatous perennial herb to 1.2 m high, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. with rigid stems. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FLOWERS: Spring. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. FLOWERS: Summer. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Animal, water and wind-dispersed INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: (Carr et al. 1992). FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe and Asia. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CT CWS; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Tablelands, sporadic. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Bathurst (1910), Kangaloon (1939). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Unanderra (1938), Kiama (1946). HABITAT: Cultivated, disturbed ground. ALTITUDE: 600Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: HABITAT: Foreshores. VEGETATION: ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm SUBSTRATE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. EXPOSURE: VEGETATION: Coastal sand dunes, low nutrients. SUBSTRATE: Conservation EXPOSURE: CONSERVATION: Weed of cultivated ground, rarely recorded. Conservation Planted as a binder on sand dunes, often naturalising and replacing na- POACEAE tive species (Harden 1993). Alopecurus pratensis * Meadow Foxtail POACEAE Life history Amphibromus nervosus (Amphibromus neesii) GROWTH FORM: Tufted or decumbent perennial herb to 0.9 m high. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb, occasionally rooting at nodes, LONGEVITY: 1.3 m high, with erect stems. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FLOWERS: Spring. LONGEVITY: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FLOWERS: In response to rain or flooding. FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST SWP; Qld, Vi c., Tas., S.A., W.A. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1908), Bathurst (1995). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP Habitat SFWP; Vic., S.A., W.A. HABITAT: Wet areas of pastures. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly BathurstÐOrange area. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1000 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Camden (1934). CT: Nashdale (1991), Bathurst TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: (1992). VEGETATION: Habitat SUBSTRATE: HABITAT: Floodplains, riverbanks, moist sites. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð800 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. Rarely recorded. VEGETATION: Riparian woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus dalrympleana, E. stellulata; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus blakelyi, E. melliodora. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on alluvium, shales, lowÐmedium nutients. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). EXPOSURE: Conservation Mainly BathurstÐOrange area, old record for Camden (1934). Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status elsewhere unknown. 100 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE POACEAE Amphibromus pithogastrus (Amphibromus sp. A) Ancistrachne maidenii Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high, with erect stems and GROWTH FORM: Scrambling perennial herb, with rigid decumbent stems occasionally with corm-like swellings on lower nodes. and ascending branches. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: May be some stoloniferous spread. LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: In response to rain or flooding. FLOWERS: JanuaryÐJune. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST SWS; Vic. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Oberon. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Hawkesbury River area. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Oberon (1953, 1990). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wisemans Ferry, Maroota, Brooklyn, Berowra Creek, Cowan Creek, Erskine Creek. Habitat HABITAT: Seasonally swampy areas. Habitat ALTITUDE: 800Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð900 mm HABITAT: Slopes, rock outcrops near creeks. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm VEGETATION: Swampy areas. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. SUBSTRATE: VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus punctata, EXPOSURE: Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora floribunda, and shrubby understorey. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on transitional geology between Hawkesbury Rare, only two records from Oberon (1953, 1990). Coded 3K on and Wattagan soil landscapes, low nutrients, well-drained. national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Current EXPOSURE: conservation status unknown. Conservation Restricted local endemic, listed as Vulnerable (Schedule 2) NSW POACEAE Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995. Sydney is southern Amphipogon strictus var. strictus geographical limit. Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP. Greybeard Grass Life history POACEAE GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb to 0.4 m high, with single stems arising Andropogon virginicus * at close intervals from rhizome. Whisky Grass, Broomsedge VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: GROWTH FORM: Tufted, branched, erect perennial herb with solid stems FLOWERS: to 1 m high. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: LONGEVITY: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts and flowers after fire. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Summer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Long distance wind-dispersed STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. (Buchanan 1989b). Grows vigorously with dense cover, invades burnt BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A. or bare areas (Cronk & Fuller 1995). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Upper Blue Mountains. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted, fruiting in May, 5 months after high SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Killara, Voyager Point, Bundeena. CT: Lithgow, intensity fire (1/94 at Narrabeen) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Clarence, Bell, Mt Victoria, Blackheath, Wentworth Falls, Mittagong, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Allelopathic (Cronk & Fuller 1995). Wingello, Barbers Creek. Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to America. HABITAT: Swamp margins, damp places on rocky hillsides or ridges. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coast. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Terrey Hills (1960), Turramurra, Willoughby, VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus longifolia, E. Kurnell, Clyde, Penrith. CT: Bowral (1982). parramattensis, Melaleuca decora; coastal heath e.g. with Angophora hispida, Banksia serrata, Anisopogon avenaceus; montane heath e.g. Habitat with Allocasuarina nana, Leptospermum trinervium, Dampiera stricta. HABITAT: Roadsides, track edges, vacant fields, rocky hillsides. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, Tertiary alluvium, low nutrients. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: Roadsides, not penetrating into dry forests. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Mostly soils on sandstone, occasionally on shale, basalt. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status Tolerates very low levels of nutrients (Cronk & Fuller 1995). elsewhere unknown. EXPOSURE: Full sun. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 101

Conservation SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Rhodes, Centennial Park, Kogarah (1899), Berry. First reported from horse-riding paddocks in Terrey Hills in 1960 (Herb. CT: Orange, Blackheath, Katoomba (1908), Wentworth Falls, Woodford, record). Encroaches into disturbed and open sites in bushland. Coxs River (1904), Berrima, Bundanoon. Habitat POACEAE HABITAT: Mown or grazed areas, roadsides. Anisopogon avenaceus ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Oat Spear Grass VEGETATION: With roadside grasses. Life history SUBSTRATE: Moist peaty or sandy soils on sandstone, clay soils on basalt, GROWTH FORM: Erect, tufted, or shortly rhizomatous, glabrous perennial low nutrients. herb to 1.5 m high. EXPOSURE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Conservation LONGEVITY: Widespread in mown or grazed areas. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Spring. Flowers visited by Honeybee Apis mellifera POACEAE gathering pollen (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, stiffly-pointed, hairy, with Aristida behriana slender straight or twisted bristle to 2.5 cm long. Bunch Wiregrass DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Adhesive, attaches to clothing (L. McD.) Life history GROWTH FORM: Short, tufted, tussocky perennial herb to 0.4 high, with FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted, fruiting 1year after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). slender wiry stems. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Scattered plants eaten by rabbits (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution FLOWERS: Summer or in response to rain. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, with 3-branched awn to 6 cm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST; Qld, Vic. long, often purple. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Adhesive diaspore. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Asquith, Terrey Hills, Cheltenham, Manly, FIRE RESPONSE: Northbridge, Hunters Hill, Rose Bay, Kogarah, Kentlyn, Thirlmere, Hill INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Top, Cambewarra. CT: Narrow Neck, Woodford, Carrington Falls. Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: Plateaus. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP SFWP; ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Orange area. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Nashdale. costata; heath e.g. with Eucalyptus stricta, Allocasuarina nana, Kunzea capitata. Habitat HABITAT: SUBSTRATE: Sandy to loamy soils on sandstone, low nutrients, dry sites. ALTITUDE: 800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm EXPOSURE: Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status VEGETATION: Grassland; open-woodland elsewhere unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Ku-ring-gai NP, SUBSTRATE: Loamy soils Royal NP, Thirlmere Lakes NP. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Only Sydney area record is from Orange area in 1991, conservation Anthoxanthum odoratum * status unknown. Sweet Vernal Grass POACEAE Life history Aristida benthamii var. spinulifera GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high, forming tussocks, with scent of coumarin. Wire Grass VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Life history LONGEVITY: GROWTH FORM: Slender, compactly tufted, perennial herb to 1 m high, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: with slender wiry stems. FLOWERS: OctoberÐJanuary. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. LONGEVITY: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Mechanism for dispersal unde- PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: fined (McIntyre et al. 1995). FLOWERS: Summer. FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, with 3-branched awn to 1.5 cm INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Possibly unpalatable to stock (Herb. long, JanuaryÐApril. note). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Adhesive diaspore. Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted, mature fruit August, 8 months after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe and temp. Asia, naturalised in many countries. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST ?NWS SWS; Qld, Vic., Distribution Tas., S.A., W.A. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CWS; Qld. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread on the coast. 102 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Upper Colo, Patonga, Narrabeen, Glenbrook, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et Valley Heights, Menai. al. 1995). Habitat FIRE RESPONSE: NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS HABITAT: Slopes, rock platform, roadsides. I : ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm Distribution TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus punctata, Corymbia BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP eximia; with Kunzea rupestris at Maroota SF. SFWP; Qld. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: EXPOSURE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Narrabeen. CT: Clarence, Wentworth Falls. Conservation Habitat Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). conservation status HABITAT: Rocky hillsides. elsewhere unknown. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: POACEAE VEGETATION: Eucalypt forest. Aristida calycina var. calycina SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: Wire Grass Conservation Life history Conservation status unknown. GROWTH FORM: Tufted, erect perennial herb to 2 m high, with stongly branched, wiry stems. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Aristida jerichoensis var. subspinulifera PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Jericho Wiregrass FLOWERS: Summer. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, with divergent 3-branched awn to 3 cm long, MarchÐJune. GROWTH FORM: Compactly tufted perennial herb to 0.9 m high, with wiry stems. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Adhesive diaspore. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted, fruiting in July, 6 months after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: In response to rain. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, with 3-branched awn to ?2.5 STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. cm long. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP SWP DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et NFWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., W.A. al. 1995). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. FIRE RESPONSE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lower Portland, East Kurrajong, Richmond, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Randwick. CT: Currant Mountain Gap, Capertee Valley, Lithgow, Blackheath, Wentworth Falls, Tuena. Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native, but exotic in CC. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: *CC NT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP HABITAT: Ridges. SFWP; Qld, N.T. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Flemington Saleyards (1969), Kogarah (1896), VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus rossii, Corymbia Picnic Point (1993). gummifera, Eucalyptus albens; heath e.g. with Angophora hispida, Banksia ericifolia. Habitat HABITAT: Rocky hillsides. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, volcanics, low nutrients. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1000 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Conservation VEGETATION: Scrub e.g. with Angophora hispida, Banksia oblongifolia. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on laterite, low nutrients. elsewhere unknown. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE CONSERVATION: Introduced to Central Coast area, probably with stock, Aristida jerichoensis var. jerichoensis though possibly naturally occurring at Picnic Point (Herb. record). Jericho Wiregrass POACEAE Life history Aristida ramosa var. ramosa GROWTH FORM: Compactly tufted perennial herb to 0.9 m high, with wiry stems. Wire Grass VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Life history ONGEVITY L : GROWTH FORM: Tussocky perennial herb to 1.2 m high RIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD P : VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). LOWERS F : Summer or in response to rain. LONGEVITY: RUIT SEED F / : Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, with 3-branched awn to ?2.5 cm PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: long. FLOWERS: Summer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, NovemberÐJune. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 103

DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et LONGEVITY: al. 1995). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from base. Fruiting 4Ð6 months after high FLOWERS: Summer. intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove and Narrabeen) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, with 3-branched awn to 2 cm INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: long. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. al. 1995). IRE RESPONSE BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CT; Qld, Vic., W.A. F : DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Host plant of common army worm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Berowra, Glenbrook, Woodford, Londonderry, Pseudatia convecta (Herb. specimen 1967). Cheltenham, Gladesville, Manly, Centennial Park, Toongabbie, Distribution Homebush, Bringelly, Mount Annan, Bargo. CT: Sofala, Blackheath, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Kowmung River, Hill Top, Mittagong. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT NWS CWS SWS NWP; Qld, Habitat S.A. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA HABITAT: Slopes, gullies, gorges. D S : Western Sydney to Shoalhaven. ELECT LOCATIONS ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm S : CC: Prospect, Luddenham, Flemington Saleyards, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Camden, Menangle Park, Picton, Wilton, Albion Park, Shoalhaven River. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, Habitat E. crebra, Angophora bakeri, Eucalyptus sclerophylla, E. dives, E. HABITAT: Roadsides, cemeteries. mannifera; scrub e.g. with Banksia aemula. ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, Tertiary alluvium, quartzite, slates, sandy TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. soils on dune sand, lowÐmedium nutrients. VEGETATION: Grassland, heath e.g. with Leptospermum polygalifolium, EXPOSURE: Full sun to mid shade. Leptospermum trinervium, Amperea xiphoclada. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Clayey to sandy soils on shale, sandstone, low nutrients Conservation status unknown. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Conservation status unknown.

Aristida ramosa var. scaberula (Aristida echinata) POACEAE Life history Aristida vagans GROWTH FORM: Tussocky perennial herb to 1.2 m high, with stiff wiry stems. Threeawn Speargrass VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Life history LONGEVITY: GROWTH FORM: Erect tufted or rhizomatous perennial herb to 80 cm PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: high. FLOWERS: FebruaryÐApril. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, with 3-branched awn to 2 cm LONGEVITY: long. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et FLOWERS: Summer. al. 1995). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, OctoberÐJune. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: al. 1995). Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from base. Fruiting 4Ð6 months after high STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove and Narrabeen) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld. I : Some plants eaten by rabbits (P. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Kubiak pers. comm.). Seed eaten by finches (J. Neil, Gumnuts 46, 2002). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Pitt Town, Flemington, Centennial Park, East Distribution Hills. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT NWS CWS NWP; Qld. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA HABITAT: Slopes. D S : Widespread. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Cheltenham, Frenchs Forest, North TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Ryde, Gladesville, Kogarah, Doonside, Bringelly, Mount Annan, Appin. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus sclerophylla, Angophora CT: Mt Armour, Kowmung River, Hill Top. bakeri, Eucalyptus crebra, E. eugenioides. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, Tertiary alluvium, low nutrients HABITAT: Ridges, slopes. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Records from Flemington Saleyards indicate dispersal with stock. Ap- VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Syncarpia pears to be rare, conservation status unknown. glomulifera; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, E. crebra. SUBSTRATE: Clayey to gravelly clay soils on shales, medium nutrients. POACEAE EXPOSURE: Aristida ramosa var. speciosa (Aristida personata) Conservation Life history Reported in Royal NP. Conservation status unknown. GROWTH FORM: Tussocky perennial herb to 1.2 m high, with stiff wiry stems. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). 104 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE VEGETATION: Grassland e.g. with Paspalum dilatatum, Hypochoeris Aristida warburgii radicata. SUBSTRATE: Loamy soils on alluvium. Life history EXPOSURE: GROWTH FORM: Compact, tufted perennial herb to 1.2 m high, with wiry Conservation stems. CONSERVATION: Weed of natural or man-made grasslands (Harden 1993). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: POACEAE FLOWERS: Summer. Arrhenatherum elatius var. elatius * FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, with 3-branched awn to 4.5 cm long. False Oatgrass DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. Life history Keith pers. comm.). GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted perennial herb to 1.5 m high, with erect FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (D. Keith pers. comm.). Fruit 4 months after or slightly spreading stems. Small form with white-striped leaves is some- high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). times grown as ornamental (Harden 1993). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Distribution LONGEVITY: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT NWS; Qld. FLOWERS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Upper Colo, Ebenezer, Richmond, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et Hunters Hill, Doonside, Duck Creek, Kedumba River, Yennora, Bondi, al. 1995). Liverpool, Milperra, Lugarno, Mt Keira. CT: Megalong Valley. FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Habitat HABITAT: Rocky ridges. Distribution ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe and Asia. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT ST CWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. umbra, E. tereticornis, E. fibrosa; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Rhodes (1934). sclerophylla, Angophora bakeri, Melaleuca decora; open-heath e.g. with Habitat Banksia oblongifolia, Bauera rubioides. HABITAT: SUBSTRATE: Sandy loam on sandstone, metasediments, alluvial sand, ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 m gravel, low nutrients. Tertiary alluvium (T. James pers. comm.). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: EXPOSURE: VEGETATION: Grassland Conservation SUBSTRATE: Edge of salt swamp. Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status EXPOSURE: elsewhere unknown. Conservation Only naturalised record is edge of salt swamp at Rhodes in 1934. POACEAE POACEAE Arrhenatherum elatius var. bulbosum * Arundinella nepalensis Bulbous Oatgrass, Onion Twitch Reedgrass Life history GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted perennial herb to 1.5 m high, with erect Life history or slightly spreading stems and bulbous stem bases. Small form with GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb, with erect cane-like stems to 3 m white-striped leaves is sometimes grown as ornamental (Harden 1993). high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: FLOWERS: Flowers JanuaryÐMarch. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: al. 1995), also dispersed in dumped garden refuse. FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe and Asia. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT NWS CWS NWP; Qld, N.T., W.A., BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS SWS; Vic., Tas. Asia. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Upper Blue Mountains. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Lower Blue Mountains. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Dooralong, Gunderman, Richmond (1917). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kurrajong Heights, Richmond, Londonderry, CT: Hampton, Berambing (1971), Mount Tomah (1956), Leura (1973), Woodford. Robertson. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Drainage lines. HABITAT: Roadsides. ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1600 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. VEGETATION: Dry woodland, grassland SUBSTRATE: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 105

EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Loamy or clay soil Conservation EXPOSURE: Conservation status unknown. Conservation Only one record from Colo Vale near Mittagong in 1911. Conservation POACEAE status unknown. Arundo donax * POACEAE Giant Reed (Danthonia linkii var. linkii) Life history Austrodanthonia bipartita GROWTH FORM: Tall, perennial reed to 6 m high, with thick, creeping, Wallaby Grass knotty rhizomes; stems woody to 2 cm diam, in large clumps similar to Life history bamboo. GROWTH FORM: Variable, densely tufted perennial herb to 0.7 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. FLOWERS: Spikelets loosely clustered, springÐsummer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, MarchÐMay. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Seedheads appear white DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Water and possibly vegetative and fluffy, seed is hairy (Waters et al. 2000), mature DecemberÐ dispersal in garden refuse. February (Greening Australia 1996). FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed, adhesive (McIntyre (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). et al. 1995). Optimum germination above 20¡C, although rainfall may INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: be more important than temperature, with seed more than 6 months old Distribution to overcome dormancy, sown in AprilÐMay (Waters et al. 2000). STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S Europe and Asia. Cultivated as FIRE RESPONSE: ornamental. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Year-long green plant produces high BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT NWS SFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. quality fodder during cooler months, encouraged by moderate grazing DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sydney suburban areas (Waters et al. 2000). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gosford, Beacon Hill, Tamarama Beach, Distribution Macquarie Fields, Campbelltown. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC SC CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP HABITAT: Riverbanks, parks, gardens. SWP; Qld, Vic. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Grose River, Homebush, Wentworthville, VEGETATION: Wallacia, Campbelltown, Douglas Park, Bargo. CT: Orange, Lithgow, SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, alluvium. Katoomba. EXPOSURE: Full sun to light shade. Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Declared noxious weed category W4a in many Sydney council areas ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm and Blue Mountains, where it may not be sold, propagated, or know- TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. ingly distributed and must be prevented from growing within 3 m of the VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus longifolia, E. crebra; property boundary (NSW Agriculture website: www.agric.nsw.gov.au). riparian vegetation e.g. with Acacia longifolia, Grevillea sericea. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, occasionally on sandstone, POACEAE medium nutients. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). Austrodanthonia auriculata (Danthonia auriculata) EXPOSURE: Lobed Wallaby Grass Conservation Life history Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status GROWTH FORM: Slender, tufted perennial herb to 0.5 m high. elsewhere unknown. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: POACEAE PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Austrodanthonia caespitosa (Danthonia caespitosum) FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. Ringed Wallaby Grass DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Life history FIRE RESPONSE: GROWTH FORM: Variable, tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Distribution LONGEVITY: 5Ð6 years, favoured by grazing (Waters et al. 2000). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC ST CWS SWS SWP; Vic., S.A., N.Z. FLOWERS: Early spring, infrequenty at other times (Waters et al. 2000). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Colo Vale FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Seedheads appear white SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Colo Vale (1911). and fluffy (Waters et al. 2000), mature DecemberÐJanuary (Greening Habitat Australia 1996a). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Prolific seedling recruitment, HABITAT: ALTITUDE: 500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900 mm optimum germination at 15¡C for seed more than 6 months old, to over- TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: come dormancy and longevity (Waters et al. 2000). Germination approx. 26 days, typical rate 160 per gram of seed (Greening Australia 1996a). VEGETATION: FIRE RESPONSE: 106 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by Stubble Quail FIRE RESPONSE: Coturnix pectoralis (Barker & Vestjens 1989, 1990). Useful for fodder, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: responds well to moderate grazing (Waters et al. 2000). Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. NFWP SFWP; LHI, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A., N.Z., N America. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Tablelands. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Campbelltown (1963). CT: Hill End, Orange, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Awaba, Mosman, Homebush Bay, Ingleburn. Lewis Ponds, Cadia, Rockley, Kanangra Walls, Marulan. CT: Blayney, Bathurst, Tuena, Bowral. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Plains. HABITAT: Grasslands. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1000 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. VEGETATION: Open-woodland; heath e.g. with Allocasuarina nana. VEGETATION: Grasslands. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shales, basalt, quartzite, sand over sandstone, SUBSTRATE: Clay to heavy clay soils on slate, shales, medium nutrients. lowÐmedium nutrients. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW EXPOSURE: (Semple 1993). Conservation EXPOSURE: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status Conservation elsewhere unknown. Only one coastal record, at Campbelltown in 1963. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status elsewhere unknown. POACEAE Austrodanthonia carphoides POACEAE (Danthonia, Rytidosperma carphoides, Notodanthonia) Austrodanthonia laevis (Danthonia laevis) Short Wallaby Grass Wallaby Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Small, erect tufted perennial herb to 0.5 m high. GROWTH FORM: Erect, densely tufted perennial herb to 0.6 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: NovemberÐJanuary. FLOWERS: NovemberÐMarch. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Longer, central awn/ DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: bristle loosely twisted once or twice. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: al. 1995). FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT ST CWS SWS NWP SWP; Vic., Distribution Tas., S.A. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Bathurst area. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP; SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Ingleburn (1943). CT: Winburndale Creek, Vic., Tas., S.A., N.Z. Sunny Corner, Lidsdale, Bathurst, Wallerawang. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: BathurstÐOberon, Southern Highlands. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Colo Vale. CT: Pyramul, Mullions Range, Habitat Oberon, Black Springs, Burraga, Mt Werong, Richlands, Moss Vale. HABITAT: ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð800 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. HABITAT: VEGETATION: Grassland, woodland ALTITUDE: 600Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 650Ð1000 mm SUBSTRATE: Heavy soils on slate, granite. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. EXPOSURE: VEGETATION: Eucalypt open-woodland, grassland. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on basalt, shale, quartzite, granite, medium Conservation nutrients. Conservation status unknown. EXPOSURE: POACEAE Conservation Only coastal record is Colo Vale, near Moss Vale in 1911. Conservation Austrodanthonia eriantha (Danthonia eriantha) status unknown. Wallaby Grass POACEAE Life history GROWTH FORM: Erect densely tufted perennial herb to 0.7 m high. Austrodanthonia linkii (Danthonia linkii var. fulva) VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Wallaby Grass LONGEVITY: Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: GROWTH FORM: Variable, densely tufted perennial herb to 0.7 m high. FLOWERS: NovemberÐFebruary. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Green all year (Waters FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Central awn/bristle twisted and brown at the lower end. et al. 2000). LONGEVITY: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et al. 1995). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 107

FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. POACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn/bristle. Mature DecemberÐFebruary (Greening Australia 1996). Austrodanthonia penicillata (Danthonia penicillata) DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et Slender Wallaby Grass al. 1995). Life history FIRE RESPONSE: GROWTH FORM: Erect, tufted perennial herb to 0.8 m high. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Distribution LONGEVITY: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; Vic., FLOWERS: NovemberÐJanuary. S.A. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with central awn/bristle DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. twisted and brown at the lower end. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Hunters Hill, Bankstown, Homebush, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Rookwood, Penshurst, Mount Annan. CT: Winburndale, Capertee Valley, FIRE RESPONSE: Mt Wilson, Katoomba, Wombeyan Caves. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Gentle, steep hillsides. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1400 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST SWS NFWP; Vic., Tas. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly OberonÐBathurst area. VEGETATION: Open-forest, woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bargo. CT: Yetholme, Tarana, Oberon, E. tereticornis, E. albens. Wentworth Falls, Black Springs, Taralga. SUBSTRATE: Heavy clay or loamy soils on shale, limestone, medium Habitat nutrients. HABITAT: Slopes EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 400Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status VEGETATION: Grassland, open woodland elsewhere unknown. SUBSTRATE: Clay to sandy soils on basalt, sandstone, granite, lowÐ medium nutrients. POACEAE EXPOSURE: Austrodanthonia monticola (Danthonia monticola, Conservation Conservation status unknown. Rytidosperma monticolum, Notodanthonia monticola) Wallaby Grass POACEAE Life history Austrodanthonia pilosa (Danthonia pilosa) GROWTH FORM: Erect, densely tufted perennial herb to 0.5 m high. Smooth-flowered Wallaby Grass VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). LONGEVITY: Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 50 cm high, with ligule a FLOWERS: NovemberÐMarch. minutely fringed rim. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with central awn/bristle VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). twisted at the lower end. LONGEVITY: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: al. 1995). FLOWERS: FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Seed 0.5 mm long (Lamp INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: et al. 1990). Mature January (Greening Australia 1996a). Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et al. 1995). Total germination approx. 35 days (typical rate 370 per gram STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. of seed, Greening Australia 1996a). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; Vic., Tas. FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue Mountains, Southern Highlands. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Lidsdale, Lithgow, Hartley, Blackheath, Lawson, Distribution Katoomba, Wentworth Falls, Woodford, Bindook, Kanangra Walls, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Mount Jellore, Fitzroy Falls, Penrose, Tallong. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS NWP SWP Habitat NFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A., N.Z. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. HABITAT: Exposed rock platforms, ridges. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bilpin, Pennant Hills, Ryde, Homebush, Bass ALTITUDE: 500Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Hill, Guildford, Glenfield, Hurstville, Campbelltown. CT: Hargraves, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Windeyer, Pyramul, Hill End, Mullion Creek, Orange, Lewis Ponds, VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus dives, E. mannifera; low woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus eximia, E. consideniana; heath e.g. with Yetholme, Tarana, Blayney, Blackheath, Oberon, Rockley, Katoomba, Hakea teretifolia, Allocasuarina nana, Kunzea capitata, Kunzea Jenolan River, Richlands, Moss Vale. ambigua, Leptospermum trinervium. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, metamorphics, low nutrients. HABITAT: Slopes, hillsides. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Morton NP. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus melliodora, E. tereticornis, E. moluccana, E. crebra. 108 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, slate, medium nutrients. 20¡C for seed more than 6 months old, sown close to soil surface in EXPOSURE: AprilÐMay (Waters et al. 2000). Conservation FIRE RESPONSE: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Absence of grazing results in elsewhere unknown. decline in plant numbers and longevity (Waters et al. 2000). Distribution POACEAE STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Austrodanthonia racemosa (Danthonia racemosa, Qld, Vic., S.A. Rytidosperma racemosum, Notodanthonia racemosa) DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Bathurst area. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Awaba (1914). CT: Bathurst, Mount Tomah Wallaby Grass (1900). Life history Habitat GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb to 60 cm high. HABITAT: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1200 mm LONGEVITY: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATION: FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. SUBSTRATE: Sandy to medium clay soils on granite, sandstone, low FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Mature DecemberÐ nutrients. January (Greening Australia 1996a). EXPOSURE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et Conservation al. 1995). Total germination approx. 37 days (typical rate 557 per gram Conservation status unknown. of seed, Greening Australia 1996a). ‘Abundant in the spring and during the moist summer and autumn months .... Grows well in the shade POACEAE (Blakely, Herb. note 1914). FIRE RESPONSE: Austrodanthonia setacea (Danthonia setacea) INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Small-flowered Wallaby Grass Distribution Life history STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. GROWTH FORM: Erect densely tufted perennial herb to 0.7 m high. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; LHI, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A. LONGEVITY: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kurrajong Heights, Richmond, Glenbrook, FLOWERS: Flowers in response to rain. Woodford, Wahroonga, Epping, Gladesville, Rose Bay, Georges Hall, FRUIT/SEED: Mature DecemberÐJanuary (Greening Australia 1996a). Peakhurst, Glenfield, Botany Swamp, Cobbitty, Camden, Mount Annan, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Total germination approx. 24 days Campbelltown, Douglas Park, Bargo, Dapto, Albion Park, Kangaroo (typical rate 376 per gram of seed, Greening Australia 1996a). Valley, Berry. CT: Windeyer, Sofala, Portland, Bathurst, Yetholme, FIRE RESPONSE: O’Connell, Tarana, Blayney, Mandurama, Black Springs, Oberon, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Richlands, Hill Top, Wombeyan Caves. Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: Grassland, pastures. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP ALTITUDE: 0Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1400 mm NFWP NFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly western Sydney. VEGETATION: Moist to dry open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus longifolia, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Homebush, Hunters Hill, Rookwood, Macquarie E. crebra; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. crebra; Fields, Campbelltown. CT: Mandurama. grassland e.g. with Themeda australis. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, volcanics, slate, basalt, granite, Habitat medium nutrients. HABITAT: Grassland. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Conservation VEGETATION: Woodland, grassland. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. Recorded on saline elsewhere unknown. Reported in Royal NP. sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). EXPOSURE: POACEAE Conservation Austrodanthonia richardsonii Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status (Danthonia richardsonii) elsewhere unknown. Wallaby Grass POACEAE Life history GROWTH FORM: Erect, tufted perennial herb to 1 m high, green all year. Austrodanthonia tenuior (Danthonia tenuior, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Rytidosperma tenuis, Notodanthonia tenuior) LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Wallaby Grass FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer (Waters et al. 2000). Life history FRUIT/SEED: Primary dormancy period 6 months (Waters et al. 2000). GROWTH FORM: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). al. 1995). Prolific seedling recruitment, with optimum germination above LONGEVITY: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 109

PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: POACEAE FLOWERS: OctoberÐMay. (Festuca hookeriana) FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, OctoberÐMay. Austrofestuca hookeriana DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et Hooker’s Fescue al. 1995). Life history FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted, fruiting AprilÐJuly, 4Ð6 months after high GROWTH FORM: Erect tufted perennial herb to 1.3 m high. intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Eaten by rabbits (P. Kubiak pers. LONGEVITY: comm.). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution FLOWERS: Spring. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS SFWP; DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Qld, Vic., S.A., N.Z. FIRE RESPONSE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and lower Blue Mountains. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Awaba, Bilpin, Richmond, Glenbrook, Hornsby, Distribution Wahroonga, Willoughby, Manly, Bondi, Vaucluse, Homebush, Hurstville, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Rookwood, La Perouse, Kemps Creek, Liverpool, Ingleburn, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST; Vic, Tas. Campbelltown, Darkes Forest, Yanderra, Mt Keira, Albion Park. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Bundanoon. CT: Wentworth Falls, Woodford, Hill Top, Moss Vale. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Bundanoon (1935). Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Ridges. HABITAT: Swampy places. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm ALTITUDE: 700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, E. saligna, VEGETATION: Open-forest; grassland Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita; woodland e.g. with SUBSTRATE: Eucalyptus fibrosa, E. sclerophylla, Banksia serrata. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on shale, sandstone, dune sand, lowÐ medium nutrients. Conservation EXPOSURE: Only Sydney area record is Bundanoon in 1935, the northern geographi- cal limit in 1935. Conservation status unknown. Conservation Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status elsewhere unknown. Reported in Royal NP, Dalrymple Hay NR. POACEAE Austrofestuca littoralis (Festuca littoralis) POACEAE Beach Fescue Austrofestuca eriopoda (Festuca eriopoda) Life history Snow Fescue GROWTH FORM: Erect tufted perennial herb to 0.6 m high, with vertical branching rhizome. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: GROWTH FORM: Erect, densely tufted perennial to 0.9 m high. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FLOWERS: Summer. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Vic., Tas., S.A., N.Z. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal beaches. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: SC NT CT ST SWS; Vic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: The Entrance, Wamberal (1896), Avoca North, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains, Oberon area. McMasters Beach, Mona Vale, Dee Why, Manly Beach, Bondi Bay SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Clarence, Blackheath, Oberon, Gingkin. (1842), Maroubra Bay (1897), Cronulla, Austinmer, Wollongong, Port Habitat Kembla. HABITAT: Habitat ALTITUDE: 1000Ð1100 mANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm HABITAT: Coastal beach dunes TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: Open-forest; grassland, sometimes in damp sites. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SUBSTRATE: VEGETATION: EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on beach dunes, low nutrients. Conservation EXPOSURE: Conservation status unknown. Conservation Conservation status unknown. 110 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. Austrostipa aristiglumis (Stipa aristiglumis) FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 3.5Ð4.5 cm long. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Plains Grass FIRE RESPONSE: Life history INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 2 m high. Distribution VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. LONGEVITY: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Qld, Vic., S.A. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 2.5Ð4 cm long. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: The Oaks (1966), Orangeville (1969). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: CT: Ilford, Sodwalls, Joadja. FIRE RESPONSE: Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: HABITAT: Hillsides. Distribution ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð900 mm STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; VEGETATION: Woodland. Qld, Vic. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, low nutrients DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. EXPOSURE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Menangle Park (1969). CT: Bathurst (1941). Conservation Habitat Conservation status unknown. HABITAT: ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð700 mm POACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: Remnant scrub. Austrostipa elegantissima (Stipa elegantissima) SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale. Feather Speargrass EXPOSURE: Life history Conservation GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high, with short rhizome. Western species, possibly introduced to coast with stock. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: POACEAE PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Austrostipa bigeniculata (Stipa bigeniculata) FLOWERS: Flowers in response to rain. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 2Ð5 cm long. Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Palatable to stock. LONGEVITY: Distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 3Ð6 cm long, SFWP; Vic., S.A., W.A. DecemberÐFebruary. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Centennial Park (1909). FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Habitat HABITAT: Distribution ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: SC CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Vic., VEGETATION: Tas., N.Z. SUBSTRATE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: BathurstÐOrange area. EXPOSURE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Orange, Bathurst, Mandurama. Conservation Habitat Western species, with one record for Centennial Park in 1909, but prob- HABITAT: Wooded areas. ably introduced with stock. ALTITUDE: 700Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1000 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: POACEAE VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on granite, low nutrients. Austrostipa mollis (Stipa mollis) EXPOSURE: Life history Conservation GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. Conservation status unknown. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: POACEAE PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Austrostipa densiflora (Stipa densiflora) FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer, or in response to rain. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 6Ð10 cm long, Life history OctoberÐDecember. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.5 m high. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 111

Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Tablelands. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hornsby (1914). CT: Bathurst, Lucknow, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS SWP SFWP; Blayney, Hill Top (1911), Wingello (1913). Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast, Southern Highlands. HABITAT: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bondi, Centennial Park (1894), Moore Park ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1200 mm (1892), Tempe, Rockdale, Kogarah, Maroubra, Long Bay. CT: Hartley TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Vale, Hill Top, Mittagong. VEGETATION: Habitat SUBSTRATE: Heavier soils HABITAT: Sandy areas. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus mannifera; seacliff scrub elsewhere unknown. e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Juncus kraussii. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, dune sand, low nutrients. POACEAE EXPOSURE: Austrostipa pubescens (Stipa pubescens) Conservation Conservation status unknown. Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.5 m high. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Austrostipa nitida (Stipa nitida) PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: Spring. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 0.8 m high. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 6Ð10 cm long, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. OctoberÐApril, peak NovemberÐJanuary. LONGEVITY: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouts. FLOWERS: Flowers in response to rain. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Some leaves eaten by rabbits (P. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 4.5Ð7 cm long, Kubiak pers. comm.). AugustÐSeptember. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Blue Mountains. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Kulnura, Lower Portland, Calga, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Cheltenham, Northbridge, Ryde, Glenbrook, Woodford, Gladesville, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP SFWP; Kemps Creek, Kogarah, Oakdale, Stanwell Park, Kangaroo Valley, Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A. Bomaderry. CT: Newnes Plateau, Mount Wilson, Blackheath, Katoomba, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Flemington. Wentworth Falls, Hill Top, Mittagong, Robertson. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Flemington Saleyards (1968Ð69. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Forest and woodland. HABITAT: Saleyards. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus VEGETATION: botryoides, Syncarpia glomulifera, Eucalyptus punctata, Angophora SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils, low nutrients. bakeri; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus fibrosa, E. sclerophylla, EXPOSURE: Melaleuca decora, Banksia serrata; heath e.g. with Eucalyptus stricta. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, sandstone/shale transition. Only record is Flemington saleyards (1968Ð69), likely to have been EXPOSURE: introduced with stock from western NSW and probably extinct there now. Conservation Reported from Blue Mountains NP. POACEAE Austrostipa nodosa (Stipa nodosa) POACEAE (Stipa ramosissima) Life history Austrostipa ramosissima GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to c. 1 m high. Stout Bamboo Grass VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Life history LONGEVITY: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 2.5 m high, with branching PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: stems and short rhizomes. FLOWERS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 4.5Ð10 cm long. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: FLOWERS: Opportunistically throughout the year, peak OctoberÐMarch. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 6Ð10 cm long, Distribution fruiting at any time, peak summer. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP FIRE RESPONSE: NFWP SFWP; Qld, S.A. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: 112 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP; LHI, FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 2Ð9 cm long. Qld. Mature DecemberÐFebruary (Greening Australia 1996a). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Hawkesbury ÐNepean River system. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Morphology for dispersal by SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Upper Colo River, Grose Vale, Kurrajong, adhesion (McIntyre et al. 1995). Total germination approx. 98 days, Gordon, Eastwood, Cabramatta, Casula, Bents Basin, Menangle, (typical rate 12 per gram of awned seed, Greening Australia 1996a). Elderslie, Picton, Razorback, Burragorang Lookout, Bargo, Lake Possibly a coloniser of bare sites. Illawarra, Broughton Creek. CT: Turon River, Kowmung River, FIRE RESPONSE: Armour Range, Hill Top. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Moist gullies, creekbanks.. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. VEGETATION: Near open-forest or woodland, in riverflat forest e.g. with SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bilpin, Grose River, Springwood, Hornsby, Angophora subvelutina, Eucalyptus elata, Backhousia myrtifolia, Pymble, Lane Cove, Merrylands, Parramatta, Duck River, Milperra, Tristaniopsis laurina; dry scrub e.g. Elderslie Banksia Scrub with Liverpool, Oakdale, Picton, Hill Top. CT: Clarence, Mt Victoria, Banksia integrifolia. Blackheath, Katoomba, Jenolan River, Robertson, Barbers Creek. SUBSTRATE: Sandy to gravelly clay soil on shale, alluvium, sandstone, Habitat medium nutrients. Water table mostly low, moisture supply intermittent, HABITAT: Ridges. fresh. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm EXPOSURE: Light shade. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Conservation VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, E. saligna; Conservation status unknown. woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus crebra, E. melliodora, E. macrorhyncha; heath e.g. with Angophora hispida, Eucalyputs ligustrina, Hakea POACEAE dactyloides. Also with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. resinifera, E. punctata Austrostipa rudis subsp. nervosa (T. James pers. comm.). SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, sandy soils on sandstone, lowÐmedium (Stipa rudis subsp. nervosa) nutrients. Life history EXPOSURE: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.2 m high. Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Conservation status unknown. Reported in Dalrymple Hay NR, Royal LONGEVITY: Perennial. NP. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. POACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 2Ð9 cm long. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Morphology for dispersal by Austrostipa scabra subsp. falcata (Stipa falcata) adhesion (McIntyre et al. 1995). Speargrass FIRE RESPONSE: Life history INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to c. 0.6 m high. Distribution VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. LONGEVITY: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Annangrove, Hornsby, Homebush, Greenacre, FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 3Ð7 cm long, Kogarah, Wallacia, Woodford, The Oaks, Albion Park, Nowra. SptemberÐJanuary. CT: Capertee, Kirkconnell, Clarence, Katoomba, Hill Top, Mt Jellore. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Morphology for dispersal by Habitat adhesion (McIntyre et al. 1995).. HABITAT: Hillsides, creek flats. FIRE RESPONSE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Distribution VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, E. pilularis, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Melaleuca linariifolia; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus radiata, E. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST CWS SWS SWP; Qld, Vic., S.A. blaxlandii; riparian forest e.g. with Casuarina cunninghamiana. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Bathurst area. SUBSTRATE: Sandy clay soils on shale, alluvium, sandstone, lowÐme- SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Homebush (1929), Rookwood (1930). CT: Peel, dium nutrients. O’Connell, Turondale, Bathurst, Rydal. EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Conservation status unknown. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð900 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. POACEAE VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus macrorhyncha, E. blakelyi. SUBSTRATE: Sandy clay soils on shale, granite, metamorphics, low Austrostipa rudis subsp. rudis (Stipa rudis subsp. rudis) nutrients. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). Life history EXPOSURE: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.2 m high. Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Conservation status unknown. LONGEVITY: Perennial. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 113

POACEAE POACEAE Austrostipa scabra subsp. scabra Austrostipa setacea (Stipa setacea) Speargrass Corkscrew Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to c. 0.6 m high. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to c. 0.8 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Perennial. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: In response to rain. FLOWERS: Most of the year. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 3Ð7 cm long, FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 2.5Ð4 cm long. OctoberÐApril. Mature NovemberÐMarch (Greening Australia 1996a). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Total germination approx. 50 days, FIRE RESPONSE: typical rate 4 per gram of seed (Greening Australia 1996a). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Qld, Vic., S.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Castlereagh, Epping, Campbelltown, Menangle DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly south-western Sydney. Park, Douglas Park, The Oaks. CT: Bathurst, Lucknow, Mittagong. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Glenfield, Liverpool, Cobbitty, Mount Annan, Habitat Picton. CT: Jenolan River. HABITAT: Ridges. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1000 mm HABITAT: Slopes, gully sides. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. ALTITUDE: 0Ð350 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm VEGETATION: Grassland e.g. with Themeda australis. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, volcanics, medium nutrients, well- VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, drained. E. melliodora; grassland. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shales, metamorphics, lowÐmedium nutrients. Conservation EXPOSURE: Conservation status unknown. Conservation Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status POACEAE elsewhere unknown. Austrostipa semibarbata (Stipa semibarbata) Life history POACEAE GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. Austrostipa verticillata (Stipa verticillata) VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Life history LONGEVITY: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 2 m high, with short rhizome. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. LONGEVITY: Perennial. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 7Ð11 cm long. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FLOWERS: Most of the year. FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn 3Ð5 cm long. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Berrima. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Berrima (1935). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Habitat Qld. HABITAT: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney. ALTITUDE: 600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Berowra Creek, Richmond, Penrith, Homebush, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Kogarah, Georges River, Glenfield. VEGETATION: Open-forest. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils. HABITAT: Levee banks on floodplain and estuary. EXPOSURE: Conservation ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: above 700 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. CONSERVATION: Only one record for the area at Berrima in 1935, at the northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. VEGETATION: Riverflat forest e.g. with Casuarina cunninghamiana, Stipa ramosissima; saline flats. SUBSTRATE: Sandy alluvial to gravelly clay soils, well-drained, medium nutrients. Sometimes with some saline influence. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). EXPOSURE: Conservation Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). 114 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE VEGETATION: Weedy sites. Avena barbata * SUBSTRATE: Disturbed sites on sandstone, shale, coastal headlands. EXPOSURE: Bearded Oat Conservation Life history Common weed of disturbed ground. GROWTH FORM: Herb to 1 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. POACEAE LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. Avena ludoviciana * FLOWERS: Mainly SeptemberÐDecember. Ludo Wild Oats FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with bristles and awns Life history 3Ð6 cm long. GROWTH FORM: Robust herb to 1.5 m high. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Animal and wind-dispersed (Carr VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. et al. 1992). LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Pacific Black Duck FLOWERS: Spring. Anas superciliosa (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awns 2Ð6 cm long, Distribution OctoberÐDecember. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ST NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP FIRE RESPONSE: SWP NFWP SFWP; LHI, Vic. , S.A., W.A. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Suburban areas. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Glenorie, Richmond, Killara, Northbridge, Lane STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe and W Asia. Cove, Rhodes, Centennial Park (1899), Paddington (Cooper Park), BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., Rookwood Cemetery, Macquarie Fields. CT: Orange, Blayney, Carcoar, Tas., S.A., W.A. Medlow Bath, Sutton Forest. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sydney suburbs, Bathurst area. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Killara (1952), Flemington, Liverpool. HABITAT: Disturbed land, roadsides, embankments. CT: Bathurst. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐrare. HABITAT: Agricultural land, wasteland, railway lines.. VEGETATION: Weedy sites. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1200 mm SUBSTRATE: Disturbed soils, various. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. EXPOSURE: VEGETATION: Weedy sites. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Disturbed soils. Weed of disturbed land, not invading bushland. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Weed of crops, not invading bushland. Recorded naturalising relatively Avena fatua * recently compared with other Avena species. Wild Oats POACEAE Life history GROWTH FORM: Robust herb to 1.6 m high. Avena sativa * VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Oats LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. GROWTH FORM: Robust herb to 1.5 m high. FLOWERS: Spring. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with bristles and awns LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. 2Ð5 cm long. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et FLOWERS: Spring. al. 1995). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awns 2Ð5 cm long, FIRE RESPONSE: NovemberÐFebruary. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by Stubble Quail DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et Coturnix pectoralis (Barker & Vestjens 1989, 1990). Pollen known to al. 1995). cause allergy in humans, mainly SeptemberÐDecember (Bass & Wrigley FIRE RESPONSE: Some plants fruiting 43 weeks after high intensity fire; 1984). possibly grew from seed introduced post-fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Distribution Kubiak pers. comm.). STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, probably native to Mediterranean. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Pacific Black Duck BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP Anas superciliosa, Grey Teal Anas gibberifrons, juvenile leaves eaten SWP NFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A. by Australian Shelduck Tadorna tadornoides, seeds eaten by Singing DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Bushlark Mirafra javanica (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cheltenham, Killara, Manly, Homebush, Distribution McMahons Point (1914), Centennial Park, Campbelltown, Douglas Park. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe and Central and W Asia. Habitat Introduced as cereal. HABITAT: Disturbed ground, roadsides, railways. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT CWS SWS SWP NFWP; LHI, ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Qld, Vic., SA., W.A. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 115

SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cheltenham, Clifton Gardens, Concord, Habitat Homebush (1895), Campbelltown, Thirlmere. CT: Medlow Bath. HABITAT: Lawns, creek banks. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Wasteland, railway lines, roadsides. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm VEGETATION: Pasture, open-woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus punctata, E. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. eugenioides. VEGETATION: Weedy sites. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on alluvium, volcanics, low nutrients. SUBSTRATE: Shale, sandstone. EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation A lawn species naturalising in run-down pastures. Widely cultivated as a cereal crop. Probably dropped from trucks or trains. Not spreading. POACEAE Bothriochloa biloba POACEAE Life history Avena sterilis * GROWTH FORM: Erect or decumbent tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. Oat VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: GROWTH FORM: Herb to 1.5 m high. FLOWERS: Summer. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awn to 3 cm long. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FIRE RESPONSE: FLOWERS: Spring. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, with awns 3Ð9 cm long. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Animal and wind-dispersed (Carr Distribution et al. 1992). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native, but naturalised in CC. FIRE RESPONSE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC *CC NT NWS CWS NWP; Qld. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Homebush. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Rookwood (1935), Homebush (1930). Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT ST; Vic. HABITAT: Woodland. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð900 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1922), North Ryde (1954), TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Flemington Saleyards (1969). VEGETATION: Grassland. SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, low nutrients. Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Roadsides. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. Introduced to Sydney area, HomebushÐRookwood (1930Ð35), probably VEGETATION: Roadside weeds. with stock. Probably extinct there now. SUBSTRATE: POACEAE EXPOSURE: Conservation Bothriochloa decipiens Weed of roadsides. Red Grass, Redleg Grass, Pitted Bluegrass Life history POACEAE GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. Axonopus fissifolius * (Axonopus affinis *) VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Narrow-leafed Carpet Grass PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: Summer. GROWTH FORM: Stoloniferous perennial herb to 0.5 m high. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Warmer months. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Dispersed in mud on cars (Wace BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld, 1977). Vic. FIRE RESPONSE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly western Sydney (T. James pers. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: ‘Cattle do not eat it ’ (Herb. note comm.). 1936). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Flemington Saleyards. Prospect, Blacktown, Distribution Mt Druitt, Penrith, Parramatta (T. James pers. comm.). STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to America. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWP SWP; Qld. HABITAT: Remnant woodland (T. James pers. comm.). Saleyards. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð900 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Tuggerah, Wisemans Ferry (1938), Spencer, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Gordon, Homebush (1931), Centennial Park, Penrith, Audley, Berry, VEGETATION: Eucalypt woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. Cambewarra (1936). CT: Woodford. crebra, E. fibrosa (T. James pers. comm.). 116 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale (T. James pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Young growth contains HCN EXPOSURE: (Harden 1993). Conservation Distribution Many records from woodland in western Sydney (see James et al. 1999, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native, but exotic in Central Coast. T. James pers. comm.). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: *CC NWP; Qld, N.T., W.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Cabramatta. POACEAE SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cabramatta. Bothriochloa macra (B. ambigua) Habitat Red Grass, Red Leg Grass HABITAT: ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1000 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: GROWTH FORM: Low-growing tussock grass to 1 m high, with greenish VEGETATION: to brownish sparsely hairy leaves (Waters et al. 2000). SUBSTRATE: Alluvial soils, medium nutrients. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). EXPOSURE: LONGEVITY: Conservation PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Introduced to Sydney area from western NSW. Only one old record, FLOWERS: Produces reddish-purple flowering stems, summer and early autumn (Waters et al. 2000). Appears to flower most when competition from Cabramatta. from other vegetation is removed by burning, grazing or mowing (DHB). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Mature DecemberÐ POACEAE February (Greening Australia 1996a). Brachypodium distachyon * DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). Dormancy period of a False Brome few months can be broken by light, germination rate of wild seed 40Ð Life history 90%; optimal germination at 25Ð30 ¡C (Waters et al. 2000). Total GROWTH FORM: Erect, loosely tufted annual herb to 0.5 m high, with germination approx. 36 days, typical rate 309 per gram of seed (Greening conspicuously hairy nodes and bent stems. Australia 1996a). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts; burning promoted synchronous ripening of LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. seed heads (in CT mid September 1991, Waters et al. 2000). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seeding stems avoided by stock FLOWERS: Spring. (Waters et al. 2000). Widespread in overgrazed paddocks (Harden 1993). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Animal-dispersed (Carr et al. 1992). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP; Qld, Vic., S.A. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Food plant of butterfly larvae Geitoneura klugii klugii, and probably Heteronympha merope merope DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. (Common & Waterhouse 1981). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Colo, Hornsby, Denistone, Ashfield, Hurstville, Villawood, Doonside, Glenfield, Campbelltown, Razorback, Distribution Lake Illawarra, Dapto, Hill Top, Gerringong. CT: Orange, Bathurst, STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean. Jenolan Caves, Glen Davis, Lithgow, Moss Vale. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SWS; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Kangaroo Valley. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kangaroo Valley (1958). HABITAT: Slopes, undulating country. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. HABITAT: Disturbed areas. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, ALTITUDE: 300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1300 mm E. crebra, E. melliodora, E. albens; lightly-grazed grasslands with TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Themeda australis (Waters et al. 2000). VEGETATION: Pasture. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. Recorded on saline SUBSTRATE: sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Withstands drought (Waters et al. 2000). Conservation Conservation Introduced as pasture in Kangaroo Valley in 1958. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status elsewhere unknown. POACEAE Briza maxima * POACEAE Brachyachne convergens Quaking Grass Life history Common Native Couch, Spider Grass GROWTH FORM: Glabrous herb to 0.6 m high. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). GROWTH FORM: Ascending or erect annual herb to 0.5 m high. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Spring PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FLOWERS: Flowers in response to rain or flooding (Harden 1993). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Water, animal, and wind-dispersed FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. (Carr et al. 1992). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: Probably killed, fruiting DecemberÐJanuary, 12 months FIRE RESPONSE: after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 117

Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; LHI, FIRE RESPONSE: Some plants fruiting December, 12 months after high Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Matcham, Grose Vale, Barrenjoey, Epping, Distribution Northbridge, Mosman, Gladesville (1884), Centennial Park, Cooks STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S America. River, Concord, Taren Point, Rookwood Cemetery, Thirlmere Lakes, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ST. Kangaroo Valley. CT: Blackheath, Moss Vale. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Sydney suburban areas. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Castle Hill, St Ives, Pennant Hills, Seaforth, HABITAT: Disturbed areas, gardens, embankments, paths. Balls Head (1948), Shane Park, Blacktown, Mt Druitt, Condell Park, ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm Narwee, Wilton. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Habitat VEGETATION: Weedy, grassy areas, swamp margins e.g. with Melaleuca. HABITAT: Disturbed sites, lawns, swamp edges, remnant woodland. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on ironstone, shale, alluvium, also on sandy soils, ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm lowÐmedium nutrients. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. EXPOSURE: VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, low to medium nutrient soils. Common weed of disturbed sites. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Becoming increasingly dominant in disturbed Cumberland Plain Briza minor * Woodland in western Sydney (T. James pers. comm.). Shivery Grass POACEAE Life history GROWTH FORM: Glabrous herb to 0.6 m high. Bromus alopecuros * (B. alopecuroides) VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Life history LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. GROWTH FORM: Slender annual herb to 0.6 m high. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FLOWERS: SeptemberÐNovember. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, SeptemberÐNovember. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Dispersed in mud on cars (Wace FLOWERS: Spring. 1977). Water, animal and wind-dispersed (Carr et al. 1992). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FIRE RESPONSE: Probably killed; fruiting October, 10 months after high DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by Stubble Quail INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Coturnix pectoralis (Barker & Vestjens 1989, 1990). Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; Vic. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. SWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Flemington Saleyards (1969), Glenfield (1963). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gosford, Cheltenham, Curl Curl (1889), Sydney (1804), Bulli Pass, Glenfield, Mount Annan, Thirlmere Lakes, HABITAT: Roadside. Kangaroo Valley. CT: Orange, Burrawang. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð900 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Habitat VEGETATION: HABITAT: Disturbed areas, wasteland, gardens. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Conservation VEGETATION: Pastures, weedy sites e.g. with Briza maxima, Verbena bonariensis, Holcus lanatus. Rare weed, mainly grows in wheat growing areas of central western NSW. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, medium nutrients. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). EXPOSURE: Full sun. POACEAE Conservation Bromus arenarius Weed of disturbed areas. Reported by Robert Brown to be introduced to Sand Brome Sydney as early as 1804 (Maiden 1909). Not likely to invade bushland. Life history GROWTH FORM: Erect or ascending annual herb to 0.8 m high. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Briza subaristata * LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. Life history FLOWERS: Spring or in response to rain. GROWTH FORM: Glabrous perennial herb to 80 cm high. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: LONGEVITY: FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Spring. 118 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. humans, mainly SeptemberÐDecember (Bass & Wrigley 1984). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP Distribution SFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A.; America, S America, N.Z. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to America, Asia, Africa. Probably DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Centennial Park. introduced as pasture grass. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Centennial Park (1909). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP Habitat SWP NFWP SFWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. HABITAT: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1910), Cheltenham, Manly, Lane TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Cove, Gladesville (1884), Homebush, Brighton, Liverpool, Menangle, VEGETATION: Albion Park, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Blayney, Oberon, Leura, Jenolan SUBSTRATE: Probably sandy soils. Caves, Bowral. EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Disturbed areas, roadsides, riverbanks, pastures. Grows in drier areas of NSW. Early record from Centennial Park in ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm 1909. May be a deliberate introduction. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: Woodland remnant e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, POACEAE E. tereticornis. SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clayey soils on sandstone, shale, alluvium, Bromus brevis * medium nutrients. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple Life history 1993). GROWTH FORM: Annual or biennial herb, sometimes rhizomatous to 0.6 m EXPOSURE: high, with stout stems. Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Widespread weed of disturbed ground, also cultivated as a pasture spe- LONGEVITY: Less than 2 years. cies. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 2 years. FLOWERS: Spring. POACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Mechanism for dispersal Bromus diandrus * undefined (McIntyre et al. 1995). Giant Brome FIRE RESPONSE: Life history INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: GROWTH FORM: Tufted, often robust annual herb to 1 m high, with stout Distribution stems. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S America. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT ST NWS CWS. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Tablelands. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Flemington (1969). CT: Bathurst, Orange (1948), FLOWERS: Spring. Perthville, Leura. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Habitat DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et HABITAT: Disturbed areas, roadsides. al. 1995). ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm FIRE RESPONSE: Some plants flowering October, 41 weeks after high TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). VEGETATION: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone. Distribution EXPOSURE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native to Mediterranean region. Conservation BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP Disturbed sites on Tablelands, not invading bushland. Only record for SWP NFWP SFWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A. coast was from Flemington Saleyards presumably introduced with stock DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. and now extinct there. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gosford, Richmond (1906), Lindfield, Gladesville (1887), Hunters Hill, Centennial Park, Camden, POACEAE Campbelltown, Buxton, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Orange, Hill End, Mittagong, Moss Vale. Bromus catharticus * (B. unioloides) Habitat Prairie Grass HABITAT: Disturbed areas, damp areas, near creeks. Life history ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1300 mm GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted, robust annual or perennial herb to 1 m TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. high, with erect or spreading stems. VEGETATION: Grassland, woodland, weedy sites. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). SUBSTRATE: Clayey to sandy soils. Recorded on saline sites in western LONGEVITY: NSW (Semple 1993). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: EXPOSURE: FLOWERS: Spring. Conservation FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. CONSERVATION: Widespread weed of disturbed sites, not invading DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Mechanism for dispersal bushland. undefined (McIntyre et al. 1995). FIRE RESPONSE: Some plants flowering October, 39 weeks after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 119

POACEAE POACEAE Bromus hordeaceus * Bromus molliformis * Soft Brome Soft Brome Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Erect tufted annual or biennial herb to 1 m high. GROWTH FORM: Erect, tufted herb to 0.9 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). LONGEVITY: Less than 2 years. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 2 years. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Spring. FLOWERS: Spring. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et al. 1995), animal and wind-dispersed (Carr et al. 1992). al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Asia, Europe. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; Qld, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. SWP NFWP; Vic., S.A., W.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Tablelands. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cheltenham, McMahons Point (1914), SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1912), Terrey Hills, Pennant Hills, Flemington. CT: Jenolan Caves (1900), Mittagong, Moss Vale (1895), Kogarah (1893), Homebush, Parramatta, Casula, Buxton. Bowral. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Grasslands, roadsides. HABITAT: Gardens, disturbed areas. ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: Grassland e.g. with Austrodanthonia racemosa, Vulpia, VEGETATION: Pasture. Briza. SUBSTRATE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale. Recorded on saline sites in western EXPOSURE: NSW (Semple 1993). Conservation EXPOSURE: Weed of gardens and disturbed sites. Conservation Widespread, not invading bushland. POACEAE Bromus madritensis * POACEAE Madrid Brome Bromus racemosus * Smooth Brome Life history GROWTH FORM: Short-lived tufted annual herb, to 0.6 m high, with Life history slender stems. GROWTH FORM: Erect or ascending annual or biennial herb to 1.1 m VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. high. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: Less than 2 years. FLOWERS: AugustÐNovember. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 2 years. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, November. FLOWERS: Spring. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: ‘Seeds’ may cause a problem to al. 1995). grazing sheep (Harden 1993). FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT ST NWS SWS NWP NFWP; Qld, STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT; Vic. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and western Sydney, Orange area. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Richmond. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1916), Beecroft, Hunters Hill (1912), SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1912). Ashfield (1921), Liverpool. CT: Junction Reefs (1991). Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Disturbed areas, roadsides. HABITAT: Drier areas, wasteland. ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð800 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: VEGETATION: Weedy sites, grassland, remnant woodland e.g. with SUBSTRATE: Eucalyptus melliodora. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils. Conservation EXPOSURE: Only record for Sydney area is from Richmond in 1912. Conservation 120 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE POACEAE Bromus rubens * Bromus sterilis * Red Brome Sterile Brome Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted erect annual herb to 0.5 m high. GROWTH FORM: Annual or biennial herb to 0.5 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: Less than 2 years. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 2 years. FLOWERS: Spring or in response to rain. FLOWERS: Spring. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Asia, Europe. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT CWS SWS; Qld, Tas., W.A. SFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney, Orange. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Port Jackson (1912). CT: Bathurst (1916), Leura SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Flemington, Macquarie Fields (1965), Marayong (1910). (1966), Menangle (1963). CT: O’Connell (1960), Junction Reefs. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Disturbed areas. HABITAT: Disturbed sites, embankments. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1200 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: VEGETATION: Remnant woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus melliodora. SUBSTRATE: SUBSTRATE: Various soils. EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation CONSERVATION: Old records from Port Jackson, Leura and Bathurst (1910Ð Mainly in drier areas of NSW. 1916) but not recorded since.

POACEAE POACEAE Bromus secalinus * Bromus tectorum * Rye Brome Drooping Brome Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Erect, tufted annual or biennial herb to c. 1 m high. GROWTH FORM: Erect or spreading annual herb to 0.6 m high, with VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. slender stems. LONGEVITY: Less than 2 years. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 2 years. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Spring. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FLOWERS: Spring. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT ST SWP; Vic., S.A., W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1908). CT: Bathurst (1899). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Richmond. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1910). HABITAT: Disturbed areas. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð800 mm HABITAT: Roadsides, waste areas. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð800 mm VEGETATION: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SUBSTRATE: VEGETATION: EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Conservation EXPOSURE: CONSERVATION: Old records for Bathurst and Richmond (1899Ð1908) Conservation but not recorded since. Old collection from Agricultural College Richmond in 1910Ð1911 ‘spontaneous in grass garden’. No records since. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 121

POACEAE POACEAE Capillipedium parviflorum Catapodium rigidum * Scented-top Grass Rigid Fescue Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.5 m high. GROWTH FORM: Small annual herb to 0.3 m high, with rigid stems. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Summer. FLOWERS: Spring. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, DecemberÐJanuary. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native of Europe and Asia. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT NWS; Qld, N.T. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT NWS CWS SWP NFWP; DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney. LHI, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Pendle Hill, Doonside, Mulgoa, Campbelltown, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic along the coast. Albion Park, Rossmore. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woolloomooloo Bay (1902), Coalcliff (1934). Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Woodland remnants, cemeteries. HABITAT: Disturbed areas. ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: Grassland e.g. with Bothriochloa macra, Microlaena VEGETATION: stipoides, Themeda australis. SUBSTRATE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation CONSERVATION: Not recorded for Sydney area since 1934 but more CONSERVATION: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Very common on Western Slopes. rarely recorded by Tozer (2003). POACEAE POACEAE Cenchrus caliculatus (C. australis) Capillipedium spicigerum Hillside Burrgrass Scented-top Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Robust, scrambling perennial herb to 1.5 m high, GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to more than 1.5 m high. forming clumps or straggly over vegetation. EGETATIVE SPREAD V : VEGETATIVE SPREAD: ONGEVITY L : LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LOWERS F : MayÐAugust. FLOWERS: DecemberÐMay. RUIT SEED F / : Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, MarchÐApril. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Possibly more likely in disturbed, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: open areas than in woodland remnants (Herb. record). FIRE RESPONSE: IRE RESPONSE F : INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. TATUS ORIGIN S / : Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT NWS CWS SWS; Qld, N.Z., BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWS CWS NWP; Qld, N.T. N.G., Pac.I. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA D S : GosfordÐWyong, western Sydney. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread but sporadic. ELECT LOCATIONS S : CC: Swansea, Wyee, Mooney Mooney, Cowan Creek, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Howes Valley, Wondabyne, Berowra Creek, Richmond, Barrenjoey, Gladesville, Orchard Hills, Cabramatta, Cowan Creek, Clifton Gardens, Grose Vale, Kogarah, Como, Audley, Macquarie Fields, Prospect, Greystanes, Glenfield. Camden, Mount Annan, Razorback, Nowra. CT: Kowmung River, Mt Habitat Armour. HABITAT: Moist places, creek banks, embankments. Habitat LTITUDE NNUAL RAINFALL A : 0Ð300 m A : 700Ð1200 mm HABITAT: Wooded hillsides, riverflats, creekbanks. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm EGETATION V : Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis; TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. grassland e.g. with Themeda australis, Bothriochloa macra. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus punctata, Angophora SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, alluvium, lowÐmedium nutrients. costata, margins of dry rainforest e.g. with Aphanopetalum resinosum. XPOSURE E : SUBSTRATE: Soils on slate, shale, basalt, sandy alluvium, low nutrients. Conservation EXPOSURE: CONSERVATION: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), very Conservation rarely recorded by Tozer (2003). Conservation status elsewhere unknown. CONSERVATION: Many old collections e.g. Como 1898, Grose Vale 1910, but few recent ones. Not recorded for western Sydney by James et al. (1999), though recorded at Mount Annan and Razorback. 122 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE Conservation Cenchrus echinatus * Noxious weed, prohibited from sale in NSW (NSW Agriculture website: www.agric.nsw.gov.au). Only record for Sydney area is from Glen Davis Mossman River Grass in 1956, where it was ‘growing in patches up to 7 acres’. Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted, clump-forming annual herb to 0.9 m high. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Cenchrus longispinus * LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. Spiny Burrgrass FLOWERS: Summer, cylindrical spike. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Seedhead with up to 50 GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.9 m high. burrs (Weeds Australia www.weeds.org.au). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: burrs containing seed, LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. attach to animals, clothing, bags and float in water; seed germinates PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. springÐummer (Weeds Australia www.weeds.org.au). FLOWERS: Summer. FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Burrs reduce value of wool and DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: make shearing hazzardous; spines on burrs penetrate hides, lowering FIRE RESPONSE: value (Weeds Australia www.weeds.org.au). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to N & S America. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to north and central America. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWP NFWP; Qld, N.T. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: NFWP SFWP; all mainland States except N.T. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lane Cove (1994), Casula (1992). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Orange. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Orange (1954), Kelso (1922). HABITAT: Coastal, esuarine, and river sands. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm HABITAT: Cultivated and disturbed areas. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. ALTITUDE: 600Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð900 mm VEGETATION: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils. VEGETATION: EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Conservation EXPOSURE: Recently recorded from disturbed bank at Casula and garden bed at Conservation Lane Cove. Elsewhere in NSW reported from coastal, estuarine and Noxious weed, prohibited from sale in NSW (NSW Agriculture website: river sands. Major weed if allowed to mature, creates a problem in rec- www.agric.nsw.gov.au). Mainly a species of western areas. Limited to reation areas (Weeds Australia www.weeds.org.au). Capacity to spread several old records for Central Tablelands. in Sydney is unknown. POACEAE POACEAE Chionochloa pallida (Danthonia pallida) Cenchrus incertus * Silvertop Wallaby Grass, Redanther Wallaby Grass Spiny Burrgrass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Robust, densely caespitose perennial herb to 1.2 m high. GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual or occasionally biennial herb to 0.8 m VEGETATIVE SPREAD: high. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Less than 2 years. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 2 years. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Mature January (Greening FLOWERS: Summer. Australia 1996a). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Total germination approx. 67 days DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: (typical rate 110 per gram of seed-smoked) (Greening Australia 1996a). FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: Stems killed, resprouts from base. Regrowth only from INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: surviving tussocks, seedlings recorded less than 1 year after fire (Purdie Distribution 1977). STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to N & S America. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Distribution all mainland States. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Glen Davis . BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Glen Davis (1956). ?SWP; Vic. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. HABITAT: Disturbed areas. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Howes Valley, Pulbah Island, Berkshire Park, ALTITUDE: 600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð700 mm Hornsby, Rockdale, Minto, O’Hares Creek, Thirlmere, Douglas Park. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. CT: Orange, Lewis Ponds, Hill End, Ilford, Capertee, Clarence, Mt VEGETATION: Victoria, Mount Tomah, Blackheath, Katoomba, Wentworth Falls, Mt SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil. Jellore, Mittagong, Wingello. EXPOSURE: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 123

Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Ridges, hillslopes. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Africa. Introduced as a pasture species. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1400 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT NWS SWS NWP SWP; LHI, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A., N.T., S Afr., Asia, Amer. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney. globoidea, Corymbia gummifera; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1907), Kellyville, Carlingford, polyanthemos, E. macrorhyncha, E. mannifera, E. dives; heath e.g. with Berowra Creek, Warrawee (1914), Ashfield (1919), Bankstown (1930), Allocasuarina nana, Darwinia fascicularis, Eucalyptus stricta. Penrith, Lapstone Hill, Oakdale (1914), Doonside, Mount Annan, SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clayey soils on sandstone, laterite, metamorphics, Cambewarra, Albion Park. metasediments, low nutrient soils. Habitat XPOSURE E : HABITAT: Cultivated areas, roadsides. Conservation ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. elsewhere unknown. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis; grassland with Bursaria, Themeda. POACEAE SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, alluvium. Chloris divaricata var. divaricata EXPOSURE: Conservation Slender Chloris May invade native vegetation at disturbed sites. Cultivated at Agricul- Life history tural College Richmond (1907Ð1921) and Sydney Botanic Gardens GROWTH FORM: Erect, slender perennial herb to 0.5 m high, tufted to (1903, 1908). Naturalised at Warrawee (1914), Richmond (1921) and shortly stoloniferous. Bankstown (1930). Planted on roadsides as a soil stabiliser from 1960Ð VEGETATIVE SPREAD: 2000. cultivated as a pasture species and seeded by air throughout Qld LONGEVITY: after 1975 for pasture improvement (Bass & Wrigley 1984). Very com- PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: mon in disturbed remnant woodland in western Sydney (T. James pers. FLOWERS: In response to rain or flooding usually in warmer months. comm.). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: POACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: Chloris truncata INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Windmill Grass STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Life history BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWS CWS NWP SWP NFWP; Qld, GROWTH FORM: Erect glabrous, herb to 50 cm high, with ligule of short N.Cal. hairs, sometimes with short, branched stolons; forming tussocks. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Homebush Bay (1931), Prestons (1998). LONGEVITY: 2Ð3 years (Waters et al. 2000). Habitat PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: HABITAT: FLOWERS: Opportunistically, in response to rain. Resilient in mown areas, ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1000 mm resprouting and flowering when less than 10 cm high (T. James pers. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: comm.). VEGETATION: Scrub e.g. with Melaleuca nodosa. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit 3 mm long with seed 1.5 mm SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale. long (Lamp et al. 1990). Spikelets turn black at maturity, DecemberÐ EXPOSURE: June; viability decreases after 12Ð30 months in storage (Waters et al. 2000). Conservation DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed; detached Not recorded by James et al. (1999) in Sydney area, only known from seedheads often blow along the ground, scattering seeds (Waters et al. Homebush Bay in 1931 and Prestons in 1998. Mainly on alluvium sub- 2000). Morphology for dispersal by adhesion and wind (McIntyre et al. ject to periodic flooding in western areas. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). Total germination approx. 36 days (typical rate 835 per gram of seed, Greening Australia 1996a). POACEAE Germination rate 30Ð40 % for seed in wild stands; light apears to assist Chloris gayana * germination, summer-growing, relying on spring and summer rainfall; coloniser (Waters et al. 2000). Rhodes Grass FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from base. Life history INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by Stubble Quail GROWTH FORM: Erect perennial herb to 1.2 m high, usually stoloniferous, Coturnix pectoralis (Barker & Vestjens 1989, 1990). occasionally tufted. Distribution VEGETATIVE SPREAD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A., Eur., Amer. FLOWERS: Summer. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly western Sydney. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, FebruaryÐJune. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hornsby, Cheltenham, Epping, Penrith, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Doonside, Homebush, Liverpool, Mount Annan, Berry. CT: Turondale, FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, some plants fruiting September, 8 months Capertee. after high intensity fire (1/94 at Narrabeen) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in Habitat humans (Bass & Wrigley 1984). HABITAT: Edge of tracks, open areas. ALTITUDE: 0Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: RareÐoccasional. 124 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

VEGETATION: Woodlands e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, Habitat E. albens, E. melliodora. HABITAT: Cultivated, disturbed areas, roadsides, creeks. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shales, medium nutrients. Most soils ranging ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm from clay to light sandy soils (Waters et al. 2000). Recorded on saline TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). VEGETATION: EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. Conservation EXPOSURE: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status Conservation elsewhere unknown. Weed of cultivation and disturbed areas.

POACEAE POACEAE Chloris ventricosa Cleistochloa rigida (Dimorphochloa rigida) Tall Chloris Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Shrubby perennial herb to 1 m high. GROWTH FORM: Erect, stoloniferous perennial herb to 1 m high, with VEGETATIVE SPREAD: branched stems. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FLOWERS: Summer, flowers remain closed and are self-pollinating and PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: set fertile seed. FLOWERS: Summer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, FebruaryÐApril. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT NWS CWS; Qld. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT NWS CWS NWP; Qld, Vic., DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. S.A., Eur., N Amer. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Upper Colo, Wisemans Ferry, Warragamba, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly western Sydney. Glenbrook, Mulgoa, Bents Basin, Glen Davis. CT: Currant Mountain SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond, Homebush, Como, Toongabbie, Gap. Glenfield, Bringelly, Camden, Razorback, Burragorang Valley, Albion Habitat Park, Glen Davis, HABITAT: Rocky hillsides, ridges. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð900 mm HABITAT: Undulating country. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1100 mm VEGETATION: Dry scrub; open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus punctata, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Corymbia eximia. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, SUBSTRATE: Sandy loam on sandstone, low nutrients. E. albens, E. melliodora. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, medium nutrients. Conservation EXPOSURE: Bents Basin is southern geographical limit. Vulnerable in Western Conservation Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status elsewhere unknown. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Found in remnant woodland at Blacktown, Prospect, Mt Druitt (T. James pers. comm.). POACEAE Conservation status elsewhere unknown. Coix lachryma-jobi * Job’s Tears POACEAE Chloris virgata * Life history GROWTH FORM: Robust annual or perennial herb to 2 m high, with prop Feathertop Rhodes Grass roots at base. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: GROWTH FORM: Annual or short-lived perennial herb to 1.2 m high, tufted LONGEVITY: or stoloniferous. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FLOWERS: 3 stamens, summer. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FLOWERS: Summer. FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe and Asia, ornamental, grown INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: for the hard grey seeds that are used to make bead necklaces (Klapake Distribution 2002). STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to America. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sydney suburbs. NFWP SFWP; Qld, N.T., .SA., W.A., trop Amer. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Glebe, Clovelly (1956), Marayong, Minto DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: (1951). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1912), North Sydney, Flemington, Ingleburn, Minto, Kiama. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 125

Habitat FLOWERS: JanuaryÐMay. HABITAT: Gardens. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: al. 1995). Stems droop at maturity and new plants establish within 1 m VEGETATION: of parent plant (in garden, L.McD.). SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted, fruiting MayÐJuly, 5Ð7 months after high EXPOSURE: intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Conservation INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Uncommon escape from cultivation (Klapake 2002). Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. POACEAE BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP NFWP; Cortaderia selloana * Qld, Vic., N.T. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread on Coast. Pampas Grass SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Wamberal, Lower Portland, Richmond, Life history Cheltenham, Homebush, Kurnell, Como, Lapstone, Wallacia, Mount GROWTH FORM: Herb, grows in tussocks, 2Ð4 m high, 2 m diam. Annan, Dapto. CT: Hill Top. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous, forms large dense clumps several Habitat metres across (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992). HABITAT: Hillsides, slopes. LONGEVITY: Perennial. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: 2Ð3 years. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. FLOWERS: Late summer, on bisexual and female heads (Parsons & VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus Cuthbertson 1992). umbra, E. paniculata; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. FRUIT/SEED: Enormous seed production when female and bisexual plants crebra, E. tereticornis, E. fibrosa, Themeda australis; vine scrub e.g. occur together (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992). Seeds dimorphic with with Aphanopetalum resinosum, Celastrus subspicatus. respect to hairs on lemmas; seeds from hermaphrodite flowers have few SUBSTRATE: Clay to loamy soils on shale, sandstone, lowÐmedium hairs and are not dispersed as far as seeds from female flowers, which nutrient soils. have many hairs. EXPOSURE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed-bearing florets, Conservation wind dispersed to 25 km; germinates in spring, growing slowly at first; Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status a number of tillers and short rhizomes produced during first growth elsewhere unknown. Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP. season (Parsons & Cuthbertson 1992). Seedling recruitment not fire related. Seedlings frost tender. POACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts at ground level or below. Fruiting in May, 5 months after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak pers. Cynodon dactylon comm.). Couch, Bermuda Grass INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Life history Distribution GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous and/or stoloniferous mat-forming STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S America, introduced as ornamental. perennial herb to 0.3 m high, rooting at nodes, with ligule a dense row BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. of short hairs on a membranous rim. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast, with scattered populations inland. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Spreads by rhizomes and stolons SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wyee, Killara, North Head, Centennial Park, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Homebush (1931), Kings Cross, Kurnell, Leumeah. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Habitat FLOWERS: Mainly DecemberÐMarch (Bass & Wrigley 1984). HABITAT: In places disturbed by mechanical means, close to settlement; FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. along watercourses, drains and swamp margins, demolition and DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adapted for wind- building sites. dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977), ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm animal, water and vegetative dispersal (Carr et al. 1992). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: OccasionalÐfrequent. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from rhizomes. VEGETATION: Saltmarsh, sedge swamp. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause asthma in SUBSTRATE: Variety of soils including coastal sands, heavy clays, peat- humans (Bass 1987). Foodplant of Australian Shelduck Tadorna based swamp soil, medium nutrients. Water table mostly low, moisture tadornoides and seed eaten by Plumed Whistling Duck Dendrocygna supply intermittent, brackishÐfresh. eytoni and Freckled Duck Stictonetta nervosa (Barker & Vestjens EXPOSURE: Exposed; lightÐno shade. 1989,1990). Food plant of butterfly larvae Taractrocera papyria papyria, Conservation Ocybadistes walkeri sothis, Hypocysta metirius (Common & Waterhouse Establishes in disturbed areas, particularly moist, brackish sites, and 1981). spreads slowly locally. Listed as a noxious weed across NSW; garden Distribution plant of the 1970s, planted for fodder, windbreaks and soil stabiliser. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native and exotic forms occur. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP POACEAE SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A., cosmopolitan. Cymbopogon refractus DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Native forms restricted to estuarine areas. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lake Macquarie, Belrose, Manly, Centennial Barbed Wire Grass Park, Malabar, Penshurst, Campbelltown, Hill Top, Windang Island, Life history Berry. CT: Mittagong. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high, aromatic when crushed, jagged ligule 2 mm long. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: 126 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Wetland, estuarine areas (native form). HABITAT: Creeks. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1000 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: Native form in swamp forest e.g. with Casuarina glauca. VEGETATION: Introduced forms have naturalised in many types of vegetation SUBSTRATE: Alluvial soil, medium nutrients. including forest, woodland, grassland. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Wide range of soil types from sands to clays (Lamp et al. Conservation 1990). Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). Rarely grown lawn grass, established in Orange area in 1968. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Although introduced forms are most common e.g. in lawns, gardens, pastures and are widely naturalised (Robert Brown included it on his Cynosurus cristatus * list of introduced plants in 1904, Groves 2002), the coarse erect form on Crested Dog’s Tail saltmarshes seems to be native (SWL Jacobs pers. comm.). Life history GROWTH FORM: Compactly tufted perennial herb to 0.7 m high. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Cynodon incompletus * (C. hirsutus) LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: Spring. GROWTH FORM: Stoloniferous perennial herb to 0.3 m high, without FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. rhizomes. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Dispersed in mud on cars (Wace VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous. 1977). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Summer. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe and SW Asia. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST SWS; Vic., Tas., W.A. FIRE RESPONSE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Orange (1949). Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S. Africa. HABITAT: Waste and cultivated areas. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Belrose, Glebe Island (1911), Campbelltown. VEGETATION: Habitat SUBSTRATE: HABITAT: Roadsides and heavily grazed pastures. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Weed of waste areas and gardens in colder areas. VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: POACEAE Conservation Cynosurus echinatus * CONSERVATION: First noted at Glebe Island in 1911 and then accidentally Rough Dog’s Tail transferred in manure to the Sydney Botanic Gardens. Occasional Life history roadside weed. GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 1 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. POACEAE LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. Cynodon transvaalensis * PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. Florida Grass FLOWERS: Spring. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Animal and water-dispersed (Carr GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous and/or stoloniferous mat-forming et al 1992), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). perennial herb to 0.1 m high. FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous, forming mats. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. FLOWERS: Summer if not mown. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT ST SWS; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hornsby, Hunters Hill (1913), Oakdale. FIRE RESPONSE: CT: Orange, Oberon, Leura (1934). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Habitat HABITAT: Waste and cultivated areas, paddocks. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S Africa. Introduced as lawn grass. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1000 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT; S.A. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. VEGETATION: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Botanic Gardens (1937), Sydney (1957). CT: Orange (1968). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 127

SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, basalt, mediumÐhigh nutrients. Conservation EXPOSURE: Cultivated as a shade-tolerant lawn species, often naturalised in urban Conservation and coastal areas north from Sydney (Harden 1993), however, the only Uncommon weed. naturalised Sydney record is Botanic Gardens in 1976, although it was also recorded there in 1931Ð32). POACEAE Dactylis glomerata * POACEAE Dactyloctenium radulans (Eleusine radulans) Cocksfoot Button Grass, Finger Grass Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.4 m high. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). GROWTH FORM: Slender, tufted annual or short lived perennial herb to LONGEVITY: 0.2 m high. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous. FLOWERS: Spring. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. Seed weight 0.7 mg (Buckley PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: 1982). FLOWERS: In response to rain. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Mechanism for dispersal FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. undefined (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: humans, mainly SeptemberÐDecember (Bass & Wrigley 1984). Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native of Mediterranean region. Introduced as BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ?NT NWS CWS NWP SWP NFWP pasture grass. SFWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST NWS SWS SWP; Qld, Vic., DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney. Tas., S.A., W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Riverstone, Emerton, Flemington, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Campbelltown, Menangle Park SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Springwood, Richmond, Manly, Centennial Park Habitat (1909), Kogarah, Cambewarra Range, Berry. CT: Orange, Millthorpe HABITAT: Disturbed sites. (1913), Mt Wilson (1896), Katoomba, Macquarie Pass, Robertson, Berry. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð800 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: RareÐoccasional. HABITAT: Disturbed sites, roadsides. VEGETATION: Remnant woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus fibrosa, E. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm tereticornis. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SUBSTRATE: Clay to sandy soils on shales, medium nutrients. VEGETATION: EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Moist fertile soils, basalt. Conservation EXPOSURE: Rare, mainly found in drier areas further west, and possibly introduced Conservation to the Sydney area with stock. CONSERVATION: A pasture grass that has become naturalised in adjacent areas. Widespread. POACEAE Danthonia longifolia (Notodanthonia longifolia) POACEAE Long-leaved Wallaby Grass Dactyloctenium australe * Life history Durban Grass GROWTH FORM: Erect, densely tufted perennial herb to 0.8 m high. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. GROWTH FORM: Stoloniferous perennial herb to 0.8 m high. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. FLOWERS: Summer. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP; Qld, STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S Africa. Vic, Tas. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld, N.T. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Grose River, Frenchs Forest, Killara, Denistone, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Botanic Gardens (1976). Newington, Bellevue Hill, Bondi, Rockdale, Como, Kowmung River, Kentlyn, Razorback, Douglas Park, Thirlmere, Hill Top, Albion Park, Habitat Macquarie Pass, Cambewarra. CT: Lithgow, Mount Tomah, Katoomba, HABITAT: Wentworth Falls, Abercrombie Caves, Yerranderie, Armour Range, Mt ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm Gibraltar. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: 128 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Habitat ALTITUDE: 700Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Rocky hillsides, gullies, clifflines. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm VEGETATION: Moist eucalypt forest. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients. VEGETATION: Moist forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, E. pilularis; EXPOSURE: woodland e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita, Corymbia Conservation gummifera, Banksia serrata, Eucalyptus crebra. Mt Wilson is northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. SUBSTRATE: Rocky or sandy soils on sandstone, quartzite, slates, trachyte. EXPOSURE: POACEAE Conservation Deyeuxia appressa Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status elsewhere unknown. Life history GROWTH FORM: Erect perennial herb to 0.9 m high. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Danthonia semiannularis LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: (Notodanthonia semiannularis) FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. Tasmanian Wallaby Grass DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Life history FIRE RESPONSE: GROWTH FORM: Erect, caespitose perennial herb to 0.9 m high. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Distribution LONGEVITY: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Hornsby to Riverwood. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Killara (1941), Salt Pan Creek (1930). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: HABITAT: ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm Distribution TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATION: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CWS SWP; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A., SUBSTRATE: Wet ground. N.Z. EXPOSURE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Concord to Kogarah. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hornsby, Homebush, Rookwood, Kogarah, Conservation Lakemba, Mortdale, Concord West. Locally restricted endemic species. Listed as Endangered (Schedule I) NSW Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 and listed nationally Habitat under Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999. HABITAT: Woodland. Last collected in 1941. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: Probably occurred in TurpentineÐIronbark forest in inner POACEAE western Sydney. Deyeuxia brachyathera SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale. Life history EXPOSURE: GROWTH FORM: Erect perennial herb to 1.2 m high. Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Last recorded in 1939. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: POACEAE FLOWERS: Spring. Deyeuxia angustifolia FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Life history FIRE RESPONSE: GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted slender perennial herb to 0.7 m high. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Distribution LONGEVITY: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST; Vic., Tas. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Mt Wilson, Blackheath, Katoomba, Whalania DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Heights. FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Habitat HABITAT: Gullies, creeks. Distribution ALTITUDE: 900Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: SC CT ST. VEGETATION: Shrubswamp e.g. with Empodisma minus, Baeckea utilis, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains. Geranium neglectum, Callistemon pityoides. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Mt Wilson, Blackheath, Katoomba, Leura, SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, granite, low nutrients. Wentworth Falls, Tarlo River. EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Gullies, crevices, moist places. Conservation status unknown. Recorded from Kanangra Boyd NP. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 129

POACEAE POACEAE Deyeuxia decipiens Deyeuxia imbricata Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Erect perennial herb to 1 m high. GROWTH FORM: Erect perennial herb to 1.2 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Spring. Flowers abundantly only after fire (Keith 1996). FLOWERS: Spring. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Keith pers. comm.). FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: pers. comm.). Distribution NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS I : STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT NWS; Qld. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST; Vic., Tas. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Capertee (1959), Jenolan Caves (1900), DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Woodford (1947). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hornsby, Northbridge, Castlecrag, Rose Bay, Habitat Darkes Forest, Mt Keira, Thirlmere. CT: Lithgow, Mt Banks, Leura, HABITAT: Wentworth Falls, Woodford, Oberon, Hill Top. ALTITUDE: 600Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: HABITAT: Rocky hillsides, swamps. VEGETATION: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, granitic soils, low nutrients. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. EXPOSURE: VEGETATION: Scrub e.g. with Banksia robur, Leptospermum juniperinum. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, poorly drained, low nutrients. Jenolan Caves is southern geographical limit. Rare, last collected 1959. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Conservation status unknown. Recorded from Blue Mountains NP. Deyeuxia innominata (sp. D aff. parviseta) POACEAE Life history GROWTH FORM: Erect, loosely or occasionally densely tufted perennial Deyeuxia gunniana herb to 0.3 m high. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: GROWTH FORM: Slender erect or ascending perennial herb to 0.4 m high. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST; Vic., Tas. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Wentworth Falls. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Wentworth Falls (1964). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Boyd Plateau. Habitat ELECT LOCATIONS S : CT: Luthers Creek, Jensen Swamp, Belarah Swamp. HABITAT: Seepage sites on hillsides. Habitat ALTITUDE: 1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Swamps. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: ALTITUDE: 1000Ð1200 mANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1100 mm VEGETATION: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, moist. VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Carex appressa, Xyris ustulata, EXPOSURE: Shaded. Baeckea utilis, Empodisma minus. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Organic sediments on granite, low nutrients, permanently Rare, only Sydney area record is from Wentworth Falls in 1964. moist. EXPOSURE: POACEAE Conservation Conservation status unknown. Reported in Kanangra Boyd NP. Deyeuxia mckiei Life history GROWTH FORM: Erect, loosely tufted perennial herb to 1.2 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. 130 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Habitat FIRE RESPONSE: HABITAT: Seepage areas near falls. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: ALTITUDE: 700Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Distribution TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATION: Eucalypt forest. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC SC NT CT; Qld. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstones, low nutrients, moist. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mt Wilson. EXPOSURE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Mt Wilson. Conservation Habitat Blackheath is northern geographical limit, last collected 1964. Coded HABITAT: Mountain forests. 3KC- on national rare species list (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Reported in ALTITUDE: 1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Blue Mountains NP. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: Forests. POACEAE SUBSTRATE: Deyeuxia monticola var. monticola EXPOSURE: Life history Conservation GROWTH FORM: Erect, tufted perennial herb to 0.7 m high. Rare, only Sydney area record is from Mt Wilson area (1896, 1906). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: POACEAE PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Deyeuxia mesathera FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.2 m high. FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution FLOWERS: Spring. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST; Vic., Tas. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains. FIRE RESPONSE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Mt Victoria (1896), Jenolan SF (1984). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Wet, rocky places. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 1000Ð1100 mANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST; Vic., Tas. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus ovata. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Castle Hill (1963), Killara (1941), Centennial SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on Permian sediments, low nutrients. Park (1899, 1973). CT: Bowral (1946). EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Swamps, riverbanks. CONSERVATION: Conservation status unknown. ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: POACEAE VEGETATION: Deyeuxia nudiflora SUBSTRATE: Life history EXPOSURE: GROWTH FORM: Slender perennial herb to 0.7 m high. Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Sydney is the northern geographical limit. Rare, last recorded in 1973. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: POACEAE FLOWERS: Summer. Deyeuxia microseta FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Life history FIRE RESPONSE: GROWTH FORM: Erect, slender, loosely tufted perennial herb to 1.2 m INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Distribution LONGEVITY: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST. FLOWERS: Spring. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cowan Creek, Glenbrook Gorge, Kentlyn, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Wallacia, Avon Dam, Broughtons Pass, Cambewarra Range. FIRE RESPONSE: CT: Clarence, Fitzroy Falls, Penrose. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Creeks, swamps. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST; Vic. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Angophora SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Blackheath, Katoomba, Leura, Wentworth Falls. floribunda, Syncarpia glomulifera; moist scrub e.g. with Backhousia myrtifolia. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 131

SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients, shaded. POACEAE EXPOSURE: Shade. Deyeuxia quadriseta Conservation Life history Conservation status unknown, Clarence is the northern distributional GROWTH FORM: Very variable perennial to 1.2 m high. limit. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith p.c.). POACEAE PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Deyeuxia parviseta var. boormanii FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. Mature JanuaryÐFebruary Life history (Greening Australia 1996a). GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted perennial herb to 1.2 m high. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Keith p.c.). Total germination approx. 36 days (typical rate 1312 per LONGEVITY: gram of seed, Greening Australia 1996a). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (D. Keith p.c.). Some plants fruiting November, FLOWERS: Spring. 44 weeks after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) (P. Kubiak p.c.). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for dis- persal (McIntyre et al. 1995). Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST SWS SWP; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A., N.Z. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Galston, Narrabeen, Dee Why, Bellevue Hill, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: SC NT CT ST; Vic. Centennial Park, Maroubra, Cooks River, Darkes Forest, Orangeville, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains. Camden, Thirlmere, Hill Top. CT: Boyd Plateau, Jenolan Caves, Lawson, SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Lithgow, Mt Wilson, Mount Tomah, Katoomba, Mt Jellore, Mittagong, Wingecarribee Swamp. Wentworth Falls. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Moist areas, creeks, swamps. HABITAT: Often in steep gorges, damp forest. ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm ALTITUDE: 1000Ð1100 mANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus blaxlandii, E. radiata, E. VEGETATION: Moist open-forest or rainforest. sieberi, Angophora costata, E. piperita, Corymbia gummifera; scrub SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients, moist. e.g. with Melaleuca; headland scrub; swamp e.g. with Viminaria juncea, EXPOSURE: Shade. Phragmites australis. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on sandstone, shale, lowÐmedium Conservation status unknown. nutrients, moist. EXPOSURE: Shaded. POACEAE Conservation Deyeuxia parviseta var. parviseta Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999).Conservation status Life history elsewhere unknown. GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted perennial herb to 1.2 m high. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). LONGEVITY: Deyeuxia scaberula PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: Spring. GROWTH FORM: Erect, slender perennial herb to 0.9 m high. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded, JanuaryÐFebruary. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for dis- LONGEVITY: persal (McIntyre et al. 1995). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouts. FLOWERS: Spring. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. Mature JanuaryÐFebruary. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains, Illawarra. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Maddens Plains, Mt Keira, Macquarie Pass. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. CT: Clarence, Jenolan Caves, Mount Tomah, Blackheath, Wentworth BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT; Vic., Tas. Falls. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Macquarie Pass (1965). CT: Mt Wilson (1903). HABITAT: Steep gorges, ridges, seepages. Habitat ALTITUDE: 800Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Rocky habitats, seepage sites. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: RareÐoccasional. ALTITUDE: 300Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus blaxlandii, E. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: sieberi, E. radiata; moist gully forest e.g. with Atherosperma moschatum, VEGETATION: Callicoma serratifolia, Todea barbara. SUBSTRATE: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, moist, shaded. EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Shade. Conservation Conservation Rare, Mt Wilson is the northern geographical limit, last recorded there Conservation status unknown. in 1904. 132 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE Habitat HABITAT: Headlands, hillsides. subsp. (D. affine) Dichanthium sericeum sericeum ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Queensland Bluegrass TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Life history VEGETATION: Grassland to woodland; open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita, Corymbia gummifera, E. sieberi; scrub GROWTH FORM: Erect perennial herb to 30Ð80 cm high, densely branched at the base, with blue-green leaves. e.g. with Banksia integrifolia, Angophora subvelutina; seacliff scrub, grassland. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. SUBSTRATE: Sand or sandy soils from sandstone, shale, low nutrients. LONGEVITY: 3Ð4 years (Waters et al. 2000). EXPOSURE: Full sun. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Mostly summer. Conservation FRUIT/SEED: Mature NovemberÐMay. Seed ripens intermittently; seed Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status dormancy may be up to 60% (Waters et al. 2000). elsewhere unknown. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: One of the easiest native grasses to establish from seed, with rapid recruitment in wet warm conditions; POACEAE optimum temperature for germination 20Ð30¡C, germination 50Ð80% Dichelachne hirtella for seed 6Ð12 months old; germination may be substantially reduced after 4Ð5 years (Waters et al. 2000). Total germination approx. 16 days Life history (typical rate 374 per gram of seed, Greening Australia 1996a). GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted perennial herb to 1.3 m high. FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Readily eaten by stock, although LONGEVITY: some graziers report that sheep rarely graze this species; tolerates PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: moderate grazing (Waters et al. 2000). FLOWERS: Summer. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST NWS NWP SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney, Illawarra, BathurstÐOrange. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Doonside, Homebush, Bringelly, Campbelltown, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Razorback, Picton, Austinmer, Dapto. CT: Bathurst, Orange, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST SWS; Vic., S.A. Abercrombie River. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: KatoombaÐHartley Vale. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Hartley Vale (1890), Katoomba (1908). HABITAT: Roadsides, railway embankment. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm HABITAT: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. ALTITUDE: 800Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: Grassland e.g. with Themeda australis; woodland e.g. with TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Eucalyptus albens, Bothriochloa. VEGETATION: Montane woodland. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, volcanics, medium nutrients. SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: Not particularly drought tolerant (Waters et al. 2000). EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), rare in Illawarra, KatoombaÐHartley Vale population is a disjunct occurrence at the conservation status elsewhere unknown. northern geographical limit, but has not been recorded since 1908 and may be extinct. POACEAE Dichelachne crinita POACEAE Dichelachne inaequiglumis Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.5 m high. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: Spring. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. Mature DecemberÐJanuary FLOWERS: Summer. (Greening Australia 1996a). FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Total germination approx. 34 days DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: (typical rate 648 per gram of seed, Greening Australia 1996a). FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted after high intensity fire (1 /94 at Lane Cove), INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: secondary juvenile period 10Ð11 months (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread in wetter areas. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; LHI, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woodford, Glenbrook, St Ives, Epping, Kogarah, Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A., N.Z., Pac.Is. Villawood, Mt Keira, Albion Park. CT: Clarence, Mt Wilson, Blackheath, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Tablelands. Jenolan SF, Lawson, Hazelbrook, Kowmung, Hill Top, Moss Vale, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Richmond, Gordon, Manly, Wingecarribee Swamp, Paddys River. Centennial Park, Homebush, Coogee, Cooks River, Liverpool, Elderslie, Menangle Park, Razorback. CT: Carcoar, Mt Victoria, Katoomba, Jenolan Caves, Hill Top, Moss Vale. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 133

Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Moist places. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1600 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST SWS; Qld, Vic. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Higher rainfall areas. VEGETATION: Moist eucalypt forest e.g. with Eucalyptus radiata, E. ovata; SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Culoul Range, Galston, Hornsby, Cheltenham, open-forest e.g. with Banksia serrata; heath e.g. with Leptospermum Rhodes, Penshurst, Prospect, Albion Park, Thirlmere. CT: Blackheath, trinervium, Leptospermum polygalifolium; montane peatland e.g. with Katoomba, Hazelbrook, Mittagong. Themeda australis, Carex spp. Habitat UBSTRATE S : Soils on sandstone, shale, low nutrients. HABITAT: Damp places, gorges, ridgetops, moist forest. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Conservation status unknown. VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, E. pilularis, Syncarpia glomulifera; open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, POACEAE Angophora costata, Eucalyptus eugenioides; woodland e.g. with Dichelachne micrantha (D. sciurea) Eucalyptus moluccana, E. crebra. SUBSTRATE: On sandstone, granite, clay soil on shale, metasediments, Short-hair Plume Grass medium nutrients. Life history EXPOSURE: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.2 m high. Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status LONGEVITY: elsewhere unknown. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: 1 year (Purdie 1977). FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. POACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et Dichelachne rara al. 1995). Coloniser of open, disturbed sites. Life history IRE RESPONSE F : Regrowth from surviving tussocks, seedlings recorded GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.2 m high. less than 1 year after fire and reached sexual maturity during first VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). growing season (Purdie 1977). Flowering 4Ð10 months after high LONGEVITY: intensity fire (1 /94 at Lane Cove & Narrabeen, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Summer. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, JanuaryÐFebruary. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP al. 1995). SWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A., N.Z., N.G. FIRE RESPONSE: Flowering 10 months after high intensity fire (1 /94 at DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Annangrove, Shane Park, Cheltenham, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Homebush, Bass Hill, Waverley, Sutherland, Mount Annan, Menangle, Distribution Mt Ousley, Dapto. CT: Jenolan River, Blackheath, Tuena-Golspie. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST CWS; Vic., Tas. HABITAT: Valleys, rocky country. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly higher rainfall areas. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Terrey Hills, Pymble, Ingleburn, Mount Annan, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Thirlmere, Darkes Forest, Mt Keira. CT: Mt Wilson, Bell, Hartley Vale, VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, E. pilularis; Mt Victoria, Katoomba. open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora costata; Habitat woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, E. crebra, HABITAT: Ridges, hillsides. E. melliodora. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm UBSTRATE S : Soils on shale, quartzites, claystones, sandstone. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. XPOSURE E : VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, E. saligna; Conservation open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, E. oreades, E. radiata, E. CONSERVATION: Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), found blaxlandii, E. globoidea, Angophora costata; woodland e.g. with in Blacktown, Mt Druitt, Prospect (T. James pers. comm.), Eucalyptus dives, E. mannifera, E. moluccana, E. crebra; grassland e.g. conservation status elsewhere unknown. Reported in Georges River NP. with Themeda australis. SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, volcanics, occasionally sandstone, POACEAE medium nutrients. Dichelachne parva EXPOSURE: Conservation Life history CONSERVATION: Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 80 cm high, leaves mostly basal. conservation status elsewhere unknown. Reported in Dalrymple Hay VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. NR. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Summer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: Flowering complete in some plants 7Ð10 months after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: 134 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE POACEAE Dichelachne sieberiana Digitaria breviglumis (D. diminuta) Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual or short-lived perennial herb to 1 m high. GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted perennial herb to 0.7 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Less than 5 years. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Summer. FLOWERS: Summer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, JanuaryÐFebruary. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST NWS; Vic., Tas. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT NWS NWP; Qld. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Blue Mountains. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Hinterland north from Kangaroo Valley. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hornsby, Pymble, Ryde, Homebush, Centen- SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Upper Colo River, Richmond, Glenorie, nial Park, Kogarah. CT: Clarence, Mt Wilson, Mount Tomah, Mt Victo- Castlereagh, Oatley, Kogarah, Penrith, St Marys, Liverpool, Ingleburn, ria, Katoomba, Wentworth Falls, Woodford, Mt Bindo. Kentlyn, Mulgoa, Erskine Creek, Menangle Park, Kowmung River, Habitat Kangaroo Valley. HABITAT: Gullies, slopes, ridges. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð1400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Gullies, exposed sites. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm VEGETATION: Montane woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus pauciflora, E. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. dalrympleana; moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, E. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus agglomerata, Corymbia saligna. eximia, Syncarpia glomulifera. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, metamorphics, medium nutrients. SUBSTRATE: Gravelly clay or sandy soils on sandstones, shales. EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation Conservation status unknown. CONSERVATION: Kangaroo Valley is southern geographical limit. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status POACEAE elsewhere unknown. Digitaria aequiglumis * POACEAE Life history Digitaria brownii GROWTH FORM: Herb to 0.7 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous. Life history LONGEVITY: GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb to 0.8 m high PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. FLOWERS: JanuaryÐMarch. LONGEVITY: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FLOWERS: Summer. FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et Distribution al. 1995). IRE RESPONSE STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to America. F : NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; S.A. I : DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Norahville, Watsons Bay (1912), Paddington STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. (1912), Centennial Park (1905), Kurnell, Casula, Mt Keira. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP Habitat NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A., India. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA HABITAT: Swampy areas, lake margins, roadsides, disturbed sites. D S : Liverpool to Razorback, Bathurst area. ELECT LOCATIONS ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm S : CC: Liverpool, Campbelltown, Menangle Park, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Razorback. CT: Bathurst, Glen Davis. VEGETATION: Edge of Baumea juncea swamp. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sand, sandstone, low nutrients. HABITAT: EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. Weed of wet places. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus albens, E. melliodora; margins of dry rainforest, grassland. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, medium nutrients. EXPOSURE: Conservation Rare, conservation status unknown. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 135

POACEAE POACEAE Digitaria ciliaris * (D. adscendens *) Digitaria diffusa Summer Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Slender, decumbent perennial herb to 0.7 m high, GROWTH FORM: Variable annual usually less than 1 m high. branching and rooting at the nodes. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes (McIntyre et al. 1995), forming thin swards. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: JanuaryÐMay. FLOWERS: MarchÐApril. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Seed weight 6.5 mg FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. (Buckley 1982). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for al. 1995). dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to tropical regions. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT NWS CWS SWS NWP; Qld. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT NWS CWS NWP SWP; Qld, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wyong, Upper Colo, Dural, Hornsby, Gordon, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. Pennant Hills, Homebush, St Marys, Kentlyn, Picton, Macquarie Pass. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Beecroft, Hunters Hill (1890), Ryde (1885), CT: Wentworth Falls, Kowmung River, Sutton Forest. Homebush, Parramatta (1886), Doonside, Como (1886), Werong Beach, Habitat Douglas Park, Albion Park, Five Islands, Kangaroo Valley, Berry. HABITAT: Creekflats, grassy slopes. CT: Jenolan Caves (1900). ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. HABITAT: Disturbed sites, tracks, creekbanks. VEGETATION: Open-woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm tereticornis. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, occasional on sandstone, lowÐ VEGETATION: medium nutrients. SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation CONSERVATION: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), Widespread weed of cultivation. conservation status elsewhere unknown.

POACEAE POACEAE Digitaria didactyla Digitaria divaricatissima Queensland Blue Couch Umbrella Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Stoloniferous perennial herb to 0.4 m high, rooting and GROWTH FORM: Erect, tufted perennial herb to 0.8 m high. branching from the nodes. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes (McIntyre et al. 1995), can be mown to form LONGEVITY: lawn. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FLOWERS: FebruaryÐMay. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FLOWERS: OctoberÐMarch. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ?NT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP Distribution NFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CWS; Qld, Asia. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Pymble, Epping, Balmoral, Lidcombe, Doonside, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast north from Shellharbour. Mt Druitt, Casula, Campbelltown, Menangle, Douglas Park. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Church Point, Bayview, Lane Cove, Manly, Habitat Parsley Bay, Vaucluse, Centennial Park, Bondi, Bundeena, Shellharbour. HABITAT: Cemeteries. Remnant woodland (T. James pers. comm.). Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm HABITAT: Damp soil, on coastal foreshores, beach margins. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, medium nutrients. VEGETATION: EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on dune sand, sandstone, low nutrients, moist sites. Conservation EXPOSURE: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation Native to foreshore sites from Palm Beach to Shellharbour (southern geographical limit), grown as a lawn grass. 136 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Digitaria ischaemum * FLOWERS: FebruaryÐMay. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for GROWTH FORM: Spreading herb to 0.4 m high. dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted, seeds shed 7 months after high intensity LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. fire (1 /94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by finches (J. Neil, FLOWERS: Summer. Gumnuts 46, 2002). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Dispersed in mud on cars (Wace STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. 1977). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld. FIRE RESPONSE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. Western Sydney, Blue Mountains (T. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: James pers. comm.). Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Glen Davis, Upper Colo, Wamberal, Woy Woy, STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to temperate regions. Cowan, Pitt Town, Hornsby, Cheltenham, Deep Creek, Gladesville, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST NWS CWS; Vic., S.A. Balmoral, Machins Crater, Lapstone, Homebush, La Perouse, Port DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Hacking, Mulgoa, Albion Park, Berry. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cheltenham, Silverwater, Sutherland. Habitat CT: Orange, Hartley, Leura (1910), Hill Top (1915), Burradoo. HABITAT: Ridges. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm HABITAT: Disturbed open areas, lawns, roadsides. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: Moist to dry open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus botryoides; woodlland e.g. with VEGETATION: Lawns, grassland. Eucalyptus crebra, E. eugenioides. SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, medium nutrients. SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on sand, sandstone, shale, volcanics, EXPOSURE: lowÐmedium nutrients, well-drained. Conservation EXPOSURE: Weed of disturbed sites. Conservation Conservation status unknown. POACEAE Digitaria longiflora (D. propinqua) POACEAE Life history Digitaria ramularis GROWTH FORM: Annual or short-lived perennial herb to 0.7 m high. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: GROWTH FORM: Slender perennial herb to 1 m high. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: Summer. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FLOWERS: Summer. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld, N.T., W.A. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT NWS CWS; Qld. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond, Gladesville, Rose Bay, Oatley, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and hinterland. Penshurst, Liverpool, Glenfield. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Boorai Ridge, Wisemans Ferry, Dural, Linden, Habitat Woodford, Hornsby, Cheltenham, Pennant Hills, Gladesville, St Marys, HABITAT: Riverbanks. Ingleburn, Campbelltown, Douglas Park, Thirlmere, Kowmung River, ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Cambewarra. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Habitat VEGETATION: HABITAT: Hillsides. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on dunes, alluvium, sandstone, low nutrients. ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Conservation VEGETATION: Dry open-forest. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on sandstone, shales, alluvium. elsewhere unknown. Glenfield is the southern geographical limit. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status Digitaria parviflora elsewhere unknown. Life history GROWTH FORM: Erect tufted perennial herb to 1.5 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). LONGEVITY: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 137

POACEAE POACEAE Digitaria sanguinalis * Diplachne uninervia * Summer Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual or short-lived perennial herb to 0.7 m GROWTH FORM: Variable spreading, tufted herb. high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: JanuaryÐFebruary. FLOWERS: Summer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). Seeds dispersed by wind, water, man FIRE RESPONSE: and animals, tenacious competitor for space — spreading tufts (Ciba- INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Geigy 1968Ð), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to America. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Pacific Black Duck BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC. Anas superciliosa (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990 ). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Silverwater. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Newington (1992). STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, introduced from temperate regions. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; HABITAT: Estuarine, ditches, drains. LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. ALTITUDE: 0Ð20 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hornsby, Wahroonga, Woodford, Gladesville VEGETATION: (1884), Homebush (1894), Doonside, Camden, Campbelltown, Lake SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on alluvium, low nutrients, apparently salt-tolerant. Illawarra. CT: Bathurst, Blackheath. EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Gardens, railways, disturbed sites, beaches. Exotic species, known only from Naval Arms Depot (now Newington ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm NR) in 1992. Ability to spread unknown. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: POACEAE SUBSTRATE: Clay to sandy soils. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). Dryopoa dives EXPOSURE: Giant Mountain Grass Conservation Life history Widespread weed of cultivation. GROWTH FORM: Tall, reed-like, erect, coarse perennial herb to 3 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: POACEAE LONGEVITY: Digitaria violascens * PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Spring. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. GROWTH FORM: Low-growing herb to 0.6 m high. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. Distribution LOWERS F : Summer. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. RUIT SEED F / : Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST; Vic., Tas. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Dispersed in mud on cars (Wace DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Macquarie Pass. 1977). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Macquarie Pass. CT: Macquarie Falls. FIRE RESPONSE: Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: HABITAT: Moist gullies. Distribution ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm TATUS ORIGIN S / : Exotic, native to Old World tropical regions. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. OTANICAL SUBREGIONS B : NC CC NT CWS; Qld. VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum, Todea DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. barbara. ELECT LOCATIONS S : CC: Cheltenham, Balgowlah, Concord, Botany SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on alluvium, medium nutrients, moist. Swamp (1912), Cooks River (1908), Mt Keira. EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Gardens, roadsides. Uncommon, Macquarie Pass is northern geographical limit, ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm conservation status unknown. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: Clay to sandy soils. EXPOSURE: Conservation Minor weed of cultivation. 138 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE Habitat Echinochloa colona HABITAT: Waste areas, riverbanks, creeks, gardens. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Awnless Barnyard Grass TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Life history VEGETATION: GROWTH FORM: Tufted herb to 0.6 m high. SUBSTRATE: Loamy sandy soils on shale, alluvium, medium nutrients. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Soil nitrogenous, slightly acid, sandy-loamy, indicator of fertility (Ciba- LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. Geigy 1968Ð). Salt-tolerant but high salinity may limit its distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. (Rahman & Ungar 1994). FLOWERS: Summer, or in response to rain (Harden 1993). EXPOSURE: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Conservation DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Widespread weed of waste areas and agricultural land. Moderate or FIRE RESPONSE: vigorous competitor for space and nitrogen (Ciba-Geigy 1968Ð). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Freckled Duck Stictonetta nervosa (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). POACEAE Distribution Echinochloa crus-pavonis * STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ST NWS CWS NWP SWP NFWP South American Barnyard Grass SFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. Life history DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney. GROWTH FORM: Erect to decumbent annual herb to 1.3 m high. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Liverpool, Glenfield, Ingleburn, Camden. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Habitat LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. HABITAT: Moist sites. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm FLOWERS: Summer. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. VEGETATION: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, medium nutrients, subject to FIRE RESPONSE: periodic flooding. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: EXPOSURE: Distribution Conservation STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to tropical Africa and America. Species of western NSW possibly introduced to Sydney region with BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CT; Qld, Vic., W.A., S Amer., N.Z. stock. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lane Cove, Homebush (1931), Camden (1966). POACEAE Habitat Echinochloa crus-galli * HABITAT: Wasteland, agricultural areas, gardens. ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm Barnyard Grass TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Life history VEGETATION: GROWTH FORM: Variable annual herb to 1 m high. Stout stem with tufts SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. of hair at the nodes (Ciba-Geigy 1968Ð). EXPOSURE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Conservation LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. Occasional weed of cultivation, particularly in the Camden area. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Pyramid-shaped inflorescence, JanuaryÐMarch. POACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent, JanuaryÐMay, peak March. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for Echinochloa escentula * (E. utilis) dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed by wind, water, and animals Japanese Millet — over long distances by man; spreads rapidly (Ciba-Geigy 1968–), Life history dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). GROWTH FORM: Erect annual herb to 1 m high, with stout stems. FIRE RESPONSE: Killed. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by Straw-necked Ibis LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. and Stubble Quail Coturnix pectoralis, foodplant of Freckled Duck PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. Stictonetta nervosa, Grey Teal Anas gibberifrons and Pacific Black Duck FLOWERS: Summer. Anas superciliosa (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. Often grown as a forage plant, FIRE RESPONSE: with a high sugar content (Ciba-Geigy 1968Ð). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP Distribution SWP NFWP; Qld, Vic, S.A., W.A., Tas. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to eastern Asia. Introduced for fodder and DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. grain. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wollombi, Wamberal, Sackville, Windsor, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CT ST NWS CWS NWP SWP; Qld, Richmond, Woodford, Beecroft, Cheltenham, Manly, Toongabbie, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. Lidcombe, Homebush, Kogarah (1886), Centennial Park (1899), DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Moorebank, Cobbitty (1915), Menangle (1898), Wollongong, Five SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Homebush, Manly (1919), Centennial Park, Islands, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Orange, Bathurst, Bell, Kowmung River, Cambewarra. CT: Orange, Bathurst, Hill Top (1914). Moss Vale. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 139

Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Roadsides. HABITAT: In or near ponds and streams, in shallow water. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on alluvium, often in shallow water, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation Probably cultivated for forage, grain and sometimes used as a soil Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status stabiliser. Used as cover crop at Clarence in 1992 (Herb. record). elsewhere unknown. Common in birdseed and often grows from spilt grain. Not truly naturalised. POACEAE Echinopogon caespitosus var. caespitosus POACEAE Echinochloa frumentacea * Tufted Hedgehog Grass Life history Siberian Millet GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.5 m high. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). GROWTH FORM: Annual herb to 1 m high, stout towards the base. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: AugustÐMay, peak NovemberÐDecember. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. Autumn (L.McD.) FLOWERS: Summer. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. al. 1995). No special morphology for dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Secondary juvenile period 15Ð23 weeks (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: Reported after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Kubiak pers. comm.). Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Grazed by stock. Food plant of STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to India. Introduced as stockfeed. butterfly larvae Taractrocera papyria papyria (Common & Waterhouse BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT SWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic., W.A. 1981). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Jilliby Jilliby (1909), Wyong (1909), Darkes STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Forest, Jamberoo. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS; Qld, N.G. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. HABITAT: Pddocks, roadsides. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Awaba, Matcham, Hornsby, Cheltenham, ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm Roseville, Lane Cove, Hurstville, Castlereagh, Liverpool, Thirlmere, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Bulli, Kangaroo Valley, Bomaderry. CT: Hartley Vale, Katoomba, VEGETATION: Mittagong. SUBSTRATE: Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Hillsides and ridges, levee banks. Conservation ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: above 700Ð1400 mm Cultivated as forage and grain, and sometimes as a soil stabiliser. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Occasional escape from cultivation, not truly naturalised. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g with Syncarpia glomulifera, Eucalyptus globoidea, E. saligna, E. pilularis, E. viminalis, E. radiata; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus dives, E. mannifera. Also with Eucalyptus POACEAE moluccana, E. crebra, E. tereticornis (T. James pers. comm.). Echinochloa telmatophila SUBSTRATE: Clay soil from Wianamatta Shale, sandy loam from Permian- Swamp Barnyard Grass Shoalhaven sediments, sandy soil on sandstone, mediumÐlow nutrients. EXPOSURE: MidÐlight shade. Life history GROWTH FORM: Erect to spreading annual herb, with stout stems to 2 m Conservation high. Widespread and relatively frequent, conserved in Western Sydney (James VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. et al. 1999). Reported in Royal NP, Seven Mile Beach NP, Wambina LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. NR. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Summer. POACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. Echinopogon cheelii DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: Long-flowered Hedgehog Grass INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Life history Distribution GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. EGETATIVE SPREAD STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. V : No (McIntyre et al. 1995). ONGEVITY BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CWS; Qld, W.A. L : RIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. P : LOWERS SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Colo, Wyong, Gosford, Howes Creek, F : SpringÐsummer. Richmond (1885), Yarramundi, Bondi (1887), Centennial Park, Camden, FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. Menangle. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et al. 1995). 140 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST NWS; Vic. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S Africa. Introduced as pasture species DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blayney area. and for erosion control. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Neville (1950). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT ST CWS SWS SWP; Vic., Tas., Habitat S.A., W.A. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA HABITAT: Damp places in forest and grassland. D S : Coast. ELECT LOCATIONS ALTITUDE: 800Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1000 mm S : CC: Wyong (1974), Mt White, Richmond (1910), TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Eastlakes, Botany Swamp (1912), Matraville (1982). VEGETATION: Habitat SUBSTRATE: HABITAT: Sand dunes, paddocks, disturbed areas. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Known from only one record in the area, at Neville, south of Blayney in VEGETATION: 1950. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on dunes, alluvium, low nutrients EXPOSURE: POACEAE Conservation Pasture species in dry areas. Possibly introduced to Wyong area with Echinopogon ovatus cereal seed for dune rehabilitation prior to 1974 (Herb. record). Forest Hedgehog Grass Life history POACEAE GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb to 1.2 m high, with a long, slender rhizome. Ehrharta erecta * VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Panic Veldtgrass PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: Spring. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial to 0.6 m high, with delicate annual- FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. like rootstock. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous habit in moist situations (L.McD. al. 1995). e.g. at Gore Creek Reserve, Greenwich). FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Young plants poisonous to stock PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: (Harden 1993). FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. ISPERSAL ESTABLISHMENT GROWTH STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. D , & : Secondary juvenile period 38 BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; weeks after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A., N.Z., N.G. comm.). IRE RESPONSE DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. F : Resprouted after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kurrajong, Mooney Mooney, Wahroonga, St P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Ives, Denistone, Homebush, Kogarah, Wallacia, Campbelltown, Stanwell INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of moth caterpillar Park. CT: Neville, Mt Wilson, Woodford, Macquarie Pass, Mittagong. Anthelia ocellata and butterfly caterpillar Heteronympha merope (Coupar & Coupar 1992). Apparently eaten by rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus (P. Habitat Kubiak pers. comm.). Outcompetes native grasses (L. McD.) HABITAT: Hillsides, roadsides. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Distribution TATUS ORIGIN TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. S / : Exotic, native to S Africa. Probably introduced as pas- VEGETATION: Moist forest e.g. with Eucalyptus viminalis, E. piperita, ture species. Acacia melanoxylon; eucalypt woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS SWS NWP SWP; moluccana, E. crebra, E. tereticornis, Bursaria spinosa; vine scrub Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. remnant e.g. with Aphanopetalum resinosum. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Urban areas. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, basalt, volcanics, medium nutrients. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Turramurra, Cherrybrook, Lane Cove, Vaucluse, EXPOSURE: Centennial Park, Homebush (1931), Weeney Bay, Carlton, Campbelltown, Austinmer. CT: Bathurst (1996). Conservation Conserved in western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Reported in Blue Habitat Mountains NP, Thirlmere Lakes NP. HABITAT: River edges, disturbed areas, roadsides, gardens. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. POACEAE VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. Casuarina glauca, Juncus kraussii. Ehrharta calycina * SUBSTRATE: Disturbed soils on shales, sandstone, medium nutrients. Perennial Veldtgrass EXPOSURE: Full sun to shade. Life history Conservation GROWTH FORM: Tufted or rarely stoloniferous perennial to 0.7 m high. CONSERVATION: Weed of moist shady sites, often in gardens and more VEGETATIVE SPREAD: frequent since 1970s. Probably likely to spread in higher rainfall areas LONGEVITY: such as the Upper Blue Mountains. Aggressive species that invades PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: natural areas including grassy woodlands, forests, heathlands and FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. riparian areas. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 141

POACEAE POACEAE Ehrharta longiflora * Eleusine indica * Annual Veldtgrass Crowsfoot Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual to 0.9 m high. GROWTH FORM: Coarse, tufted annual or perennial herb to 0.8 m high, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: with ascending or prostrate stems branching at the base. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FLOWERS: Summer. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Dispersed in mud on cars (Wace INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: 1977). Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: Flowering 15Ð18 weeks after resprouting following high STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S Africa. intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic., I : Seed eaten by Plumed Whistling Tas., S.A., W.A. Duck Dendrocygna eytoni (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). Can be DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. poisonous to stock (Harden 1993). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kulnura, Pennant Hills, Beecroft, Lindfield, Distribution Lane Cove, Centennial Park, Arncliffe (1913), Kogarah (1945), Oatley, STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Africa and India. Razorback. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT ST NWS CWS NWP SWP; Habitat LHI, Qld, N.T., Vic., Tas., S.A. W.A. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA HABITAT: Disturbed areas, roadsides. D S : Widespread. ELECT LOCATIONS ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm S : CC: Richmond, Dural, Gordon, Manly, Sydney TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. (1894), Rose Bay, Centennial Park, La Perouse, Flemington, Rockdale, VEGETATION: Penrith, Camden, Albion Park, Five Islands. SUBSTRATE: Light sandy or loamy soils on sandstone, sand, low nutrients. Habitat EXPOSURE: Mid-shade. HABITAT: Lawns, crops, disturbed areas, roadsides, coastal headlands. Conservation ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Weed of roadsides, invading bush margins. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, sandy soils on sandstone, lowÐmedium POACEAE nutrients. Ehrharta villosa * EXPOSURE: Pypgrass Conservation Life history Common weed of lawns, pastures and disturbed areas. GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb to 0.9 m high, with contracted to long creeping rhizome. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. Eleusine tristachya * LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Goose Grass, Crab Grass FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. GROWTH FORM: Coarse, tufted herb to 0.4 m high. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution FLOWERS: Summer. RUIT SEED STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S Africa. Introduced for sand F / : Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. stabilisation. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No paricular mechanism for BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC; Vic., S.A., W.A. dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). IRE RESPONSE DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. F : NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Botanic Gardens (1932), Port Kembla (1946). I : Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Sand dunes. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S America. OTANICAL SUBREGIONS ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm B : NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Qld, Vic., S.A. VEGETATION: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. ELECT LOCATIONS SUBSTRATE: Sand on sand dunes. S : CC: Hornsby (1914), Sydney Botanic Gardens EXPOSURE: (1891), Lane Cove, Flemington, Concord, East Lakes, Glenfield, Narellan. CT: Bathurst, Hartley Vale (1947), Moss Vale. Conservation Grown on sand dunes as a sand-binder, occasionally becoming Habitat naturalised (Harden 1993). HABITAT: Disturbed areas, mown areas, roadsides. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: 142 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on sand, alluvium, shale, lowÐmedium Distribution nutrients. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Eurasia. EXPOSURE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: SC NT CT ST CWS SWS SWP; Vic., Tas., Conservation S.A., W.A. Weed of lawns and disturbed areas. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Orange area. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Orange (1992). POACEAE Habitat HABITAT: Pasture. Elymus scaber var. scaber (Agropyron scabrum) ALTITUDE: 700Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm Common Wheatgrass TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: Life history SUBSTRATE: GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted perennial herb to 1 m high; leaves with EXPOSURE: some degree of twisting. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Conservation LONGEVITY: Short-lived perennial (Waters et al. 2000). A lawn grass planted in cool temperate areas. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Spasmodically, summer to autumn, cold temperatures often POACEAE required to stimulate flowering (Waters et al. 2000). Enneapogon gracilis FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Mature DecemberÐ January (Greening Australia 1996a), 100Ð200 seed per gram, with awn Slender Nineawn accounting for 7Ð18% of total weight (Waters et al. 2000). Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive (McIntyre et GROWTH FORM: Slender, tufted annual or perennial herb to 0.7 m high, al. 1995). Total germination approx. 35 days (typical rate 47 per gram with knotty base. of seed, Greening Australia 1996a). Some seed germinates one month VEGETATIVE SPREAD: after harvesting, but some ecotypes may have dormancy of several LONGEVITY: months; 80% germination recorded after 8 years seed storage in the PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: dark at room temperature (Waters et al. 2000). FLOWERS: Warmer months. FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouts. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Considered valuable for stock, with DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: high protein content 10Ð36%, but is usually only a minor component of FIRE RESPONSE: pastures (Waters et al. 2000). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ST NWS CWS NWP; Qld. SWP NFWP SFWP; ?LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. , NZ. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly western Sydney (T. James p.c.). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Barrallier. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Ryde (1884), Kogarah (1900), Toongabbie Habitat (1993), Campbelltown (1962). CT: Canobolas (1936), Moss Vale (1895). HABITAT: Rock crevices. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800 mm HABITAT: Grassy woodland. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm VEGETATION: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SUBSTRATE: VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, EXPOSURE: E. crebra. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients, well-drained. Only Sydney area record is from Barralier (1914, 1937) in Burragorang Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). Tolerates Valley, and may have been destroyed by Warragamba Dam. alkaline conditions (Waters et al. 2000). EXPOSURE: Frost-tolerant (Waters et al. 2000). POACEAE Conservation Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status Enneapogon nigricans elsewhere unknown. Niggerheads Life history POACEAE GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 0.5 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Elytrigia repens * (Agropyron repens *, Elymus repens *) LONGEVITY: English Couch, Quick or Twitch Grass PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: In response to rain. GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb to 1 m high, with long, braching yellow FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Mature DecemberÐ or straw-coloured rhizomes. February (Greening Australia 1996a). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Total germination approx. 8 days, LONGEVITY: typical rate 148 per gram of seed (Greening Australia 1996a). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: FLOWERS: Summer. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by Stubble Quail NFWP SFWP; N.T., Tas., W.A. Coturnix pectoralis (Barker & Vestjens 1989, 1990). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 143

DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Bathurst area. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Noraville, Wyong, Upper Colo River, Wisemans SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Glanmire (1955), Bathurst (1886, 1912, 1945, Ferry, Hornsby, Beecroft, Como, Centennial Park, Kurnell, Audley, 1958). Londonderry, Glenbrook, Mulgoa, Oakdale, Mt Ousley, Berry. Habitat CT: Blackheath, Woodford, Mittagong, Robertson. HABITAT: Hillside, roadside. Habitat ALTITUDE: 700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700 mm HABITAT: Riverbanks, creeks, hillsides. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1600 mm VEGETATION: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SUBSTRATE: Gravelly soil on shale, granite, medium nutrients. VEGETATION: Moist eucalypt forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, EXPOSURE: Angophora floribunda, Backhousia myrtifolia; rainforest margins; dry Conservation open-forest and woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi, E. piperita, E. Last recorded in Bathurst area in 1958. Conservation status unknown. gummifera, E. sclerophylla, Angophora bakeri. SUBSTRATE: Deep loamy soils on sandstone, shale, volcanic necks, basalt, alluvium, medium nutrient. POACEAE EXPOSURE: Light shadeÐfull sun. (Chloris acicularis) Enteropogon acicularis Conservation Life history Widespread, conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), and else- GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to c. 0.4 m high. where. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Dharug NP, Ku-ring-gai Chase VEGETATIVE SPREAD: NP, Royal NP. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: POACEAE FLOWERS: Summer in response to rain. Entolasia stricta FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Wiry Panic FIRE RESPONSE: Life history INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: GROWTH FORM: Straggling, or shrubby, wiry, rhizomatous, grass usually Distribution 0.8 m high, but up to 1.5 m high when straggling through undergrowth. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWS CWS CWS NWP SWP NFWP LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). SFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney. FLOWERS: OctoberÐMay, peak November. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Windsor (1950), Prospect (1935), Flemington FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, NovemberÐMay. Saleyards (1968). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special dispersal morphology Habitat (Westoby et al. 1990). Coloniser. Recruitment mainly after fire (D. Keith HABITAT: Grassland, saleyards. pers.comm.). IRE RESPONSE ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm F : Resprouted, fruit produced 5 months after high intensity TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. fire (1/94 at Narrabeen, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS VEGETATION: Grassland. I : Often heavily cropped by rabbits SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on gravelly shale, low nutrients. (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). EXPOSURE: Distribution Conservation STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. A species of drier inland areas, possibly introduced into western BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS; Qld. Sydney area with stock. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread on sandstone plateaus. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kulnura, Gosford, Maroota, Richmond, Springwood, Linden, Hornsby, West Head, Cheltenham, Gladesville, POACEAE Vaucluse, Botany Bay, Kurnell, Homebush, Lidcombe, Blacktown, Mt Entolasia marginata Druitt, Parramatta, Wilton, Oakdale, Bargo, Mt Keira, Jaspers Brush. Bordered Panic CT: Mt Wilson, Katoomba, Lawson, Kowmung River, Hill Top, Robertson, Penrose. Life history GROWTH FORM: Straggling or shrubby, wiry, perennial herb to 2 m high, Habitat with short rhizome. HABITAT: Hillsides, ridges. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm LONGEVITY: Indefinite. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora FLOWERS: DecemberÐMay. costata, Eucalyptus sieberi, woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus sclerophylla, FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. JanuaryÐApril. E. eximia, E. punctata, Angophora bakeri; open heath e.g. with DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Eucalyptus stricta. Also with Eucalyptus fibrosa, E. crebra (T. James FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted, fruit produced 7 months after high intensity pers. comm.). fire (1 /94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils from dune sand, alluvial sand, sometimes peaty INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by finches (J. Neil, soils, or sandstone, quartzite, volcanics, low nutrients, sometimes Gumnuts 46, 2002). Apparently eaten by rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus periodically waterlogged. Tertiary alluvium, clay soils on shale (T. James (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). pers. comm.). EXPOSURE: Full sunÐlight shade. Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Conservation BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic. A common, widespread species, conserved in Western Sydney (James DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. et al. 1999) and adequately conserved elsewhere. Reported in Blue Mountains NP. 144 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE POACEAE Entolasia whiteana Eragrostis brownii Life history Brown’s Love Grass GROWTH FORM: Straggling or shrubby wiry perennial herb to 0.8 m high. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 0.6 m high. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: Most of the year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FLOWERS: Summer or in response to rain. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by finches (J. Neil, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CT; Qld. Gumnuts 46, 2002). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast north from Hill Top. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Colo, Maroota, Hornsby, Lane Cove, Hunters STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Hill, Bankstown, Cronulla, Loftus. CT: Hill Top (1914). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP Habitat SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. HABITAT: Ridges, upper slopes. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Maroota, Dural, Agnes Banks, Castlereagh, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Springwood, Linden Ridge, Manly, Hunters Hill, Villawood, Bondi, VEGETATION: Eucalypt open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Rookwood, Centennial Park, Penrith, Liverpool, Kowmung River, La Corymbia eximia, C. gummifera, Eucalyptus punctata. Perouse, Kogarah, Elderslie, Bulli Pass, Albion Park, Kangaroo Valley, SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. Cambewarra Range. CT: Capertee Valley, Zig Zag, Katoomba, Hill Top, EXPOSURE: Mittagong. Conservation Habitat Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status HABITAT: Ridges, stony hillsides, sand deposits, rock pavements. elsewhere unknown. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. POACEAE VEGETATION: Open heath e.g. with Eucalyptus stricta, Angophora hispida, Banksia ericifolia; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. fibrosa, (E. philippica) Eragrostis benthamii E. punctata, E. sclerophylla, Corymbia eximia; open-forest e.g. with Life history Eucalyptus botryoides. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 0.6 m high. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, Tertiary alluvium, dune sand, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. low nutrients. LONGEVITY: EXPOSURE: Full sun. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Conservation FLOWERS: Summer. Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded, FebruaryÐMarch. elsewhere unknown. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). POACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouts. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Eragrostis cilianensis * Distribution Stinkgrass STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Life history BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Vic., N.Z. GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.6 m high. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wondabyne, Woy Woy, Kurrajong Heights, LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. Dural, Valley Heights, Hunters Hill, Balmoral, Woollahra, Cabramatta, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. Lansdowne, Cambewarra. CT: Lithgow, Mount Tomah, Lawson, FLOWERS: Summer. Kowmung River, Hill Top, Bowral, Belmore Falls. FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded, FebruaryÐMay. Habitat DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for HABITAT: Lower hillsides, flats, moist places. dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm Probably dispersed with stock. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATION: Woodland, open-forest. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients, moist. Distribution EXPOSURE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic. Conservation BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, N.T., Vic., S.A., W.A. elsewhere unknown. Reported in Brisbane Water NP, Royal NP. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1907), Riverstone, Cowan (1918), Wahroonga, Narrabeen (1908), Manly (1885), Flemington Saleyards, Homebush, Glenfield, Camden, Bargo. CT: Glanmire, Bathurst (1913). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 145

Habitat LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. HABITAT: Disturbed sites, cultivated land, creeks. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm FLOWERS: Summer or in response to rain. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus tereticornis, E. longifolia, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: E. eugenioides. FIRE RESPONSE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, medium nutrients. Recorded on saline INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). Distribution EXPOSURE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Conservation BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP; Weed of cultivation and disturbed ground. Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and western Sydney. POACEAE SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wyong (1903), Emu Plains, Pymble, Mosman (1921), Bellevue Hill (1904), Homebush (1896), Lidcombe, Mt Druitt, Eragrostis curvula * Cabramatta, Campbelltown, Ingleburn, Menangle Park, Upper African Lovegrass Burragorang. Life history Habitat GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high, often tussocky. HABITAT: Sand scrub, riverbanks. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm LONGEVITY: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATION: Woodland, coastal scrub. FLOWERS: Mainly summerÐautumn, flowerhead to 30 cm long (Weeds SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on dune sand, Tertiary alluvium, sandy alluvium, Australia www.weeds.org.au) low nutrients. Clay soils on shale (T. James pers. comm.). FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. Seedhead lead-grey or grey- EXPOSURE: green with leaf tips often curly, open at maturity, seeds cream to brown Conservation about 1 mm long (Weeds Australia www.weeds.org.au) Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), with most records DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seeds, often spread in pre- 1950. mud on vehicles and animals; seedlings grow rapidly after summer rain (Weeds Australia www.weeds.org.au). No particular mechanism for POACEAE dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts. Spring burning promotes rapid growth to full Eragrostis leptostachya maturity in early summer (Weeds Australia www.weeds.org.au) Paddock Lovegrass INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Life history Distribution GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Africa. Introduced for pasture and soil VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. stabilisation (NPWS website). LONGEVITY: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP SWP PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: NFWP; S.A., W.A. FLOWERS: Summer. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Arcadia, Berkshire Park, Cherrybrook, Castle DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Hill (1958), St Marys, Clyde, Malabar, Narellan, Menangle Park. CT: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted, flowering 2 months after high intensity fire Orange, Bathurst (1954), Wallerawang, Bell (1955), Hill Top (1976). (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: HABITAT: Roadsides, watercourses, pastures. Distribution ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT NWS CWS; Qld, Vic. VEGETATION: Roadside vegetation, old pastures, Eastern Suburbs Banksia DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread, western Sydney. Scrub e.g. with Acacia longifolia, Banksia aemula. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Spencer, Lower Portland, Berowra Creek, SUBSTRATE: Sandy or gravelly soil on dune sand, Tertiary alluvium, sandy Gordon, Cheltenham, Rooty Hill, Neutral Bay, Bondi, Liverpool, alluvium, shale, lowÐmedium nutrients. Kogarah, Glenbrook, Cobbitty, Orangeville, Campbelltown, Menangle, EXPOSURE: Full sun. Razorback Range, Picton, Lake Illawarra, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Hartley, Conservation Hill Top, Mittagong. CONSERVATION: A major weed along roadsides in western Sydney, Habitat Eastern Suburbs Banksia Scrub, and in the Blue Mountains. Reported HABITAT: Paddocks, remnant woodland. from Hawkesbury Agricultural College Richmond (1912Ð1914) in ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm flowerbed, and as extensively naturalised on Bathurst Experimental Farm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. in 1954 (Herb. specimen note). Major spread in Sydney occurred after VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus melliodora, E. 1960s from roadside and dune stabilisation programs e.g. Bell 1955, macrorhyncha; grassland; margins of dry rainforest. Also with Castle Hill 1958, Narellan 1965, Malabar 1965. Still actively Eucalyptus moluccana, E. crebra, E. tereticornis (T. James pers. comm.). spreading, particularly along roadside margins. Noxious weed in NSW. SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, volcanics, sandy alluvium, medium nutrients. POACEAE EXPOSURE: Eragrostis elongata Conservation Clustered Lovegrass Regarded as one of the commonest pasture grasses in coastal areas in early 20th century (Herb. notes 1914, 1941). Conserved in Western Life history Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status elsewhere unknown. GROWTH FORM: Tufted, annual or perennial herb to 0.8 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. 146 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE POACEAE Eragrostis mexicana * (E. neomexicana *) Eragrostis parviflora Mexican Lovegrass Weeping Lovegrass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted variable annual herb to 1.2 m high. GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 1.1 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Summer. FLOWERS: In response to rain. FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to America. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST SWS SWP. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bilpin, Richmond (1912), Doonside, Ryde, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly western Sydney. Marrickville (1908), Casula, Campbelltown. CT: Bathurst, Moss Vale, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond, Glenbrook, Mt Colah, Cheltenham, Robertson. Homebush, Kogarah, Marayong, Emu Plains, Penrith, Parramatta, Habitat Liverpool, Narellan, Picton. CT: Bathurst. HABITAT: Disturbed areas, railways, saleyards. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Disturbed sites. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm VEGETATION: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale. VEGETATION: EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. Recorded on saline Conservation sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). Weed of disturbed areas and gardens. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE CONSERVATION: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), Eragrostis molybdea conservation status elsewhere unknown. Life history POACEAE GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. Eragrostis pilosa * VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). LONGEVITY: Soft Lovegrass PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: Summer. GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.6 m high. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), possibly a coloniser of bare sites. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from base. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, FebruaryÐMarch. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT NWS CWS SWS NWP NFWP; INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Qld, Vic. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Menangle, Mt Keira. CT: Bathurst, Hartley, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST SWP; Qld, Vic., N.T. Hill Top. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1912), Dharruk, Wentworthville, HABITAT: Roadside. Flemington, Abion Park. CT: Hartley, Bathurst (1912). ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. HABITAT: Roadsides. VEGETATION: Grassland, woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm tereticornis. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SUBSTRATE: Clay to sandy soils on shale, sandstone, lowÐmedium VEGETATION: Weedy grassland e.g. with Paspalum dilatatum, Setaria, nutrients. Plantago lanceolata. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, lowÐmedium nutrients. Conservation EXPOSURE: Conservation status unknown. Conservation Weed of cultivation and disturbed ground. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 147

POACEAE LONGEVITY: Eragrostis sororia PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Summer. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. GROWTH FORM: Tufted scrambling perennial herb to 0.7 m high, with DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for stems erect or scrambling over vegetation. dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Germination in glasshouse in summer, autumn and outside in winter, LONGEVITY: spring in Northern Tablelands (Britton & Brock 1994). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: FLOWERS: Summer. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Suspected of causing FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. photosensitisation in sheep (E. McBarron, Herb. note). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Upper Blue Mountains, Southern STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Highlands. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT NWS CWS NWP; Qld, Vic., N.G. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Mt Lambie, Lithgow, Blackheath, Medlow Bath, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Katoomba, Hill Top, Bowral, Berrima, Mittagong, Robertson, Barbers SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lapstone (1935), Mosman (1945), Menangle (1969). Creek. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: HABITAT: Disturbed sites, pastures. ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1600 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. VEGETATION: VEGETATION: Woodland; native grassland SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clayey soils on shale, sandstone, low nutrients. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone. EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation Conservation status unknown. Conservation status unknown.

POACEAE POACEAE Eragrostis tenuifolia * Eriachne glabrata Elastic Grass Wanderrie Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 0.7 m high. GROWTH FORM: Loose or densely tufted perennial herb to 0.6 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Summer. FLOWERS: Summer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. FIRE RESPONSE: Keith pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith Distribution pers. comm.). STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to India and Africa. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT NWP SFWP; Qld. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Swansea (1986), Beecroft (1978), Northbridge BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; N.T., W.A. (1987), Lane Cove (1986), Mosman (1985), Sydney Botanic Gardens DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Hawkesbury River to O’Hares Creek (Keith (1937). CT: Wombeyan Caves area (2001). 1994). Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Terrey Hills, Manly (1907), Rose Bay (1898), HABITAT: Lawns, roadside grass verges. Waterfall, Maddens Plains. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. HABITAT: VEGETATION: Riparian forest e.g. with Casuarina cunninghamiana (at ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Wombeyan). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstones, alluvium. VEGETATION: Wet heath e.g. with Banksia oblongifolia, Baeckea EXPOSURE: Full sun. imbricata; swamps e.g. with Melaleuca quinquenervia. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on dune sand, sandstone, low nutrients, Common in caravan parks, camping and recreation areas; appears to periodically moist. have spread since 1980s. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE CONSERVATION: Rare, O’Hares Creek is southern geographical limit (Keith Eragrostis trachycarpa 1994), reported in Royal NP. Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 80 cm high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). 148 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE POACEAE Eriochloa procera Festuca asperula Spring Grass Graceful Fescue Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 0.8 m high. GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous tufted perennial herb to 0.9 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Summer. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., India, Malesia. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: SC NT CT ST; Vic., Tas. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Terrigal, Avoca, Wondabyne, Flemington SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Mittagong (1941). Saleyards, Windang Island, Kiama. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Montane woodland. HABITAT: Sea cliff ledges, wetter areas, disturbed sites. ALTITUDE: 600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. VEGETATION: VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on gravel, shale, low-medium nutrients. EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation Rare, only one record for Sydney area at Mittagong in 1941. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status of coastal sites unknown. POACEAE Festuca elatior * (F. arundinacea) POACEAE Eriochloa pseudoacrotricha Tall Fescue Life history Early Spring Grass GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.2 m high, sometimes tussock- Life history forming. GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted, annual or short-lived perennial herb to VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). 1 m high. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: Spring. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FLOWERS: Summer. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Possibly a coloniser of bare sites. FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by Stubble Quail Distribution Coturnix pectoralis (Barker & Vestjens 1989, 1990). STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. Introduced as pasture grass. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS; Vic., Tas., STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. S.A., W.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Nepean River. SFWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Menangle (1964), Maldon. CT: Orange (1950), DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly western Sydney. Wentworth Falls. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Brush Farm (Eastwood), Parramatta, Prospect, Habitat Blacktown, Luddenham, Campbelltown, Bombo. HABITAT: Riverbanks, roadsides. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Roadsides. Remnant woodland on Cumberland Plain (T. James TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. pers. comm.). VEGETATION: Riparian vegetation e.g. with Lomandra longifolia, ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm Tristaniopsis laurina. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. SUBSTRATE: Sandy alluvial soil, low nutrients. VEGETATION: Grassland e.g. with Bothriochloa macra, Chloris truncata; EXPOSURE: woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus tereticornis, E. fibrosa. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Clayey soil on shale, basalt, medium nutrients. Recorded Planted as a pasture grass, occasionally naturalised. on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). EXPOSURE: Conservation Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status elsewhere unknown. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 149

POACEAE POACEAE Festuca pratensis * Gastridium phleoides * Meadow Fescue Nitgrass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Short-lived tufted perennial herb to 1.4 m high. GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.5 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. FLOWERS: Spring. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe and Asia. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT; Vic., S.A., W.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS NWP; Tas., S.A., DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Tarana (1941). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Habitat ELECT LOCATIONS S : CC: Pennant Hills (1990), Domain (1902), Port HABITAT: Botany, Waterfall (1987). CT: Oberon (1992). ALTITUDE: 900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: HABITAT: VEGETATION: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm SUBSTRATE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: EXPOSURE: VEGETATION: Conservation SUBSTRATE: Rare weed of disturbed areas, only record at Tarana in 1941. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Planted as pasture grass with occasional recent records of naturalising. Glyceria australis POACEAE Australian Sweetgrass Festuca rubra subsp. rubra * Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted rhizomatous perennial herb to 1.3 m high. Red Fescue VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Life history LONGEVITY: GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous tufted perennial herb to 0.5 m high. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. LONGEVITY: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Germination in all seasons in FLOWERS: Spring. Northern Tablelands (Britton & Brock 1994). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS I : Planted as lawn grass. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe, Asia and America. Vic., Tas., S.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST; Vic., Tas. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Agnes Banks, Doonside, Parramatta, Moorebank, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Windsor (1894). CT: Bathurst (1958), Katoomba Liverpool, Orangeville. CT: Lidsdale, Gingkin, Bowral, Wingecarribee (1994), Fitzroy Falls (1987). Swamp, Moss Vale. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Lawns, roadside. HABITAT: Swamps, creekbanks. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1600 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: Lawns. VEGETATION: Coastal swamp vegetation e.g. with Pseudoraphis SUBSTRATE: paradoxa, Philydrum lanuginosum, Carex appressa, Cyperus gunnii; EXPOSURE: upland swamps e.g. with Eleocharis spp. Sparganium antipodum, Conservation Leptospermum. Planted as a lawn grass. SUBSTRATE: Peaty alluvial soils, sandy clay on Tertiary alluvium, low nutrients, wet sites, sometimes in standing water. EXPOSURE: Conservation Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status elsewhere unknown. 150 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE POACEAE Glyceria declinata * Hainardia cylindrica * (Monerma cylindrica) Sweetgrass Common Barbgrass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted rhizomatous perennial herb to 0.8 m high. GROWTH FORM: Tufted, gregarious annual herb to 0.7 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomes and stolons. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Forms extensive clumps (Herb. note). LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Spring. FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe and America. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to southern Europe. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: SC CT ST SWP; Vic. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: LHI, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Orange (1991), Katoomba (1998), Wingecarribee DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. Swamp (1989). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lake Macquarie (1982), Bayview (1935), Habitat Neutral Bay (1916), Leumeah, Gunnamatta Bay (Port Hacking). HABITAT: Damp areas, creeks in water. CT: Lyndhurst Cemetery. ALTITUDE: 600Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1600 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. HABITAT: Brackish areas, estuaries, lawns. VEGETATION: Margins of sedge swamp, montane peatland, riparian ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm forest e.g. with Eucalyptus dalrympleana, E. stellulata. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. SUBSTRATE: Peaty to clayey soil on sediments, lowÐmedium nutrients, VEGETATION: Estuarine swamp. permanent moisture. SUBSTRATE: Brackish to saline alluvial soils. Recorded on saline sites in EXPOSURE: western NSW (Semple 1993). Conservation EXPOSURE: Usually grows on saline soils or soils high in gypsum (Harden Weed of upland wetlands. 1993). Conservation POACEAE Weed of lawns and estuaries. Glyceria maxima * POACEAE Reed Sweetgrass (H. compressa) Life history Hemarthria uncinata var. uncinata GROWTH FORM: Stout rhizomatous perennial herb to 2.5 m high, with Matgrass hollow ribbed stems to 12 mm diam. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Forms dense moncultures (V. Klapake, Herb. note). GROWTH FORM: Decumbent or ascending, creeping perennial herb to 1 LONGEVITY: Indefinite. m high, with many-noded, branched stems, sometimes forming mats. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Creeping rhizome. Forms broad spreading stands FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. (Klapake 2002). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: FLOWERS: DecemberÐMarch. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. Keith pers. comm.). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS NWP SWP; FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, flowering 3Ð5 months after high intensity Qld, Vic., Tas. fire (1/94 at Lane Cove & Narrabeen, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Tablelands. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Rhizomes eaten by Purple SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lane Cove (1984Ð94). CT: Oberon (1964), Swamphen Porphyrio porphyrio (Lepschi 1993). Ginkin (1977). Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: Wetlands, swampy pastures. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Bolboschoenus, Typha. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Norahville, Gosford, Richmond, Hornsby, SUBSTRATE: Narrabeen, Cheltenham, Manly, Neutral Bay, Homebush, Centennial EXPOSURE: Park, Kogarah, Como, Darkes Forest, Maddens Plains, Dapto, Conservation Cambewarra, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Orange, Bathurst, Cullen Bullen, Lithgow, Hartley, Mt Wilson, Katoomba, Colong, Mittagong, Paddys CONSERVATION: Planted in swampy areas as a fodder crop, now a significant weed of wetlands (Harden 1993). River, Barbers Creek. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 151

Habitat FIRE RESPONSE: HABITAT: Damp places, estuaries, swamp margins. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Distribution TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. VEGETATION: Margins of swamps e.g. with Banksia oblongifolia, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT; Vic. Ptilothrix deusta, Empodisma minus. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on alluvium sandstone, shale, basalt, SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Mt Wilson (1953Ð58). lowÐhigh nutrients. Colonises low pH (2.5Ð6.5) acid sulphate estuarine soils in the Wyong area (Payne 1992). Habitat HABITAT: Damp areas, gardens. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status VEGETATION: elsewhere unknown. SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on basalt, high nutrients. EXPOSURE: POACEAE Conservation Holcus lanatus * Weed of damp areas. Deep underground runners made it a serious gar- Yorkshire Fog den weed at Mt Wilson (Herb. note 1953Ð1958). Life history POACEAE GROWTH FORM: Tufted, velvety perennial herb to 1 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Hordeum distichon * LONGEVITY: Two Row Barley PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. GROWTH FORM: Erect annual herb to 1 m high. FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. Prolific seeder, individual plant can produce op to 240 000 seeds per annum; small seed 1.5 million per VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. kilogram; seed germinates quickly after maturity, but may be delayed LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. by freezing (NSW Agriculture website). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Spring. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular mechanism for dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: Probably killed. Flowers produced 12 weeks after high INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by Stubble Quail Coturnix pectoralis (Barker & Vestjens 1989, 1990). In controlled intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). situations can be useful pasture grass (NSW Agriculture website). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NWS CWS SWS SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS SWS SWP; Vic., Tas., S.A. W.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Flemington, Penshurst, Casula, Ingleburn, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hornsby, Rydalmere, Centennial Park, Coogee (1889), Picton (1912), Mt Kembla (1891), Berry (1912), Cambewarra. Narellan, Campbelltown, Unanderra. CT: Sunny Corner, Blackheath, Katoomba, Jenolan Caves (1899), Hill Habitat Top (1913), Bowral (1913). HABITAT: Railway trucking yards, roadsides, railway lines. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. HABITAT: Disturbed sites, drainage lines. VEGETATION: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm SUBSTRATE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. EXPOSURE: VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: Wide range of soils, clay to sandy soils on shale, basalt, Conservation sandstone, poorly drained, low to high nutrients. Recorded on saline A cereal crop, evidently establishing temporarily along transport routes sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). from spilt grain. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Weed in wet places, particularly on fertile soils. Hordeum glaucum * Northern Barley Grass POACEAE Life history Holcus mollis * GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.4 m high. Creeping Fog VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Life history LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous perennial herb to 1 m high. FLOWERS: Spring. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Deep rhizomes. FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. LONGEVITY: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: 152 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. NFWP SFWP; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. NFWP SFWP; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond, Epping, Ashton Park (1945), DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney. Domain (1902), Homebush (1930), Flemington Saleyards, Strathfield, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Domain (1962), Flemington Saleyards, Casula, Mount Annan. Glenfield (1964). Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Roadsides, wasteland. HABITAT: Saleyards, railways. ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: Grassland. VEGETATION: Grassland. SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on sandstones, shale, medium nutrients. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation Widespread weed. Widespread weed, often associated with livestock. POACEAE POACEAE Hyparrhenia hirta Hordeum hystrix * Coolatai Grass Mediterranean Barley Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted perennial herb to 1.2 m high. EGETATIVE SPREAD GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.4 m high. V : ONGEVITY VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. L : RIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. P : LOWERS PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. F : Summer. RUIT SEED FLOWERS: Spring. F / : Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. ISPERSAL ESTABLISHMENT GROWTH FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. D , & : IRE RESPONSE DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: F : NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS FIRE RESPONSE: I : Unpalatable to stock, reduces INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: productivity of pastures (NPWS website). Distribution Distribution TATUS ORIGIN STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. S / : Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Introduced as a BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT ST CWS SWS SWP; Vic., Tas., S.A., soil stabiliser (NPWS website). W.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT NWS CWS SWS NWP; Qld, N.T., S.A., DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: W.A. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1916), Flemington Saleyards (1968). D S : Widespread. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset (1993), Berowra (1993), Flemington Habitat (1977), Toongabbie Creek (1993). HABITAT: Disturbed sites. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm ABITAT TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: H : Roadsides. LTITUDE NNUAL RAINFALL VEGETATION: A : 0Ð300 m A : 1000Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SUBSTRATE: EGETATION EXPOSURE: V : Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus punctata, Angophora floribunda. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Sandy loam on clay, gravels. Infrequent weed of disturbed sites, often associated with livestock. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Highly invasive grass that replaces other species and is capable of in- Hordeum leporinum * vading relatively undisturbed vegetation (NPWS website). Reported from Barley Grass Botanic Gardens Sydney in 1934 as being from ‘ex Kenya’. Established at Flemington in 1977, presumably by stock movement. Initially estab- Life history lishing on roadsides, the extent of potential spread is unclear at this GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.2 m high. stage, though it is widespread in north western NSW. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. POACEAE PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Spring. Imperata cylindrica var. major FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. Seed weight 7.8 mg (Buckley Blady Grass 1982). Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: ROWTH FORM FIRE RESPONSE: G : Perennial herb with tufts to 1.2 m high and deeply buried, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Pacific Black Duck pungent pointed wiry rhizomes, sometimes with tuber-like swellings on Anas superciliosa, seed eaten by Black Swan Cygnus atratus (Barker & lower roots. Vestjens 1989,1990). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 153

FLOWERS: NovemberÐMarch, stimulated by fire. Flowering prolifically VEGETATION: Fresh wetland e.g. with Eleocharis sphacelata, Persicaria within several weeks of high intensity fire (1/94 at Narrabeen, L.McD). strigosa, Persicaria hydropiper, Ranunculus inundatus; Upland mire FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded, 1Ð1.3 mm long, JuneÐJuly. Fruit (Kodela 1992). produced 3Ð5 months after the fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. SUBSTRATE: Clayey to sandy alluvium on sand, shale, low nutrients. comm.). I EXPOSURE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: fruit, wind dispersed Conservation (Westoby et al. 1990). No germination after application of smoke for 1 Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status hour (Greening Australia 1996c). elsewhere unknown. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from rhizome (Fox 1988). Generally stimulated by fire and may become dominant after low intensity fire, POACEAE though recorded in area not burnt for 20 years (at Mosman). Indicative of frequent burning; can be eliminated by regular mowing but not fire Ischaemum australe var. australe (J. Powell & H. Fallding pers. comm.). Life history INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Food plant of butterfly larvae GROWTH FORM: Tufted, erect or scrambling, rhizomatous perennial herb Taractrocera papyria papyria, Suniana lascivia lascivia, Telicota ancilla with stems to 2 m long. ancilla, Hypocysta metirius, Melanitis leda bankia, Xois arctoa arctoa VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. (Common & Waterhouse 1981). May be unpalatable to rabbits LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Oryctolagus cuniculus (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution FLOWERS: Summer. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT NWS SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: N.T., S.A., W.A., S.E. Asia. FIRE RESPONSE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and lower Blue Mountains. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Dural, Hornsby, Cheltenham, Homebush, Distribution Kogarah, Kurnell, Berkshire Park, Warrimoo. CT: Jenolan Caves (1900), STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Long Swamp (Kodela 1992). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld, N.T., W.A. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast, north of Sydney. HABITAT: Ridges, slopes. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lake Macquarie, Morisset, Wyee Creek, Wyong, ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm Maroubra Beach. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Habitat VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, Angophora HABITAT: Swamps, creeks. floribunda, to drier forest e.g. Eucalyptus piperita, Angophora costata. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100Ð1200 mm Margin of upland mire (Kodela 1992). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SUBSTRATE: Usually on deep soils, sandy loamÐsandy clays from shale, VEGETATION: Sedge swamp e.g. with Baumea juncea, Sacciolepis indica, volcanic neck, lowÐmedium nutrients. Paspalum orbiculare; scrub e.g. with Melaleuca sieberi, Melaleuca EXPOSURE: Full sunÐlight shade. nodosa; woodland e.g. with Melaleuca quinquenervia. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on alluvium, low nutrients, poorly drained, freshÐ Probably adequately conserved. Reported in Blue Mountains NP. ?brackish. EXPOSURE: POACEAE Conservation Isachne globosa (I. australis) Maroubra is southern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. Swamp Millet POACEAE Life history Lachnagrostis aemula (Agrostis aemula) GROWTH FORM: Aquatic or semi-aquatic perennial herb to c. 0.7 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Weeping and rooting stems. Blowngrass LONGEVITY: Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: GROWTH FORM: Erect, tufted annual or perennial herb to 0.6 m high. FLOWERS: Summer. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. LONGEVITY: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adapted for dispersal by STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. adhesion and wind (McIntyre et al. 1995). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST SWS; Qld, Vic., N.T, FIRE RESPONSE: S.A., N.Z., N.G., SE Asia. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Upper Colo, Cattai Creek, Sackville, Richmond, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Narrabeen, Manly Beach, Rockdale, Botany, Eastlakes, Cape Solander, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS NWP SWP; LHI, Voyager Point, Casula, Berry. CT: Lidsdale, Blackheath, Kowmung Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. River, Robertson, Belmore Falls, Barbers Creek, Tallong. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Marayong, Roseville, Parramatta, HABITAT: Swamp margins. Rookwood, East Hills, Glenfield, Hurstville, Camden, Dapto, Albion ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Park. CT: Orange, Mullion Creek, Oberon, Jenolan Caves, Hill Top, Mt TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Gibraltar, Moss Vale. 154 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Moist slopes, creekbanks, cemeteries. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SWP NFWP SFWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A., N.Z., Polynesia, VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus blakelyi, E. melliodora; America. grassland e.g. with Themeda australis. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, alluvium. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Annangrove, Hornsby, Homebush, EXPOSURE: Botany Bay, Kemps Creek, Casula, Audley, Albion Park, Menangle, Conservation Otford, Bulli Pass, Bargo, Wollongong, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Oberon, Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status Mt Wilson, Lawson, Mittagong, Hill Top, Capertee. elsewhere unknown. Habitat HABITAT: Creek banks, road verges, cliff lines. POACEAE ALTITUDE: 0Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Lachnagrostis billardierei subsp. billardierei VEGETATION: Grassy forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna; swampy forest (Agrostis billardieri) e.g. with Eucalyptus ovata; grassy woodland, scrub e.g. with Melaleuca decora. Coast Blowngrass SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, volcanics, sandy alluvium, medium to Life history high nutrients, moist sites. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW GROWTH FORM: Erect, tufted annual or perennial herb to 0.5 m high (Semple 1993). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: EXPOSURE: LONGEVITY: Conservation PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status FLOWERS: Spring. elsewhere unknown. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: POACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Lagurus ovatus * Distribution Hair’s Tail Grass STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Life history BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Vic., Tas., S.A. GROWTH FORM: Tufted, softly hairy annual herb to 0.6 m high. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal foreshores. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wamberal, Barrenjoey, Manly, Gladesville, LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. Bondi, Gerringong. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. Habitat FLOWERS: Spring. HABITAT: Coastal headlands, hillsides. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATION: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Cultivated and used in dried flower SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on shales, laterite, sandstone, low arrangements. nutrients; tolerates salt spray. Distribution EXPOSURE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Conservation BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. Conservation status unknown. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1908), Manly, Centennial Park, POACEAE Kogarah (1899), Long Bay, Kurnell, Bundeena, Austinmer. CT: Capertee Lachnagrostis filiformis (1907), Oberon (1926). Habitat (Agrostis avenacea var. avencacea) HABITAT: Foreshores, hind dunes. Blown Grass ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: GROWTH FORM: Variable annual or perennial herb to 70 cm high SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on dunes, sandstone. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). EXPOSURE: LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Conservation FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer, November. Minor weed. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Mature DecemberÐ February (Greening Australia 1996a). POACEAE DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adapted for dispersal by Lamarckia aurea * adhesion and wind (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). Germination in all seasons in Northern Tablelands (Britton Goldentop & Brock 1994). Coloniser. Total germination approx. 18 days (typical Life history rate 2289 per gram of seed, Greening Australia 1996a). GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.4 m high. FIRE RESPONSE: Fruit produced 10Ð11 months after high intensity fire VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Spring. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 155

FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT NWS CWS NWP; Qld. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Camden area. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Grose Vale (1910), Mt Hunter, Razorback. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP; HABITAT: Moist protected areas. Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð900 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Estuaries. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Homebush Bay, Concord (1910), Flemington, VEGETATION: Open-forest remnant e.g. with Corymbia maculata, Tempe (1899). Aphanopetalum resinosum, Rapanea variabilis. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Clay loam on shales, shaley sandstone medium nutrients. HABITAT: Disturbed areas. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Now confined to Razorback Range area. Conservation status unknown. VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, alluvium. POACEAE EXPOSURE: Leptochloa peacockii Conservation Weed of disturbed areas. Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted or tussock-forming perennial herb to 1.5 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: POACEAE LONGEVITY: Leersia hexandra PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Swamp Ricegrass FLOWERS: In response to flooding. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: GROWTH FORM: Aquatic or semi-aquatic perennial herb to 1.5 m high, FIRE RESPONSE: with long branching rhizomes. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. LONGEVITY: Distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FLOWERS: Summer. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT NWS CWS NWP: Qld. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hawkesbury Agricultural College Richmond FIRE RESPONSE: (1910). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Areas subject to flooding. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð800 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld, N.T. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: VEGETATION: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Port Jackson (1802). SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: Habitat HABITAT: Swamps, creeks. Conservation ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm This is a species of drier areas. It is not clear whether this species TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: occurred naturally in the Sydney area as all specimens from the area are VEGETATION: from experimental stations, and could have been grown from seed from SUBSTRATE: further afield. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Port Jackson is southern geographical limit, but has not been recorded Lolium loliaceum * since collection by Robert Brown in 1802. Probably extinct in the Stiff Ryegrass Sydney area now. Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.3 m high. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Leptochloa ciliolata LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. FLOWERS: Spring. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. LONGEVITY: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: FLOWERS: Summer. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. FIRE RESPONSE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CWS SWS SWP; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. 156 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hunters Hill (1912), McMahons Point, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in Centennial Park (1899), Maroubra, Leumeah, Wollongong. humans, mostly SeptemberÐJanuary (Bass & Wrigley 1984). Foodplant Habitat of butterfly caterpillar Heteronympha merope (Coupar & Coupar 1992). HABITAT: Roadsides, gardens, headlands. Seed eaten by Stubble Quail Coturnix pectoralis (Barker & Vestjens ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm 1989, 1990). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Distribution VEGETATION: Grassland. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP EXPOSURE: SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A. Conservation DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Uncommon weed of roadsides and crops. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gladesville (1885), Centennial Park, Rockdale, Casula, Maldon, Berry, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Wallerawang, Blackheath, Moss Vale, Robertson. POACEAE Lolium multiflorum * Habitat HABITAT: Roadsides, pastures. Italian Ryegrass ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual or short-lived perennial herb to 1 m high. VEGETATION: Grassland, woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. Hybridizes with Lolium perenne, L. rigidum and other Lolium species. tereticornis. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). SUBSTRATE: Clay soils. LONGEVITY: EXPOSURE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Conservation FLOWERS: Spring. Grown as pasture species, reported by Robert Brown as established in FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Sydney by 1804 (Maiden 1909). Planted in recreation areas (Harden DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore dispersed by adhesion 1993). (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). FIRE RESPONSE: Flowering 38Ð43 weeks after high intensity fire (1/94 at POACEAE Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Lolium rigidum * INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Wimmera Ryegrass STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Introduced for Life history pastures. GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.9 m high, often reddish purple BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT NWS CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., at base. Tas., S.A., W.A. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Epping, Northbridge, Circular Quay (1903), PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. Glenfield, Camden, Campbelltown, Wollongong, Albion Park. CT: Hill FLOWERS: Spring. Top (1912), Robertson. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Seed weight 2.4 mg Habitat (Buckley 1982). ISPERSAL ESTABLISHMENT GROWTH HABITAT: Roadsides, pastures, wasteland. D , & : Dispersed in mud on cars (Wace ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1600 mm 1977). IRE RESPONSE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: F : NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS VEGETATION: I : Seed harvested by ants (Buckley SUBSTRATE: Clay to sandy soils, lowÐmedium nutrients. 1982). Galls appear on plant when parasitised by nematode Anguina EXPOSURE: agrostis and bacterium Corynebacterium rathayi; the plant is then toxic to livestock in W.A. (Purcell 1985) and S.A. (McKay et al. 1985). Conservation Pasture species, widespread weed of roadsides and crops. Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Introduced for pastures. POACEAE BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP Lolium perenne * SWP NFWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. Perennial Ryegrass DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Glenorie, Wahroonga (1910), Balmoral, Life history Hunters Hill (1912), Homebush (1930), Centennial Park (1899), GROWTH FORM: Loose to densely tufted annual or short-lived perennial Glenfield, Camden (1913), Wollongong. CT: Orange, Bathurst. herb to 80 cm high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Habitat LONGEVITY: HABITAT: Pastures, grassland. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm FLOWERS: OctoberÐDecember. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Seed weight 1.9 mg VEGETATION: (Buckley 1982). SUBSTRATE: Clay to sandy soils, lowÐmedium nutrients. Recorded on DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular morphology for saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). EXPOSURE: FIRE RESPONSE: Flowering 44 weeks after high intensity fire (1/94 at Conservation Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). CONSERVATION: Grown as pasture species, widespread weed of crops (Harden 1993). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 157

POACEAE POACEAE Lolium temulentum * Melinis repens * (Rhynchelytrum repens) Darnel Red Natal Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.9 m high. GROWTH FORM: Stoloniferous, aromatic perennial herb to 1.2 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Spring. FLOWERS: Covered with pink, red or shining white hairs, summer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for FIRE RESPONSE: dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by Stubble Quail FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted, fruit produced 19Ð26 weeks after Coturnix pectoralis (Barker & Vestjens 1989, 1990). high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Reported by humans (Bass & Wrigley 1984). Robert Brown to be introduced to Sydney by 1804 (Maiden 1909). Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Africa. SWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NWS CWS NWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. W.A., N.G. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Manly (1885), Homebush (1895), Centennial DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Park (1899), Kogarah (1894), Coalcliff, Wollongong. CT: Hill Top SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Cheltenham, Centennial Park (1912), (1913), Mittagong (1918). Rookwood, Emu Plains, Glenbrook. Habitat Habitat ABITAT H : Roadsides, wetland margins. HABITAT: Roadsides, wasteland, disturbed areas. LTITUDE NNUAL RAINFALL A : 0Ð1000 m A : 700Ð1200 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm YPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE T : TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. EGETATION V : VEGETATION: UBSTRATE S : SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients. XPOSURE E : EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation Previously a serious weed of winter cereal crops, but now uncommon (Harden 1993). POACEAE POACEAE Microlaena stipoides var. breviseta Melinis minutiflora * Life history GROWTH FORM: Slender, tufted perennial herb to 0.7 m high, with Molasses Grass contracted rhizome. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: GROWTH FORM: Stoloniferous, aromatic perennial herb to 1.2 m high. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: Most of the year, spikelets usually purplish. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FLOWERS: Summer. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular morphology for FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Africa. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT; Qld. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains, Southern Highlands. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Mt Victoria (1886), Katoomba, Wentworth Falls SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Colo Bridge (1986). (1894), Hill Top (1912), Carrington Falls. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: HABITAT: Shaded sites. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900 mm ALTITUDE: 600Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. VEGETATION: VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation CONSERVATION: Planted for pasture and erosion control, chiefly north of Localised populations in Sydney area; Carrington Falls is southern Coffs Harbour. Only record for Sydney area, in 1986 near Colo Bridge, geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. covering an embankment. 158 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: Microlaena stipoides var. stipoides INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Meadow Rice Grass, Weeping Grass STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Life history BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld, SE Asia, Philippines. GROWTH FORM: Slender, tufted herb to 70 cm high, with contracted DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Hornsby. rhizome. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hornsby (1915). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Habitat LONGEVITY: Indefinite. HABITAT: Stream banks. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm FLOWERS: At any time of the year, spikelets green. Remains green TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: during winter and has an indeterminate growth pattern with rapid growth VEGETATION: and flowering whenever soil water is available from spring through SUBSTRATE: autumn. EXPOSURE: Shade. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, seed heads slender, weeping. Mature DecemberÐApril (Greening Australia 1996a). Conservation DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special dispersal morphology Hornsby is southern geographical limit, but last recorded there in 1915. (Westoby et al. 1990). Total germination approx. 25 days, (typical rate Now possibly extinct in Sydney area. 87 per gram of seed, Greening Australia 1996a); very little dormancy, germination can occur at any time of year, taking 7Ð15 days, but is very POACEAE slow if soil temperature is below 10¡C; plants develop slowly, may be Miscanthus sinensis * out-competed by weeds (Waters et al. 2000). FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 4 months Eulalia (Narrabeen 1994). Regrowth and suckers from rootstocks and lateral Life history roots, no seedlings recorded less than 1 year after fire (Purdie 1977). GROWTH FORM: Erect, tufted perennial herb 2Ð3 m high, leaves mostly INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: One of the few Australian native basal, leaves green throughout. Two varieties have been recognised. grasses that provide forage during the critical winterÐearly spring VEGETATIVE SPREAD: period on the Northern Tablelands (Magcale et al. 1991). Valuable for LONGEVITY: maintaining stock in dry times. Food plant of butterfly larvae Geitoneura PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: acantha and Geitoneura klugii (Coupar & Coupar 1992), Taractrocera FLOWERS: Summer papyria papyria, Oreixenica lathoniella herceus (Common & FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. Waterhouse 1981). Seed eaten by finches (J. Neil, Gumnuts 46, 2002). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP; Distribution Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A., NZ, Pac Is, Malesia. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, commonly cultivated, now escaped and DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. naturalised. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gosford, Pymble, Hunters Hill, Centennial Park, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT. Homebush, Penshurst, Richmond, Mount Annan, Razorback, Dapto, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Lower Blue Mountains. Kangaroo Valley. CT: Kelso, Blackheath, Katoomba, Hill Top. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Woodford, Hazelbrook, Wahoonga (1952). Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Damp shady areas. More fertile or protected areas of natural HABITAT: Roadsides, railway. pastures particularly where there is some timber cover. ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: VEGETATION: Moist eucalypt forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, E. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. pilularis, Angophora costata, Angophora floribunda; woodland e.g. with EXPOSURE: Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Sandy loamÐclay loams on shale, mediumÐhigh nutrients. Locally naturalised along railway embankment Woodford to Hazelbrook Watertable mostly low, moisture supply intermittent, non saline. Wide (1945Ð1988). variety of soil types, with pH less than 5.5, usually more abundant with pH down to 3.9 (Waters et al. 2000). POACEAE EXPOSURE: Sheltered, mid-shade. Conservation Nassella neesiana * (Stipa neesiana) Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Chilean Needle Grass Conservation elsewhere unknown. Life history GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted perennial herb to 0.8 m high; flat leaves POACEAE to 5 mm wide, with rough margins and ribbed upper surface. Microstegium nudum VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: More than 20 years (Agric. & Res. Management Council Life history 2000). GROWTH FORM: Straggling annual or perennial herb to 50 cm high. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FLOWERS: Spring. LONGEVITY: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Produces two types of seeds: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: those borne on flowerheads (22 000 per plant per year), and stem seeds FLOWERS: Summer. (cleistogenes) formed at nodes and sheath base of flowering stems that FRUIT/SEED: Dry, indehiscent, 1-seeded. allow reproduction in absence of flowering (Agric. & Res. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Management Council 2000). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 159

DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed adhesive, with SUBSTRATE: Loams on shale, granite, low nutrients. apical hairs, attaches to machinery, clothing or livestock; seed viable EXPOSURE: Full sun, drought resistent (NSW Agriculture website). for more than 12 years (Agric. & Res. Management Council 2000). Conservation FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from base. Highly invasive, forms dense clumps and competes with and crowds INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Chokes out other species, out native species (NPWS website). Highly invasive of grasslands; invertebrate diversity low. tolerant to drought, fire and grazing with few natural enemies in Distribution Australia (Agricultural & Resource Management Council 2000). Weed STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S America. Accidental introduction, of National Significance, declared noxious in all of NSW. probably as agricultural contaminant (NPWS website) first collected in NSW at Glen Innes 1944 (Agric. & Res. Management Council 2000). POACEAE BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT ST; Vic. Notochloe microdon DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly western Sydney. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Brush Farm Park (1986), Mt Druitt (1974), Life history Pendle Hill, Ingleburn (1986), Mount Annan. CT: Bathurst (1972). GROWTH FORM: Tufted rhizomatous perennial herb to 0.7 m high, only Habitat conspicuous when flowering. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: HABITAT: Roadsides, pastures, grassy areas, along creeks and rivers (Agric. & Res. Management Council 2000). LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm FLOWERS: Spring. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, peak summer. VEGETATION: Grassland, remnant woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, medium nutrients. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: EXPOSURE: Conservation Distribution Extremely hardy and aggressive grass, very resistant to mowing and STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. drought. First recorded in Sydney area in 1970s. Spreading in western BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT. Sydney, situation in Bathurst area unknown. Listed as a Weed of DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains. National Significance and declared noxious in 11 local government SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Lithgow, Newnes, Blackheath, Wentworth Falls, areas (NPWS website). Lawson, Hazelbrook. Habitat POACEAE HABITAT: Edges of swampy creeks Nassella trichotoma * ALTITUDE: 700Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: above 1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Serrated Tussock, Yass Tussock VEGETATION: Wet heath, hanging swamps e.g. with Gleichenia dicarpa, Life history Baeckea linifolia. GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted perennial herb to 0.7 m high. Distinctive SUBSTRATE: Sandy loam from sandstone, low nutrients. Water table weeping tussocky form and hairless, spineless ligule aids identification; permanently high, moisture supply continuous. deep fibrous root system. EXPOSURE: Sheltered, full sun. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Conservation LONGEVITY: Possibly more than 20 years (Agricultural & Resource Rare local endemic species, coded 2RC- on national rare species list Management Council 2000). (Briggs & Leigh 1996). Reported in Blue Mountains NP. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: 2 years (Agricultural & Resource Management Council 2000). POACEAE FLOWERS: Spring. Oplismenus aemulus FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed heads, long Life history distance dispersal by wind up to 15 km (NSW Agriculture website) and GROWTH FORM: Weak, creeping, trailing perennial herb to 0.3 m high, by humans, animals and water; most seed germinates, needs rain in leaves 4Ð18 mm wide. autumn, winter or spring; seed may remain viable for several decades; VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous. seed may be viable after passing through the digestive system of stock; LONGEVITY: Indefinite. seedlings slow-growing and weak (Agricultural & Resource PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. Management Council 2000). FLOWERS: DecemberÐMay. FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Appears to be unattractive to stock DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special dispersal morphology (Herb. specimen 1948). Low feed value, unpalatable to livestock, (Westoby et al. 1990). Coloniser of bare shady sites. reduces productivity of pastures (NPWS website). FIRE RESPONSE: Possibly killed, flowering 5 months after high intensity Distribution fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S America. I : Apparently eaten by rabbits BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS; Vic., Tas. Oryctolagus cuniculus (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Tablelands. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Unanderra, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Orange, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Bathurst, Carcoar (1948), Blayney (1947), Little Hartley, Mount Tomah, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT NWS SWS; Qld, Vic., N.G. Oberon (1946), Berrima (1950), Moss Vale (1937), Paddys River. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Colo River, Richmond, Glenbrook, Baulkham HABITAT: Low fertility hilly areas, overgrazed pastures, roadsides. Hills, Doonside, Parsley Bay, Botany Bay, Gladesville, Waterfall, ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm Bundeena, Hacking River, Cedar Creek, Burragorang Valley, Kowmung TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. River, Cobbitty, Shellharbour, Minnamurra Falls, Kangaroo Valley, VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus viminalis. Berry. CT: Kanangra, Macquarie Pass. 160 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. HABITAT: Gullies, wetland. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: GosfordÐWyong. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Erina Creek (1925), Wyong (1993). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Habitat VEGETATION: Moist eucalypt forest, rainforest e.g. with Acmena smithii; HABITAT: Shady areas often near water. dry rainforest e.g. with Streblus brunonianus, Cassine australis, and ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100Ð1200 mm woodland e.g. Eucalyptus amplifolia, Casuarina glauca, Angophora TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. floribunda. VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: Sandy loam from alluvium, shale, basalt, volcanic necks, SUBSTRATE: medium nutrients. EXPOSURE: Shade. EXPOSURE: Mid-shade. Conservation Conservation Gosford is southern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status elsewhere unknown. POACEAE POACEAE Panicum antidotale * Oplismenus imbecillis Giant Panic Grass, Blue Panic Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Robust, tufted, shortly rhizomatous perennial herb to GROWTH FORM: Weak, creeping, trailing perennial herb to 30 cm high, 1.5 m high. leaves less than 7 mm wide. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Spreading. LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Summer. FLOWERS: At any time of year. FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed. Bird-dispersed FIRE RESPONSE: (Floyd 1966). Summer growing, colonising bare sites. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to India and Asia. Introduced as fodder Distribution species. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT NWS CWS NWP; Qld, N.T., W.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT NWS CWS; Qld, Vic., N.T., DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: N.G. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Clyde (1969). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread on coast. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Dural, Hornsby, Wahroonga, Balmoral, Bellevue Habitat Hill, Homebush, Oatley, Waterfall, Razorback, Kowmung River, Lake HABITAT: Wasteland. Illawarra, Cambewarra, Kiama. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Habitat VEGETATION: HABITAT: Shady forest, sheltered gullies. SUBSTRATE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: Rainforest, moist eucalypt forest e.g. with Eucalyptus Conservation saligna, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita, E. globoidea; light Cultivated as fodder species, occasionally escaping, reported from gaps in rainforest. railway yards at Clyde in 1969. SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on sandstone, shale, basalt, water table mostly low, moisture supply intermittent, low to high nutrients. POACEAE EXPOSURE: Sheltered sites, mid-shade. Panicum bisulcatum Conservation Black-seeded Panic Conservation status unknown. Life history POACEAE GROWTH FORM: Semi-aquatic decumbent annual or short-lived perennial herb to 0.8 m high. Ottochloa gracillima VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Roots at nodes. Life history LONGEVITY: GROWTH FORM: Slender perennial herb to 0.3 m high, with scrambling PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: or decumbent stems. Roots at lower nodes, often forming green mats FLOWERS: Summer. (Wheeler et al. 1990). FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded, purplish black. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Mat-forming. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Summer. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWS; Qld, Vic., Asia. FIRE RESPONSE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly GosfordÐSt Albans area. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Webbs Creek, Wrights Creek, Ourimbah, Narara, Distribution Cattai Creek, Ryde. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 161

Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Near streams, marshes. HABITAT: Ridges, cemeteries. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. VEGETATION: VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis; SUBSTRATE: In alluvium, mud, medium nutrients. grassland. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. Conservation EXPOSURE: Conservation status unknown. Mainly associated with the Hawkesbury Conservation floodplain but was reported at Ryde in 1999. It may be dispersed in Rare, vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Last reported topsoil. from Bathurst in 1903.

POACEAE POACEAE Panicum capillare var. capillare * Panicum effusum Witchgrass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted, hairy perennial herb to 70 cm high GROWTH FORM: Hairy, tufted annual herb to 0.8 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Summer. FLOWERS: Summer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore with morphology adapted DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Dispersed in mud on cars (Wace for wind dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). 1977). Possibly coloniser of disturbed sites. FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by Stubble Quail Coturnix pectoralis (Barker & Vestjens 1989, 1990). Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to N America. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. NFWP; Vic., W.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Orange area. SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A., N.I. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Paddington (1912). CT: Orange (1936, 1948, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. 1978). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Awaba, Upper Colo, Pitt Town, Grose Vale, Vineyard, Hornsby, Penrith, Mulgoa, Liverpool, Cobbitty, Como, Mount Habitat Annan, Menangle, Picton, Cedar Creek, Kowmung River, Yanderra, HABITAT: Disturbed ground. Kangaroo Valley. CT: Capertee Valley, Meadow Flat, Bathurst, ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm Yetholme, Blayney, Blackheath, Woodford, Wollondilly River, Moss TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Vale. VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Gullies, slopes, roadsides. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Mainly reported from Orange as weed of urban areas. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, E. crebra, Melaleuca decora, Angophora floribunda, Eucalyptus albens, POACEAE E. melliodora. Panicum decompositum SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, metasediments, conglomerate, alluvium, medium to low nutrients. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW Native Millet (Semple 1993). Life history EXPOSURE: Full sun. GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Conservation status unknown. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: POACEAE FLOWERS: Summer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. Panicum gilvum * (P. laevifolium var. contractum) DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: Life history INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by Stubble Quail GROWTH FORM: Decumbent to erect annual herb, with stems to 0.7 m Coturnix pectoralis (Barker & Vestjens 1989, 1990). long. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Distribution LONGEVITY: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP FLOWERS: Summer. SFWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A., Pac.Is. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly western Sydney. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore with morphology adapted SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond, Cheltenham, Doonside, Bringelly, for wind dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). Germination in all seasons in Casula, Narellan, Mount Annan, Picton. CT: Bathurst (1903), Wombeyan Northern Tablelands (Britton & Brock 1994). Caves (1992). 162 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Suspected of causing STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Africa. photosensitization in sheep (Harden 1993). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWS CWS NWP; Qld. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Africa. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Windsor (1950), The Domain (1965). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST NWS SWS SWP SFWP; Habitat Vic. HABITAT: Roadsides, disturbed sites. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Tablelands. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Flemington Saleyards. CT: Orange, Bathurst, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Lithgow, Hampton, Mt Wilson (1954), Oberon, Mittagong, Robertson VEGETATION: (1949), SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale. Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Waste places, grassland. Conservation ALTITUDE: 600Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1600 mm Planted as pasture species, occasionally naturalised. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: POACEAE SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, granite, low nutrients. Panicum miliaceum * EXPOSURE: Conservation Millet Panic, French Millet Weed of cultivation in Tablelands, first recorded at Robertson in 1949. Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 1.2 m high. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. Panicum maximum var. maximum * PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. Guinea Grass FLOWERS: Summer. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted perennial herb to 3 m high. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution FLOWERS: Summer. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Asia, India and Mediterranean region. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP NFWP DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: SFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. FIRE RESPONSE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hunters Hill (1933), North Sydney (1914), humans (Bass & Wrigley 1984). Narellan, Campbelltown. CT: Medlow (1914), Mittagong (1918). Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Africa. HABITAT: Wastland, gardens. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT NWS CWS; Qld, N.T., W.A. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woy Woy (2000), Richmond (1909). VEGETATION: Habitat SUBSTRATE: HABITAT: Roadsides, disturbed sites. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Commonly cultivated and used for caged bird seed. Grows from dumped VEGETATION: or waste seed, but not truly naturalised. SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: POACEAE Conservation Panicum obseptum Planted as pasture species and probably cultivated at Richmond (Hawkesbury Agricultural College) in 1909. Recently recorded and White Water Panic presumed naturalised at Woy Woy. Life history GROWTH FORM: Semi-aquatic decumbent perennial herb to 0.5 m high. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Creeping and rooting at nodes. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Panicum maximum var. trichoglume * PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Green Panic FLOWERS: NovemberÐApril. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted perennial herb to 3 m high, with short DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Germinates in winter in Northern stout rhizome. Tablelands (Britton & Brock 1994). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution FLOWERS: Summer. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST: Qld, Vic. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal floodplains. FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 163

SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cattai, Richmond, Penrith, Orchard Hills, Habitat Parramatta, Gordon, Centennial Park, Menangle, Berry. HABITAT: Disturbed ground. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Areas subject to flooding, lagoon margins, creeks. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm VEGETATION: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SUBSTRATE: Clay subsoil over sandstone, low nutrients. VEGETATION: Riverflat forest e.g. with Casuarina glauca, Eucalyptus EXPOSURE: tereticornis, Angophora subvelutina. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clayey alluvium, low to medium nutrients, Introduced as pasture species, sporadically naturalised since 1960s periodically inundated. mainly in Tablelands. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status Panicum simile (P. fulgidum) elsewhere unknown. Two Colour Panic POACEAE Life history Panicum pygmaeum GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 0.7 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Pygmy Panic, Dwarf Panic LONGEVITY: Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: GROWTH FORM: Decumbent perennial herb to 0.3 m high. FLOWERS: DecemberÐMarch. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. LONGEVITY: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted, fruit produced 4 months after high intensity FLOWERS: Warmer months. fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Some leaves eaten by rabbits (P. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Kubiak pers. comm.). FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS SWP; Qld, Vic. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread on Coast and western Sydney. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT: Qld. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Annangrove, Richmond, Hornsby, Cheltenham, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal. Frenchs Forest, Marsfield, Parramatta, Gladesville, Rose Bay, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Ourimbah, Grose Vale (1910), Governor Game Rookwood, Tempe, Kogarah, Kurnell, Springwood, Warragamba, Lookout, Macquarie Pass. Wilton, Picton. CT: Woodford, Coxs River. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Rainforest margins. HABITAT: Ridges, hillsides. ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: Floor and margins of rainforest or e.g. with Eupomatia VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, E. saligna, E. laurina, Cryptocarya glaucescens, Oplismenus imbecillus. paniculata, E. piperita, Angophora costata, Syncarpia glomulifera. In SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, high nutrients. woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, E. crebra EXPOSURE: (T. James pers. comm.). SUBSTRATE: Clayey soils on shale, shale-influenced sandstone, quartzite, Conservation lowÐmedium nutients. CONSERVATION: Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status Panicum schinzii * (P. laevifolium var. laevifolium *) elsewhere unknown. Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.8 m high POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Parapholis incurva * LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. Coast Barb Grass PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Summer. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.1 m high. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Dispersed in mud on cars (Wace VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. 1977). Germination in glasshouse in spring (Britton & Brock 1994). LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Spring. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Africa. FIRE RESPONSE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CT ST NWS SWP; S.A., W.A. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kiama (1961). CT: Leura (1986), Moss Vale Distribution (1964), Penrose (1963). STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region and northern Europe. 164 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. SFWP; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Penrith, Rooty Hill, Gordon, Manly, Narellan, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal estuaries, Brisbane Water to Menangle, Shoalhaven. CT: Bathurst (1903). Wollongong. Habitat ELECT LOCATIONS S : CC: Woy Woy (1912), Brooklyn (1919), Parramatta HABITAT: Creek and drainage lines. (1897), Ashfield (1914), Centennial Park (1900), Cooks River (1917), ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm Lugarno, Kogarah (1899), La Perouse, Wollongong (1909). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Habitat VEGETATION: HABITAT: Saline flats, rocky foreshore ledges. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients, moist sites. Recorded ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. EXPOSURE: VEGETATION: Saltmarsh e.g. with Suaeda australis, Sarcocornia Conservation quinquenervia, particularly disturbed upper parts of saltmarsh. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Only record for SUBSTRATE: Muddy alluvium, sandy soil on sandstone, lowÐmedium Tablelands is from Bathurst in 1903. nutrients, appears to be salt-tolerant. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). POACEAE EXPOSURE: Full sun to light shade. Conservation Paspalidium criniforme Appears to have become widely naturalised in estuarine areas by 1920. Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 0.6 m high. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Paspalidium albovillosum LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: Summer. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 0.5 m high. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Summer. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ISPERSAL ESTABLISHMENT GROWTH D , & : BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT NWP; Qld. IRE RESPONSE F : DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney, Illawarra. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bulga, Concord, Bass Hill, Hurstville, Mulgoa, Distribution Bents Basin, Razorback, Menangle, Maldon, Stanwell Park, Gooseberry STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Island. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWS CWS NWP; Qld. Habitat ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA D S : ParramattaÐKurrajong. HABITAT: Creeks, gorges. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kurrajong, Kurmond, Windsor, Winston Hills. ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm Habitat TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. HABITAT: Woodland remnants. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus eugenioides; riparian ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð900 mm vegetation e.g. with Backhousia myrtifolia. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, alluvium, sandstone, medium nutrients. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis; EXPOSURE: riverflat forest e.g. with Angophora floribunda, Eucalyptus globoidea, Conservation Microlaena stipoides. CONSERVATION: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, lowÐmedium nutrients, damp conservation status elsewhere unknown. shaded sites. EXPOSURE: Mid-shade. POACEAE Conservation (P. radiatum) Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Paspalidium distans Life history POACEAE GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 70 cm high. Paspalidium aversum VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 0.9 m high. FLOWERS: OctoberÐApril. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. LONGEVITY: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Appears to be coloniser of PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: disturbed sites. A resilient species that persists despite mowing etc. (T. FLOWERS: Summer. James pers. comm.). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS I : Reported in 1914 as one of the best STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. native grasses, especially for haymaking (Herb. record). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC ST NWS CWS SWS NWP; Qld. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 165

SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kurmond, Mill Creek, Milson Island, Pitt Town, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Seed germination variable after Riverstone, Mona Vale, Hornsby, Pennant Hills, Gladesville, Homebush, one month 0Ð80%, increases up to 18 months then declines rapidly Centennial Park, La Perouse, Kogarah, Rockdale, Hurstville, Oatley, (Waters et al. 2000). Rooty Hill, Doonside, Mulgoa, Liverpool, Mount Annan, Burragorang FIRE RESPONSE: Valley. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Freckled Duck Habitat Stictonetta nervosa, Pacific Black Duck Anas superciliosa, Grey Teal HABITAT: Open sites, roadsides. Remnant woodland (T. James pers. Anas gibberifrons (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). comm.). Distribution ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Casuarina glauca; woodland e.g. SFWP; N.T., Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. with Corymbia eximia, Corymbia gummifera, Angophora costata, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis; scrub e.g. with Monotoca SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hawkesbury Agricultural College (1914), elliptica; grassland e.g. with Themeda australis. Botanic Gardens (1938), Flemington Saleyards (1969), Bathurst SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shales, volcanics, sandy soils on dune sand, Experimental Farm (1914). medium to low nutrients. Habitat XPOSURE E : HABITAT: Conservation ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Conserved in western Sydney where it is very common, found at TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Prospect, Blacktown, Mt Druitt (T. James pers. comm.). Reported in VEGETATION: Royal NP. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). POACEAE EXPOSURE: Paspalidium gracile Conservation Species of drier inland areas, not recorded occurring naturally in Slender Panic Sydney area. Probably introduced to Sydney area with stock or in Life history experimental plantings. No records of longterm naturalised populations. GROWTH FORM: Wiry tufted perennial herb to 0.8 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. POACEAE LONGEVITY: Paspalum dilatatum * PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Summer. Paspalum FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Life history DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb with stems to 2 m high. IRE RESPONSE F : VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS I : LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FLOWERS: SummerÐautumn. Pollen known to cause allergy in humans, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS NWP SWP; mainly NovemberÐMarch (Bass & Wrigley 1984). Qld, Vic. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Picton to Wombeyan Caves. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive for dispersal SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Castlereagh, Picton, Cedar Creek, Kowmung (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). River, Wombeyan Caves. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted, fruit produced 4 months after high intensity Habitat fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS HABITAT: Hillsides, riverflats. I : Foodplant of Pacific Black Duck Anas ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð800 mm superciliosa (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). Food plant of butterfly larvae TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Taractrocera papyria papyria (Common & Waterhouse 1981). VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, Distribution E. crebra, Bursaria spinosa, Angophora floribunda, E. eugenioides. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S America. Introduced as fodder. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, Devonian sediments, lowÐmedium BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP nutrients, dry sites. SWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. EXPOSURE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Conservation SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lower Portland, Cheltenham, Homebush, Vulnerable in western Sydney (T. James pers. comm.), conservation Belfield, Botanic Gardens, Sydney (1893), Sutherland, Corrimal, Lake status elsewhere unknown. Illawarra, Gerringong, Berry. CT: Bathurst, Hazelbrook, Bowral. Habitat POACEAE HABITAT: Pastures, roadside edges, wet, low wet areas. Paspalidium jubiflorum ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Warrego Grass VEGETATION: Woodland, grassland, swamp e.g. with Carex appressa. Life history SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, volcanics, alluvium, highÐmedium GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.3 m high, with a contracted nutrients. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). rootstock. EXPOSURE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Conservation LONGEVITY: Widespread pasture species and weed of lawns and disturbed land. It PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: appears to be gradually (over several decades) out-competed by native FLOWERS: grasses such as Microlaena and Themeda where these are allowed to FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. recolonise former pastures. 166 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE Conservation Paspalum distichum (P. paspalodes) CONSERVATION: Previously used as a pasture species, now mostly a weed of roadsides. Water Couch Life history POACEAE GROWTH FORM: Stoloniferous and rhizomatous perennial herb to 0.5 m Paspalum orbiculare high, with stolons to 5 m long, forming mats on edge and floating across water. Ditch Millet VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes. Life history LONGEVITY: Indefinite. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb with stems to 1 m high from PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: knotted rootstock. FLOWERS: Summer. NovemberÐApril, peak April. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Fertile florets 2.5Ð3 mm LONGEVITY: long. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed. Coloniser of bare, FLOWERS: SummerÐautumn. wet areas. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Pacific Black Duck FIRE RESPONSE: Anas superciliosa (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by Plumed Whistling Distribution Duck Dendrocygna eytoni (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, N.T., Vic., S.A., W.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld, N.T., W.A., N.G. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Pitt Town, Shane Park, Yarramundi, Wahroonga, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Gosford, Richmond, Manly, Centennial Park, Maroubra, Concord, Kogarah, Oatley, Cobbitty, Gladesville, Homebush, Kogarah, Como, Centennial Park, Malabar, Campbelltown, Stanwell Park, Berry. CT: Bathurst, Robertson. Macquarie Fields, Austinmer. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Wetlands, ponds, creeks. HABITAT: Swamps. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: Fresh swamp e.g. with Eleocharis sphacelata, Ludwigia VEGETATION: Hind dune swamp. peploides, Myriophyllum, Persicaria; less common in riparian SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on dunes, alluvium, low nutrients, moist, woodland e.g. with Casuarina glauca. sometimes brackish. SUBSTRATE: Sandy clay on alluvium, shale, medium nutrients, moist EXPOSURE: sites in and near fresh water. Occasionally in brackish water near the Conservation sea. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Not known from any EXPOSURE: Full sun. conservation reserves elsewhere (P. Adam pers. comm.). Conservation Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Only record for POACEAE Bathurst is 1910. Paspalum quadrifarium * POACEAE Tussock Paspalum Paspalum notatum * Life history GROWTH FORM: Coarse tufted, often glaucous, perennial herb to 2 m Bahia Grass high. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb to 1 m high, with stout rhizomes. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous, rooting at nodes. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: Mostly springÐautumn. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FLOWERS: Summer. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted, fruit produced 7Ð10 months after high DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S America. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S America. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SWS; Qld. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWS; Qld, N.T., S.A., W.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Gosford, Lane Cove area. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Tuggerah (1921, 1990), Gosford (1955), Ettalong SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Blacktown (1962), Chipping Norton (1989, (1969), West Lindfield (1964), Manly Vale (1958Ð1962), Lane Cove 1993). River (1980), North Ryde (1987). CT: Mount Tomah Botanic Gardens. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Roadsides, lawns. HABITAT: Riverbanks, creeks, roadsides. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 167

VEGETATION: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sea coast and estuaries, Noraville to SUBSTRATE: Clayey alluvium, medium nutrients, moist sites. Geringong. EXPOSURE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Norahville, Budgewoi, Gladesville, Five Dock Conservation Bay, Cooks River, Lurline Bay, Como, Five Islands, Gerringong. Persists in disturbed but unmown sites (Harden 1993). Localised but Habitat possibly spreading in moist areas, recently reported from Mount Tomah. HABITAT: Brackish seeps on sandstone cliff edges. ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm POACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Paspalum urvillei * VEGETATION: For example with Westringia fruticosa, Isolepis nodosa. SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clayey soil on alluvium, beach sand, low nutrients, Vasey Grass brackish. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). Life history EXPOSURE: GROWTH FORM: Erect tufted perennial herb to 2.5 m high. Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status LONGEVITY: elsewhere unknown. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Summer. POACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed, dispersed in horse Pennisetum alopecuroides dung (Deep Creek). Life history IRE RESPONSE F : Resprouted, fruit produced 9 weeks after high intensity GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Growing vigorously VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). along tracks, and seeding, 14 months after fire, probably after resprouting LONGEVITY: (at Bantry Bay 1992). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS I : Food plant of butterfly larvae FLOWERS: JanuaryÐMarch. Telicota ancilla ancilla (Common & Waterhouse 1981). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, JanuaryÐApril. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore morphology adapted STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S America. for wind dispersal and adhesion (McIntyre et al. 1995). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic. FIRE RESPONSE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread on Coast. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gosford (1946), Glenorie (1947), Yarramundi, Distribution Narrabeen, Carlingford, Mosman (1948), Centennial Park, Malabar, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Macquarie Fields, Mt Keira. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; Habitat Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A., Asia. HABITAT: Creeks, tracks, wet places. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Homebush (1894), Burning Palms RNP (1978), TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Stanwell Park (1891), Berry to Gerringong (1933), Bulli (1918). VEGETATION: Weedy sites e.g. with Salix, Cyperus eragrostis. CT: Winburndale (1910), Abercrombie. SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on alluvium, shale, low nutrients. Habitat XPOSURE E : HABITAT: Headlands, creekbanks. Conservation ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1600 mm Widely naturalised in disturbed areas, common on bush tracks. Appears TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. to spread more along tracks in wet places quickly once initially VEGETATION: Grassy headlands. established. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils, probably on shale or alluvium, poorly-drained sites. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). POACEAE EXPOSURE: Paspalum vaginatum (P. distichum) Conservation Relatively restricted in Sydney area, probably originally occurring mainly Salt-water Couch along the Illawarra coast. Very similar looking introduced species P. Life history setaceum may be planted in mistake for P. alopecuroides. GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous and stoloniferous perennial herb to 50 cm high, with stolons to 5 m long. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Spread by rhizome. Pennisetum clandestinum * LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Kikuyu Grass FLOWERS: Summer. Life history RUIT SEED F / : Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, late summer; produces GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb to 0.9 m high, with long stout rhizomes numerous seeds. and stolons. ISPERSAL ESTABLISHMENT GROWTH D , & : Dispersed in mud on cars (Wace VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. 1977). Water-dispersed as floating pieces of rhizome. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS I : Seed eaten by Black Swan Cygnus FLOWERS: Summer. atratus and foodplant of Freckled Duck Stictonetta nervosa, Grey Teal FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Anas gibberifrons (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Rhizomes spread in dumped Distribution garden refuse. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CWS; Qld, N.T., S.A., W.A. P. Kubiak pers. comm.). 168 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Leaves eaten by Purple Swamphen POACEAE Porphyrio porphyrio, Coot Fulica atra, rhizomes and stolons eaten by Pennisetum setaceum * Galah Cacatua roseicapilla (Lepschi 1993). Leaves sometimes eaten by rabbits (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Food plant of butterfly larvae Fountain Grass Taractrocera papyria papyria (Common & Waterhouse 1981). Life history Apparently eaten by rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus (P. Kubiak pers. GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted perennial herb to 0.9 m high. comm.). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Distribution LONGEVITY: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to tropical E Africa. Introduced as lawn, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: soil stabiliser and pasture species (NPWS website). FLOWERS: Summer. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS; Qld, FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. N.T., Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread on Coast. FIRE RESPONSE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wyong Creek, Hawkesbury Agricultural INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: College plots (1921), Bayview, Centennial Park, Concord, Distribution Campbelltown, Engadine (1937), Wollongong, Cambewarra. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Africa. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT SWS SFWP; Qld, S.A., W.A. HABITAT: Disturbed sites, moist places. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Clyde (1969), Woolloomooloo (1963), TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Homebush (1931). CT: Wombeyan Caves. VEGETATION: Woodland remnants. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Clay to sandy soils on shale, sandstone, alluvium, lowÐhigh HABITAT: Riverbanks, rock crevices. nutrients, moist. ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Conservation VEGETATION: Introduced experimentally in 1920s but major expansion for lawns, SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, alluvium, granite, low nutrients, pasture and playing fields was after the 1950s; now a weed of gardens periodically moist. and roadsides, particularly on moist sites and at urban/bushland interface. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Cultivated as ornamental, occasionally naturalised in disturbed sites in Pennisetum macrourum * urban areas. African Feather Grass POACEAE Life history Pennisetum villosum * GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted rhizomatous perennial herb to 1.5 m high. Feathertop, White Foxtail VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomes. Life history LONGEVITY: GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted rhizomatous perennial herb to 0.9 m PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: high. FLOWERS: SpringÐautumn. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. LONGEVITY: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: mainly rhizomes or PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: pieces of rhizomes transported after excavation; spikelets also spread FLOWERS: Summer. by water and wind, bristles aid attachment to clothes and wool (Weeds FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Australia www.weeds.org.au) DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Not favoured by stock (Weeds INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Not eaten by stock (Herb. note). Australia www.weeds.org.au) Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to N Africa, Arabia. Introduced as ornamental. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S Africa. Introduced as ornamental. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC; Vic., S.A., W.A. NFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Tascott (1970), Killara district (1947), SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Parramatta (1931), Auburn, Ashfield (1919), Northbridge (1971), Centennial Park (1898, 1912, 1916, 1934, 1973), Homebush (1894), Oatley (1915), Campbelltown (1949), Brownsville Kogarah (1989). (1912), Lake Illawarra (1912), Minnamurra Point, Kiama (1907, 1939), Habitat W Cambewarra (1924). CT: Bathurst (1982), Katoomba (1999). HABITAT: Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm HABITAT: Roadsides, wasteland. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: Sandstone scrub. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on dunes, alluvium. VEGETATION: EXPOSURE: Drought resistant. SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils. Conservation EXPOSURE: Introduced as ornamental in early 20th century, escaped and spreading Conservation in coastal areas (Harden 1993). Introduced and frequently cultivated as ornamental, but now naturalised as a weed of footpaths and vacant land. Reported since 1890s in Sydney, along roadsides by 1919, spreading in Kiama in 1930s, naturalised in Tablelands since 1970s. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 169

POACEAE LONGEVITY: Pentaschistis airoides * PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Spring. False Hairgrass FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Seed weight 1.5 mg Life history (Buckley 1982). GROWTH FORM: Slender tufted annual herb to 0.3 m high. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular morphology for VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in FLOWERS: Spring. humans (Bass & Wrigley 1984). Causes ‘staggers’ in sheep and cattle FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. (Culvenor 1985). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Introduced as INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: pasture species. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. SWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST CWS SWS SWP; Vic., S.A., W.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Dural (1987), Campbelltown (1969). SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Bindook (1967). CT: Orange (1955), Robertson. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Pasture and disturbed woodland. HABITAT: Pasture, roadsides. ALTITUDE: 700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð900 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1600 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Eucalyptus stricta. VEGETATION: Pastures. SUBSTRATE: Thin moss and soil layer on top of extensive flat rock, low SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, basalt, medium to high nutrients. nutrients. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation CONSERVATION: Occasional minor weed. Extensively cultivated on Tablelands as perennial pasture. Occasionally established on roadsides. POACEAE Phalaris angusta * POACEAE Life history Phalaris arundinacea var. arundinacea * GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 1.5 m high. Reed Canary Grass VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. GROWTH FORM: Robust, tufted and rhizomatous perennial to 2 m high. FLOWERS: Spring. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. LONGEVITY: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: FLOWERS: Spring. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. humans (Bass & Wrigley 1984). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to America. humans (Bass & Wrigley 1984). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ST; Qld, WA. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Ebenezer, Windsor (1949), Jamberoo, Kiama. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Africa, America, Asia and Europe. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT ST; Vic., Tas., W.A. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. HABITAT: Areas susceptible to flooding. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Beecroft (1982), Centennial Park (1977), ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm Kangaroo Valley (1955), Kiama (1947). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: Pastures. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Clay loam on shale, alluvium. HABITAT: Wetland margins, lawns. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Conservation VEGETATION: CONSERVATION: SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on sand, shale, moist sites. EXPOSURE: POACEAE Conservation Phalaris aquatica * Sporadically naturalised in moist sites. Phalaris Life history GROWTH FORM: Erect tufted perennial herb to 1.5 m high, with hard crown of usually contracted rhizomes. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes (McIntyre et al. 1995). 170 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE POACEAE Phalaris arundinacea var. picta * Phalaris minor * Ribbon Grass Lesser Canary Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Robust, tufted and rhizomatous perennial to 2 m high. GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 1.8 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Spring. FLOWERS: Spring. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in humans (Bass & Wrigley 1984). humans (Bass & Wrigley 1984). Seed eaten by Stubble Quail Coturnix Distribution pectoralis (Barker & Vestjens 1989, 1990). STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT NWS; Tas. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Introduced as DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. pasture species. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cattai Creek (1996), Cheltenham (1951), Cooks BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP River (1909). CT: Katoomba (1934). SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. ELECT LOCATIONS HABITAT: Creeks. S : CC: Richmond (1903), Beecroft, Gladesville (1884), ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm Centennial Park (1899), Penshurst (1911), Dapto (1912), Kiama. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. CT: Jenolan Caves (1899), Bowral (1948). VEGETATION: Habitat SUBSTRATE: HABITAT: Pastures, gardens. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Grown as an ornamental, occasionally escaped or persistent in VEGETATION: abandoned gardens (Harden 1993). SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: POACEAE Conservation Phalaris canariensis * Pasture species and minor weed of cultivation (Harden 1993). Canary Grass POACEAE Life history Phalaris paradoxa * GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual or short-lived perennial herb to 1.2 m high. Paradoxa Grass VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Life history LONGEVITY: GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual to 1 m high. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FLOWERS: Spring. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FLOWERS: Spring. FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: humans, mainly SeptemberÐDecember (Bass & Wrigley 1984). FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. humans (Bass & Wrigley 1984). Foodplant of Grey Teal Anas BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT CWS SWS NWP SWP; LHI, gibberifrons, seed eaten by Stubble Quail Coturnix pectoralis (Barker Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. & Vestjens 1989, 1990). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Holroyd (1974), Homebush (1930), Penshurst STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. (1908). CT: Orange (1914), Katoomba (1939). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP Habitat NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA HABITAT: Disturbed areas, roadsides. D S : Sporadic. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Flemington Saleyards (1968), Wollongong TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: (1936). VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale. HABITAT: EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional roadside weed. Reported by Robert Brown to be introduced VEGETATION: to Sydney by 1804 (Maiden 1909). Cultivated to provide grain to caged SUBSTRATE: birds (Harden 1993). EXPOSURE: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 171

Conservation SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wisemans Ferry, Richmond, Berowra Creek, CONSERVATION: Common weed of crops, occasionally reported in urban Manly, Cooks River, Doonside, East Hills, Lake Illawarra, Menangle, areas or associated with stock. Austinmer, Shoalhaven. CT: Orange, Glanmire, O’Connell, Long Swamp (Kodela 1992), Macquarie Pass. POACEAE Habitat Phleum pratense * HABITAT: Fresh or slightly brackish water to 2 m deep, creek banks, estuaries, wetlands. Timothy ALTITUDE: 0Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: above 700 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐdominant. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.5 m high, with stout stems, VEGETATION: Saltmarsh margins e.g. with Juncus kraussii, Samolus forming large clumps; often with swollen or bulbous base. repens; sedgeland or rushland e.g. with Juncus sp, Carex sp., along VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). freshwater lake and river margins. Upland mire (Kodela 1992). LONGEVITY: SUBSTRATE: Mainly alluvial mud but occasionally on sand or peat, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: mediumÐhigh nutrients. Water table mostly highÐpermanently high, FLOWERS: Spring. moisture continuous, brackish, fresh. Killed by continuous exposure to FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. sea strength salinity, sea flooding for a few days will cause severe DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular morphology for damage (Sainty & Jacobs 1981). dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). EXPOSURE: FIRE RESPONSE: Conservation INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Vulnerable to Distribution grazing or cutting in mid summer, burning is less damaging than cutting. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Vernacular name ‘thatchreed’ in use in 1916 (Herb. note) (and used for BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST SWS NWP; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. thatch roofs in UK). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Tablelands. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Botanic Garden (1904). CT: Tarana, Jenolan POACEAE Caves (1900), Bowral (1948). Phyllostachys aurea * Habitat HABITAT: Moist areas. Fishpole Bamboo ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: GROWTH FORM: Tall perennial herb, with woody stems 2Ð5 m high, 2Ð3 VEGETATION: cm diam. SUBSTRATE: Soils on shale, granite, low nutrients. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. EXPOSURE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Pasture and hay plant, with a few roadside occurrences at higher FLOWERS: elevations. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Rhizomes spread in dumped garden refuse. POACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, Phragmites australis (P. communis) P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Common Reed INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Culms used as walking sticks, umbrella shafts, fan handles, pipe stems and fishing rods, for furniture Life history and handicrafts; the young shoots are edible (Harden 1993). GROWTH FORM: Erect robust rhizomatous perennial, emergent aquatic reed to 6 m high. Distribution VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Spreads extensively by horizontal rhizomes. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to China. Introduced as ornamental. LONGEVITY: Indefinite . BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. FLOWERS: AugustÐOctober, MarchÐJune, peak March. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cattai Creek (1971), Windsor, Narrabeen. FRUIT/SEED: March. In Europe, seed production is virtually unknown, Habitat despite prolific flowering, and propagation is apparently exclusively HABITAT: Creekbanks. vegetative (Chapman & Peat 1992). Germination in NSW is low but ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm consistent (P. Adam pers. comm.). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed, rhizome fragments. VEGETATION: May grow all year but dies back after frosts. Fertile seed may be SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on alluvium, low nutrients. followed by seedlings in the same or following year; germination EXPOSURE: occurs in only a narrow range of habitats (Sainty & Jacobs 1981). Conservation Vertical rhizomes bear the aerial shoots and horizontal rhizomes are the Cultivated and persistent in abandoned gardens, spread vegetatively from regenerating agent and main food store (Sainty & Jacobs 1981). dumped garden refuse. Declared noxious weed, prohibited from sale in FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from rhizomes after high-intensity fire (1/94 many local government areas (NSW Agriculture website: at Narrabeen, Lane Cove) secondary juvenile period almost 18 months www.agric.nsw.gov.au). (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST CWS SWS NWP SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A., cosmop. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. 172 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE POACEAE Phyllostachys nigra * Plinthanthesis urvillei (Danthonia vickeryi) Black Bamboo Wallaby Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tall perennial herb, with woody purplish black stems 3Ð GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 0.6 m high. 6 m high, 1Ð3 cm diam. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. FLOWERS: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Rhizomes spread in dumped FIRE RESPONSE: garden refuse. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Stems used for constuction of STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. musical instruments, furniture and for handicrafts (Harden 1993). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CT NWS. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains and Southern STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to China. Introduced as ornamental. Highlands. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC; Qld. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Hassans Walls, Blackheath, Katoomba, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Wentworth Falls, Robertson, Budderoo. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kurrajong (1981), Hornsby (1968). Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Rocky ledges, near falls. HABITAT: Roadside. ALTITUDE: 600Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1600 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: Eucalypt forest, sedgeland e.g. with Lepidosperma laterale, VEGETATION: Baumea rubiginosa; exposed heath e.g. with Boronia anemonifolia, SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale. Leptospermum polygalifolium, Leptospermum trinervium. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. Conservation EXPOSURE: Persistent in abandoned gardens, rarely naturalised. Declared noxious Conservation weed, rhizomatous bamboo is prohibited from sale in many local Budderoo Plateau is southern geographical limit. Conservation status government areas (NSW Agriculture website: www.agric.nsw.gov.au). unknown.

POACEAE POACEAE Plinthanthesis paradoxa (Danthonia paradoxa) Poa affinis (P. caespitosa var. affinis) Wallaby Grass Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.2 m high, rarely rhizomatous. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 0.7 m high. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FLOWERS: NovemberÐJanuary. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Keith pers. comm.). FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith p.c.). Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT CWS; Vic. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Putty, Culoul Range, North Richmond, Gosford, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST; Vic. Mooney Mooney, Kincumber, Kurrajong Heights, Annangrove, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. Wahroonga, Narrabeen, Pymble, Cheltenham, Manly, Hunters Hill, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wondabyne, Berowra, Hornsby, Frenchs Forest, Neutral Bay, Bellevue Hill, Hurstville, Cooks River, Voyager Point, Dee Why, Kogarah, La Perouse, Sutherland, Loftus, Burning Palms, Audley, Wallacia. CT: Current Mountain Gap. Maddens Plains, Mt Keira. CT: Kanangra Walls. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Creekbanks. HABITAT: Swamps, creeks, wet rocks. ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus piperita, E. saligna, E. VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Empodisma minus, Lepyrodia scariosa, pilularis; woodland e.g. with Angophora costata, Corymbia gummifera, Banksia oblongifolia; montane heath. Syncarpia glomulifera. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, poorly drained, moist, low SUBSTRATE: Soils on shale, sandstone, volcanics, low to medium nutrients. nutrients. EXPOSURE: Mid-shade, sheltered sites. EXPOSURE: Full sun, exposed sites. Conservation Conservation Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Reported in Blue Wondabyne is northern geographical limit, conservation status unknown. Mountains NP, Wollemi NP, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Dalrymple Hay NR, Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Royal NP. Heathcote NP. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 173

POACEAE POACEAE Poa annua * Poa cheelii Winter Grass, Annual Poa Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb to 1 m high, with shoots arising from GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.3 m high. rhizomes. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Mainly winterÐspring. Pollen known to cause allergy in FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. humans, mostly AugustÐNovember (Bass & Wrigley 1984). FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular morphology for FIRE RESPONSE: dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Probably killed. Flowered 7 months after high intensity Distribution fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) probably from seed (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Seed eaten by Crimson Rosella BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT; Qld. Platycercus elegans (Lepschi 1993). Seed eaten by Stubble Quail DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue Mountains, Southern Highlands. Coturnix pectoralis (Barker & Vestjens 1989, 1990). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Springwood, Glenbrook, Oakdale, Appin, Distribution Jamberoo Pass, Kangaroo Valley. CT: Newnes Plateau, Bell, Katoomba, STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. Wentworth Falls, Hill Top, Fitzroy Falls, Penrose. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS NWP SWP; Habitat LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. HABITAT: Steep slopes, rocky ground. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA D S : Widespread. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm ELECT LOCATIONS S : CC: Richmond (1903), Palm Beach, Cheltenham, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Centennial Park, Cooks River, Bexley, Kangaroo Valley. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus agglomerata, E. CT: Jenolan Caves (1900), Wentworth Falls, Berrima, Robertson. globoidea. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Stony soil on sandstone, low nutrients. HABITAT: Cultivated and disturbed areas, roadsides, gardens. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1600 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Conservation status unknown. VEGETATION: Lawns. SUBSTRATE: Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). POACEAE EXPOSURE: Conservation Poa compressa * Weed of cultivated land and other disturbed sites. Reported by Robert Canada Bluegrass Brown to be introduced to Sydney by 1804 (Maiden 1909). Life history GROWTH FORM: Stiff perennial herb to 0.6 m high, with wiry rhizomes. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. Poa bulbosa * LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Bulbous Poa FLOWERS: Summer. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. GROWTH FORM: Tufted, bulbous-based perennial herb to 0.5 m high. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for VEGETATIVE SPREAD: dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). LONGEVITY: FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: Spring. Distribution RUIT SEED F / : Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe, and SW Asia. ISPERSAL ESTABLISHMENT GROWTH D , & : Miniature vegetative shoot BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic., Tas. sometimes replacing the spikelet, under favourable conditions, may fall, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Tablelands. take root and serve as a vegetative propagule (Harden 1993). SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Blackheath (1907). FIRE RESPONSE: Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: HABITAT: Distribution ALTITUDE: 1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: OTANICAL SUBREGIONS B : NT CT ST CWS SWS SWP. VEGETATION: ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA D S : Tablelands. SUBSTRATE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Blayney (1991), Orange (1914), Tarana (1940). EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation ABITAT H : Grassland, disturbed sites. CONSERVATION: Uncommon weed of pastures, reported from Blackheath ALTITUDE: 700Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm in 1907. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Occasional weed. 174 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE Conservation Poa induta Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status elsewhere unknown. Reported in Royal NP, Thirmere Lakes NP. Life history GROWTH FORM: Greyish green, densely tufted perennial herb to 1.1 m POACEAE high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Poa meionectes LONGEVITY: Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 0.7 m high. FLOWERS: Summer. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. LONGEVITY: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FIRE RESPONSE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST; Vic. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Oberon area. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Hampton (1956), Oberon (1955). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: SC CT ST; Vic. HABITAT: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: BathurstÐOrange, Southern Highlands. ALTITUDE: 900Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð900 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Bathurst, Mt Jellore. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Habitat VEGETATION: Montane woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus dalrympleana. HABITAT: Eucalypt woodland. SUBSTRATE: ALTITUDE: 600Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1000 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Conservation VEGETATION: Oberon is northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown SUBSTRATE: but not collected since since 1959. EXPOSURE: Conservation POACEAE Rare, last recorded in Southern Highlands at Mt Jellore in 1935, and Poa labillardierei from Winburndale NR in 1974. Orange is northern geographical limit. Tussock POACEAE Life history GROWTH FORM: Coarse, densely caespitose perennial to 1.2 m high. Poa poiformis VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Life history LONGEVITY: Indefinite. GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted erect perennial herb to 1 m high, with PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: rhizomes. FLOWERS: At any time of the year. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Mature NovemberÐ LONGEVITY: January (Greening Australia 1996a). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular morphology for FLOWERS: At any time, in response to seasonal conditions. dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). Total germination approx. 39 days FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. (typical rate 787 per gram of seed, Greening Australia 1996a). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove) FIRE RESPONSE: flowering within 10 months (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Eaten by wombat (Burns 1996). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; LHI, Vic., Tas., S.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast, Botany Bay to Gerroa. Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Coogee, Botany, Sandringham, Maroubra, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Kurnell, Garie Beach, Gerroa. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Prospect, Homebush, Rookwood, Centennial Habitat Park, Cooks River, Casula, Mt Annan, Audley, Picton, Albion Park, HABITAT: Ocean foreshores, estuaries and cliffs, particularly with Kangaroo River, Macquarie Pass, Cambewarra. CT: Mt Canobolas, southerly aspect. Blayney, Carcoar, Bathurst, Meadow Flat, Hampton, Oberon, Wentworth ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm Falls, Hill Top, Mt Jellore, Robertson, Bowral. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Habitat VEGETATION: Coastal scrub e.g. with Banksia integrifolia, Leptospermum HABITAT: Riverflats, creeks, gullies. spp. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1600 mm SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on coastal sand dunes and coastal sandstone TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. headlands, low nutrients. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus EXPOSURE: globoidea, E. viminalis, E. fastigata; woodland e.g. with E. Conservation macrorhyncha, E. melliodora, E. moluccana, E. tereticornis; grassland CONSERVATION: Conservation status unknown. Reported from Royal NP. e.g. with Themeda australis; clearings in rainforest. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, metasediments, alluvium, basalt, medium to high nutrients. EXPOSURE: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 175

POACEAE POACEAE Poa pratensis * Poa sieberiana var. cyanophylla Kentucky Bluegrass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted, usually greyish green perennial herb to GROWTH FORM: Variable perennial herb to 0.9 m high, with slender 1 m high. creeping rhizomes, forming tufts or turf. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: At any time, in response to seasonal conditions. FLOWERS: Spring. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular morphology for FIRE RESPONSE: dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. humans, mostly AugustÐNovember (Bass & Wrigley 1984). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST SWS. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Tablelands, Southern Highlands. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe and Asia. Introduced as lawn SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Orange, Werong Range, Wingecarribee Swamp, grass. Bundanoon, Wingello. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS SWP; Habitat Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. HABITAT: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. ALTITUDE: 700Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1912), Homebush Bay, Centennial TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Park, Leumeah, Unanderra, Dapto, Albion Park, Shellharbour, VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus dives, E. mannifera, E. Kangaroo Valley, Berry. CT: Blayney, Sunny Corner, Bathurst (1910), dalrympleana. Lyndhurst. SUBSTRATE: Loamy soils on shale, low to medium nutrients. Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Lawns, cemeteries, roadsides, pastures. Conservation ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm Conservation status unknown. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. VEGETATION: Grassland. POACEAE SUBSTRATE: Poa sieberiana var. sieberiana EXPOSURE: Conservation Snowgrass Commonly planted in lawns and pastures. Life history GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted, usually greyish green perennial to 1 m high. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Poa queenslandica LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LOWERS GROWTH FORM: Tall, loosely tufted perennial to 1.8 m high. F : At any time, in response to seasonal conditions. RUIT SEED VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. F / : Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Mature DecemberÐ LONGEVITY: January (Greening Australia 1996a). ISPERSAL ESTABLISHMENT GROWTH PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: D , & : No particular morphology for FLOWERS: At any time, in response to seasonal conditions. dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). Typical germination rate approx. 570 FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. per gram of seed (Greening Australia 1996a). IRE RESPONSE DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: F : Resprouts from base. NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS FIRE RESPONSE: I : INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. OTANICAL SUBREGIONS STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. B : NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT ST; Qld. Tas. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Illawarra. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. ELECT LOCATIONS SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bulli, Minnnamurra Falls, Kangaroo Valley, S : CC: Cheltenham, Gladesville, Rookwood, Hurstville, Cambewarra Range. Glenfield, Campbelltown. CT: Hartley, Abercrombie Caves, Mt Jellore. Habitat Habitat ABITAT HABITAT: Margins of rainforest. H : LTITUDE NNUAL RAINFALL ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1600 mm A : 0Ð900 m A : 700Ð1200 mm YPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. T : FrequentÐoccasional. EGETATION VEGETATION: Rainforest. V : Eucalypt forest, woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, SUBSTRATE: Clay soils, high nutrients. E. tereticornis. UBSTRATE EXPOSURE: S : Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation status unknown. Conservation Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status elsewhere unknown. 176 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE POACEAE Poa tenera Polypogon littoralis * Life history Perennial Beardgrass GROWTH FORM: Flaccid, trailing or tufted perennial herb, with stolons to Life history 2 m long. GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted perennial herb to 0.5 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. FLOWERS: Spring. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Food plant of butterfly larvae INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Geitoneura klugii klugii, and probably Heteronympha merope merope (Common & Waterhouse 1981). Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ST; Qld. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST CWS ?SWS; Vic., Tas., S.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wondabyne, Epping, Rydalmere, Watsons Bay DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Tablelands. (1912), Coogee, Riverwood, Homebush Bay, Bankstown, Austinmer, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Nattai River (1912). CT: Current Mountain Unanderra (1948). Gap, Towac, Bathurst, Blackheath, Jenolan Caves, Boyd Plateau, Bowral. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Wet, disturbed areas, railway lines, drains. HABITAT: Rock crevices, steep banks, shady moist areas. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1200 mm ALTITUDE: 700Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: Scrubland e.g. with Melaleuca. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus dalrympleana, E. SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, low nutrients, moist. pauciflora, E. viminalis; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus macrorhyncha, EXPOSURE: E. rossii. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Loamy soils on basalt, granite, medium nutrients, moist sites, well-drained. Weed of disurbed areas. EXPOSURE: POACEAE Conservation CONSERVATION: Currant Mountain Gap is northern geographical limit. Polypogon monspeliensis * Conservation status unknown. Annual Beard Grass Life history POACEAE GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted annual herb to 0.8 m high. Poa trivialis * VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Rough Meadowgrass LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. Life history FLOWERS: AugustÐOctober. GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: LONGEVITY: FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP FIRE RESPONSE: NFWP SFWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hornsby, Frenchs Forest, Dee Why, Northbridge, STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Uncommon weed Dennistone, Ryde (1884), Wallacia, Haslams Creek, Tempe (1899), of lawns and pastures (Harden 1993). Rockdale (1899), Kurnell (1915), Cronulla. CT: Orange, Bathurst, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SWS. Hartley, Mittagong (1918). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: North Rocks (1966). HABITAT: River banks, river flats, ditches. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm HABITAT: Lawns, pastures. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. ALTITUDE: 200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm VEGETATION: Saltmarsh, clifftop seepage zones, open-forest e.g. with TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Syncarpia glomulifera. VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: Clay to sandy soils on alluvium, shale, low nutrients. SUBSTRATE: Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation One Sydney record, form North Rocks in 1966, introduced in grass turf. A widespread weed, evidently well established by 1900. Probably not truly naturalised. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 177

POACEAE POACEAE Pseudoraphis paradoxa Psilurus incurvus * Slender Mudgrass Bristle-tail Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Stoloniferous perennial herb to 0.7 m high, with stolons GROWTH FORM: Small delicate annual herb to 0.4 m high. to 5 m long. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Spring. FLOWERS: JanuaryÐApril. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, JanuaryÐApril. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST SWS; Vic., S.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld, Vic. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Bathurst area. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal rivers and swamps. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Turondale (1987). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Colo River, Narrabeen, Maroubra, Kogarah, Habitat Kurnell, Bundeena, Menangle, Thirlmere Lakes, Wollondilly River. HABITAT: Hillsides. Habitat ALTITUDE: 700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð700 mm HABITAT: Riverbanks, lake margins, swamps. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: Native pasture. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SUBSTRATE: Sandy and stony soils on sediments, low nutrients. VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Eleocharis sphacelata, Lepidosperma EXPOSURE: longitudinale; herbland e.g. with Ranunculus inundatus, Myriophyllum. Conservation UBSTRATE S : Sandy soils on alluvium, low nutrients, moist, poorly- CONSERVATION: Only record for Sydney area is from Turondale in 1987. drained. EXPOSURE: Full sun. POACEAE Conservation Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status Rostraria cristata * elsewhere unknown. Annual Cat’s Tail Life history POACEAE GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.4 m high. Pseudoraphis spinescens VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. Spiny Mudgrass PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. Life history FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. GROWTH FORM: Stoloniferous herb to c. 1 m high, with stolons to 10 m FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. long. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Yes, stoloniferous. FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution LOWERS F : Summer. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Meditteranean region. RUIT SEED F / : Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. IRE RESPONSE F : DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS I : Seed eaten by Plumed Whistling SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woy Woy, Richmond (1906, 1913), Narrabeen Duck Dendrocygna eytoni (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). Lagoon (1946), Cheltenham (1986), Homebush (1930), Centennial Park Distribution (1909), Casula, Kogarah (1899), Menangle (1894). CT: Hill Top (1912). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat OTANICAL SUBREGIONS B : NC CC NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP SFWP; HABITAT: Disturbed areas, roadsides. Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A., Asia, Malesia. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly western Sydney. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. ELECT LOCATIONS S : CC: Windsor, Agnes Banks, Doonside, Taren Point. VEGETATION: Grassland. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Loamy soils on shale, alluvium, sand. HABITAT: Wetland. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Widespread in disturbed habitats. VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Persicaria hydropiper, Eleocharis pallens. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, alluvium, medium to low nutrients, subject to periodic waterlogging. EXPOSURE: Conservation CONSERVATION: Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status elsewhere unknown. 178 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE POACEAE Rottboellia cochinchinensis * (R. exaltata) Secale cereale * Life history Cereal Rye, Ryecorn GROWTH FORM: Robust annual herb to 3 m high, with prop roots. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. GROWTH FORM: Erect annual herb to 1.2 m high. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Summer. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. FLOWERS: Spring. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic in CC, native to tropical Australia. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC; LHI, Qld, N.T., trop. regions. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. Introduced as a DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Gosford area. crop plant. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mangrove Mountain (1968). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP; Vic., Habitat S.A., W.A. HABITAT: Tropical coastlines. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Flemington (1968), Razorback (1968). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Habitat VEGETATION: HABITAT: SUBSTRATE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð900 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. Conservation VEGETATION: A native species of tropical coastlines in Queensland and Northern SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, medium nutrients. Territory, it has been recorded from a cleared valley near Mangrove EXPOSURE: Mountain in 1968, presumably introduced either deliberately or Conservation accidentally. Cultivated for bread-making and stock feed, and as a short term cover crop; sometimes used in reclamation after mining. Occasionally recorded POACEAE from roadsides and areas associated with stock, probably established Sacciolepis indica (Panicum indicum) from spilt seed and not truly naturalised. Indian Cupscale Grass POACEAE Life history Setaria italica * GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.6 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Foxtail Millet LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 1.5 m high. FLOWERS: JanuaryÐMarch. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FRUIT/SEED: Dry indehiscent, 1-seeded. FebruaryÐMay, peak March. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FIRE RESPONSE: FLOWERS: Summer. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: IRE RESPONSE STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. F : NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT; Qld, NT, India, Asia, Polynesia. I : DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Putty, Morisset, Maroota, Richmond, STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to temperate regions. Introduced as a crop Centennial Park, Kogarah, Kurnell, Camden, Bundeena, Berry, plant. Coomonderry Swamp. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT ST NWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP; Habitat Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A., India, Burma ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA HABITAT: Wet places, creek and swamp edges, wet meadow. D S : Sporadic. ELECT LOCATIONS ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm S : CC: Gosford (1884), Cowan (1921), Hornsby (1922), Cooks River (1929), Shellharbour (1966). CT: Orange (1950), Hill Top TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Syncarpia glomulifera, Callicoma (1914). serratifolia; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus sclerophylla, Angophora Habitat bakeri; sedgeland e.g. with Baumea acuta, Eleocharis, Leptocarpus HABITAT: Railway lines, rubbish dumps. tenax, Xyris. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1000 m SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sand, sandstone, permanently moist, low TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. nutrients. VEGETATION: EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale. Conservation EXPOSURE: Conservation status unknown. Conservation Cultivated for birdseed, with occasional wild records in Sydney area, probably from spilt grain. Probably not truly naturalised. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 179

POACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Setaria palmifolia * VEGETATION: Grassland e.g. with Bursaria spinosa; open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus longifolia, E. crebra. Palm Grass SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. Life history EXPOSURE: GROWTH FORM: Robust, tufted perennial herb to 1.5 m high; leaves palm- Conservation like, ligule with a very dense row of hairs. CONSERVATION: Weed of disturbed sites, widespread, common along the VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Kowmung River flats by 1951. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: POACEAE FLOWERS: Summer, panicle to 80 cm long. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Setaria pumila * (S. glauca) DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Bird-dispersed ? Slender Pigeon Grass, Pale Pigeon Grass FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, Life history Narrabeen), secondary juvenile period about 7 months (P. Kubiak pers. GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted, glabrous, annual herb with erect or comm.). ascending stems 50Ð100 cm high (Holm et al. 1997). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). Distribution LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to tropical areas of Old World. Introduced PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. as garden ornamental. FLOWERS: JanuaryÐMarch. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CWS; LHI, Qld. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, FebruaryÐMarch. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sydney suburbs. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular morphology for SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Beecroft (1979), Northbridge (1958), Lane Cove. dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). FIRE RESPONSE: Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Good herbage for stock (Herb. note HABITAT: Shady areas, gullies, creeks. 1914). ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Distribution VEGETATION: Riparian vegetation. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to warm-temperate northern hemisphere. SUBSTRATE: Sandy alluvial soil, medium nutrients, moist. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT NWS CWS SWS; Qld, Vic., EXPOSURE: S.A., W.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast, Southern Highlands. Conservation SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cowan, Yarramundi, Wyong (1891), Matcham, Occasional garden escape into bushland along creeks. Bilpin, Hornsby (1915), Cheltenham, Doonside, Gladesville (1887), Ryde (1912), Homebush, Centennial Park (1899), Hurstville (1896), POACEAE Camden, Wollongong, Five Islands, Barrengarry. CT: Hill Top (1917), Setaria parviflora * Moss Vale, Bundanoon. (S. geniculata var. pauciseta, S. gracilis) Habitat HABITAT: Disturbed areas, roadsides. Slender Pigeon Grass ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1600 mm Life history TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb 1.2 m high. VEGETATION: Pastures. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, moist sites. Wide range of soil textures, LONGEVITY: pH 6Ð8 (Holm et al. 1997). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: 2 months (Holm et al. 1997). EXPOSURE: FLOWERS: Summer. Conservation FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Widespread weed of cultivated and disturbed ground. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed. No particular morphology for dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on POACEAE cars (Wace 1977). Freshly harvested seed dormant but germinates readily in spring; grows best when surrounded by dominant plants; Setaria sphacelata * metabolic pathway C4 (Holm et al. 1997). South African Pigeon Grass, Setaria FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove), Life history secondary juvenile period about 10 weeks (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). GROWTH FORM: Densely to compactly tufted perennial herb to 2 m high. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Young plants palatable to livestock, VEGETATIVE SPREAD: but bristles on the inflorescence of mature plants injure mouths of cattle LONGEVITY: (Holm et al. 1997). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Distribution FLOWERS: Summer. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to America. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS SWP; Vic., DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: W.A. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted after high intensity fire (1/94 at Narrabeen), DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. secondary juvenile period about 9 months (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1905), Berowra Creek, Penrith, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Cheltenham, Doonside, Homebush, Neutral Bay, Centennial Park (1899), Distribution Kowmung River, Mount Annan (1987), Bargo, Wollongong, Kiama. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to trop. and S Africa. Introduced as CT: Bathurst, Lawson (1940), Linden. pasture grass. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SWP; Qld, Afr. HABITAT: Roadsides, creeks, floodplains, disturbed areas, moist places. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm 180 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Clyde (1969), Centennial Park (1973, 1977), Habitat Camden (1960). HABITAT: Cultivated areas. Habitat ALTITUDE: 800Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1000 mm HABITAT: Wasteland. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SUBSTRATE: VEGETATION: EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils. Conservation EXPOSURE: Occasional weed of cultivation in Tablelands (Harden 1993). Conservation Cultivated as pasture grass, occasionally naturalised. POACEAE Sorghum bicolor subsp. drummondii * POACEAE Setaria verticillata * (S. sudanense) Cultivated Sorghum Whorled Pigeon Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual or weak perennial herb to 2.5 m high. GROWTH FORM: Loosley tufted annual herb to 1 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Summer. FLOWERS: Summer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, grain not exposed at FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. maturity. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to tropics and temperate regions of Old STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, probably native to Africa. Introduced as a crop World. plant. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST CWS SWS NWP SWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP; S.A., W.A. Qld, Afri. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Sunny Corner (1952), Hazelbrook (1998). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Flemington (1969), Narellan (1968). Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Cultivated or disturbed land. HABITAT: Disturbed sites, tips, saleyards. ALTITUDE: 800Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1100 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð900 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation Occasionally recorded in Tablelands. Cultivated in almost all parts of NSW, sporadically recorded from disturbed sites, probably resulting from spilt grain, and not truly POACEAE naturalised. Setaria viridis * Green Pigeon Grass POACEAE Life history Sorghum halepense * GROWTH FORM: Loosely tufted annual herb 5Ð50 (Ð80) cm high. Johnson Grass VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Life history LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous perennial herb to 2 m high. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FLOWERS: Summer. LONGEVITY: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FLOWERS: JanuaryÐApril. FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, MarchÐApril. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to temperate regions. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pollen known to cause allergy in BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC NT CT ST CWS NFWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., humans (Bass & Wrigley 1984). Hybridizes with Grain Sorghum S. S.A., W.A. bicolor subsp. bicolor. Food plant of butterfly larvae Telicota ancilla DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. ancilla (Common & Waterhouse 1981). SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Bathurst area (1978), Carcoar (1962), Orange Distribution (1948). STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 181

DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. FIRE RESPONSE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond, Shane Park, Cheltenham, Homebush, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Flowers dyed various colours and Rhodes (1887), Flemington, Rockdale. CT: Orange, Tarana (1900), used extensively in Millinery (Herb. note 1912). Barbers Creek (1898). Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: Disturbed areas, river edges, creekbanks, roadsides. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., N.Z., Pac.Is. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal dunes and beaches. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Terrigal Beach, Avalon, Narrabeen, Manly VEGETATION: Weedy sites e.g. with Sida rhombifolia, Conyza, Plantago. Beach, Bondi, Maroubra Beach, Brighton, Lady Robinsons Beach, SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on alluvium, medium nutrients. Cronulla Beach, Bonny Vale, Wollongong. EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Shoreline, foredunes. Weed of crops and disturbed areas. ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. POACEAE VEGETATION: Forms dense mats on foredunes. Sorghum leiocladum SUBSTRATE: Sand dunes, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: Wild Sorghum Conservation Life history Sand-binding and colonising grass on coastal dunes. Conservation GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. status unknown. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). LONGEVITY: Indefinite. POACEAE PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: NovemberÐMarch. Sporobolus africanus * (S. indicus var. capensis) FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Parramatta Grass DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Morphology for dispersal by adhesion (McIntyre et al. 1995). Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 0.9 m high, with strong root FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts. system. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Distribution LONGEVITY: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS; Qld, Vic., N.T. FLOWERS: Summer, inflorescence 10Ð18 cm long. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly western Sydney, Southern Highlands. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Toongabbie, Prospect, Cobbitty, Camden, Mount DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed, sticky when wet Annan, Picton, Colo Vale. CT: Glen Davis, Wallerawang, Mt Victoria, adhering to animals and clothing; also spread in soil on machinery and Megalong, Jenolan Caves, Abercrombie Caves, Moss Vale, Berrima, vehicles (South Coast Weeds 2004, http://www.esc.nsw.gov.au/Weeds). Wingello. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, flowering within 5 months after high Habitat intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, Narrabeen, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). HABITAT: Grassy woodland. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Low feed value for stock (South ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð900 mm Coast Weeds 2004, http://www.esc.nsw.gov.au/Weeds). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. Distribution VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus tereticornis, E. moluccana, STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Africa. E. crebra, E. melliodora. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT ST NWS SWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shales, metasediments, granite, medium S.A. nutrients. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: EXPOSURE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Milson Is, Hornsby, Beecroft, Doonside, Conservation Northbridge, Ryde (1888), Homebush (1894), Flemington, Bondi (1902), Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status Mascot, Penrith, Oatley (1901), Kogarah, Stanwell Park, Dapto, elsewhere unknown. Kangaroo Valley (1921). CT: Woodford, Mittagong, Cambewarra. Habitat POACEAE HABITAT: Disturbed areas, road verges and tracks, pasture. Spinifex sericeus (S. hirsutus) ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Hairy Spinifex VEGETATION: Pastures, woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus punctata, Life history Corymbia eximia, Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis; road verges GROWTH FORM: Stout, dioecious perennial herb with branched stolons and pastures e.g. with Paspalum dilatatum, Plantago lanceolata, and rhizomes to several metres long. Pennisetum clandestinum. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous, rhizomatous, rooting at nodes. SUBSTRATE: Sandy or clayey soil on shale, low to medium nutrients. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Often on compacted soils. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: EXPOSURE: FLOWERS: Separate male and female or bisexual inflorescences, OctoberÐ Conservation November. Weed of disturbed areas and pastures. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Germination inhibited by white light, only occurring when seeds are deeply buried in moist soil (Langkamp 1987). 182 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE POACEAE Sporobolus caroli Sporobolus elongatus Fairy Grass, Yakka Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1 m high. GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual or perennial herb to 0.6 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Summer. FLOWERS: In response to rain. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular morphology for DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouts. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP; BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT NWS; Qld, S.A. Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Flemington. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lower Portland, Bayview, Pymble, Cheltenham, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Flemington Saleyards (1969). Homebush, Cooks River, Oatley, Bass Hill, Liverpool, Mount Annan, Razorback, Berry. CT: Woodford, Kowmung River, Hill Top. Habitat HABITAT: Saleyards. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900 mm HABITAT: Low ridges. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm VEGETATION: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. SUBSTRATE: Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, volcanics. EXPOSURE: Conservation Native to drier inland areas, recorded only at Flemington saleyards in Conservation 1969, probably introduced to Sydney area with livestock. Probably Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status extinct in the Sydney area now. elsewhere unknown.

POACEAE POACEAE Sporobolus creber Sporobolus fertilis * (Sporobolus indicus var. major * ) Life history Parramatta Grass GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.3 m high. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.6 m high. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: Summer. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FLOWERS: SpringÐautumn, inflorescence 25Ð50 cm long. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No particular morphology for FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. dispersal (McIntyre et al. 1995). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seeds, spread by water, FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from base. Flowering within 4 months after wind and machinery; seeds become sticky at maturity and may attach to high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). hair or fur; summer-growing (Weeds Australia www.weeds.org.au). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Recovers rapidly from fire (Weeds Australia Distribution www.weeds.org.au). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Unpalatable (Weeds Australia BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP www.weeds.org.au). SWP; Qld, Vic. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Cumberland Plain. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Asia. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Turramurra, Homebush, Centennial Park, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWS; Qld, S.A. Toongabbie, Engadine, Mount Annan, Picton, Cedar Creek. CT: Ophir, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Orange. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: North Parramatta (1954), Camden (1982), Berry Habitat (1993). HABITAT: Grassy woodland. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm HABITAT: Disturbed areas, roadside, low-lying land. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus moluccana, E. tereticornis, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. E. crebra, Angophora floribunda, E. eugenioides; scrub e.g. with VEGETATION: Allocasuarina distyla, Angophora hispida. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, mediumÐlow nutrients. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, metasediments, laterite, mediumÐlow EXPOSURE: nutrients. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). Conservation EXPOSURE: Major weed of disturbed and pastoral land (Weeds Australia Conservation www.weeds.org.au). Noxious weed in NSW (NPWS website: Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status www.nationalparks.nsw.gov.au). elsewhere unknown. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 183

POACEAE POACEAE Sporobolus virginicus var. minor Stenotaphrum secundatum * Marine Couch Buffalo Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Creeping rhizomatous or stoloniferous perennial herb GROWTH FORM: Stoloniferous perennial herb to 0.3 m high. to 0.5 m high, with leaves less than 1 mm wide. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Spreads to form spongy turf. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomes and stolons. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: DecemberÐFebruary. FLOWERS: SummerÐautumn. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: A food plant of butterfly Melanitis INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: leda bankia (Common & Waterhouse 1981). Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to America, Africa. Introduced as lawn grass. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld, S.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC SWS; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Estuaries. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lane Cove River, Gladesville, Homebush Bay, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Barrenjoey, Bayview, Narrabeen Lakes, Cabarita, Meadowbank, Salt Pan Creek, Weeney Bay, Kurnell, Georges Homebush Bay, Rhodes (1885), Towra Point, Bundeena, Five Islands River. (1928), Cambewarra. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Saltmarsh. HABITAT: Near saltwater. ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent to dominant. VEGETATION: Saltmarsh e.g. with Sarcocornia quinqueflora, often VEGETATION: Saltmarsh; woodland e.g. with Casuarina glauca. between Sarcornia and Juncus zones. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sand, sandstone, lowÐmedium nutrients, salt- SUBSTRATE: Muddy sediments, periodically tidally inundated. tolerant. EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Full sun to light shade. Conservation Conservation Cultivated as a lawn grass elsewhere and naturalised chiefly in coastal POACEAE and estuarine sites. Sporobolus virginicus var. virginicus POACEAE Sand Couch Tetrarrhena juncea Wiry Ricegrass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Creeping rhizomatous or stoloniferous perennial herb GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb, with much-branched wiry stems to 0.5 m high, with leaves greater than 1 mm wide. often scrambling to 4 m long. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomes and stolons. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Summer. FLOWERS: Most of the year. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit, SeptemberÐJanuary. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore seed, difficult to DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: germinate (Clarke & Hannon 1970). Adults indifferent to waterlogging. FIRE RESPONSE: No salt requirement; intolerant of undiluted seawater (Clarke & Hannon INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of butterfly larvae Pasma 1970). tasmanica (Common & Waterhouse 1981). FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Australian Shelduck Distribution Tadorna tadornoides (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas., W.A. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and upper mountains. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kurrajong Heights, Terrey Hills, Pennant Hills, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; LHI, Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A. Northbridge, Mosman, Oatley, Audley. CT: Bell, Mt Wilson, Katoomba, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Lawson, Belmore Falls. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cronulla. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Hillsides, gullies, near creeks. HABITAT: Saltmarsh, more abundant in less saline river marshes than in ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm bays (Clarke & Hannon 1970) TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus sieberi, E. punctata, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita, Corymbia gummifera, VEGETATION: Saltmarsh, occurring on higher and less saline parts of Syncarpia glomulifera; scrub e.g. with Kunzea capitata, Banksia Sarcocornia zone and also in Juncus kraussi i zone, areas flooded ericifolia. infrequently and never diurnally (Clarke & Hannon 1970) SUBSTRATE: Sandy to loamy soil on sandstone, low nutrients. SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation Conservation status unknown. 184 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE Provides much needed roughage to offset the effects of highly improved Tetrarrhena turfosa grasslands (McBarron 1955). Pollen may cause allergy in humans (Bass & Wrigley 1984). Life history Distribution GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous perennial herb forming compact tufts to STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. 1.3 m high. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP VEGETATIVE SPREAD: SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A., NG. LONGEVITY: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Faulconbridge, Springwood, Pitt Town, Woy FLOWERS: SpringÐsummer. Woy, Milson Island, Barrenjoey, Hornsby, Cheltenham, Northbridge, FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Gladesville, Bradleys Head, Vaucluse, Centennial Park, Cooks River, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Penshurst, St Marys, Mount Annan, Cobbitty, Bass Point, Bomaderry. FIRE RESPONSE: CT: Capertee Valley, Ophir, Bathurst, Blayney, Carcoar, Junction Reefs, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Jenolan Caves, Jellore Creek, Mittagong, Tallong, Barbers Creek. Distribution Habitat STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. HABITAT: Grassy woodlands, coastal headlands, grassland. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC NT CT ST; Vic., Tas. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1200 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast, Upper Blue Mountains, Southern TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Highlands. VEGETATION: Grassland and grassy woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Centennial Park, Maddens Plains, Mt Keira. moluccana, E. tereticornis, E. crebra, E. melliodora; shrubby CT: Mt Victoria, Blackheath, Katoomba, Wentworth Falls, Lawson, Hill woodland e.g. with Angophora costata, Melaleuca nodosa, Eucalyptus Top, Robertson. albens, E. Macrorhyncha; headland grassy heath. Habitat SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils to heavy clays on shale, laterite, basalt, volcanics, HABITAT: Swamps, watercourses in high rainfall areas. sandstone, lowÐhigh nutrients. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1600 mm EXPOSURE: Full sun to light shade. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Conservation VEGETATION: Sedgeland/wet heath e.g. with Gymnoschoenus Probably a dominant native species prior to settlement, but rapidly sphaerocephalus, Baumea rubiginosa, Epacris obtusifolia, Gleichenia, depleted by cultivation and grazing. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Bauera. Sydney Harbour NP. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, sand, low nutrients, permanently moist. EXPOSURE: POACEAE Conservation Tragus australianus Conservation status unknown. Small Burrgrass Life history POACEAE GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb, with erect or ascending stems to Themeda australis 0.4 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Kangaroo Grass LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. GROWTH FORM: Tufted perennial herb to 1.2 m high, often tinted red, FLOWERS: In response to rain. tussocks up to 0.5 m across (Waters et al. 2000). Includes various forms FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent burr. including a low-growing coastal headland form. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Burr dispersed by adhesion. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: 2 years (in garden, L. McD.). Distribution FLOWERS: Mostly summer, DecemberÐApril. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Mature DecemberÐMarch, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWS CWS NWP SWP NFWP SFWP; depending on rainfall and temperature (Waters et al. 2000). Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Morphology for dispersal by DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Western Sydney. adhesion (McIntyre et al. 1995). Gravity-dispersed, 1 m spread in 2 SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Glenlee (1969), Richmond (1912), Homebush years from stems that droop at maturity (L.McD.). Primary dormancy (1894), Flemington (1968), Mount Annan (2001). usually breaks down slowly with storage periods of up to 12 months or more (Waters et al. 2000), to break dormancy, seed needs cold night Habitat temperatures or can be stored at 4¡C for at least 1 month; total HABITAT: Saleyards, paddocks. germination approx. 100 days (typical rate 13 per gram of awned seed, ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð900 mm Greening Australia 1996a), Spring and summer-growing (Cunningham TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. et al. 1981). A coloniser of bare clay banks and slopes. VEGETATION: Grassland. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts at base (Fox 1988). Secondary juvenile SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. period about 12 months after high intensity fire (1/94 at Lane Cove, EXPOSURE: Narrabeen, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Conservation INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Food plant of butterfly larvae Occasionally recorded in western Sydney since 1894, but essentially a Geitoneura klugii klugii, and probably Geiton erua acantha acantha, species of drier areas and probably introduced to Sydney area with live- Heteronympha merope merope (Common & Waterhouse 1981). Will stock e.g. at saleyards. not tolerate continuous grazing, very palatable when young but has only moderate nutritive value with 3Ð12% crude protein (Waters et al. 2000). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 185

POACEAE POACEAE Triodia scariosa subsp. scariosa Triticum aestivum * Wheat Porcupine Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Robust annual herb to 1 m high. GROWTH FORM: Tussock and hummock-forming perennial herb to 1 m VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. high. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: Spring. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FLOWERS: In response to rain. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Pacific Black Duck FIRE RESPONSE: Anas superciliosa, Grey Teal Anas gibberifrons, seeds eaten by Singing INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Bushlark Mirafra javanica, Richard’s Pipit Anthus novaeseelandiae, Olive Whistler Pachycephala olivacea, Brown Songlark Cinclorhamphus Distribution cruralis, Origma Origma solitaria (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Pollen known to cause allergy in humans (Bass & Wrigley 1984). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC NT CT NWS CWS NWP SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Capertee Valley. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region, introduced as SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Capertee Valley. cereal crop. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP Habitat SWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. HABITAT: Rocky ridges DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. ALTITUDE: 600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð700 mm SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cheltenham, North Strathfield, Casula, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Campbelltown, Douglas Park. CT: Medlow Bath. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus albens. SUBSTRATE: Low-nutrient soils. Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Roadsides, railways, trucking yards. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Population in Capertee Valley is at the eastern limit of distribution. VEGETATION: Conservation status unknown. SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: POACEAE Conservation Triraphis mollis Cultivated as cereal crop, occurs sporadically along roadsides and Purple Needlegrass railways from spilt grain. Does not spread and is not truly naturalised. Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual or perennial herb to 0.8 m high. POACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. Urochloa panicoides * LONGEVITY: Urochloa Grass, Liverseed Grass PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: In response to rain. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. GROWTH FORM: Stoloniferous annual herb to 0.7 m high. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Summer. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWS CWS NWP NFWP SFWP; Qld, FIRE RESPONSE: Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Pasture grass. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1912), Flemington (1968). Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Africa. Probably introduced as pasture grass. Habitat BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP HABITAT: Saleyards. NFWP; Qld. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð900 mm DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Emerton (1993), Flemington (1969), Glenfield VEGETATION: (1969), Campbelltown (1984). SUBSTRATE: EXPOSURE: Habitat HABITAT: Disturbed sites, lawns. Conservation ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Occasionally recorded in western Sydney since 1912 but essentially a TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. species of drier areas and probably introduced to Sydney area with live- VEGETATION: Remnant woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus fibrosa, E. stock e.g. at saleyards. tereticornis. SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale. EXPOSURE: Conservation Pasture grass, occasionally naturalised. 186 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POACEAE POACEAE Urochloa piligera (Brachiaria piligera) Vulpia muralis * (Festuca myuros) Hairy Armgrass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Tufted annual herb to 0.5 m high. GROWTH FORM: Ascending annual herb to 1 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Spring. FLOWERS: Summer. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive for dispersal DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: (McIntyre et al. 1995). FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Europe and Mediterranean region. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWS CWS NWP; Qld, N.T., W.A. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP; DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Qld, Vic., W.A. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Flemington (1969), Campbelltown (1981). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: St Marys (1966). CT: Trunkey (1992). Habitat HABITAT: Saleyards, disturbed sites. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð900 mm HABITAT: Disturbed areas. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð800 mm VEGETATION: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, medium nutrients. VEGETATION: EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, medium nutrients. EXPOSURE: Conservation Occasionally recorded in western Sydney since 1969, but essentially a Conservation species of drier areas and probably introduced to Sydney area with Occasional weed of disturbed sites. livestock e.g. at saleyards. POACEAE POACEAE Vulpia myuros * (V. megalura, Festuca myuros) Vulpia bromoides * (Festuca bromoides) Rat’s Tail Fescue Squirrel Tail Fescue Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Densely tufted annual herb to 0.6 m high. GROWTH FORM: Tufted herb to 40 cm high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No (McIntyre et al. 1995). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. LONGEVITY: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 1 year. FLOWERS: Spring. FLOWERS: Spring. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. Seed weight 0.5 mg DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive for dispersal (Buckley 1982). (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore adhesive for dispersal FIRE RESPONSE: (McIntyre et al. 1995), dispersed in mud on cars (Wace 1977). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FIRE RESPONSE: Killed, seedlings recorded less than 1 year after fire Distribution (Purdie 1977). Flowering in about 10 months after high intensity fire STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. (1/94 at Lane Cove, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SWP SFWP; Qld, Vic., S.A., W.A. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to Mediterranean region. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Richmond (1906), Cheltenham, Manly (1884), BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP Gladesville, Homebush, Centennial Park, Ashfield (1914), Cooks River NFWP; LHI, Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. (1914), Flemington (1969), Bargo (1923), Thirlmere (1904), Kangaroo DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Valley (1929). CT: Katoomba (1934), Woodford, Wingello (1913). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Springwood, Cheltenham, Manly (1885), Habitat Gladesville (1884), Parramatta (1886), Cooks River (1914), Centennial HABITAT: Disturbed areas. Park (1892), Glenfield, Liverpool, Wollongong. CT: Blayney, Bathurst, ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Lawson, Jenolan Caves (1899), Mittagong. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Habitat VEGETATION: Grassland e.g. with Themeda australis; woodland. HABITAT: Disturbed places, paddocks. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, basalt, sandstone, medium nutrients. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm EXPOSURE: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Conservation VEGETATION: Grassland. Widespread weed of disturbed sites. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, granite, sand. EXPOSURE: Conservation Widespread in disturbed habitats. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 187

POACEAE (Parsons & Cuthbertson 2001). In 1977 moth larvae Sameodes Zoysia macrantha albiguttalis was introduced for control; the moth established and spread rapidly causing considerable damage in some areas. Another moth Prickly Couch larvae from S. America, Acigona infusella, has also shown considerable Life history promise (Common 1990) possible future control by use of other aquatic GROWTH FORM: Strongly rhizomatous and stoloniferous perennial herb plants that produce allelopathic chemicals that restrict growth (Parsons to 0.3 m high. & Cuthbertson 2001). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: By rhizomes and stolons. Distribution LONGEVITY: Indefinite. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to S America. A declared noxious weed in PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: NSW. FLOWERS: OctoberÐJanuary. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A. FRUIT/SEED: Dry, 1-seeded, indehiscent fruit. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: HawkesburyÐNepean River. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Penrith. FIRE RESPONSE: Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: HABITAT: Dams, streams, drains, irrigation channels (Parsons & Distribution Cuthbertson 2001). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð50 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld, Vic., Tas., Malesia. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastline estuaries. VEGETATION: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lake Munmorah, Terrigal Beach, Patonga, Palm SUBSTRATE: Stationary or slow-flowing, nutrient-rich water (Harden Beach, The Basin, Church Point, Narrabeen, Curl Curl, Manly, 1993) does not tolerate salinity above 1.6% (Parsons & Cuthbertson Homebush Bay, Maroubra Bay, Lady Robinsons Beach, Deadmans 2001). Creek, Windang Island, Shellharbour, Gerringong. EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Dunes, margins of salt swamps, creekbanks, seacliffs. Declared noxious weed in whole of NSW, universally regarded as one ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm of the most serious aquatic weeds of the world (Parsons & Cuthbertson TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. 2001). VEGETATION: Lake foreshores e.g. with Isolepis nodosus, Phragmites australis; coastal foreshores e.g. with Carex, Sporobolus virginicus. POSIDONIACEAE SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on dunes, alluvium, sandstone, low nutrients. Posidonia australis EXPOSURE: Seagrass Conservation Conservation status unknown. Life history GROWTH FORM: Submerged, rhizomatous, perennial seagrass. PONTEDERIACEAE VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Eichhornia crassipes * PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Water Hyacinth FLOWERS: Pollination occurs under water. Life history FRUIT/SEED: Fruit 15Ð30 mm long, with one seed to 20 mm long. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: fruit, with spongy GROWTH FORM: Aquatic floating herb with short leafy stem, sometimes rooting in mud to 65 cm high, with stolons 5Ð12 cm long (Michael exterior, floating when first released. 1997). Leaves of two types: long, narrow, erect to 60 cm long, others FIRE RESPONSE: roundish to 30 cm diameter; roots fibrous, feather-like, dark-coloured INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Provides important habitat for fish emerging from a rhizome or crown (Parsons & Cuthbertson 2001). (Middleton et al. 1984). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Stoloniferous (Parsons & Cuthbertson 2001). Distribution LONGEVITY: Indefinite. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. FLOWERS: Bluish purple, on a long stalk. Self-compatible (Cronk & DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal estuaries. Fuller 1995). SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Lake Macquarie, Woy Woy, Pittwater, Cowan FRUIT/SEED: 3-celled capsule, with many tiny, ribbed seeds (Michael Creek, Middle Harbour, Mosman, Botany Bay, Quibray Bay, Cronulla, 1997) 1 mm long. Port Hacking. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seeds, dispersed by birds Habitat and water; dormancy of about 12 weeks, drop to the bottom mud and HABITAT: Coastal bays and inlets. germinate (when there is sufficient light) in spring, seedings float to ALTITUDE: Below tide level. ANNUAL RAINFALL: not applicable surface but most germination occurs on moist soil at water’s edge; seed TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. may lie dormant in dry mud for more than 15 years; major vegetative VEGETATION: dispersal is from plantlets forming on stolons, with plant numbers SUBSTRATE: Clear saline water 1Ð10 m deep, on sand or mud in doubling in 5 days and new plants flowering in 3Ð4 weeks (Parsons & estuarine or oceanic habitats (Harden 1993). Cuthbertson 2001). EXPOSURE: FIRE RESPONSE: Conservation INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Chokes irrigation systems, makes Conservation status unknown. swimming and boating impossible, takes considerable oxygen from water, affecting health of fish and interferes with wildlife conservation reducing areas for waterbirds, provides ideal breeding sites for mosquitoes; extracts from leaf stalks have hormone activity which restricts the development of some insect species and acts as an ovicide 188 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

POTAMOGETONACEAE POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton crispus Potamogeton ochreatus Curly Pondweed Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Submerged rhizomatous aquatic herb. GROWTH FORM: Submerged, rhizomatous aquatic herb, with stems to VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. 3 m long. Leaves elongated, deep green with strongly undulating edges LONGEVITY: (Romanowski 1998). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: FLOWERS: Many flowers on an emergent spike to 3 cm long, OctoberÐ LONGEVITY: Perennial. December. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Nutlets 3Ð4 mm long, NovemberÐDecember. FLOWERS: Up to 10 flowers on an emergent spike 1Ð2 cm long, OctoberÐ DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Germinates in winter in Northern January. Tablelands (Britton & Brock 1994). FRUIT/SEED: Nutlet 5Ð7 mm long. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Black Swan Cygnus FIRE RESPONSE: atratus (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Black Swan Cygnus Distribution atratus (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Distribution BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A., N.Z. & Asia. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC CT ST NWS CWS NWP SWP; Qld, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wyong Creek, Centennial Park, Hacking River, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A., Eur, Asia, Afr. Nepean River, Mulgoa, Warragamba River, Thirlmere Lakes, Cordeaux DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Dam, Macquarie Rivulet, Kangaroo River. CT: Bathurst, Orange, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Picnic Point, Emu Plains, Wollondilly Oberon, Kanimbla Valley, Kowmung. River. CT: Borenore, Kowmung River. Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Rivers, channels, lakes. HABITAT: Creeks, rivers. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð1400 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð800 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. VEGETATION: With other waterplants e.g. Vallisneria, Myriophyllum, VEGETATION: With other water plants. Eleocharis sphacelata. SUBSTRATE: Shallow, slowly-flowing fresh water. Recorded on saline SUBSTRATE: Still to strongly flowing fresh water from a few cm to 5 m sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). deep, usually on deep silt and gravel, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Conservation Conservation Conservation status unknown. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status elsewhere unknown. POTAMOGETONACEAE Potamogeton javanicus POTAMOGETONACEAE Life history Potamogeton pectinatus GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous, almost turf-forming aquatic perennial. Sago Pondweed VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. LONGEVITY: Life history PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: GROWTH FORM: Submerged aquatic herb, with stems to 3 m long and a FLOWERS: On an emergent spike 2 cm long, OctoberÐNovember. vigorous rhizome system that penetrates mud to 1 m and produces FRUIT/SEED: Nutlet 2 mm long. numerous fleshy root tubers. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. FIRE RESPONSE: LONGEVITY: Perennial. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: In small groups on spike to 5 cm long, NovemberÐJanuary. Distribution FRUIT/SEED: Nutlets 2Ð4 mm across. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ; Qld, N.T., W.A., Asia. FIRE RESPONSE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: North of Botany Bay. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Plumed Whistling SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Centennial Park, East Lakes, Botany, Penrith Duck Dendrocygna eytoni, Pacific Black Duck Anas superciliosa (Barker weir, Bents Basin. & Vestjens 1989,1990). Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Lakes, creeks. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ST SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A., TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. cosmop. VEGETATION: With other aquatic plants e.g. Hydrilla verticillata, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Nymphaea. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Sydney Botanic Gardens (1968, 1977), Rooty SUBSTRATE: Shallow water up to 2 m deep. Hill (1988), Kurnell (1965). EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Wetlands, ponds. Conservation status unknown. Sydney is southern geographical limit. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 189

SUBSTRATE: Saline to slightly saline stationary water to 4 m deep. VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Typha, montane peatland e.g. with EXPOSURE: Isacne globosa, Triglochin procera, Lilaeopsis polyantha, Carex. Conservation SUBSTRATE: Slowly flowing fresh water to 3 m deep, on muddy bottoms. Conservation status unknown. EXPOSURE: Conservation POTAMOGETONACEAE Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP. Potamogeton perfoliatus POTAMOGETONACEAE Clasped Pondweed Ruppia maritima Life history GROWTH FORM: Submerged rhizomatous aquatic perennial herb, with Life history trailing stems and producing turions. GROWTH FORM: Submerged perennial herb, with rhizomes and stems to VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. 8 cm long. LONGEVITY: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: Emergent dense spike of flowers, FebruaryÐApril. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Nutlets 2Ð3 mm long. FLOWERS: Flowers pollinated below the water surface, springÐautumn. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Black drupelet, flask-shaped 2Ð4 mm long, maturing FIRE RESPONSE: below the water surface. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: Distribution INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Tubers and seeds eaten by STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Australian Shelduck Tadorna tadornoides (Barker & Vestjens BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWP; Qld, 1989,1990). Vic., Tas., cosmop. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Colo Gorge, Wisemans Ferry, Yarramundi STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Lagoon, Nepean River, Wollondilly River. CT: Sofala, Coxs River. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SWP; Qld, Vic., N.T., S.A., W.A., cosmop. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Parramatta River. HABITAT: Streams and rivers. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Homebush Bay, Parramatta. ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð800 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Habitat VEGETATION: Aquatic vegetation e.g. with Ranunculus, Myriophyllum. HABITAT: Estuarine flats. SUBSTRATE: Gently to strongly flowing fresh waters from a few cm to ALTITUDE: Below sea level. ANNUAL RAINFALL: n.a. 2.5 m deep, on sandy or mud bottoms (Aston 1977), salt-tolerant. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: EXPOSURE: VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: Brackish to strongly saline water. Conservation EXPOSURE: Conservation status unknown. Conservation Only recorded for the Sydney area in the Parramatta River (1881, 1995). POTAMOGETONACEAE Conservation status unknown. Potamogeton tricarinatus Floating Pondweed POTAMOGETONACEAE Life history Ruppia megacarpa GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous aquatic herb, with stems to 4 m long . Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. GROWTH FORM: Surface flowering submerged aquatic perennial with LONGEVITY: Indefinite. slender rhizomes and stems to 2 m long. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. FLOWERS: In a dense, emergent spike to 5 cm long, SeptemberÐApril. LONGEVITY: FRUIT/SEED: Nutlets 2Ð4 mm long. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: More than 6 months (Van Viersen et al. 1982). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Germination in autumnÐwinter in FLOWERS: Inflorescence on a stem to about 1 m long, warmer months. Northern Tablelands (Britton & Brock 1994). Pollen dispersed in floating clumps at water surface (Van Viersen et al. FIRE RESPONSE: 1982). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Brown to black drupelet, 3Ð4 mm long. Fruits develop Distribution underwater (Van Viersen et al. 1982). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Plants develop very slowly (Van BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS SWS NWP SWP Viersen et al. 1982). NFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A. FIRE RESPONSE: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Howes Valley, Terrigal, Tuggerah, Galston, Distribution Richmond, Luddenham, Mount Annan, Wallacia. CT: Mittagong, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Wingecarribbee Swamp, Paddys River. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC ST SWP; Vic., S.A., W.A., N.Z. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal, estuarine. HABITAT: Rivers, creeks, wetland, dams. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Munmorah, Budgewoi Lake, Avoca Beach, Port ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm Hacking, Lake Illawarra. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. 190 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Habitat Habitat HABITAT: Coastal lagoons, estuaries, inland lakes. HABITAT: Swamps. ALTITUDE: Below sea level ANNUAL RAINFALL: not applicable ALTITUDE: 600Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: VEGETATION: Shrub swamp e.g. with Leptospermum spp., Xyris gracilis, SUBSTRATE: Brackish to strongly saline shallow water over grey silty Baumea spp., Gahnia spp. mud. SUBSTRATE: Wet peaty , sandy or gravelly soil on sandstone, granite, EXPOSURE: low nutrient, permanently moist. Conservation EXPOSURE: Conservation status unknown. Conservation Running Stream north of Capertee is northern geographical limit. POTAMOGETONACEAE Conservation status unknown.

Ruppia polycarpa (Ruppia spiralis) RESTIONACEAE Life history Baloskion fimbriatum (Restio fimbriatus) GROWTH FORM: Surface-flowering submerged aquatic perennial, with rhizomes and stems to 40 cm long. Life history VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, with shortly creeping rhizome and LONGEVITY: flowering stems 20Ð85 cm high. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. FLOWERS: 4Ð16, springÐautumn. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. FRUIT/SEED: Black drupelet 2Ð3 mm long. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FLOWERS: Separate male and female flowers on different plants. FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. Seed maturation 6Ð8 months (Meney & Pate 1999). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Foodplant of Black Swan Cygnus DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Fruit probably wind-dispersed atratus, Australian Shelduck Tadorna tadornoides, Anas gibberifrons, (B. Briggs pers. comm.). Chesnut Teal Anas castanea, and Freckled Duck Stictonetta nervosa FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (B. Briggs pers. comm., Meney & Pate 2004). (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC; Vic, Tas, S.A., W.A., N.Z. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST; Qld. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal lagoons. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains, Southern Highlands. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Avoca Lagoon, Narrabeen Lake, Dee Why SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mellong Swamp. CT: Mt Coricudgy, Dunns Lagoon, Corrimal. Swamp, Blackheath, Katoomba, Wentworth Falls, Jenolan SF, Wanganderry, Hill Top, Mt Jellore, Fitzroy Falls, Paddys River, Penrose. Habitat HABITAT: Coastal lagoons, estuaries, inland lakes. Habitat ALTITUDE: Below sea level. ANNUAL RAINFALL: not applicable HABITAT: Swamps. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: ALTITUDE: 300Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm VEGETATION: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. SUBSTRATE: Brackish to strongly saline water over muddy alluvium. VEGETATION: Sedge swamp e.g. with Lepidosperma limicola, Gleichenia EXPOSURE: dicarpa, Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus; shrub swamp e.g. with Banksia spinulosa, Leptospermum continentale, Epodisma minus, Conservation Epacris microphylla, Gleichenia. Conservation status unknown. SUBSTRATE: Deep sandy soils, on sandstone, low nutrients, wet, poorly- drained. RESTIONACEAE EXPOSURE: Baloskion australe (Restio australis) Conservation Life history Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP, Kanangra Boyd GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, with long creeping rhizome and NP. flowering stems 40Ð100 cm high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. RESTIONACEAE LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Baloskion gracile (Restio gracilis) PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Separate male and female flowers on different plants, at any Life history time. GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, tufted or with creeping rhizome and FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. Seed maturation 10Ð12 months (Meney & Pate flowering stems 35Ð100 cm high. 1999). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Fruit probably wind-dispersed LONGEVITY: Indefinite. (B. Briggs pers. comm.). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (B. Briggs pers. comm.). FLOWERS: Separate male and female flowers on different plants, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: NovemberÐJanuary. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. Seed maturation 6Ð8 months (Meney & Pate 1999). Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Keith pers. comm.). Fruit probably wind-dispersed (B. Briggs pers. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST; Vic., Tas. comm.). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Upper Blue Mountains. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (D. Keith, B. Briggs pers. comm.). SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Running Stream, Mt Cameron, Farmers Creek, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Newnes SF, Clarence, Mt Wilson, Blackheath, Katoomba, Narrow Neck, Kanangra, Boyd River, Mt Werong, Wingecarribee Swamp. Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 191

Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Fruit probably wind-dispersed STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. (B. Briggs pers. comm.). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from base (Benson 1981, Meney & Pate 1999). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast, Southern Highlands. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woy Woy, Salvation Creek, Rose Bay, Distribution Centennial Park, La Perouse, Woronora River, Waterfall, Thirlmere, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Maddens Plains, Bulli Lookout, Mt Keira, Cambewarra Range. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. CT: Hill Top, Carrington Falls, Penrose. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Agnes Banks, Wyong. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Doyalson, Wyong, Agnes Banks. HABITAT: Swamps, creeks. Habitat ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1600 mm HABITAT: Swampy places. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Lepyrodia scariosa, Schoenus spp. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Juncus spp., Xyris spp., Banksia oblongifolia, Banksia robur. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus parramattensis, Lepyrodia SUBSTRATE: Deep sandy or peaty soils, on sandstone, low nutrients, scariosa, Banksia oblongifolia, Kunzea capitata, Trachymene incisa, poorly-drained, permanently moist. Schoenus brevifolius, Pimelea linifolia. EXPOSURE: SUBSTRATE: Deep sandy soil, low nutrients, periodically moist. Conservation EXPOSURE: Woy Woy is northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. Conservation Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Royal NP. Very restricted occurrence, Agnes Banks is southern geographical limit. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status RESTIONACEAE elsewhere unknown. Baloskion longipes (Restio longipes) RESTIONACEAE Life history GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, tufted or with shortly creeping rhizome; Baloskion tetraphyllum subsp. meiostachyum flowering stems 90Ð150 cm high. (Restio tetraphyllus subsp. meiostachyus) VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. Life history LONGEVITY: Indefinite. GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, with shortly creeping rhizome to 10 mm PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: diam. and flowering stems 50Ð160 cm high. FLOWERS: Narrow inflorescence up to 25 cm long, FebruaryÐApril. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Fruit probably wind-dispersed PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: (B. Briggs pers. comm.). FLOWERS: OctoberÐJanuary. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (Meney & Pate 1999). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Fruit probably wind-dispersed Distribution (B. Briggs pers. comm.). Vigorous coloniser after disturbance (Meney STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. et al. 1999). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT ST. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted at base or below (Fox 1988, B. Briggs pers. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Boyd Plateau, Southern Highlands. comm.), after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Narrabeen, P Kubiak pers. SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Boyd Plateau, Mt Werong, Penrose. comm.). Habitat INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: HABITAT: Swamps, depressions. Distribution ALTITUDE: 700Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1200 mm STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld. VEGETATION: Hummocky sedgeland e.g. with Restio spp., Empodisma DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. minus, Xyris ustulata; shrub swamp e.g. with Leptospermum SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Toukley, Tuggerah, Umina, Mt Katandra, juniperinum, Leptospermum lanigerum. Mooney Mooney Creek, America Bay Creek, Narrabeen, Dee Why SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clayey alluvium over sandstone, low nutrients, Lagoon, Centennial Park, La Perouse, Botany, Ramsgate, Kurnell, permanenly moist. Bundeena, O’Hares Creek, Berry. EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Creekbanks, swampy sand. Boyd Plateau is northern geographical limit. Conservation status ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1600 mm unknown. Reported in Kanangra Boyd NP. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: Swamp forest e.g. with Eucalyptus robusta, Melaleuca RESTIONACEAE ericifolia; riparian scrub e.g. with Lomatia myricoides, Tristaniopsis Baloskion pallens (Restio pallens) laurina, Leptospermum; sedge swamp e.g. with Restio complanatus, Baumea spp., Chorizandra, Hakea teretifolia, Banksia robur. Life history SUBSTRATE: Deep sandy soils on alluvial sand, sandstone, low nutrients, GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, with shorty creeping rhizome; moist. flowering stems 50Ð100 cm high. EXPOSURE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. Conservation LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Botany Bay NP, Royal NP. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. 192 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

RESTIONACEAE Habitat Chordifex dimorphus HABITAT: Seasonally moist sandy soils. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1600 mm (Guringalia dimorpha, Restio dimorphus) TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Life history VEGETATION: Wet heath e.g. with Hakea teretifolia, Epacris microphylla, GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, with shortly creeping rhizome; Drosera, Banksia oblongifolia, Lepyrodia scariosa. flowering stems 30Ð100 cm high. SUBSTRATE: Shallow sandy soils over sandstone, low nutrients, often VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous (Meney & Pate (1999). poorly drained, moist. LONGEVITY: EXPOSURE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Conservation FLOWERS: Male and female flowers on separate plants, SeptemberÐ Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. March, peak September. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. RESTIONACEAE DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed, adapted for ant- dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Empodisma minus FIRE RESPONSE: Killed after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Narrabeen, P. Life history Kubiak pers. comm., Meney & Pate 1999). GROWTH FORM: Perennial, tufted herb, with ascending rhizome; flower- INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: ing stems 15Ð200 cm long, green or bluish green. Distribution VEGETATIVE SPREAD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast, Broken Bay to Cataract. FLOWERS: Male and female flowers on separate plants. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Cowan, Belrose, Curl Curl, Manly, Bondi, FRUIT/SEED: Smooth nut 2 mm long. Centennial Park, Leumeah, Marley, Waterfall, O’Hares Creek, Cataract DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for Dam. dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Recruitment mainly after fire (D. Keith pers. comm.). Habitat FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith HABITAT: Exposed headlands, slopes, ridges. pers. comm.). ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1600 mm INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Banksia ser- Distribution rata, Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita; swampy heath e.g. with STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Lepyrodia scariosa, Banksia oblongifolia, Banksia ericifolia. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT C TST; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., SUBSTRATE: Shallow soils on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained or N.Z. seasonally moist sites. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. EXPOSURE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Berowra, Hornsby, Manly Dam, Drummoyne, La Perouse, Jibbon Lagoon, Waterfall, Bulli Pass, Mt Keira, Bomaderry. Conservation CT: Running Stream, Mt Coricudgy, Newnes SF, Blackheath, Narrow Local endemic species, conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal Neck, Wentworth Falls, Fitzroy Falls, Carrington Falls, Barrengarry NP. Mountain. Habitat RESTIONACEAE HABITAT: Swampy places, creekbanks, wet cliffs. Chordifex fastigiatus ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1600 mm (Saropsis fastigata, Restio fastigiatus) TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: Swamps e.g. with Lepyrodia scariosa, Gymnoschoenus Life history sphaerocarpa, Leptospermum lanigerum, Lepidosperma limicola, GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb with shortly creeping rhizome and Baeckea linifolia, Grevillea acanthifolia. flowering stems 30Ð100 cm high. SUBSTRATE: Sandy peaty soil on sandstone, low nutrients, permanently VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. moist. ONGEVITY L : Indefinite. EXPOSURE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Conservation FLOWERS: Separate male and female flowers on different plants, AugustÐ October. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Royal NP. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed, adapted for ant- dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). RESTIONACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (D. Keith pers. comm.), killed after high in- Eurychorda complanata (Restio complanatus) tensity fire (1/1994 at Narrabeen, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Life history INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: GROWTH FORM: Rhizomatous perennial herb with broad flattened Distribution glaucous stems 20Ð120 cm high. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST; Qld. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Upper Blue Mountains. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Somersby, Woy, Woy, Berowra, Hornsby, FLOWERS: Male and female flowers on separate plants. McCarrs Creek, Mona Vale, Terrey Hills, Balgowlah, North Head, FRUIT/SEED: Capsule. Centennial Park, Cronulla, Waterfall, Garie Trig, Linden, Campbelltown, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. West Dapto. CT: Gospers Mountain, Blackheath, Mt Wilson, Barren Keith pers. comm.), vigorous coloniser after disturbance (Meney & Pate Grounds. 1999). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 193

FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith RESTIONACEAE pers. comm.), apparently killed after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Leptocarpus tenax Narrabeen, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Life history GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, with shortly creeping rhizome; Distribution flowering stems 50Ð130 cm high, greyish green. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Creeping, branching rhizome. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; Qld, Vic., Tas. LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coast, Southern Highlands. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Somersby, Terrey Hills, McCarrs Creek, Manly FLOWERS: Male and female flowers on separate plants, SeptemberÐ Dam, North Head, Rose Bay, Bondi, Centennial Park, La Perouse, Cape November. Banks, Kogarah, Kurnell, Mt Ousely, Maddens Plains, Cambewarra Pass. FRUIT/SEED: Nut 1Ð3 mm long, NovemberÐMarch. CT: Newnes Junction, Carrington Falls, Penrose, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology (Westoby Habitat et al. 1990). Recruitment mainly after fire (D. Keith pers. comm.). HABITAT: Swamps, depressions, hillsides. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100Ð1600 mm pers. comm.). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Hakea teretifolia; Distribution sedgeland e.g. with Baumea spp., Chorizandra, Viminaria juncea, STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Banksia robur. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. SUBSTRATE: Sandy or peaty soil on sandstone, low nutrients, poorly DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. drained. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mellong Range, Agnes Banks, Hornsby, EXPOSURE: Cheltenham, Curl Curl, Centennial Park, Malabar, La Perouse, Cronulla, Conservation Bundeena, Budderoo Creek, Bulli Lookout. CT: Wentworth Falls, Mt Conservation status unknown. Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Botany Murray. Bay NP. Habitat HABITAT: Swampy areas. RESTIONACEAE ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm Hypolaena fastigiata TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: Wet heath e.g. with Banksia robur, Banksia oblongiolia, Life history Baeckea imbricata, Xanthorrhoea; sedgeland e.g. with Empodisma GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, with creeping or ascending rhizome; minus, Chorizandra species, Schoenus species; low woodland e.g. with flowering stems 20Ð65 cm high. Eucalyptus parramattensis. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Widely spreading rhizomes (B. Briggs pers. comm.). SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, sand, low nutrients, permanently LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). moist. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: EXPOSURE: FLOWERS: AugustÐSeptember. FRUIT/SEED: Nut 4 mm long. Conservation DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: fruit (B. Briggs pers. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status comm.). Recruitment mainly after fire (D. Keith pers. comm.). elsewhere unknown. Reported in Botany Bay NP, Royal NP. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (Benson 1981, Meney & Pate 1999). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Distribution RESTIONACEAE STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Lepyrodia anarthria BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A., W.A. Life history DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Coast, Hawkesbury River to Bulli. GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, densely tufted or with shortly creeping SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Judge Dowling Range, Agnes Banks, Cowan, Curl Curl, Manly, North Head, Centennial Park, La Perouse, Kogarah, rhizome; flowering stems 30Ð80 cm high. Audley, Marley. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. com.). Habitat PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: HABITAT: Ridges. FLOWERS: Male and female flowers on separate stems, AugustÐMay, ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm peak March. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule 1Ð2 mm long, SeptemberÐNovember. VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Melaleuca nodosa, Melaleuca armillaris, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Allocasuarina distyla, Angophora hispida; woodland e.g. with FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith Eucalyptus sclerophylla, Angophora bakeri, Eucalyptus haemastoma, pers. comm.). Rhizomes contain large reserves of starch (Pate et al. 1995). Corymbia gummifera. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil, sometimes with lateritic gravel on sandstone on dune sand, low nutrients, intermittently damp or fairly dry. Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. EXPOSURE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic., N.T. Conservation DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Upper Blue Mountains, Southern Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Conservation status Highlands. elsewhere unknown. Reported in Royal NP. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Centennial Park, Malabar. CT: Clarence, Blackheath, Mt Werong, Hill Top, Joadja Creek, Wingecarribee Swamp, Wingello. 194 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Habitat Distribution HABITAT: In or near swamps. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1600 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. VEGETATION: Wet heath e.g. with Eucalyptus stricta, Banksia robur, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mellong Range, Warah Trig, Springwood, Agnes Sprengelia incarnata, Restio australis, Lepidosperma limicola; swamp Banks, Berowra, Hornsby, Mona Vale, North Head, Gladesville, Rose e.g. with Melaleuca quinquenervia, Leptospermum juniperinum; Bay, Centennial Park, Oatley, La Perouse, Towra Point, Warumbul, montane peatland. Bundeena, Loftus, Kentlyn, Cambewarra Range. CT: Barren Grounds. SUBSTRATE: Wet or damp peaty soils on sandstone, quartzite, dune sand, Habitat low nutrients, permanently moist. HABITAT: Plateaus, creeks, seepage areas. XPOSURE E : ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent to occasional. Conservation status unknown. Rare on the coast. VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Hakea gibbosa, Banksia ericifolia, Leptospermum trinervium; woodland e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, RESTIONACEAE Eucalyptus punctata, Angophora costata; sedgeland with Leptocarpus Lepyrodia muelleri tenax, Hypolaena fastigata, Restio dimorphus. SUBSTRATE: Sandy or peaty soil over sandstone, sand, low nutrients, Life history permanently damp. GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, tufted or with shortly creeping rhizome EXPOSURE: and flowering stems 40Ð75 cm high. Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Creeping rhizome. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Brisbane Water NP, LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Marramarra NP, Royal NP, Heathcote NP, Barren Grounds NR. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Separate male and female flowers on same plants. RESTIONACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Capsule 2 mm long. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Sporadanthus gracilis (Lepyrodia gracilis) FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (Meney & Pate 1999). Life history INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb with flowering stems 30Ð150 cm high Distribution and shortly creeping rhizome. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Vic., Tas., S.A. LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Mellong Range, Londonderry, Mulgoa, East FLOWERS: Male and female flowers on separate plants, MarchÐ Hills, Centennial Park, La Perouse, Jibbon Lagoon, Marley, Thirlmere, September. Bargo, Hill Top. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule 2Ð3 mm long. Habitat DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: HABITAT: Wet situations, swamp margins. FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts (D. Keith pers. comm.). Rhizomes contain ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm large reserves of starch (Pate et al. 1995). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus fibrosa, Angophora bakeri, Distribution Eucalyptus parramattensis; sedgeland e.g. with Baumea juncea, Baumea STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. articulata, Empodisma minus, Lepyrodia scariosa. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT ST. SUBSTRATE: Sandy or peaty soil on Tertiary alluvium, sandstone, low DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast, Upper Blue Mountains. nutrients, permanently moist, sometimes slightly brackish, wetter SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bellevue Hill, Centennial Park, Malabar, La situations than the more common Lepyrodia scariosa (Harden 1993). Perouse, Heathcote, Helensburgh, Appin. CT: Blackheath, Wentworth EXPOSURE: Falls, Bowral. Conservation Habitat Conservation status unknown. Reported in Royal NP. HABITAT: Swamp margins, creekbanks, cliff faces. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1600 mm RESTIONACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Lepyrodia scariosa (group) VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Lepyrodia scariosa, Empodisma minus, Banksia robur, Gymnoshoenus sphaerocephalus. Life history SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, sand, low nutrients, permanently GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb, usually tufted or with rhizome shortly moist. creeping and flowering stems 35Ð90 cm high, with loose, open sheaths. EXPOSURE: VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. Conservation LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). Sydney is northern geographical limit. Conservation status unknown. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Separate male and female flowers on different plants, AugustÐ January. Honeybees Apis mellifera gather pollen (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). RIPOGONACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Capsule 2 mm long, DecemberÐMarch. Ripogonum album DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for White Supplejack dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Recruitment mainly after fire (D. Keith pers. comm.). Life history FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, flowering more abundant after fire, GROWTH FORM: Stout climber with stems to 15 m long, prickly, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith pers. comm.). Rhizomes sometimes shrub-like when young; leaves thick, stiff, opposite. contain large reserves of starch (Pate et al. 1995). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Sometimes heavily cropped by LONGEVITY: rabbits (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 195

PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: LONGEVITY: FLOWERS: SeptemberÐOctober. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FRUIT/SEED: Black berry 6Ð15 mm diam., with 1 to a few seeds. FLOWERS: All year but mainly springÐsummer, separate male and DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: female flowers on different plants. FIRE RESPONSE: FRUIT/SEED: Shiny, black berry 5Ð8 mm diam., with 1Ð2 seeds, mature INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: summer, probably bird-dispersed. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Both vertebrate and ant-adapted STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. for dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990, Rice & Westoby 1981). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Qld, Vic. FIRE RESPONSE: Stem killed, resprouts at base or below (Fox 1988), DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast. vigorous regrowth after high-intensity fire (1/1994 at Narrabeen 1994), SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Ourimbah, Springwood, Parramatta, Waterfall, flowering within 9 months (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Bola Creek, Mt Keira, Albion Park, Minnamurra Falls. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Sweet black fruit eaten when ripe by Aboriginal people, woody stems used as fire sticks to ignite fire when Habitat rubbed together, extract from leaves and bark used medicinally HABITAT: Rainforest. (Wightman & Andrews 1991). ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1600 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. Distribution TATUS ORIGIN VEGETATION: Rainforest e.g. with Sloanea woollsii, Archontophoenix S / : Native. cunninghamiana, Doryphora sassafras, Ceratopetalum apetalum. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST CWS; LHI, Qld, Vic., SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shales, volcanic necks, medium nutrients. N.T. ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA EXPOSURE: D S : Widespread. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: North Entrance, Ourimbah, Mooney Mooney, Conservation Kurrajong Heights, Narrabeen, Eastwood, Rookwood, Otford, Conservation status unknown. Shellharbour, Cambewarra. CT: Coricudgy, Wentworth Falls, Robertson. Habitat RIPOGONACEAE HABITAT: Creek banks, open-forest. Ripogonum fawcettianum ALTITUDE: 0Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1600 mm Small Supplejack TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: Rainforest e.g. with Doryphora sassafras, Ceratopetalum Life history apetalum; open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna; woodland e.g. with GROWTH FORM: Small climber with stems to 4 m long, sometimes shrub- Eucalyptus punctata. like, sparsely prickly. SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shales, sandy loam on sandstone, medium VEGETATIVE SPREAD: nutrients. LONGEVITY: EXPOSURE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: NovemberÐFebruary. Conservation FRUIT/SEED: Black berry 8Ð12 mm diam., with 1 to a few seeds. Conservation status unknown. Reported in Wollemi NP, Blue DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Mountains NP, Bouddi NP, Brisbane Water NP, Marramarra NP, FIRE RESPONSE: Muogamarra NR, Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, Lane Cove NP, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Robertson NR. Distribution SMILACACEAE STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. Smilax glyciphylla DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: GosfordÐWyong area. Sweet Sarsaparilla SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Morisset, Ourimbah, Matcham, Kincumber, Bouddi. Life history GROWTH FORM: Climber with stems to 5 m long; leaves 3-veined, lower Habitat surface glaucous, tendrils to 8 cm long. HABITAT: Rainforest. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm LONGEVITY: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATION: Gully rainforest e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum, FLOWERS: Separate male and female flowers on different plants, OctoberÐ Doryphora sassafras, Cryptocarya glaucescens; moist eucalypt forest March, peak December. Many tiny insects inside male flowers, e.g. with Eucalyptus saligna, E. paniculata, Angophora floribunda. probably thrips (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). SUBSTRATE: Clay soil on shale, basalt, medium nutrients. FRUIT/SEED: Shiny, black berry, 5Ð8 mm diam., with 1 seed. EXPOSURE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: fruit, dispersed by Pied Conservation Currawong Strepera graculina, with maximum number of seed per Conservation status unknown. Gosford is southern geographical limit. pellet 54, average 10 (Buchanan 1989a) also ant-adapted for dispersal Reported in Bouddi NP. (Rice & Westoby 1981). FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted at base after high-intensity fire (1/1994 at SMILACACEAE Narrabeen), secondary juvenile period 12 months (P. Kubiak pers. Smilax australis comm.). INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Fruit reported from pellets of Sarsaparilla Currawongs (Buchanan 1989a). Sweet leaves used as a substitute for Life history sarsaparilla (Maiden & Campbell 1896). Apparently eaten by rabbits GROWTH FORM: Climber with stems to 8 m long, usually prickly, often Oryctolagus cuniculus; leaves with tracks of leaf miners (P. Kubiak pers. forming dense thickets; leaves 5-veined, leathery, upper and lower comm.). surface similar colour, tendrils to 20 cm long. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. 196 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Distribution VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Creeping rhizome. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. LONGEVITY: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT; Qld. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread on coast. FLOWERS: Solitary in spring, often half-buried in leaf litter, possibly SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Upper Colo, Kariong, Bowen Mountain, pollinated by flies (Thiele & Jordan 2002). Springwood, Berowra, Barrenjoey, Manly, Mosman, La Perouse, Oatley, FRUIT/SEED: Fleshy, whitish cup-shaped capsule 6 mm diam., with golden Kurnell, Waterfall, Macquarie Pass. brown seeds 0.3 × 0.25 mm (Thiele & Jordan 2002). Habitat DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: IRE RESPONSE HABITAT: Valleys, creeks. F : NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm I : TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. Distribution VEGETATION: Rainforest e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum, Acmena STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. smithii; open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus piperita, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CT. Syncarpia glomulifera. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Bundanoon. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, alluvium, low nutrients, well- SELECT LOCATIONS: CT: Bundanoon. drained. Habitat EXPOSURE: HABITAT: Leaf litter, rocks in rainforest. Conservation ALTITUDE: 500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100 mm Conservation status unknown. Reported in Blue Mountains NP. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. VEGETATION: Rainforest e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum, Acmena SPARGANIACEAE smithii, Backhousia myrtifolia, Eucryphia moorei, Tristaniopsis laurina and various ferns (Thiele & Jordan 2002). Sparganium subglobosum (Sparganium antipodum) SUBSTRATE: Humus-rich colluvial soil and leaf litter over Hawkesbury Life history Sandstone (Thiele & Jordan 2002), medium nutrients. GROWTH FORM: Aquatic herb, erect rhizomatous emergent perennial herb EXPOSURE: Sheltered, full shade. to 1 m high. Conservation VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous spread. Localised rare endemic species, known from only two very small patches, LONGEVITY: Perennial possibly a single clone, in a small area in Morton NP near Bundanoon PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: (recommended ROTAP coding 2 Kcit (Thiele & Jordan 2002). FLOWERS: Separate male and female flowers on the same plant, NovemberÐApril, peak January. TYPHACEAE FRUIT/SEED: Indehiscent fruit 4Ð7 mm long, crowded, with a drupaceous pericarp, JanuaryÐApril, peak January. Seed 4 mm diam. Typha domingensis DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Narrow-leaved Cumbungi FIRE RESPONSE: Not likely to be burnt, probably resprouts. Life history INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Significant food source for birds GROWTH FORM: Robust, emergent monoecious aquatic herb to 4 m high, (Sainty & Jacobs 1981). with creeping rhizome. Stems and leaves die down in autumn and plant Distribution resprouts annually from rhizomes (B. Briggs pers. comm.). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST SWS; Qld, Vic., N.Z. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread on Coast. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Watagan Creek, Roberts Creek (Colo area), FLOWERS: Separate male and female flowers on the same plant. Little Cattai Creek, Longneck Lagoon, Eastlakes, Casula, Elderslie, FRUIT/SEED: 1-seeded fruit. Shoalhaven Head. CT: Wingecarribee Swamp, Tallong. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Habitat FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Leaves and stems eaten by Black HABITAT: Still or slow flowing water less than 1 m deep and on the margins of creeks, rivers, freshwater lagoons or swamps. Swan Cygnus atratus and foodplant of Freckled Duck Stictonetta ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1600 mm nervosa (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990 ). Aboriginal people extracted starch from stems for food; they used the fibres for twine (Cribb & TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. VEGETATION: Sedgeland with Eleocharis sphacelata, Marsilea mutica, Cribb 1982). Myriophyllum. Distribution SUBSTRATE: Sandy to peaty sediments on alluvium, basalt/shale STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. medium nutrients, permanently impeded drainage. Apparently can grow BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP NFWP equally well on sand or mud. Water table permantly high, moisture SFWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A., warm-temp. & trop. regions. supply continuous, fresh. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: EXPOSURE: Full sun. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Ku-ring-gai Chase, Windsor, Oakdale, Doonside, Conservation Shellharbour, Mt Coolangatta. Localised occurrences, not conserved. Vulnerable in Western Sydney Habitat (James et al. 1999). HABITAT: Swamps, margins of lakes and streams. ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1200 mm THISMIACEAE (BURMANNIACEAE) TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Juncus. Thismia clavarioides sp. nov. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shale, medium nutrients. Recorded on saline Fairy Lantern sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). EXPOSURE: Life history GROWTH FORM: Saprophytic herb without chlorophyl and leaves reduced Conservation to scales; rhizomes fleshy, thin, 2 mm diam. Vulnerable in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 197

TYPHACEAE Distribution Typha latifolia * STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP Life history SWP; Qld, Vic., Tas., N.T., S.A., W.A., NZ, Malesia. GROWTH FORM: Robust, emergent monoecious aquatic perennial to 3 m DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. high; rhizomes 20 mm diam. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woy Woy, Richmond, Avalon, La Perouse, Cooks VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. River, Faulconbridge, Casula, Menangle, Austinmer, Nowra. CT: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Capertee, Bathurst, Orange, Wingecarribee Swamp. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Habitat FLOWERS: Separate male and female flowers on the same plant. HABITAT: Stationary or slow-flowing water to 2 m deep, ditches, ponds, FRUIT/SEED: 1-seeded fruit. creeks. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: May spread rapidly under ALTITUDE: 0Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1600 mm appropriate conditions. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐdominant. FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATION: Emergent sedgeland e.g. with Phragmites australis, INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: The floss was used overseas for Carex,Cyperus, Ludwigia peploides. stuffing ship mattresses, as a binding material in mortar and emergency SUBSTRATE: Alluvial silt and clay soils from Wianamatta Shale, also absorption material in surgery (Cribb & Cribb 1982). peat (P. Kodela pers. comm.), medium nutrients. Water table Distribution permanently high, moisture supply continuous, fresh or brackish. STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to temperate areas of N Hemishere. Recorded on saline sites in western NSW (Semple 1993). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC; Vic., Tas. EXPOSURE: Full sun. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Faulconbridge. Conservation SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Faulconbridge (1977). Conserved in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status Habitat elsewhere unknown. Typha spp. may be useful to extract pollutants from HABITAT: Swamps, margins of lakes. waste or drainage water (Sainty & Jacobs 1981). ALTITUDE: 500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: UVULARIACEAE (LILIACEAE) VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: Schelhammera undulata EXPOSURE: Life history Conservation GROWTH FORM: Prostrate or erect herb to 20 cm high. Only record for Sydney area is Faulconbridge in 1977 in a railway VEGETATIVE SPREAD: waterhole. Serious weed of irrigation systems in Victoria (Harden 1993). LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: TYPHACEAE FLOWERS: Pink to mauve, SeptemberÐNovember. FRUIT/SEED: Wrinkled, ovoid capsule 5Ð8 mm diam., with a few yellow Typha orientalis or brown seeds. Broadleaf Cumbungi, Reed Mace DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Ant-adapted food body for Life history dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990, Rice & Westoby 1981). FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted from root base, flowering May, 4 months GROWTH FORM: Erect, rhizomatous aquatic herb to 4 m. Stems and leaves die down in autumn and plant resprouts annually from rhizomes (B. after high-intensity fire (1/1994 at Narrabeen). Briggs pers. comm.). Secondary juvenile period about 11 months (at Lane Cove, Narrabeen, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Extensive rhizomatous spread — measured to extend over 8 square metres in 6 months. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: LONGEVITY: Indefinite. Distribution PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. FLOWERS: NovemberÐMay. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Vic. FRUIT/SEED: Small, one-seeded follicle surrounded by silky hairs. Spikes DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal. with up to 200 000 seeds, with high percentage viability (Sainty & Jacobs SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Gosford, Calga, Cowan, Narrabeen, Lindfield, 1981). Manly, Rose Bay, Otford, Austinmer, Bulli Pass, Wanganderry. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed, water and wind Habitat dispersed over large distances. Germination in all seasons (in Northern HABITAT: Moist sheltered sites. Tablelands, Britton & Brock 1994). Growth rate quick. Coloniser species. ALTITUDE: 0Ð500 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1600 mm Evaporation of water from swamps may be reduced by scattered growth TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. of Typha spp., as the tall plants shelter the water surface from wind and VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus increase humidity near the water surface; grazing and cutting are useful piperita, Syncarpia glomulifera, Eucalyptus deanei, E. punctata; alternatives to herbicide for control, cutting below the water line in rainforest e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum, Acmena smithii, autumn will effectively reduce the size of stands (Sainty & Jacobs 1981). Backhousia myrtifolia. FIRE RESPONSE: Probably resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at SUBSTRATE: Sandy clay soils on shale, sandstone, volcanics, basalt, Lane Cove), secondary juvenile period about 18 months (P. Kubiak pers. medium nutrients. comm.). EXPOSURE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Leaves and stems eaten by Black Conservation Swan Cygnus atratus and foodplant of Freckled Duck Stictonetta Conservation status unknown. Reported in Garigal NP, Royal NP. nervosa (Barker & Vestjens 1989,1990). Aboriginal people extracted starch from stems for food; they used the fibre for twine (Cribb & Cribb 1982). 198 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

XANTHORRHOEACEAE Aboriginal people collected nectar for food; dry flower stalks used in Xanthorrhoea arborea fishing spears and for fire-making; trunk a source of resin for Europeans and Aboriginal people (Cribb & Cribb 1982). Grass Tree Distribution Life history STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. GROWTH FORM: Perennial plant, with woody trunk usually 1Ð2 m high, BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST. with 1 to many crowns. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Southern Highlands. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Pennant Hills, Baulkham Hills, Rookwood, LONGEVITY: Ingleburn, Douglas Park, Tahmoor. CT: Mt Colong, Hill Top, Mittagong, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Tolwong. FLOWERS: Inflorescence cylindrical 1Ð1.5 m long, on a woody stem Habitat 1.5Ð2 m long. Clustered bisexual flowers with copious nectar, surrounded HABITAT: Hillsides. by dark brown packing bracts, JanuaryÐApril. Fire not required to ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1600 mm stimulate flowering (July 1997, Pittwater, without fire). Synchronous TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. flowering (D.H.B.). Rainbow Lorikeets feed on nectar, native bees gather VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus smithii, E. sieberi, pollen, Honeybees gather pollen and feed on nectar, flies feed on pollen Syncarpia glomulifera; woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus punctata, E. and nectar (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). agglomerata. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with 1Ð2 seeds. SUBSTRATE: Gravelly clay soils on sandstone, often in seasonally water- DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for logged sites, low nutrients. dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). EXPOSURE: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted from apex of caudex, no flowering induced by high-intensity fire (1/1994 at Narrabeen). Conservation Secondary juvenile period about 2 years (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Pennant Hills to Wahroonga is northern geographical limit. Vulnerable INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Blossoms of Xanthorrhoea species in Western Sydney (James et al. 1999), conservation status elsewhere eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Eby 1995). unknown. Leaf tips of mature plants apparently eaten by rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Aboriginal people collected nectar XANTHORRHOEACEAE for food; dry flower stalks used in fishing spears and for fire-making; Xanthorrhoea fulva trunk a source of resin for Europeans and Aboriginal people (Cribb & Cribb 1982). Life history GROWTH FORM: Perennial, trunk absent; stem branched below ground, Distribution with 1 to many crowns, each a stiff erect tuft. Hybridizes with X. glauca STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. (Harden 1993). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. LONGEVITY: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Brooklyn, Maroota, Linden, Glenbrook, Rose PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Bay, Kurnell, Loftus. CT: Mt Coricudgy, Tayan Peak, Mt Irvine. FLOWERS: Inflorescence cylindrical 0.1Ð0.6m long, on a woody stem Habitat 0.2Ð1.6 m long. Clustered bisexual flowers, with copious nectar, HABITAT: Hillslopes, ridges. surrounded by packing bracts, AugustÐOctober. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with 1Ð2 seeds. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Angophora costata, Eucalyptus FIRE RESPONSE: crebra, E. piperita; heath e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Eucalyptus INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Blossoms of Xanthorrhoea species obstans. eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Eby 1995). SUBSTRATE: Sandy soil on sandstone, low nutrients, well-drained. Aboriginal people collected nectar for food; dry flower stalks used in EXPOSURE: Full sun to light shade. fishing spears and for fire-making; trunk a source of resin for Conservation Europeans and Aboriginal people (Cribb & Cribb 1982). Local endemic species with geographical range from Rylstone district Distribution in the north to just south of Sydney (Harden 1993). Conservation status STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. unknown. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: XANTHORRHOEACEAE SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Putty, Morisset, WyongÐWarnervale. Xanthorrhoea concava CT: Barren Grounds. Habitat Life history HABITAT: GROWTH FORM: Perennial plant, trunk absent, stem branched below ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1600 mm ground; crowns 1 to many, each a loosely erect tuft . TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Rare. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. VEGETATION: LONGEVITY: SUBSTRATE: SandyÐpeaty soils, periodically water-logged, low nutrients. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: EXPOSURE: FLOWERS: Inflorescence cylindrical 0.5Ð0.9 m long, on a woody stem 0.5Ð2.5 m long. Clustered bisexual flowers, with copious nectar, Conservation surrounded by packing bracts, OctoberÐDecember, peak December. Wyong is main southern geographical limit with outlying population FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with 1Ð2 seeds, January. including Barren Grounds. Uncommon in Sydney area, conservation DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: status unknown. FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Blossoms of Xanthorrhoea species eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Eby 1995). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 199

XANTHORRHOEACEAE SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils, well-drained, low nutrients. EXPOSURE: Xanthorrhoea glauca subsp. angustifolia Conservation Life history Howes Valley is southern geographical limit, with outlying record for GROWTH FORM: Trunk 1Ð5 m high, branched or single, with 1 to many Wyoming. crowns. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. XANTHORRHOEACEAE LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Xanthorrhoea latifolia subsp. latifolia FLOWERS: Inflorescence cylindrical 1Ð1.6m long, on a woody stem 0.5- Life history 1 m long. Clustered bisexual flowers, with copious nectar, surrounded GROWTH FORM: Trunk absent or up to 32 m high, branched or single, by packing bracts, SeptemberÐDecember. with 1Ð4 crowns. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with 1Ð2 seeds, January. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: LONGEVITY: FIRE RESPONSE: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Blossoms of Xanthorrhoea species FLOWERS: Inflorescence cylindrical 0.5Ð1.2 m long, on a woody stem to eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Eby 1995). 1Ð2.1 m long. Clustered bisexual flowers, with copious nectar, Aboriginal people collected nectar for food; dry flower stalks used in surrounded by packing bracts, JulyÐNovember. fishing spears and for fire-making; trunk a source of resin for FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with 1Ð2 seeds, SeptemberÐNovember. Europeans and Aboriginal people (Cribb & Cribb 1982). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Blossoms of Xanthorrhoea species BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NT CT ST NWS CWS SWS NWP SWP. eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Eby 1995). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly western Blue Mountains. Aboriginal people collected nectar for food; dry flower stalks used in SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Wyong. CT: The Forge/Macquarie River, Mt fishing spears and for fire-making; trunk a source of resin for Armour, Abercrombie Caves, Yerranderie, Wombeyan Caves. Europeans and Aboriginal people (Cribb & Cribb 1982). Habitat Distribution HABITAT: Ridgetops. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. ALTITUDE: 200Ð900 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 600Ð900 mm BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: WyongÐLake Macquarie area. VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Acacia clunies-rossii. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Doyalson, Swansea, Kanwal, Wyong. SUBSTRATE: Gravelly clay soils on rocky limestone, trachyte and Habitat gravelly slopes (Harden 1993). HABITAT: Ridges, slopes. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1100Ð1200 mm Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. Conservation status unknown. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus haemastoma. SUBSTRATE: Sandy or gravelly clay soil on sandstone, sand hills, low XANTHORRHOEACEAE nutrient, well-drained. Xanthorrhoea johnsonii EXPOSURE: Conservation Life history Wyong is the southern geographical limit, conservation status unknown. GROWTH FORM: Trunk 0.1Ð5 m high, usually with only one stem and crown. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. XANTHORRHOEACEAE LONGEVITY: Xanthorrhoea macronema PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Life history FLOWERS: Inflorescence cylindrical 0.2Ð1.2 m long, on a woody stem to GROWTH FORM: Perennial plant, trunk absent; stem sometimes branched 1.9 m long. Clustered bisexual flowers, with copious nectar, surrounded below ground, with 1 to many crowns. by packing bracts, AprilÐDecember. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with 1Ð2 seeds. LONGEVITY: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FIRE RESPONSE: FLOWERS: Inflorescence cylindrical 0.05Ð0.13 m long, on a woody stem INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Blossoms of Xanthorrhoea species to 1Ð1.6 m long. Clustered bisexual flowers, with copious nectar, eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Eby 1995). surrounded by packing bracts, JulyÐJanuary, peak December. Aboriginal people collected nectar for food; dry flower stalks used in FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with 1Ð2 seeds. fishing spears and for fire-making; trunk a source of resin for DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for Europeans and Aboriginal people (Cribb & Cribb 1982). dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Distribution FIRE RESPONSE: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Blossoms of Xanthorrhoea species BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NT NWS CWS NWP; Qld. eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Eby 1995). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sporadic. Aboriginal people collected nectar for food; dry flower stalks used in SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Howes Valley, Wyoming. fishing spears and for fire-making; trunk a source of resin for Habitat Europeans and Aboriginal people (Cribb & Cribb 1982). HABITAT: Steep slopes and ridges. Distribution ALTITUDE: 0Ð300 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1200 mm STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. VEGETATION: Open-forest; heath. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal, Munmorah to Helensburgh. 200 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Fraser Park, Ourimbah SF, Bateau Bay, Maitland FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Bay, Lilyvale to Burning Palms, Helensburgh. Cove, Narrabeen), secondary juvenile period about 15 months (P. Kubiak Habitat pers. comm.). NTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS HABITAT: Hillslopes. I : Sometimes small plants eaten by ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm rabbits (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Blossoms of Xanthorrhoea species eaten TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Eby 1995). VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia maculata, Corymbia Aboriginal people collected nectar for food; dry flower stalks used in gummifera. fishing spears and for fire-making; trunk a source of resin for SUBSTRATE: Sandy to clay soils on sandstone, low nutrients. Europeans and Aboriginal people (Cribb & Cribb 1982). EXPOSURE: Distribution Conservation STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Helensburgh is southern geographical limit. Conservation status BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT. unknown. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Colo Heights, Kulnura, Central Mangrove, Mt XANTHORRHOEACEAE Penang, Blaxlands Ridge, Hornsby Heights, Cheltenham, Parramatta, Xanthorrhoea malacophylla Como, Heathcote, Hill Top. CT: Blackheath, Kings Tableland, Habitat Life history HABITAT: Drier, more exposed ridges and hillsides. ROWTH FORM G : Tall trunk usually 2Ð6 m high, stem branched or ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 900Ð1400 mm sometimes single, with 1Ð10 crowns; leaves more or less bright green, TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. unusually spongy and soft. VEGETATION: Open-forest e.g. with Corymbia gummifera, Eucalyptus VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. punctata, Banksia serrata. LONGEVITY: SUBSTRATE: Clay to gravelly loam on sandstone, low nutrients. RIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD P : EXPOSURE: Full sun to light shade. FLOWERS: Inflorescence cylindrical 0.6Ð1.6 m long, on a woody stem to 1.3Ð1.8 m long. Clustered bisexual flowers, with copious nectar, Conservation surrounded by dark brown packing bracts, SeptemberÐNovember. Local endemic species, conservation status unknown. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with 1Ð2 seeds. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: XANTHORRHOEACEAE FIRE RESPONSE: Xanthorrhoea minor subsp. minor INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Blossoms of Xanthorrhoea species eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Eby 1995). Life history Aboriginal people collected nectar for food; dry flower stalks used in GROWTH FORM: Trunk absent, stem branched below ground, with many fishing spears and for fire-making; trunk a source of resin for crowns; variable species. Sometimes confused with depauperate plants Europeans and Aboriginal people (Cribb & Cribb 1982). of X. media, X. fulva (Harden 1993). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Distribution LONGEVITY: STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC. FLOWERS: Inflorescence cylindrical 0.05Ð0.12 m long, on a woody stem DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal ranges, Wyong. to 0.3Ð0.6 m long. Clustered bisexual flowers, with copious nectar, SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Brunkerville, Yarramalong. surrounded by packing bracts, OctoberÐNovember. Habitat FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with 1Ð2 seeds, often distinctively curved, January. HABITAT: Steep rocky hillsides. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1400 mm FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from apex of caudex. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Blossoms of Xanthorrhoea species VEGETATION: Eucalypt open-forest. eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Eby 1995). SUBSTRATE: Aboriginal people collected nectar for food; dry flower stalks used in EXPOSURE: fishing spears and for fire-making; trunk a source of resin for Conservation Europeans and Aboriginal people (Cribb & Cribb 1982). Yarramalong is southern geographical limit, conservation status Distribution unknown. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC CT. XANTHORRHOEACEAE DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly western Sydney. Xanthorrhoea media SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Castlereagh, Agnes Banks, Berkshire Park, Life history Glenbrook, Mulgoa, Parramatta, Gladesville, Liverpool, East Hills, Panania, Macquarie Fields. GROWTH FORM: Trunk absent or up to 0.6 m high, usually with only one stem and crown. Habitat VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. HABITAT: Heath, swamps. LONGEVITY: ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1100 mm PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. FLOWERS: Inflorescence cylindrical 0.35Ð0.9 m long, on a woody stem VEGETATION: Woodland e.g. with Angophora bakeri, Eucalyptus to 1Ð1.8 m long. Clustered bisexual flowers, with copious nectar, parramattensis. surrounded by packing bracts, AugustÐMay, peak April. Flowers SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on Tertiary alluvium, sandstone, low nutrients, abundantly only after fire (Keith 1996). Native bees gathered pollen poorly-drained, periodically water-logged. and fed on nectar, flies fed on nectar and pollen, beetle fed on nectar, EXPOSURE: pollen gathered by honeybees (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Conservation FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with 1Ð2 seeds, at any time. Local endemic species confined mainly to western Sydney. Reported in DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: No special morphology for Castlereagh NR. dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 201

XANTHORRHOEACEAE Distribution STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. (Xanthorrhoea resinosa) Xanthorrhoea resinifera BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT ST. Life history DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: CC: Somersby, Kariong, Cowan, West Head, GROWTH FORM: Trunk absent or to 0.6 m high, stem usually simple, Castlecove, Kogarah, Oatley, Marley Beach, Flat Rock Creek (RNP), leaves glaucous. Sublime Point, Darkes Forest. CT: Barren Grounds. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: No. SELECT LOCATIONS: Mainly coastal. LONGEVITY: More than 60 years (D. Keith pers. comm.). Habitat PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: More than 21 years (Keith 1996). HABITAT: Drainage channels, swampy depressions, near creeks. FLOWERS: Inflorescence cylindrical, dark brown, velvety 0.6Ð1.2 m long, ALTITUDE: 0Ð600 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð600 mm on a woody stem to 0.7Ð1.5 m long. Clustered bisexual flowers, with TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. copious nectar, surrounded by dark brown packing bracts, MayÐ VEGETATION: Dry or wet heath e.g. with Banksia serrata, Lambertia December, peak September. Flowers abundantly only after fire (Keith formosa; open-woodland with heath understorey e.g. with Corymbia 1996). gummifera, Banksia oblongifolia, Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus, FRUIT/SEED: Capsule with 1Ð2 seeds, often distinctively curved, Banksia robur. SeptemberÐMay. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils, occasionally with gravel or silt over sandstone DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed, no special (Conn & Doust 1997), low nutrients, continually moist. morphology for dispersal (Westoby et al. 1990). Recruitment mainly EXPOSURE: after fire (D. Keith pers. comm.). Conservation FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (Keith 1996). Usually locally frequent and so is not regarded as endangered or Flowering about 11 months after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane vulnerable (Conn & Doust 1997). Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Cove, Narrabeen, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Royal NP, Barren Grounds NR. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Blossoms of Xanthorrhoea species eaten by Grey-headed Flying Fox Pteropus poliocephalus (Eby 1995). Aboriginal people collected nectar for food; dry flower stalks used in XYRIDACEAE fishing spears and for fire-making; yellow resin from trunk used on Xyris complanata furniture, as incense in churches, for soap-making, and a source of Life history picric acid (Cribb & Cribb 1982). GROWTH FORM: Robust perennial herb, with many stems; leaves and Distribution stems blue-green. Distinguished by flat strap-shaped leaves, with STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. thickened differentiated margins (Conn & Doust 1994). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: CC SC CT; Vic. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Blue Mountains and coast. LONGEVITY: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Catherine Hill Bay, Kariong, Agnes Banks, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Terrey Hills, Frenchs Forest, Centennial Park, Pagewood, Padstow, La FLOWERS: Yellow, DecemberÐFebruary, peak January; flowers usually Perouse, Audley, Heathcote, Coalcliff. CT: Mt Irvine, Clarence, remain open from 10 am to 4 pm; old flowers may remain for a second Blackheath, Katoomba, Megalong Valley, Carrington Falls. day (Doust & Conn 1994). Habitat FRUIT/SEED: Capsule 2Ð4 mm long, with reddish-brown, egg-shaped HABITAT: Ridges, plateaus. small seeds less than 0.5 mm long. ALTITUDE: 0Ð1200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1400 mm DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. FIRE RESPONSE: VEGETATION: Heath e.g. with Monotoca elliptica, Hypolaena fastigiata; INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: low eucalypt woodland e.g. with Eucalyptus stricta, E. sclerophylla, E. Distribution sieberi. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SUBSTRATE: Sandy soils on sandstone, sand, seasonally wet sites, low BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC NWS CWS; Qld, W.A., N.T. nutrients. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly coastal, north from Bundeena. EXPOSURE: SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Howes Valley, Gibba Swamp, Agnes Banks, Conservation Cowan, Narrabeen, Cape Solander, Bundeena. CT: Dunns Swamp. Catherine Hill Bay is northern geographical limit. Conservation status Habitat elsewhere unknown. Reported in Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Garigal NP, HABITAT: Moist depressions, drainage lines, roadsides, near streams Royal NP. (Doust & Conn 1994). ALTITUDE: 0Ð650 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 700Ð1400 mm XYRIDACEAE TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: Open woodlands e.g. with Eucalyptus, Melaleuca, Acacia; Xyris bracteata (Xyris gracillis subsp. laxa) low Melaleuca woodland e.g. with Banksia, Livistona and groundlayer Life history of grasses, sedges and other herbs; low heath of Banksia oblongifolia GROWTH FORM: Tufted, erect, robust perennial herb. (Conn & Doust 1994). VEGETATIVE SPREAD: SUBSTRATE: Sandy, loamy or rarely clayey soils, sometimes with LONGEVITY: ironstone gravel, on sandstone or siltstone (Conn & Doust 1994). PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: EXPOSURE: FLOWERS: Yellow, ephemeral, lasting only a few hours before Conservation shrivelling up (Conn & Doust 1997), December. Not regarded as threatened or endangered (Conn & Doust 1994). FRUIT/SEED: Capsule 3Ð4 mm long, with brown seeds 1 mm long. Bundeena is southern geographical limit. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FIRE RESPONSE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: 202 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

XYRIDACEAE SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Colo Heights, Kariong, Bilpin, Linden, West Head, Bondi, Picnic Point, Como, Flat Rock Creek, Wattamolla, Darkes Xyris gracilis (Xyris gracillis subsp. gracillis) Forest, Maddens Plains. CT: Blackheath. Slender Yellow-eye Habitat Life history HABITAT: Moist depressions, drainage lines, near streams. GROWTH FORM: Slender to robust erect ufted herb to 60 cm ALTITUDE: 0Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1600 mm VEGETATIVE SPREAD: TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus, PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Chorizandra sphaerocephala; heath e.g. with Banksia oblongifolia, FLOWERS: Yellow, NovemberÐMarch, flowering throughout the day Angophora hispida. (Conn & Doust 1997). SUBSTRATE: Sandy grey to black soil, often humus-rich, damp to wet, FRUIT/SEED: Capsule 3Ð4 mm long, with seeds 1 mm long. usually over sandstone (Doust & Conn 1994), low nutrients, usually DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. permanently moist. Keith pers. comm.). EXPOSURE: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts from base, secondary juvenile period 1 year Conservation (D. Keith pers. comm.). Although uncommon, it occasionally occurs in large localised patches INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: and has a wide distribution; it is not considered to be threatened or Distribution endangered (Conn & Doust 1994), though its swampy habitats are STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. vulnerable to drainage changes and disturbance. Reported in Royal NP. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT; Qld, Vic. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Widespread. XYRIDACEAE SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Kariong, Bilpin, Cowan, West Head, Xyris operculata Londonderry, Long Bay, Flat Rock Creek, Waterfall, Darkes Forest. CT: Bell, Blackheath, Wentworth Falls, Katoomba, Fitzroy Falls, Life history Robertson, Barren Grounds, Wingello. GROWTH FORM: Slender to robust erect, tufted herb VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Habitat LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). HABITAT: Margins of swamps. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: ALTITUDE: 0Ð1100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 800Ð1600 mm FLOWERS: Yellow, SeptemberÐJanuary, peak December, throughout the TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. day, with flowers lasting more than one day (Conn & Doust 1997). VEGETATION: Open heath; wetter sites in dry sclerophyll forest with heath FRUIT/SEED: Capsule 4 mm long, with seeds 1 mm long. vegetation e.g. with Banksia ericifolia, Goodenia, Thysanotus, DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. Mitrasacme, sedges, Drosera and Bauera (Conn & Doust 1997). Keith pers. comm.). SUBSTRATE: Silty or peaty soils on sandstone, low nutrients, moist (Conn FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith & Doust 1997). pers. comm.). EXPOSURE: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Conservation Distribution Usually locally frequent, although sometimes occasional, not regarded STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. as endangered or vulnerable (Conn & Doust 1997). Conserved in BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC NT CT ST; Qld, Vic., Tas., S.A. Western Sydney (James et al. 1999). Reported in Barren Grounds NR, DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coast and Southern Highlands. Ku-ring-gai Chase NP, Royal NP. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Bateau Bay, Somersby, Kariong, Dee Why Lagoon, Manly, Centennial Park, La Perouse, Cape Solander, Flat Rock XYRIDACEAE Creek, Waterfall, Darkes Forest, Maddens Plains, Mt Kembla, Budderoo Xyris juncea Creek, Barrengarry Mountain. CT: Wingecarribbee Swamp, Barren Life history Grounds. GROWTH FORM: Slender perennial herb with few stems; leaves and stems Habitat green or reddish-green HABITAT: Swamps, creekbanks, rock shelves. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: ALTITUDE: 0Ð700 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200Ð1700 mm LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Gymnoschoenus sphaerocephalus, FLOWERS: Yellow, usually DecemberÐApril, flowering apparently Xyris ustulata, Banksia robur; wet heath e.g. with Banksia oblongifolia, stimulated by fire, flowering rare in absence of fire; individual flowers Hakea teretifolia. open for a few hours on one day only, 11 am to 2 or 3 pm (Doust & SUBSTRATE: Peaty or silty sandy soils over sandstone or quartzite-rich Conn 1994). substrates, low nutrients, permanently moist, damp to waterlogged. FRUIT/SEED: Capsule 2Ð4 mm long, with golden-brown seeds to 0.5 mm EXPOSURE: long. Conservation DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. Widespread, usually locally common, not regarded as endangered or Keith pers. comm.). vulnerable (Conn & Doust 1997), though vulnerable to drainage changes FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith and disturbance. Reported in Royal NP, Barren Grounds NR. pers. comm.). Fire appears to stimulate flowering (Doust & Conn 1994). Flowered within 2 months of January fire (West Head, KCNP). XYRIDACEAE Secondary juvenile period about 8 months after high intensity fire (1/ 1994 at Narrabeen, P. Kubiak pers. comm.). Xyris ustulata INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Life history Distribution GROWTH FORM: Robust, erect tufted herb STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC CT; Qld, Vic LONGEVITY: Indefinite (D. Keith pers. comm.). DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Mainly Coast. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 203

FLOWERS: Yellow, SeptemberÐFebruary, peak NovemberÐDecember, FLOWERS: Yellow, spring. flowering throughout the day, with flowers lasting more than 1 day (Conn FRUIT/SEED: Blue capsule 10 mm diam. & Doust 1997). DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: FRUIT/SEED: Capsule 3Ð4 mm long, with seeds 1 mm long. FIRE RESPONSE: DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Recruitment mainly after fire (D. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Keith pers. comm.). Distribution IRE RESPONSE F : Resprouts, secondary juvenile period 1 year (D. Keith STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. pers. comm.). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Gosford area. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Woy Woy (1905). STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. Habitat OTANICAL SUBREGIONS B : CC CT. HABITAT: ISTRIBUTION YDNEY AREA D S : Blue Mountains and Woronora Plateau. ALTITUDE: 0Ð100 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm ELECT LOCATIONS S : CC: Linden, Darkes Forest, Bulli Pass, Budderoo TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Creek. CT: Mt Coricudgy, Running Stream, Mt Cameron, Mount Tomah, VEGETATION: Coastal rainforest Blackheath, Katoomba, Wentworth Falls, Boyd Plateau, Hill Top, Fitzroy SUBSTRATE: Falls. EXPOSURE: Habitat Conservation HABITAT: Peaty swamps and permanent seepages, hillsides. Rare, only record for Sydney area is from Woy Woy (its southern ALTITUDE: 0Ð1000 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1000Ð1600 mm geographical limit) in 1905. Conservation status unknown. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: FrequentÐoccasional. VEGETATION: Sedgeland e.g. with Lepidosperma, Baeckea linifolia, Xyris ZINGIBERACEAE operculata, Leptospermum; wet heath e.g. with Banksia robur. SUBSTRATE: Peat or peaty soils on sandstone, low nutrients, permanently Hedychium gardnerianum * wet. Ginger Lily EXPOSURE: Life history Conservation GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb to 2.5 m high, with stout fleshy stem and Local endemic species, not regarded as endangered or vulnerable (Conn thick fleshy rhizome to 1 m long or more, close to soil surface. & Doust 1997), though vulnerable to drainage changes and disturbance. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Extensive rhizome system. Reported in Blue Mountains NP, Kanangra Boyd NP, Barren Grounds NR. LONGEVITY: Indefinite. PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: Less than 5 years. ZINGIBERACEAE FLOWERS: YellowÐorange in a large spike, JanuaryÐMay, peak March. Alpinia arundelliana FRUIT/SEED: Capsule, seeds with a red, fleshy appendage. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seed, bird-dispersed. Life history Fruit reported from pellets of Currawongs (Buchanan 1989a) and Bulbuls GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb to 2 m high. (Herb. note). Vegetative dispersal by pieces of rhizome e.g. in garden VEGETATIVE SPREAD: refuse. LONGEVITY: FIRE RESPONSE: Resprouted after high intensity fire (1/1994 at Lane Cove), PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: secondary juvenile period about 22 months (P. Kubiak pers. comm.). FLOWERS: Rose-red, NovemberÐJanuary. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: FRUIT/SEED: Dark blue-black capsule 10 mm diam. Distribution DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: STATUS/ORIGIN: Exotic, native to India, introduced as ornamental by 1900. FIRE RESPONSE: BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Sydney suburbs and Illawarra. Distribution SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Hornsby (1967), Wahroonga (1973), Beecroft STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. (1975), Naremburn (1965), Bradleys Head (1966), Glenfield (1973), BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC; Qld. Mt Keira. DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: GosfordÐWyong area. Habitat SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Martinsville, Yarramalong, Matcham. HABITAT: Damp areas, especially along creeks but can grow in drier Habitat sites (M. Clarke pers. comm.). HABITAT: Gullies. ALTITUDE: 0Ð400 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 750Ð1400 mm ALTITUDE: 0Ð200 m ANNUAL RAINFALL: 1200 mm TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Frequent. TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Occasional. VEGETATION: Moist open-forest e.g. with Eucalyptus pilularis, Syncarpia VEGETATION: Gully rainforest e.g. with Ceratopetalum apetalum, glomulifera, Angophora costata. Glochidion ferdinandi, Archontophoenix cunninghamiana. SUBSTRATE: Rich, well-drained, moist, composted soils (M. Clarke pers. SUBSTRATE: Clay soils on shales, alluvium, medium to high nutrients. comm.). EXPOSURE: EXPOSURE: Sheltered, shady areas. Conservation Conservation Gosford is southern geographical limit, conservation status unknown. Introduced as garden plant by 1900 and reported naturalised and spreading into urban bushland, in 1960s. Established in moist places, ZINGIBERACEAE spreading locally by rhizomes and seed. Control by digging out rhizomes. Alpinia caerulea Life history GROWTH FORM: Perennial herb to 3 m high. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: 204 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

ZOSTERACEAE ZOSTERACEAE Heterozostera tasmanica Zostera capricorni Eel Grass Eel Grass Life history Life history GROWTH FORM: Submerged, rhizomatous, perennial seagrass with erect GROWTH FORM: Monoecious, submerged, rhizomatous, perennial seagrass stems to 30 cm high. with flowering stems to 50 cm long. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous spread. VEGETATIVE SPREAD: Rhizomatous. LONGEVITY: LONGEVITY: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: PRIMARY JUVENILE PERIOD: FLOWERS: Separate male and female flowers on same plant, warmer FLOWERS: Separate male and female flowers on same plant, in warmer months. months, pollen dispersed passively through water movement. FRUIT/SEED: Seeds 4 mm long, egg-shaped FRUIT/SEED: Seeds elliptic, 2 mm long. DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diospore: seed, dispersed by DISPERSAL, ESTABLISHMENT & GROWTH: Diaspore: seeds shed from dropping from floating inflorescences at maturity. Stems and floating inflorescence. Early seed set in Zostera marina in Europe was inflorescences growing in spring and summer, deciduous in winter 22% lower in isolated vegetation patches compared to continuous (Harden 1993). eelgrass meadow (>50 m2) (Reusch 2003). FIRE RESPONSE: FIRE RESPONSE: Not burnt. INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: INTERACTION WITH OTHER ORGANISMS: Eaten by larvae of moth Nymphula Distribution nitens (Common 1990). Provides important habitat for fish (Middleton STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. et al. 1984). BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; Vic., Tas., S.A., Chile. Distribution DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal estuaries. STATUS/ORIGIN: Native. SELECT LOCATIONS: CC: Pittwater, Narrabeen Lagoon, Manly. BOTANICAL SUBREGIONS: NC CC SC; LHI, Qld, Vic., N.Z. Habitat DISTRIBUTION SYDNEY AREA: Coastal estuaries. ELECT LOCATIONS HABITAT: Marine or estuarine, rarely exposed at low tide. S : CC: Terrigal Lake, Tuggerah Lakes, Pittwater, Long ALTITUDE: Below low tide level. ANNUAL RAINFALL: not applicable Reef, Sailors Bay/Northbridge, Manly, Balmoral, La Perouse, Quibray TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: Bay, Kogarah Bay, Sans Souci, Port Hacking, Woronora River, Lake VEGETATION: Illawarra, Shoalhaven River. SUBSTRATE: Submerged marine or estuarine habitats, rarely exposed at Habitat low tide (Harden 1993). HABITAT: Marine or estuarine, often exposed at low tide. EXPOSURE: ALTITUDE: Below tide level. ANNUAL RAINFALL: n.a. Conservation TYPICAL LOCAL ABUNDANCE: South from Port Stephens, uncommon, conservation status unknown. VEGETATION: SUBSTRATE: Submerged marine or estuarine habitats, often exposed at low tide. EXPOSURE: Conservation Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 205

Index to ecology of Sydney plant species 8 Scientific names are in bold type and synonyms are in italics. Family names are in upper case. Common names are in roman type. Exotic species are indicated by an asterisk following the botanical name.

A Anthoxanthum setacea 113 odoratum * 101 verticillata 113 Acianthus Aristida Avena amplexicaulis 33 behriana 101 barbata * 114 apprimus 33 benthamii var. spinulifera 101 fatua * 114 caudatus 33 calycina var. calycina 102 ludoviciana * 114 collinus 34 echinata 103 sativa * 114 exsertus 34 jerichoensis var. jerichoensis 102 sterilis * 115 fornicatus 34 jerichoensis var. subspinulifera 102 Axonopus pusillus 34 personata 103 affinis * 115 reniformis 51 ramosa var. ramosa 102 fissifolius * 115 Adenochilus ramosa var. scaberula 103 nortonii 35 ramosa var. speciosa 103 B Agropyron vagans 103 Baloskion repens * 142 warburgii 104 australe 190 scabrum 142 Arrhenatherum fimbriatum 190 Agrostis elatius var. bulbosum * 104 gracile 190 aemula 153 elatius var. elatius * 104 longipes 191 bettyae 96 Arthrochilus pallens 191 billardieri 154 huntianus 35 tetraphyllum subsp. capillaris * 96 irritablilis 35 meiostachyum 191 gigantea * 96 prolixus 35 Bamboo semiverticillata 97 Arundinella Black 172 stolonifera * 97 nepalensis 104 Fishpole 171 tenuis * 96 Arundo Barbgrass venusta 97 donax * 105 Common 150 viridis * 97 Austrodanthonia Barley Agrostis auriculata 105 Two Row 151 avenacea var. avencacea 154 bipartita 105 Beardgrass sp. A sensu 96 caespitosa 105 Perennial 176 Aira carphoides 106 Bent caryophyllea * 97 eriantha 106 Browntop 96 cupaniana * 98 laevis 106 Creeping 97 elegans 98 linkii 106 Graceful 97 elegantissima * 98 monticola 107 Redtop 96 praecox * 98 penicillata 107 Water 97 provincialis * 98 pilosa 107 Blowngrass Alopecurus racemosa 108 Blowngrass 153 agrestis 99 richardsonii 108 Coast 154 myosuroides * 99 setacea 108 Bluegrass pratensis * 99 tenuior 108 Canada 173 Alpinia Austrofestuca Kentucky 175 arundelliana 203 eriopoda 109 Pitted 115 caerulea 203 hookeriana 109 Queensland 132 Ammophila littoralis 109 Bothriochloa arenaria * 99 Austrostipa ambigua 116 Amphibromus aristiglumis 110 biloba 115 neesii 99 bigeniculata 110 decipiens 115 nervosus 99 densiflora 110 macra 116 pithogastrus 100 elegantissima 110 Brachiaria piligera 186 sp. A 100 mollis 110 Brachyachne Amphipogon nitida 111 convergens 116 strictus var. strictus 100 nodosa 111 Brachypodium Ancistrachne pubescens 111 distachyon * 116 maidenii 100 ramosissima 111 Briza Andropogon rudis subsp. nervosa 112 maxima * 116 virginicus * 100 rudis subsp. rudis 112 minor * 117 Anisopogon scabra subsp. falcata 112 subaristata * 117 avenaceus 101 scabra subsp. scabra 113 Brome Annual Cat’s Tail 177 semibarbata 113 Drooping 120 False 116 206 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Giant 118 reticulata 37 Coix Madrid 119 sp. B 40 lachryma-jobi * 124 Red 120 sp. C 41 Common Reed 171 Rye 120 tessellata 42 Cortaderia Sand 117 testacea 42 selloana * 125 Smooth 119 Caladenia Corybas Soft 119 Black Tongue 38 aconitiflorus 46 Sterile 120 Blue 50 barbarae 47 Bromus Blue Fairy 50 fimbriatus 47 alopecuroides 117 Bronze 41 fordhamii 47 alopecuros * 117 Honey 42 hispidus 48 arenarius 117 Hooded 39 pruinosus 48 brevis * 118 Musky 40 undulatus 48 catharticus * 118 Parson-in-the-pulpit 50 unguiculatus 48 diandrus * 118 White 38 Couch hordeaceus * 119 Calanthe Common Native 116 madritensis * 119 triplicata 42 Couch 125 molliformis * 119 Caleana English 142 racemosus * 119 major 42 Marine 183 rubens * 120 minor 68 Prickly 187 secalinus * 120 Calochilus Queensland Blue 135 sterilis * 120 campestris 43 Salt-water 167 tectorum * 120 gracillimus 43 Sand 183 unioloides 118 imberbis 44 Water 166 Broomsedge 100 paludosus 43 Crested Dog’s Tail 126 Bulbophyllum robertsonii 44 Cryptanthemis crassulifolium 36 saprophyticus 43 slateri 85 elisae 36 Capillipedium Cryptostylis exiguum 36 parviflorum 121 erecta 49 minutissimum 36 spicigerum 121 hunteriana 49 shepherdii 36 Catapodium leptochila 49 BURMANNIACEAE 196 rigidum * 121 subulata 50 Burnettia Cenchrus Cumbungi cuneata 37 australis 121 Broadleaf 197 Burrgrass caliculatus 121 Narrow-leaved 196 Hillside 121 echinatus * 122 Cyanicula Small 184 incertus * 122 caerulea 50 Spiny 122 longispinus * 122 Cymbidium Chiloglottis suave 50 C chlorantha 44 Cymbopogon Caladenia diphylla 44 refractus 125 alata 37 formicifera 44 Cynodon alba var. picta 41 palachila 45 dactylon 125 alba 38 reflexa 45 hirsutus 126 angustata 40 seminuda 45 incompletus * 126 australis 37 sylvestris 46 transvaalensis * 126 caerulea 50 trapeziformis 46 Cynosurus capitellata 37 trilabra 46 cristatus * 126 carnea 38 Chionochloa echinatus * 126 carnea 39 pallida 122 Cyrtostylis catenata 38 Chloris reniformis 51 acicularis 143 clavigera 38 D congesta 38 divaricata var. divaricata 123 cucullata 39 gayana * 123 Dactylis curtisepala 39 truncata 123 glomerata * 127 dimorpha 39 ventricosa 124 Dactyloctenium filamentosa 39 virgata * 124 australe * 127 filamentosa var. tentaculata 37 Chloris radulans 127 fitzgeraldii 40 Slender 123 Daddy Long-legs 39 fuscata 40 Tall 124 Danthonia gracilis 40 Chordifex auriculata 105 hillmanii 40 dimorphus 192 caespitosum 105 holmesii 37 fastigiatus 192 eriantha 106 iridescens 41 Cleistochloa laevis 106 phaeoclavia 41 rigida 124 linkii var. fulva 106 picta 41 Cocksfoot 127 linkii var. linkii 105 quadrifaria 41 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 207

longifolia 127 inaequiglumis 132 E monticola 107 micrantha 133 pallida 122 parva 133 Echinochloa paradoxa 172 rara 133 colona 138 penicillata 107 sciurea 133 crus-galli * 138 pilosa 107 sieberiana 134 crus-pavonis * 138 racemosa 108 Digitaria escentula * 138 richardsonii 108 adscendens * 135 frumentacea * 139 semiannularis 128 aequiglumis * 134 telmatophila 139 setacea 108 breviglumis 134 utilis 138 tenuior 108 brownii 134 Echinopogon vickeryi 172 ciliaris * 135 caespitosus var. caespitosus 139 Darnel 157 didactyla 135 cheelii 139 Dendrobium diffusa 135 ovatus 140 aemulum 91 diminuta 134 Ehrharta cucumerinum 56 divaricatissima 135 calycina * 140 fairfaxii 57 ischaemum * 136 erecta * 140 gracilicaule 87 longiflora 136 longiflora * 141 linguiforme 57 parviflora 136 villosa * 141 melaleucaphilum 87 propinqua 136 Eichhornia pugioniforme 57 ramularis 136 crassipes* 187 schoeninum 51 sanguinalis * 137 Eleusine speciosum 87 violascens * 137 indica * 141 striolatum 57 Dimorphochloa radulans 127 tarberi 88 rigida 124 tristachya * 141 teretifolium 58 Diplachne Elymus tetragonum 87 uninervia * 137 repens * 142 Deyeuxia Dipodium scaber var. scaber 142 angustifolia 128 hamiltonianum 51 Elytrigia appressa 128 punctatum 51 repens * 142 brachyathera 128 roseum 52 Empodisma decipiens 129 variegatum 52 minus 192 gunniana 129 Diuris Enneapogon imbricata 129 aequalis 52 gracilis 142 innominata 129 alba 52 nigricans 142 mckiei 129 aurea 53 Enteropogon mesathera 130 bracteata 53 acicularis 143 microseta 130 brevissima 53 Entolasia monticola var. monticola 130 chryseopsis 53 marginata 143 nudiflora 130 dendrobioides 54 stricta 143 parviseta var. boormanii 131 lanceolata 54 whiteana 144 parviseta var. parviseta 131 latifolia 56 Eragrostis quadriseta 131 maculata 54 benthamii 144 scaberula 131 maculata var. concolor 52 brownii 144 sp. D aff. parviseta 129 maculosissima 55 cilianensis * 144 Dianella pardina 55 curvula * 145 caerulea var. assera 92 pedunculata 55 elongata 145 caerulea var. caerulea 92 platichila 55 leptostachya 145 caerulea var. cinerascens 92 praecox 55 mexicana * 146 caerulea var. producta 92 punctata var. alba 52 molybdea 146 caerulea var. protensa 93 punctata var. minor 54 neomexicana * 146 caerulea var. vannata 93 punctata var. punctata 56 parviflora 146 congesta 93 sulphurea 56 philippica 144 crinoides 93 Dockrillia pilosa * 146 laevis 94 cucumerina 56 sororia 147 longifolia var. longifolia 94 fairfaxii 57 tenuifolia * 147 longifolia var. stenophylla 94 linguiformis 57 trachycarpa 147 prunina 94 pugioniformis 57 Eriachne revoluta var. revoluta 94 schoenina 51 glabrata 147 tasmanica 95 striolata 57 Eriochilus Dichanthium teretifolia 58 autumnalis 58 affine 132 Dryopoa cucullatus 58 sericeum subsp. sericeum 132 dives 137 Eriochloa Dichelachne Duck Weed 26 procera 148 crinita 132 pseudoacrotricha 148 hirtella 132 Erythrorchis cassythoides 59 208 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Eulalia 158 simulans 64 Paradoxa 170 Eurychorda woollsii 64 Parramatta 181, 182 complanata 192 Giant Reed 105 Plains 110 Eustrephus Glossodia Porcupine 185 latifolius 32 major 65 Prairie 118 minor 65 Quaking 116 F Glyceria Quick or Twitch 142 Feathertop 168 australis 149 Red 115, 116 Fescue declinata * 150 Red Leg 116 Beach 109 maxima * 150 Red Natal 157 Graceful 148 Goldentop 154 Redanther Wallaby 122 Hooker’s 109 Grass Redleg 115 Meadow 149 African Feather 168 Reed Canary 169 Rat’s Tail 186 Annual Beard 176 Rhodes 123 Red 149 Awnless Barnyard 138 Ribbon 170 Rigid 121 Bahia 166 Ringed Wallaby 105 Snow 109 Barbed Wire 125 Scented-top 121 Squirrel Tail 186 Barnyard 138 Shivery 117 Tall 148 Bermuda 125 Short-hair Plume 133 Festuca Blady 152 Silvertop Wallaby 122 arundinacea 148 Bristle-tail 177 Slender Pigeon 179 asperula 148 Buffalo 183 Slender Wallaby 107 bromoides 186 Button 127 Small-flowered Wallaby 108 elatior * 148 Canary 170 Smooth-flowered Wallaby 107 eriopoda 109 Chilean Needle 158 South African Pigeon 179 hookeriana 109 Coast Barb 163 South American Barnyard 138 littoralis 109 Coolatai 152 Spider 116 myuros 186 Corkscrew 113 Spring 148 pratensis * 149 Crab 141 Stout Bamboo 111 rubra subsp. rubra * 149 Crowsfoot 141 Summer 135, 137 Fog Durban 127 Swamp Barnyard 139 Creeping 151 Early Spring 148 Sweet Vernal 101 Yorkshire 151 Eel 204 Tasmanian Wallaby 128 Foxtail Elastic 147 Tufted Hedgehog 139 Meadow 99 Fairy 182 Umbrella 135 Slender 99 Feathertop Rhodes 124 Urochloa 185 Frogsmouth 91 Finger 127 Vasey 167 Florida 126 Wallaby 105, 106, 107, 108, 172 G Forest Hedgehog 140 Wanderrie 147 Fountain 168 Warrego 165 Galeola cassythoides 59 Giant Mountain 137 Weeping 158 Gastridium Giant Panic 160 Whisky 100 phleoides * 149 Goose 141 Whorled Pigeon 180 Gastrodia Green Pigeon 180 Windmill 123 entomogama 59 Greybeard 100 Winter 173 procera 59 Guinea 162 Wire 101, 102 sesamoides 59 Hair’s Tail 154 Yakka 182 Geitonoplesium Indian Cupscale 178 Grass Tree 198 cymosum 32 Johnson 180 Green Comb, 37 Genoplesium Kangaroo 184 Greenhood apostasioides 59 Kikuyu 167 Bearded 81 archeri 60 Lesser Canary 170 Blunt 75 baueri 60 Liverseed 185 Botany Bay Bearded 74 citriodorum 60 Lobed Wallaby 105 Cobra 77 despectans 60 Long-flowered Hedgehog 139 Illawarra 77 eriochilum 61 Long-leaved Wallaby 127 King 73 filiforme 61 Marram 99 Long-tailed 84 fimbriatum 61 Meadow Rice 158 Midget 79 insignis 62 Mediterranean Barley 152 Nodding 79 morinum 62 Molasses 157 Pointed 72 nudiscapum 62 Mossman River 122 Prawn 81 nudum 62 Narrow-leafed Carpet 115 Rainforest 78 plumosum 63 Northern Barley 151 Sickle 77 pumilum 63 Oat Spear 101 Snake Tongue 80 rufum 63 Pale Pigeon 179 Summer 76 ruppii 64 Palm 179 Swan 75 sagittiferum 64 Pampas 125 Sydney Plains 83 Tall 79 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 209

Tiny 80 Leptochloa Microstegium Trim 75 ciliolata 155 nudum 158 Guringalia dimorpha 192 peacockii 155 Microtis Lepyrodia angusii 66 H anarthria 193 bipulvinaris 66 Hainardia gracilis 194 parviflora 66 cylindrica * 150 muelleri 194 rara 67 Hairgrass scariosa 194 unifolia 67 Delicate 98 LILIACEAE 27, 92Ð96, 197 Millet Early 98 Lilium Ditch 166 False 169 formosanum * 27 Foxtail 178 Silvery 97, 98 Lily Native 161 Hairy Armgrass 186 Formosan 27 Siberian 139 Hairy Spinifex 181 Ginger Lily 203 Swamp 153 Hedychium Scrambling 32 Miscanthus gardnerianum * 203 Liparis sinensis * 158 Hemarthria coelogynoides 65 Monerma cylindrica 150 compressa 150 reflexa 66 Mudgrass uncinata var. uncinata 150 Lolium Slender 177 Heterozostera loliaceum * 155 Spiny 177 multiflorum * 156 tasmanica 204 N Holcus perenne * 156 lanatus * 151 rigidum * 156 NAJADACEAE 32 mollis * 151 temulentum * 157 Najas Hordeum Lomandra browniana 32 distichon * 151 brevis 27 tenuifolia 32 glaucum * 151 confertifolia subsp. pallida 27 Nassella hystrix * 152 confertifolia subsp. rubiginosa 28 neesiana * 158 leporinum * 152 cylindrica 28 trichotoma * 159 Hyparrhenia filiformis subsp. coriacea 28 Needle Grass hirta 152 filiformis subsp. filiformis 29 Chilean 158 Hypolaena filiformis subsp. flavior 29 Purple 185 fastigiata 193 fluviatilis 29 Niggerheads 142 glauca 29 Nitgrass 149 I gracilis 30 Notochloe longifolia 30 Imperata microdon 159 micrantha subsp. tuberculata 30 cylindrica var. major 152 Notodanthonia 106 montana 31 Isachne longifolia 127 multiflora 31 australis 153 monticola 107 obliqua 31 globosa 153 racemosa 108 LOMANDRACEAE 27Ð31 Ischaemum semiannularis 128 Lovegrass australe var. australe 153 tenuior 108 African 145 J Brown’s 144 O Clustered 145 Oat Japanese Millet 138 Mexican 146 Bearded 114 Job’s Tears 124 Paddock 145 Oat 115 Soft 146 L Oatgrass Weeping 146 Bulbous 104 Lachnagrostis LUZURIAGACEAE 32 False 104 aemula 153 Lyperanthus Oats billardierei subsp. billardierei 154 nigricans 84 Ludo Wild 114 filiformis 154 suaveolens 66 Oats 114 Lagurus M Wild 114 ovatus * 154 Onion Twitch 104 Lamarckia Mat-rush Oplismenus aurea * 154 Many-flowered 31 aemulus 159 Leersia Pale 29 imbecillis 160 hexandra 155 Small-flowered 30 Orchid Lemna Spiny-headed 30 Ant 44 disperma 26 Matgrass 150 Banded Helmet 47 oligorrhiza var. oligorrhiza 26 Melinis Bristly Helmet 48 oligorrhiza var. pleiorrhiza 26 minutiflora * 157 Broad-lipped Leek 71 LEMNACEAE 26, 27 repens * 157 Buttercup Doubletail 52 Leptocarpus Microlaena Butterfly 85 tenax 193 stipoides var. breviseta 157 Christmas 42 stipoides var. stipoides 158 210 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

Cinnamon Bells 59 Streaked Leek 71 jubiflorum 165 Clubbed Spider 38 Sun 90 radiatum 164 Copper Beard 43 Sweet Leek 70 Paspalum 165 Cucumber 56 Tailed Helmet 48 dilatatum * 165 Dagger 57 Tall Leek 69 distichum 166 Dense Midge 62 Tall Sun 90 distichum 167 Dotted Sun 89 Tallong Midge 63 notatum * 166 Elbow 35 Tangle 68 orbiculare 166 Fairy 37 Tartan Tongue 49 paspalodes 166 Fringed Helmet 47 Thick Lip Spider 42 quadrifarium * 166 Fringed Spider 37 Tiger 56 urvillei * 167 Gnat 34, 51 Tiny Midge 62 vaginatum 167 Golden Moths 54 Tiny Sun 88 Paspalum Green Beaks 85 Toothed Helmet 48 Tussock 166 Green Midge 63 Tree Spider 87 Pennisetum Green Rock 85 Underground 85 alopecuroides 167 Horned 67 Veined Sun 88 clandestinum * 167 Hornet 56 Waxlip 65 macrourum * 168 Ironbark 91 Wheat-leaved 36 setaceum * 168 Ladies’ Tresses 86 White Feather 91 villosum * 168 Large Duck 42 ORCHIDACEAE 33Ð91 Pentaschistis Large Tongue 50 Orthoceras airoides * 169 Large Veined Sun 91 strictum 67 Phalaris 169 Late Beard 43 Ottochloa angusta * 169 Leafless Tongue 49 gracillima 160 aquatica * 169 Leopard 55 arundinacea var. arundinacea * 169 Little Dumpies 84 P arundinacea var. picta * 170 Lizard 37 Panic canariensis * 170 Maroonhood 81 Black-seeded 160 minor * 170 Marsh Leek 71 Blue 160 paradoxa * 170 Mayfly 33 Bordered 143 PHILESIACEAE 32 Mosquito 34 Dwarf 163 PHILYDRACEAE 91 Naked Sun 88 Green 162 Philydrum Orange Blossum 86 Pygmy 163 lanuginosum 91 Pencil 51 Slender 165 Phleum Piano 69 Two Colour 163 pratense * 171 Pineapple 36 White Water 162 PHORMIACEAE 92Ð96 Pink Sun 88 Wiry 143 Phragmites Plain Sun 90 Panicum australis 171 Potato 59 antidotale * 160 communis 171 Purple Donkey 56 bisulcatum 160 Phyllostachys Purplish Beard 44 capillare var. capillare * 161 aurea * 171 Rat’s Tail 57, 58 decompositum 161 nigra * 172 Red Beard 43 effusum 161 Pink Fairy 38 Red Midge 63 fulgidum 163 Pink Fingers 38 Rogers Scented Leek 70 gilvum * 161 Pixie Caps 34 Ruddyhood 82 indicum 178 Plectorrhiza Rusty Hood 83 laevifolium var. contractum 161 tridentata 68 Scented Onion 67 laevifolium var. laevifolium * 163 Plinthanthesis Sharp Midge 60 maximum var. maximum * 162 paradoxa 172 Short-lipped Leek 69 maximum var. trichoglume * 162 urvillei 172 Slaty Leek 70 obseptum 162 Poa Slender Beard 43 pygmaeum 163 affinis 172 Slender Onion 66 schinzii * 163 annua * 173 Slender Sun 90 simile 163 caespitosa var. affinis 172 Small Duck 68 Papillilabium cheelii 173 Small Helmet 48 beckleri 68 compressa * 173 Small Snake 53, 55 Paracaleana induta 174 Small Spider 38 minor 68 labillardierei 174 Small Tongue 49 Parapholis meionectes 174 Small Waxlip 65 incurva * 163 poiformis 174 Snake 50, 54 Paspalidium pratensis * 175 Southern Leek 69 albovillosum 164 queenslandica 175 Spider 40, 87 aversum 164 sieberiana var. cyanophylla 175 Spotted Doubletail 54 criniforme 164 sieberiana var. sieberiana 175 Spurred Helmet 46 distans 164 tenera 176 gracile 165 trivialis * 176 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10 211

Poa ceriflora 77 Rostraria Annual Poa 173 coccina 74 cristata * 177 Bulbous Poa 173 concinna 75 Rottboellia POACEAE 96Ð187 curta 75 cochinchinensis * 178 Polypogon cycnocephala 75 exaltata 178 littoralis * 176 daintreana 75 Rough Dog’s Tail 126 monspeliensis * 176 decurva 76 Rough Meadowgrass 176 Pondweed erecta 76 Ruppia Clasped 189 fischii 76 maritima 189 Curly 188 furcata 77 megacarpa 189 Floating 189 gibbosa 77 polycarpa 190 Sago 188 grandiflora 77 spiralis 190 PONTEDERIACEAE 187 hildae 78 Rye Posidonia hispidula 78 Cereal Rye 178 australis 187 laxa 78 Ryecorn 178 POSIDONIACEAE 187 longifolia 79 Ryegrass Potamogeton longipetala 79 Italian 156 crispus 188 mutica 79 Perennial 156 javanicus 188 nutans 79 Stiff 155 ochreatus 188 obtusa 80 Wimmera 156 pectinatus 188 ophioglossa 80 Rytidosperma perfoliatus 189 parviflora 80 carphoides 106 tricarinatus 189 pedoglossa 81 monticolum 107 POTAMOGETONACEAE 188Ð190 pedunculata 81 racemosum 108 Prasophyllum plumosa 81 tenuis 108 affine 68 pulchella 82 anomalum 59 pusilla 82 S apostasioides 59 pusilla var. prominens 83 Sacciolepis appendiculatum 69 reflexa 82 indica 178 archeri 60 revoluta 83 Sarcochilus australe 69 revoluta 83 australis 85 bowdeniae 59 rufa 83 falcatus 86 brevilabre 69 saxicola 83 hillii 86 despectans 60 sp. 15 74 olivaceus 86 elatum 69 sp. B 83 Saropsis fastigata 192 eriochilum 61 sp. E 83 Sarsaparilla 195 flavum 70 truncata 84 Schelhammera fuscum 70 tunstallii 84 undulata 197 morrisii var. intermedium 64 woollsii 84 Seagrass 187 nudiscapum 62 Pypgrass 141 Secale nudum 62 Pyrochoris cereale * 178 odoratum 70 nigricans 84 Setaria 179 pallens 71 R geniculata var. pauciseta 179 patens 71 glauca 179 plumosum 63 Reed Mace 197 gracilis 179 pumilum 63 Reedgrass 104 italica * 178 rogersii 71 Restio palmifolia * 179 rufum 63 australis 190 parviflora* 179 sagittiferum 64 complanatus 192 pumila * 179 striatum 71 dimorphus 192 sphacelata * 179 uroglossum 72 fastigiatus 192 verticillata * 180 woollsii 64 fimbriatus 190 viridis * 180 Pseudoraphis gracilis 190 Slender Nineawn 142 paradoxa 177 longipes 191 Slender Yellow-eye 202 spinescens 177 pallens 191 SMILACACEAE 195 Psilurus tetraphyllus subsp. meiostachyus 191 Smilax incurvus * 177 RESTIONACEAE 190Ð194 australis 195 Pterostylis Rhizanthella glyciphylla 195 aciculiformis 72 slateri 85 Snowgrass 175 acuminata 72 Rhynchelytrum repens 157 Sorghum aestiva 72 Rimacola bicolor subsp. drummondii * 180 alata 73 elliptica 85 halepense * 180 alveata 73 RIPOGONACEAE 194, 195 leiocladum 181 baptistii 73 Ripogonum sudanense 180 barbata 81 album 194 Sorghum bicolor 74 fawcettianum 195 Cultivated Sorghum 180 Botany Bay Bearded Greenhood 74 Rock Lily 87, 88 Wild Sorghum 181 212 Cunninghamia 9(1): 2005 Benson & McDougall, Ecology of Sydney Plant Species 10

SPARGANIACEAE 196 T Vulpia Sparganium bromoides * 186 antipodum 196 Tetrabaculum megalura 186 subglobosum 196 melaleucaphilum 87 muralis * 186 Speargrass 112, 113 tetragonum 87 myuros * 186 Feather 110 Tetrarrhena Threeawn 103 juncea 183 W turfosa 184 Spinifex Water Hyacinth 187 Thelionema hirsutus 181 Waternymph 32 caespitosum 95 sericeus 181 Wheat 185 umbellatum 96 Spiranthes Wheatgrass Thelychiton sinensis subsp. australis 86 Common 142 gracilicaulis 87 Spiranthes australis 86 White Fingers 38 speciosus 87 Spirodela White Foxtail 168 tarberi 88 polyrhiza 26 Wiregrass Thelymitra punctata 26 Bunch 101 carnea 88 pusilla 26 Jericho 102 circumsepta 88 Sporadanthus Wiry Ricegrass 183 cyanea 88 gracilis 194 Witchgrass 161 erosa 89 Sporobolus Wolffia ixioides var. ixioides 89 africanus * 181 angusta 26 malvina 89 caroli 182 australiana 27 media var. media 90 creber 182 Wombat Berry 32 elongatus 182 merraniae 90 fertilis * 182 nuda 90 X indicus var. capensis 181 pauciflora 90 Xanthorrhoea indicus var. major * 182 pulchella 89 arborea 198 virginicus var. minor 183 retecta 88 concava 198 virginicus var. virginicus 183 subsp. alpicola 89 fulva 198 Stenotaphrum venosa 91 glauca subsp. angustifolia 199 secundatum * 183 Themeda johnsonii 199 Stinkgrass 144 australis 184 latifolia subsp. latifolia 199 Stipa Thin-leaved Naiad 32 macronema 199 aristiglumis 110 Thismia malacophylla 200 bigeniculata 110 clavarioides sp. nov. 196 media 200 densiflora 110 THISMIACEAE 196 minor subsp. minor 200 elegantissima 110 Timothy 171 resinifera 201 falcata 112 Tragus resinosa 201 mollis 110 australianus 184 XANTHORRHOEACEAE 198Ð201 neesiana 158 Triodia XYRIDACEAE 201, 202 nitida 111 scariosa subsp. scariosa 185 Xyris nodosa 111 Triraphis bracteata 201 pubescens 111 mollis 185 complanata 201 ramosissima 111 Triticum gracilis 202 rudis subsp. rudis 112 aestivum * 185 gracillis subsp. gracillis 202 rudis subsp. nervosa 112 Tropilis gracillis subsp. laxa 201 semibarbata 113 aemula 91 juncea 202 setacea 113 Tussock operculata 202 verticillata 113 Serrated 159 ustulata 202 Stypandra Yass 159 glauca 95 Tussock 174 Z Stypandra Typha caespitosa 95 domingensis 196 ZINGIBERACEAE 203 umbellata 96 latifolia * 197 Zostera Supplejack orientalis 197 capricorni 204 Small 195 TYPHACEAE 196, 197 ZOSTERACEAE 204 Zoysia White 194 U Swamp Ricegrass 155 macrantha 187 Sweet Sarsaparilla 195 Urochloa Sweetgrass panicoides * 185 Australian 149 piligera 186 Reed 150 UVULARIACEAE 197 Sweetgrass 150 V Veldtgrass Annual 141 Panic 140 Perennial 140