Legislation and Bodies

CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

Carles Perelló* and Mariona Riera**

Individual countries need to exercise care in relation to their policies for fostering science and innovation, so as to avoid situations of technological dependence and, in turn, political and economic dependence. Countries with a greater legislative tradition tend to pass specific laws that regulate both knowledge acquisition at schools/ universities and scientific/technological research, as also laws to foster the application of knowledge in the productive sector. However, in other countries, and even though there may be legislation governing specific policy areas, the system is allowed to develop more freely, generally on the basis of recommendations issued by a range of agencies, councils and other institutions. This article describes the most salient features of a range of systems for fostering science and technology implemented in a number of countries.

Contents

1. Introduction 2. Science and technology systems 3. Legislation and bodies for international organisations and in selected countries 3.1. International organisations 3.2. European countries 3.3. Other countries 3.4. The situation in Catalonia

* Carles Perelló is professor emeritus at the Autonomous University of Barcelona (UAB) and an adviser to the Catalan Minister of Universities, Re- search and the Information Society. ** Mariona Riera is an economist and a member of the Technical Bureau of the Catalan Ministry of Universities, Research and the Information So- ciety.

60 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

1. Introduction includes a series of elements that are common to all countries, namely, laws, regulations and re- The progress of science –that is to say, the ratio- commendations intended to stimulate and chan- nal explanation of how things in our surroundings nel scientific and technological activity for the be- work– in addition to resolving mysteries, forms nefit of society. It can be observed that without the basis for technological development. the need for any covenants or agreements, all developed societies have produced similar educa- Individual countries, however, need to exercise tion, production, market and value systems. care in relation to their policies for fostering science and innovation, so as to avoid situations of That said, some differences remain in regard to technological dependence and, in turn, political how research and technological innovation is fos- and economic dependence. Aware of this cir- tered in different countries. Countries with a gre- cumstance, individual countries endeavour to fos- ater legislative tradition tend to pass specific laws ter the generation of knowledge and the applica- that regulate both knowledge acquisition at scho- tion of science and technology through educational ols and universities and scientific/technological systems, scientific and technological research, research, as also laws to foster the application of and the application of knowledge to competitive knowledge in the productive sector. However, in production. other countries, and even though there may be legislation governing specific policy areas, the sys- Despite the diversity of nations, however, there is tem is allowed to develop more freely, generally a high degree of conformity in matters of educa- on the basis of recommendations issued by a ran- tion and knowledge generation in general. Basic ge of agencies, councils and other institutions. studies and university systems around the world are quite similar, even though authorities and le- gislators have not come to any explicit agreement in regard to these knowledge systems. An engi- All developed societies have produced si- neer or scientist receives essentially the same kind milar education, production, market and va- of training at universities and technical colleges lue systems. the world over. This is a form of coherent beha- viour that has developed, in an ad hoc manner, as a result of adherence to an initial core system, as invariably happens when a trend is universally adopted. 2. Science and technology systems This coherence is also evident in the diverse ways that individual nations foster scientific and tech- Science and technology systems are extremely nological development. In most of the cases exa- complex, and it is necessary to distinguish be- mined in this article, the organisation of systems tween different territorial levels and perspectives.

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The supreme level is a global one, represented by The structures by means of which scientific and organisations such as the European Union or the technological development is fostered in most British Commonwealth, for example, and by in- countries generally include 5 elements, described ternational agreements and conventions regula- immediately below. ting patents, the exchange of knowledge (between universities and other research centres, for A general council for science and technology: example), etc. This, described using a range of different names, is usually a government body that authorises po- Individual states structure their science and licies in the area of science and technology. Such technology infrastructures, through legislation, councils are usually composed of government plans and recommendations, and by the crea- members, particularly ministers holding portfolios tion and funding of institutions and centres de- of relevance. This is the case, for example, in the dicated to the development of science and tech- following countries: nology. - Spain: the Consejo General de la Ciencia y la Some states delegate part of their responsibility Tecnología.1 for scientific and technological development to au- - Italy: the Consigli Scientifici Nazionali and As- tonomous bodies, which may be territorial or re- semblea della Scienza e della Tecnologia.2 gional entities. This is the case of the United King- - France: the Conseil National de la Science3 (ad- dom, Belgium, Germany, Spain, among others, visory functions). where a large proportion of control over educatio- - Switzerland: the Schweizerischer Wissenschafts- nal and research systems has been transferred to und Technologierat4 (advisory functions). the governments of autonomous communities or - Argentina: the Consejo Federal de Ciencia y regions or to federal states. Tecnología.5 - Mexico: the Consejo General de Investigación The range of functions shared out among the dif- Científica y Desarrollo Tecnológico.6 ferent sectors of government and society include approval for general strategy, the preparation of An advisory council: This is responsible for mak- proposals and plans, research coordination and ing recommendations to the government, gene- funding, and the fostering of technological inno- rally through a general council for science and tech- vation. nology or similar body. Some examples include:

1 Ley 13/1986, de 14 de abril de 1986, de Fomento y Coordinación General de la Investigación Científica y Técnica. art. 12. Available (in Spanish) from: http://www.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/l13-1986.html. Note that all URLs mentioned in this paper were confirmed as available between the 15th and 30th of September, 2005. 2 Decreto legislativo 5 giugno 1998, n. 204 (Disposizioni per il coordinamento, la programmazione e la valutazione della politica nazionale relativa alla ricerca scientifica e tecnologica, a norma dell’ articolo 11, comma 1, lettera d), della legge 15 marzo 1997, n. 59.). Available (in Italian) from: http://www.murst.it/iniziati/1998/dlgsric2.htm. 3 Décret nº 98-938 du 20 octobre 1998 portant création du Conseil national de la science. Available (in French) from: http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/ WAspad/UnTexteDeJorf?numjo=MENG9802603D. 4 Website (in German, French and English): http://www.swtr.ch/swtr_fr/swtr.htm. 5 Decreto 1113/97. Available (in Spanish) from: http://www.cofecyt.secyt.gov.ar/normativa.htm. 6 Ley de Ciencia y Tecnología, texto vigente, última reforma publicada en el DOF 01-09-2004. cap. 2. Available (in Spanish) from: http://www. cddhcu.gob.mx/leyinfo/pdf/242.pdf.

62 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

- Spain: the Consejo Asesor para la Ciencia y la - Spain: the Comisión Interministerial de Ciencia Tecnología.7 y Tecnología.14 - Scotland: the Scottish Science Advisory Com- - Argentina: the Consejo Interinstitucional de Cien- mittee.8 cia y Tecnología.15 - France: the previously mentioned Conseil Na- tional de la Science9 (advisory functions). A research and innovation plan: Generally plu- - Italy: the Comitato di Esperti per la Politica del- riannual, this sets priorities, proposes actions and la Ricerca.10 offers public funding. Among those currently in for- - Argentina: the Comisión Asesora del Plan Na- ce or about to enter into force, we can mention: cional Plurianual de Ciencia y Tecnología.11 - Mexico: the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tec- - Europe: the 6th and 7th Framework Program- nología.12 mes.16 - Switzerland: the previously mentioned Schwei- - Catalonia: the Pla de Recerca i Innovació de zerischer Wissenschafts- und Technologierat. Catalunya.17 - Spain: the Plan Nacional de Investigación Cien- An inter-ministerial science and technology tífica, Desarrollo e Innovación Tecnológica.18 committee: This has the task of coordinating - Italy: the Programma Nazionale per la Ricerca.19 the different agents in the science and techno- - Switzerland: a pluriannual programme (Mehr- logy system and proposing research and tech- jahresprogramm)20 and an annual plan (Jahres- nological innovation plans. Some examples in- plannung) provided for by Swiss federal legis- clude: lation in regard to research (Bundesgesetz über die Forschung). 21 - Catalonia: the Consell Interdepartamental de - Venezuela: the Plan Nacional de Ciencia, Tec- Recerca i Innovació Tecnològica.13 nología e Innovación.22

7 Ley 13/1986, de 14 de abril 1986, de Fomento y Coordinación General de la Investigación Científica y Técnica. Art. 9. Available (in Spanish) from: http://www.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/l13-1986.html. 8 Website: http://www.scottishscience.org.uk/. 9 Décret nº 98-938 du 20 octobre 1998 portant création du Conseil national de la science. Available (in French) from: http://www.dsi.cnrs.fr/bo/1998/ 11-98/1323-bo1198-d98-938.htm. 10 Decreto legislativo 5 giugno 1998, n. 204, art. 3. See Note 2 above. 11 Plan Nacional Plurianual de Ciencia y Tecnología. Available from: http://www.secyt.gov.ar/planplur.htm. 12 Website (in Spanish): http://www.conacyt.mx/. 13 Information available (in Catalan) from: http://www10.gencat.net/dursi/ca/de/cirit.htm. 14 Ley 13/1986, de 14 de abril de 1986, de Fomento y Coordinación General de la Investigación Científica y Técnica. arts. 6-8. Available (in Spa- nish) from: http://www.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/l13-1986.html. 15 Information available (in Spanish) from: http://www.cofecyt.secyt.gov.ar/. 16 Information on the European Union 6th and 7th Framework Programmes available, respectively, from: http://fp6.cordis.lu/fp6/home.cfm and http://www.cordis.lu/fp7/. 17 See VILALTA et al., 2005. Further information on the Pla de Recerca i Innovació available (in Catalan) from: http://www10.gencat.net/pricatalunya/ AppJava/home.jsp. 18 Information available (in Spanish) from: http://wwwn.mec.es/ciencia/jsp/plantilla.jsp?area=plan_idi&id=2. 19 Available (in Italian) from: http://www.murst.it/iniziati/1997/dlgsric2.htm . 20 Schweizerischer Nationalfonds für Förderung der wissenschaftlichen- Forschung website (in German, French and English): http://www.snf.ch/. 21 Bundesgesetz über die Forschung, vom 7. Oktober 1983. Available (in German, French and Italian, respectively) from: http://www.swtr.ch/swtr_ger/pdf/BG420.1.de.pdf; http://www.admin.ch/ch/f/rs/420_1/index.html; and http://www.admin.ch/ch/i/rs/420_1/ index.html. 22 The Plan Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación 2005-2030 is currently being drawn up, as provided for in Ley Orgánica de 12 de julio de 2005, de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (Gaceta Oficial N° 38.242 del 03-08-05). Text (see Chapter I, Title II, for references to the Plan) available

63 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

A science, research and technology system: gions that are more or less autonomous, such This embraces universities, colleges, research as those which form the ‘Four Motors for Euro- centres, academies, technology development pe’ Group (Catalonia, Baden-Württemberg, Rhô- centres, private enterprises, etc., all more or less ne-Alps and Lombardy); Quebec, Scotland and formal in structure, and all coordinated and fi- Flanders; and finally, a number of Spanish au- nanced by the government and a range of ad hoc tonomous regions. The regions are listed in al- agencies. In Spain, for example, the science and phabetical order after the state to which they technology system includes state public rese- belong. arch bodies (such as the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, the Centro de Inves- The list commences with two international orga- tigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tec- nisations, namely, the OECD and the European nológicas, the Instituto Geológico y Minero, the Union, followed by the European (and after non- Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial, the European) countries in alphabetical order. Cata- Instituto Español de Oceanografía, the Instituto lonia, however, is dealt with last. For each des- de Salud Carlos III and the Instituto Nacional de cription the pertinent references are included,23 Investigaciones Agrarias), universities and rese- from which to obtain more information that can arch centres in the autonomous regions, and pri- be contained in this necessarily brief description. vate research enterprises; in the United King- Wherever possible, a diagrammatic representa- dom, the system is composed of eight specialist tion of the organisation of research in each country Research Councils; etc. or region has been included.

3. Legislation and bodies for 3.1. International organisations international organisations and in selected countries The Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)24 Below we describe the most salient features of systems for fostering science and technology The OECD, which consists of thirty countries hav- implemented in a number of countries. The list ing a market-based economy, issues publications is neither complete nor homogenous, and is es- and compiles statistics on social, macroecono- sentially limited to a sample for which adequa- mic, education, science, research and innovation te information was available. Greater detail is matters. provided for cases that seem to be particularly illustrative. In view of their special relationship In the industrialised world, and through its Com- with the respective states, we also include re- mittee for Scientific and Technological Policy, the

(in Spanish) from: http://www.asambleanacional.gov.ve/ns2/leyes.asp?id=655. A previous version of this law, approved by decree-law of the President of the Republic of Venezuela, was the basis for advance preparation of the Plan Nacional prior to definitive approval of the new law by the Venezuelan National Assembly. This previous law is available (in Spanish) from: http://www.mpd.gov.ve/decretos_leyes/Leyes/ ley_organica_de_ciencia.pdf. 23 As mentioned previously, all URLs were checked between the 15th and 30th September, 2005. Any defective URL will be indicated as such. 24 OECD, 2004.

64 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

OECD acts as a forum to draw together the most search Training Networks (RTNs), the Marie Cu- promising science and technology proposals of rie Intra-European Fellowships (EIFs) and Euro- its members. pean Reintegration Grants (ERGs), and finally, Co-operative Research Projects (CRAFTs) and The most important publications of the OECD in- Collective Research Projects (CRPs), both spe- clude: the Picagnol Report (1963), which – point- cifically aimed at including small-to-medium en- ing to the relationship between science and tech- terprises (SMEs) in the research systems of the nology and economic dynamism – called on different member states and of the European governments to actively foster R&D; the Frascati Union. Manual (1964),25 which laid the groundwork for measuring scientific and technological activity in The 7th Framework Programme27 is currently being industrialised societies; and finally, other landmark drawn up in cooperation with all the EU member publications monitoring scientific and techno- states. logical development and its economic effects throughout the world.

The European Union (EU) In the industrialised world, the OECD acts as The EU actively influences R&D systems through a forum to draw together the most promising its Framework Programmes. The 6th Framework science and technology proposals of its mem- Programme26 for Research and Technological De- velopment in the European Union (2003-2006), bers. which is currently being implemented, is the main EU instrument for funding research in the Euro- pean community. The main aim of this particular programme is the implementation of the Europe- Pan-European iniciatives an Research Area (ERA). The 6th Framework Pro- gramme has a budget of some €17.5m, repre- In parallel, significant efforts are being expended senting around 4% of the total European Union on the creation of the European Higher Education budget. Area (EHEA), including not only EU member states but all the European countries. The instruments by means of which this Frame- work Programme is implemented include Inte- EUREKA,28 another pan-European programme, grated Projects (IPs), the Network of Excellence complements the Framework Programmes by work- (NoE), Specific Targeted Research Projects ing actively to raise expenditure on R&D to 3% (STREPs), Specific Support Actions (SSAs), Re- of GDP by 2010. This programme, launched in

25 OCDE, 2003. 26 See http://fp6.cordis.lu/fp6/home.cfm 27 See http://www.cordis.lu/fp7/. 28 See http://www.eureka.be/home.do.

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1985 as an inter-governmental initiative, provides menced in 1970 and concluded in 1993 with the support to private enterprises, research centres creation of a federal state. The new model in- and universities that implement pan-European corporates an intermediate level of power be- projects involving innovative products, processes tween the federal state and the regions and com- and services. Thirty-six countries currently parti- munities, with powers that vary according to the cipate in EUREKA, i.e. all the members of the EU matter in hand. In the area of research, for exam- and a number of other European countries. Through ple, ‘prime’ responsibility corresponds to the its flexible and decentralised network, Eureka of- communities and regions. The federal authority, fers its members rapid access to knowledge, expe- however, holds certain ‘exclusive’ responsibili- rience and expertise in Europe. It also facilitates ties, although some of these are subject to for- access to funding and aid programmes, including mal co-operation agreements signed with the fe- for the creation of business partnerships to de- derated authorities. Overall it can be said that velop competitive products based on advanced R&D are the responsibility of each community technologies. and region in Belgium, in accordance with their needs and capacities, whereas the federal au- 3.2. European countries thority is responsible for matters of general interest. Belgium The research system of the Belgian federal go- Belgium has a unique model of government that vernment29 is composed of political, administra- is the fruit of the constitutional reforms that com- tive, and Advisory bodies.

Figure 1 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Belgium (federal level)30

Council of Ministers

Ministry for the Economy,Energy, Other Ministries Foreign Trade and Science Policy General Council for Scientific Policy

Federal Office for Scientific, Inter-ministerial Scientific Technical & Cultural Affairs Policy Committee

Political-administrative entities Ministries Advisory body

29 Further information on Belgian research policies available (in English, German, French and Dutch) from: http://www.belspo.be/. 30 All the diagrams in this article were created by the authors on the basis of information obtained from the sources cited for each country or region.

66 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

In the political arena, the Council of Ministers de- derale Raad voor Wetenschapsbeleid), compo- termines the main activities to be undertaken by sed of representatives of the scientific and so- the federal authority in terms of R&D; the Minis- cio-economic communities, acts as a Advisory ter for the Economy, Energy, Foreign Trade and body. Science Policy is responsible for general coordination, and the remaining ministers take on bo- Flanders31 ard the activities that fall within their area of influence. Science policy in Flanders has three arms: the Flanders government, the Belgian federal autho- As for the administrative arm, a federal body rity, and the European Union. in charge of scientific, technical and cultural affairs (Services Fédéraux des Affaires Scien- The Flemish science and innovation authority (Ad- tifiques, Techniques et Culturelles / Federale ministratie Wetenschap en Innovatie)32 was creat- Diensten voor Wetenschappelijke, Technische ed by legislative decree in 1990. Attached to the en Culturele Aangelegenheden) implements the Flemish Ministry for the Economy, Territorial Po- horizontal coordination and planning tasks that licy, Science, Innovation and the Communications are the responsibility of the federal authority. Media, it is responsible for designing, implement- An inter-ministerial committee (Commission In- ing and providing support for government policy, terministérielle de la Politique Scientifique Fé- as also for evaluating results. dérale / Federale Interministeriële Commissie voor Wetenschapsbeleid), on the other hand, The Flemish Science Policy Council (Vlaamse coordinates the elaboration and implementa- Raad voor Wetenschapsbeleid)33 formulates re- tion of government decisions in relation to fe- commendations for the government in matters deral science policy that require joint action by that fall under its sphere of influence, as do the more than one government department. This Royal Flemish Academy of Belgium for the Scien- includes drawing up the inter-departmental ces and the Arts (Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie budgetary programme for scientific policy (Pro- van België voor Wetenschappen en Kunsten)34 gramme Budgétaire Interdépartemental de la and the Belgian Royal Academy of Medicine (Ko- Politique Scientifique / Interdepartementaal ninklijke Academie voor Geneeskunde van Bel- Begrotingsprogramma voor Wetenschapsbe- gië).35 leid). In 2004, Flanders budgeted €1,418m for its scien- Finally, a general council for scientific policy ce policy, €846m of which – representing 2.6% of (Conseil Fédéral de la Politique scientifique / Fe- GDP – was invested in research.

31 Most of the information on the Flanders government policy on research and innovation was obtained from VERVLIET, 2004. 32 Website (in Dutch): http://awi.vlaanderen.be/. 33 Website (in Dutch): http://www.vrwb.be/home/index.cfm. An introduction in English available from: http://www.vrwb.be/home/index.cfm?menu_id=250. 34 Website (in Dutch): http://www.kvab.be/. 35 Website (in Dutch and French): http://www.wvc.vlaanderen.be/academiegeneeskunde/index.htm. Summary in English available from: http://www.armb.be/generalites_13.htm.

67 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

Figure 2 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Flanders

Parliament

Royal Flemish Academy Belgian Royal Flemish Scientific of Belgium of the Academy of Medicine Policy Council Sciences & Arts

Ministry for Education & Training Ministry for the Economy Other Ministries

Flemish Science & Innovation Board

Businesses Flemish Institute for Scientific & Technological Research Bodies Innovation & Promotion Other Organisations

Political-administrative entities Ministries Funding Agents Executing agents Advisory bodies

Denmark36 ningsrådgivning) was passed.38 These councils are responsible for fostering and financing high-level Denmark has legislation governing its universities research and for promoting use of the corres- (Lov ob Universiteter) dating from May 2003,37 ponding results. which, while taking into account their autonomy, regulates the conditions for different degree pro- The research advisory infrastructure includes the grammes, governance and financing, among Danish Council for Research Policy (Danmarks other matters. In 2003, moreover, a law governing Forskningsråd),39 the Danish Research Coordina- research advisory councils (Lov om Forsk- tion Committee (Koordinationsudvalget for Forsk-

36 For an excellent description of the Danish research system and its results, see MVTU, 2004. 37 The Lov ob Universiteter is available (in Danish and English respectively) from: http://www.videnskabsministeriet.dk/cgi-bin/ doc-show.cgi?doc_id=165510&leftmenu=LOVSTOF and http://www.vtu.dk/fsk/div/unisoejlen/ActofUniversities2003.pdf. 38 The Lov om Forskningsrådgivning is available (in English) from: http://www.vtu.dk/fsk/div/innsoejlen/Act_on_the_Research_Advisory_ System_etc.pdf. 39 Lov om Forskningsrådgivning, Ch. 3. Information available (in Danish and English) from: http://www.videnskabsministeriet.dk/cgi-bin/ left-org-commite.cgi?doc_id=2509&doc_type=488&_lang=dk and http://www.videnskabsministeriet.dk/cgi-bin/left-org-commite.cgi?doc_id= 2509&doc_type=488&_lang=uk

68 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

Figure 3 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Denmark

Parliament Danish Council for Research Policy Government

Ministry for Research & Information Other Ministries Technologies

Publi Research Committees Research Danish Research General Assembly Councils Agency of Research Councils

Other Public Sector Government Research Universities Research

Political-administrative entities Ministries Funding agent Executing agents Advisory bodies ning)40 and the Danish National Research Foun- In 2001 domestic expenditure on research and dation (Danmarks Grundforskningsfond).41 development was €4,329m, representing 2.39% of GDP. 42 Of note is the fact that funding for research, other than basic research carried out in universities and Finland in a number of other institutes, is obtained by open competition. The Science and Technology Policy Council of Finland (Valtion Tiede- ja Teknologianeuvosto),43 Also worthy of comment is the fact that in the last presided over by the Prime Minister, advises the two years, the research system has been under- government and its ministers on science and tech- going a rationalisation and simplification process nology matters. This council is responsible for the aimed at ensuring full coordination between ini- strategic development of science and technology tiatives undertaken by different agents. policy, as also for the innovation system. Apart

40 Lov om Forskningsrådgivning, Ch. 6. Information available (in Danish) from: http://forsk.dk/portal/page?_pageid=407,860941&_dad=portal&_ schema=PORTAL. 41 Websites (in Danish and English, respectively): http://www.dg.dk/Templates/PostingLister.aspx?id=14&lang=1 and http://www.dg.dk/ Templates/PostingLister.aspx?id=14&lang=2. 42 Data obtained from: http://www.dst.dk/. 43 Websites (in Finnish, Swedish and English, respectively): http://www.minedu.fi/tiede_ja_teknologianeuvosto/vttn.html; (http://www.minedu.fi/ tiede_ja_teknologianeuvosto/sve/index.html and http://www.minedu.fi/minedu/research/organisation/sci_tech_council/sci_tech_council.html.

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Figure 4 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Finland

Parliament Science & Technology Policy Council Government

Other Ministries Ministry for Trade & Industry Ministry for Education

Finnish National Fund for R&D National Technology Agency Academy of Finland

Universities Polytechnic Colleges Public Research Bodies

Political-administrative entities Ministries Funding agent Executing agents Advisory body from its President, it is composed of seven mi- Despite the fact that Finland has a relatively small nisters, in addition to ten experts in science and research system, it makes sustained efforts to re- technology. ach across borders, particularly through Europe- an programmes, and also takes in substantial num- Funds for competitive research are administered bers of students, researchers and experts from and distributed through the Academy of Finland abroad. It also encourages the formation of clus- (Suomen Akatemia)44 and the National Technology ters, characterised by horizontal and vertical lin- Agency (Tekes).45 Public funds for research are kages between different research and innovation also obtained by the Finnish National Fund for Re- centres. search and Development (Suomen Itsenäisyyden Juhlarahasto - SITRA).46 Contributions to this fund Finland has distinguished itself for its success in amounted to €1,400m in 2002, and are expected technological innovation, the result of a combi- to reach €1,700m in 2007. nation of entrepreneurship and public funding.

44 Websites (in Finnish, Swedish and English, respectively): http://www.aka.fi/index.asp?id=7F6217AA60E849809EB931C2BB5802CD; http://www.aka.fi/ index.asp?id=4E258A5C6C1B4606A34E7A2385ED6DC6 and http://www.aka.fi/index.asp?id=6518FE08D63649BAB3E75E7EC0589A76. 45 Websites (in Finnish, Swedish, Japanese and English, respectively): http://www.tekes.fi/; http://www.tekes.fi/sve/; (http://www.tekes.jp/ and http://www.tekes.fi/eng/. 46 Websites (in Finnish, Swedish and English, respectively): http://www.sitra.fi/index.asp; http://www.sitra.fi/index.asp?DirID=965a and http://www.sitra.fi/english/.

70 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

In 2002 domestic expenditure on research and sands of researchers, as well as other key players development in Finland was €4,830m, represen- in research policies. The final report, issued in No- ting 3.5% of GDP.47 vember 2004,52 indicated that the manner in which scientific research is organised in France was not France48 optimal, and proposed a range of modifications in terms of organisation, evaluation and funding France has a complex system of codes, laws and for research. Proposals included the following: decrees governing science, technology, research and innovation. This legislation is highly detailed - The creation of a Ministry of Research, Higher and is continuously renewed and complemented Education and Technology. in successive reviews. - Giving a central role to the Haut Conseil de la Science. Of the legislation in force in 2005, of special note - Restructuring universities and Grandes Écoles are Loi No. 85-1376 (dating from 1985), on rese- (specialist universities). arch and technological development,49 and Loi No. - The creation of research and higher education 99-587 (dating from 1999), on innovation and re- poles. search,50 which provides for contract program- - Fostering and simplifying links between public mes, three-yearly reports to parliament, and con- and private research. trol by the Inspection Générale. The research and - The development of contacts across Europe. development policy of the French government in- - The creation of a committee for funding scien- cludes an R&D investment target of 3% of GDP tific projects. for the coming years. - Returning, in a general sense, the initiative for research to base entities. Decrét No. 98-938 (dating from 1998) created a national science council (Conseil National de la The French government has prepared a draft bill Science).51 Playing an advisory role, this council is governing guidance and programming for rese- appointed by the Prime Minister for a term of four arch and innovation in France, which is expected years and meets twice annually. to be approved and to come into force in early 2006.53 For this reason, no diagram depicting the A state-level debate (États Généraux de la Re- French research system has been included, as cherche) took place in France between January such a diagram will shortly be rendered out-of- and October 2004, with the participation of thou- date.

47 Data taken from: http://tilastokeskus.fi. 48 For a description of the French research and development system and results, see ANRT, 2004; AUDIBERT, 2005; and BUREAU DES ÉTUDES STA- TISTIQUES SUR LA RECHERCHE, 2005a and 2005b. 49 Loi no 85-1376 du 23 decembre 1985 relative à la recherche et au développement technologique. Available (in French) from: http://www.dsi.cnrs.fr/RMLR/textesintegraux/volume1/11-l85-1376.htm. 50 Loi no 99-587 du 12 juillet 1999 sur l’innovation et la recherche. Available (in French) from: http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/WAspad/ UnTexteDeJorf?numjo=MENX9800171L. 51 Décret no 98-938 du 20 octobre 1998 portant création du Conseil National de la Science. Available (in French) from: http://www.legifrance.gouv.fr/ WAspad/UnTexteDeJorf?numjo=MENG9802603D. 52 États Généraux de la Recherche, 2004. 53 Avant-projet de loi de programme sur la recherche. Available from: http://www.recherche.gouv.fr/lopr/pacte/avantprojet.htm.

71 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

Figure 5 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Germany

Science Council

Federal Government-Federated States Commission for Federated Government Federated States Business Sector Educational Planning and Research Promotion

Industrial Research Research Associations Research Laboratories Associations

Acadèmies

Federated State Research Federal R&D Bodies Higher Education Sector Industrial R&D Bodies Bodies

Political-administrative entities Executing agents Coordinating or cooperating bodies Other entities

Rhône-Alps vernment has certain financial powers that are unwritten but which depend on the nature of an The Conseil Régional de Rhône-Alpes voted in April issue and its relevance. According to Article 91 2005 for a regional higher education and research of the Grundgesetz, the Federal Government may scheme54 that would establish a strategy for the re- participate in discharging the responsibilities gion in this field. This detailed scheme includes a of the Länder when these affect the population of series of measures aimed at improving conditions Germany as a whole. According to the same Ar- in the universities, which are highly dependent on ticle, the Federal Government and the Länder the state and which do not have an autonomous may, pursuant to agreements, cooperate in edu- university, research and technology structure. cational planning and in the promotion of research institutions and research projects of supra- Germany55 regional importance.

Both the Federal Government and the Länder The Federal Government-Federated States Com- (i.e. federated states) support research, in ac- mission for Educational Planning and Research cordance with Articles 91 a) and b) of the Grund- Promotion (Bund-Länder-Kommission für Bil- gesetz (‘Basic Law’). Moreover, the Federal Go- dungsplanung und Forschungsförderung)56 and

54 Schema Regional de l’Enseigement Superieur et de la Recherche. Available (in French) from: http://www.cr-rhone-alpes.fr/V2/content_files/SRESR.pdf. 55 For an excellent description of the German research system and its results, see BMBF, 2002. 56 Websites (in German and English, respectively): http://www.blk-bonn.de/index.htm and http://www.blk-bonn.de/englisch/contents.htm.

72 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

the Scientific Council (Wissenschaftsrat)57 are res- development in Germany was €53.364m, repre- ponsible for proposing and coordinating joint ac- senting 2.49% of PIB.58 tions to implement established policy lines. Baden-Württemberg A number of foundations for the promotion of science make an important contribution to main- The Baden-Württemberg Ministry for Science, Re- taining the quality of research by complementing search and the Arts59 is responsible for the university the funding provided by the state. There are also system and for coordinating and fostering science a number of organisations, funded primarily by fe- and research in the region, while the Ministry for deral funds, whose aims include fostering the ta- Economic Affairs60 is responsible for technological lent of young people and facilitating international development. In 2004, Baden-Württemberg, with contacts between scientists. 10.7 million inhabitants, had a GDP of €306,205m in 2001, and a domestic expenditure in R&D of Scientific research is implemented through the €11,919m amounting to 3.9% of GDP. higher education institutes of a range of bodies, such as the Max Planck Society (Max-Plank Ge- Ireland sellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften) and the Fraunhöfer Society (Fraunhöfer Gesellschaft In Ireland, science, research and technology fea- zur Förderung der Augewandten Forschung); ture in a number of laws. Of particular note are the through associations such as the Helmholtz Asso- Science and Technology Act 198761 and the In- ciation of National Research Centres (Helmholtz dustrial Development (Science Foundation Ireland) Gemeinschaft Deutscher Forschungszentren); Act 2003.62 The Department of Enterprise, Trade through the Leibniz Association (Wissenschaft- and Employment has an Office of Science and Tech- gemeinschaft Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz), also nology,63 which is responsible for the development, known as the Blaue Liste (‘Blue List’); through promotion, and coordination of science, techno- other scientific centres, academies and founda- logy and innovation directives. In addition, a Chief tions such as CAESAR (Center of Advanced Eu- Science Adviser, appointed by the government, ropean Studies and Research); and finally, through acts as an independent adviser in all matters con- private enterprises. Funding comes from the Fe- cerning science, technology and innovation. deral Government, the Länder and from private capital. The Office of Science and Technology is responsible for funding basic research through In 2002 domestic expenditure on research and Science Foundation Ireland.64 It also oversees

57 Website (in German and English): http://www.wissenschaftsrat.de/. 58 Data obtained from: http://www.destatis.de 59 Website (in German): http://www.baden-wuerttemberg.de/de/Ministerium_fuer_Wissenschaft_Forschung_und_Kunst/86126.html. Summary in english available from : http://www.baden-wuerttemberg.de/en/research/86212.html. 60 Website (in German): http://www.baden-wuerttemberg.de/de/Finanzministerium/86129.html. 61 Available from: http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/ZZA30Y1987.html. 62 Available from: http://www.gov.ie/bills28/acts/2003/a3003.pdf. 63 Information on the Office of Science and Technology and on Irish government policy in this area available from: http://www.entemp.ie/ science/technology/. 64 Website: http://www.sfi.ie/home/index.asp.

73 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

Figure 6 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Ireland

Department Department Department Department Department Department of Comms., of of of Enterprise, Department Department of Health & of Education Marine & Environment, Agriculture Trade & of Transport of Finance Children & Science Natural Heritage & & Food Employment Resources Local Govt.

Inter-departamental Science & Technology Commitee

Office of Science Irish Science, Technology FORFAS & Technology & Innovation Council

Science National Environmental Enterprise IDA Research Marine Foundation Council for Protection Ireland Ireland Councils Institute Ireland Forest R&D Agency

Institute National Environmental for Economic Marine Institute of Industry Council for Protection Universities & Social Institute Technology Forest R&D Agency (7) Research (14)

Higher Education Sector

Political-administrative entities Ministries Funding agent Executing agents Advisory bodies

the process of integration into the European Re- Italy search Area and funds programmes aimed at in- creasing the number of students pursuing a Current Italian research policy is based on De- scientific career and at promoting a scientific creto Legislativo 204/98, which governs the co- culture in general. ordination, programming, and evaluation of national policy on scientific research and tech- In 2001 domestic expenditure on research and nology.66 In a Documento di Programazione Eco- development in Ireland amounted to €1,338m, re- nomica e Finanziaria the government determines presenting 1.17% of GDP.65 the strategic priorities for actions in relation to

65 Data taken from: http://www.cso.ie 66 Decreto legislativo 5 giugno 1998, n. 204 (Disposizioni per il coordinamento, la programmazione e la valutazione della politica nazionale relativa alla ricerca scientifica e tecnologica, a norma dell’ articolo 11, comma 1, lettera d), della legge 15 marzo 1997, n. 59.). Available (in Italian) from: http://www.murst.it/iniziati/1998/dlgsric2.htm.

74 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

Figure 7 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Italy

Parliament

Inter-ministerial Government Council of Ministers Committee for Economic Planning

Ministry of Education Other Ministries Presidential Council Universities & Research

Science & Committee of Technology Research Policy Assembly Experts

National Comitè per a Science l’Avaluació de Councils la Recerca

National Research Universities Bodies

Political-administrative entities Ministries Executing agents Advisory bodies

scientific research and technological develop- to the Ministry for Education, Universities and Re- ment. search.

Based on this Documento (which has to be ap- The government also avails of the advice of a com- proved by parliament) describing, interalia, direc- mittee of research experts (Comitato di Esperti tives of the President of the Council of Ministers, per la Politica di Ricerca),68 attached to the Mi- an inter-ministerial committee (Comitato Intermi- nistry for Education, Universities and Research nisteriale per la Programazione Economica) ap- and presided over by the minister of this depart- proves a national research programme (Programma ment. This committee has a maximum of nine Nazionale di Ricerca),67 covering a period of three members, appointed by the President of the Coun- years. Plans and programmes are all submitted cil of Ministers and selected from among highly

67 Available (in Italian) from: http://www.miur.it/0003Ricerc/0141Temi/0478PNR_-_/0783PNR_20/4811Progra_cf3.htm. 68 Decreto legislativo 5 giugno 1998, n. 204, art. 3. See Note 112 above. Further information on the Comitato di Esperti per la Politica della Ricer- ca available (in Italian) from: http://www.miur.it/0006Menu_C/0014Minist/0104Organi/1569C_E_P__cf3.htm.

75 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

qualified representatives of culture, society, scien- Lombardy ce, and industry. The Comitato di Esperti per la Politica di Ricerca has the support of the entire In December 2003, the region of Lombardy, which public administration in implementing its func- does not have an autonomous science and tech- tions. nology infrastructure, signed a memorandum of understanding with the Italian Minister for Edu- National science councils (Consigli Scientifici cation, Universities and Research, with a view to Nazionali) represent the scientific community. implementing a series of measures to promote Composed of government administration re- research and technological innovation in the representatives, representatives of the producti- gion.72 ve and services sectors, and social agents, together they constitute a science and technology The Netherlands73 assembly (Assemblea della Scienza e della Tec- nologia). The Consigli and the Assemblea are The private sector and the government are the responsible for preparing proposals for drafting principal sources of funding for the Dutch scien- and updating the Programma Nazionale di Ri- ce, technology and innovation system. cerca.69 In 2001, private enterprise and the government The Ministry for Education, Universities and Re- contributed 52% and 36%, respectively, of the search also has a committee to evaluate research funds invested in research and development, with (Comitato di Indirizzo per la Valutazione della Ri- the rest coming from abroad. Five large compa- cerca)70 composed of a maximum of seven mem- nies alone are responsible for 50% of total R&D bers (which may include foreigners) selected from investment in the Netherlands. among a wide range of disciplines. This committee establishes evaluation criteria and presents The public R&D system consists of fourteen uni- regular reports to the relevant ministries and to versities, the Royal Netherlands Academy of Scien- the Comitato Interministeriale per la Programa- ces (Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van We- zione Economica. tenschappen)74 together with its eighteen institutes, and scientific and technological research institu- In 2000 domestic expenditure on research and tes grouped into different organisations. The go- development in Italy was €12,460m, representing vernment department responsible for R&D is the 1.07% of GDP.71 Ministry of Education, Culture and Science.75

69 Decreto legislativo 5 giugno 1998, n. 204, art. 4. See Note 114 above. 70 Website (in Italian and English): http://www.civr.it/. 71 Data taken from: http://www.istat.it 72 Protocollo d’intesa Ministero dell’Istruzione, dell’Università e della Ricerca - Regione Lombardia per il rilancio della recerca. Signing ceremony speech by Letizia Moratti, the Minister for Education, Universities and Research, available (in Italian) from: http://www.istruzione.it/prehome/ ministro/interventi/2003/21_12_03.shtml. 73 For an excellent description of the Dutch research and development system and its results, see VAN STEEN et al., 2004. 74 Website (in Dutch and English): http://www.knaw.nl/index.html. 75 Website (in Dutch and English): http://www2.minocw.nl/indexocw.jsp.

76 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

Figure 8 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in the Netherlands

Parliament

Royal Netherlands Academy of Sciences Science & Techonology Policy Council Sectoral Councils

Government

Ministry for Education, Culture & Science Other Ministries

Advanced Technology Universities National Research Centres Technology Institutes Institutes

Political-administrative entities Ministries Funding agent Executing agents Advisory body

In September 2003 the Dutch government esta- available for R&D programmes and for the deve- blished an Innovation Platform (Innovatie Platform),76 lopment of an environment that encourages ad- headed by the Prime Minister and consisting of vanced technology initiatives. Since 2003 the funds members and ex-members of government, re- earmarked for research excellence have been in- presentatives of the business community and creased by some €100m, with some €50m con- representatives of higher education and research tributed by the Ministry for Education, Culture and institutions. Its task is to propose strategic plans Science, and another €50m by Dutch universi- that provide an impetus to science and innova- ties. The main beneficiary has been the Nether- tion and that encourage closer cooperation bet- lands Organisation for Scientific Research (Ne- ween private enterprise and knowledge genera- derlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk tors. Onderzoek),77 which has as its mission to promote and enhance the innovative quality and con- This measure has been accompanied, further- tent of research carried out in universities and re- more, by a very significant increase in the funds search institutes and to foster the dissemination

76 Website (in Dutch and English): http://www.innovatieplatform.nl/. 77 Website (in Dutch and English): http://www.nwo.nl/nwohome.nsf/pages/index.

77 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

and use of research results. Another €50m will be Only 14% of Dutch university students – compar- earmarked for cooperative research excellence ed to an average of 21% in the European Union programmes. – pursue scientific and technical careers. Against this background of a general lack of interest among The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Scien- young people in science, the government is tak- ces (Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van We- ing action to make education and work more at- tenschappen) has as its main mission the foste- tractive and to encourage residency by foreigners ring of scientific research. More specifically, it has in the Netherlands. Particular attention is paid to the following functions: promoting an interest in science among the media and the public. - To advise the government, parliament, universities, research bodies and funding agencies In 2001 expenditure on research and development on scientific matters. in the Netherlands amounted to €8,100m, repre- - To assess the quality of scientific research senting approximately 1.89% of GDP.79 through a peer-review process. - To act as a forum for the scientific community. Spain80 - To promote international scientific cooperation. In Spain, the legislation referred to as the Ley de la Ciencia81 created the bodies and instruments It is also directly responsible for eighteen basic described below. and strategic research institutes. Its budget in 2002 amounted to some €100m, 75% of which The Plan Nacional de Investigación Científica y was contributed by the Ministry of Education, Cul- Desarrollo Tecnológico, currently in its 2004-2007 ture and Science. edition,82 establishes a pluriannual framework for action. It identifies priority areas and makes bud- The Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scien- getary provisions for scientific research and tech- tific Research (Nederlandse Organisatie voor To- nological development. The plan is drawn up by egepast-natuurwetenschappelijk Onderzoek)78 is an inter-ministerial committee (Comisión Intermi- an independent research body that works on the nisterial de Ciencia y Tecnología)83 in coordination basis of contracts. It aims to contribute substan- with government economic planning bodies and tially to the competitivity of businesses and orga- has to be approved by the Government before nisations, to economic development, and to the being placed before the Spanish parliament. This success of society as a whole. plan may be reviewed and updated annually.

78 Website (in Dutch and English): http://www.tno.nl/tno/index.xml. 79 Data taken from: http://statline.cbs.nl 80 Additional information available from ANGULO, 2004. 81 Ley 13/1986, de 14 de abril de 1986, de Fomento y Coordinación General de la Investigación Científica y Técnica. (Ley de la Ciencia). Available (in Spanish) from: http://www.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/l13-1986.html. 82 Llei de la ciència, cap. I. Further information on the Plan Nacional de Investigación Científica, Desarrollo e Innovación Tecnológica 2004-2007 available (in Spanish) from: http://wwwn.mec.es/ciencia/jsp/plantilla.jsp?area=plan_idi&id=2 83 Ley de la Ciencia, art. 6-8.

78 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

Figure 9 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Spain

Regional European Spanish Local Autonomous Union Government Governments Local

Agencies and Business and Technology Technological Innovation bodies Innovation Transfer Offices centres centres fostering Centres innovation

Research Scientific and Business Universities Research centres Public Bodies Foundations Large facilities technological (OPI) parks

University Employer’s Chambers of Associations Business organitzations commerce Foundation

Political-administrative entities Coordinating or cooperating bodies Executing agents Other entities

The government is responsible for appointing a la Ciencia y la Tecnología), presided over by a mi- Standing Committee whose functions are esta- nister appointed by the government, whose pri- blished by the Comisión Interministerial de Cien- me function is to advise the Comisión Interminis- cia y Tecnología.84 The Ministry of Science and Tech- terial de Ciencia y Tecnología.85 nology – as the government department responsible for economic development and general coordina- A technological and industrial development cen- tion of scientific and technological research – pro- tre (Centro para el Desarrollo Tecnológico e In- vides support to both these bodies in their actions, dustrial) was also created in order to promote the which, in addition to drawing up the plan, include implantation of new technologies. Among other its monitoring, evaluation and update. things, this centre enters into agreements with universities, public research bodies and private The Ley de la Ciencia also provided for the crea- enterprises in order to promote the exploitation of tion of an advisory council (Consejo Asesor para technology.86

84 Ley de la Ciencia, art. 7. 85 Ley de la Ciencia, art. 9. 86 Ley de la Ciencia, art. 10.

79 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

With a view to coordinating scientific and tech- the state, and which provided for a university nical research, a general science and technology coordination body (Consejo de Coordinación council (Consejo General para la Ciencia y la Tec- Universitaria),90 responsible for approving cour- nología) was created, presided over by the Pre- ses and qualifications and implementing other sident of the Comisión Interministerial de Cien- functions in relation to the higher education sys- cia y Tecnología or by a government minister, tem. and composed of members (in the capacity of consejero) of the same body appointed by the In 2003 the domestic expenditure on R&D in Spain President of the Consejo General, as also of re- amounted to €8,213m, representing approxi- presentatives of each Spanish Autonomous Com- mately 1.1% of Spanish GDP.91 munity. The number of inter-ministerial committee members may not be greater than the total Aragon number of members representing the Autono- mous Communities. The Consejo General, in ad- Aragon has a law aimed at fostering and coor- dition to making proposals for objectives for the dinating research, development and knowledge Plan Nacional, has the function of ensuring ef- transfer (Ley de Fomento y Coordinación de la fective information exchange and implementing Investigación, el Desarrollo y la Transferencia de joint actions by and between the Autonomous Conocimientos),92 which establishes the lines of Communities and the state.87 action for this region. It defines the instruments considered to be most appropriate for the achie- The Ley de la Ciencia also regulates public rese- vement of its aims in relation to coordination, ef- arch bodies within the Spanish science and tech- ficacy and transparency in managing R&D, arti- nology system, including the Consejo Superior de culated in the form of research, development and Investigaciones Científicas, the Centro de Inves- knowledge transfer plans. tigaciones Energéticas, Medioambientales y Tec- nológicas, the Instituto Geológico y Minero, the The Aragon government’s Department of Scien- Instituto Nacional de Técnica Aeroespacial, the ce and Technology is responsible for implemen- Instituto Español de Oceanografía, the Instituto ting the provisions of the law.93 The government de Salud Carlos III and the Instituto Nacional de also has an inter-departmental committee (Co- Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria.88 misión Interdepartamental de Ciencia y Tecno- logía)94 charged with establishing general lines of Spain, in addition, has a Ley Orgánica de Univer- action and coordinating the measures provided sidades,89 which regulates higher education in for in government plans. A research coordina-

87 Ley de la Ciencia, art. 12. 88 Ley de la Ciencia, cap. II. 89 Ley Orgánica 6/2001, de 21 de deciembre, dr universidades (LOU). Available (in Spanish) from: http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/ Admin/lo6-2001.t13.html#df5. 90 LOU, tít. IV. Also see website (in Spanish): http://www.mec.es/educa/ccuniv/. 91 Data taken from the INE(Spanish institute of statistics) website: http://ine.es/. 92 Ley 9/2003, de 12 de marzo, de fomento y coordinación de la investigación, el desarrollo y la transferencia de conocimientos en Aragón (LF- CIDTCA). Available (in Spanish) from: http://www.juridicas.com/base_datos/CCAA/ar-l9-2003.html. 93 LFCIDTCA, art. 3. 94 LFCIDTCA, art. 5.

80 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

tion committee (Comisión Coordinadora de In- vernment administration, whose appointment is vestigación)95 is responsible for presenting go- proposed by the latter body. vernment research, development and knowledge transfer plan projects and for evaluating The Oficina de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación compliance. A research and development advi- is responsible for presenting the draft project for sory council (Consejo Asesor de Investigación y the research, development and innovation plan Desarrollo),96 composed of outstanding figures (Plan Canario de Investigación, Desarrollo e Inno- in the field, advises the Comisión Interdeparta- vación),101 in accordance with the indications of mental de Ciencia y Tecnología. the Comisión de Coordinación and the Consejo Asesor. The Comisión de Coordinación de Cien- Canary Islands cia, Tecnología e Innovación has the final say in regard to approval of the plan. The Canary Islands law on the promotion and development of scientific research and innovation The law also provides for a scientific-technical co- (Ley de Promoción y Desarrollo de la Investiga- operation plan (Plan de Cooperación Científico- ción Científica y la Innovación)97 provides for a co- Técnica),102 which makes special reference to in- ordination committee (Comisión de Coordinación ternational networks and which promotes the de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación),98 which is participation of Canary Island researchers in in- an inter-departmental collegiate body charged ternational projects. The law also requires the Ca- with planning and coordinating scientific rese- nary Island government to facilitate and encou- arch, technological development and innovation. rage sponsorship and patronage of research This committee has the support of a science, activity. technology and innovation office (Oficina de Cien- cia, Tecnología e Innovación)99 in implementing Castile-Leon its functions. In 2002, the Autonomous Community of Castile- The Consejo Asesor de Ciencia, Tecnología e In- Leon replaced its former law on research and novación100 – the consultative and advisory body science with a law governing the promotion and co- for the Comisión de Coordinación de Ciencia, Tec- ordination of scientific research, development nología e Innovación – is composed of scientists, and technological innovation (Ley de Fomento y researchers, members of the business commu- Coordinación General de la Investigación Cientí- nity, social agents and representatives of the go- fica, Desarrollo e Innovación Tecnológica).103 Un-

95 LFCIDTCA, art. 6. 96 LFCIDTCA, art. 7. 97 Ley 5/2001, de 9 de julio, de Promoción y Desarrollo de la Investigación Científica y la Innovación (LPDICI). Available (in Spanish) from: http:// www.juridicas.com/base_datos/CCAA/ic-l5-2001.html. 98 LPDICI; cap. I, sec. 1. 99 LPDICI; cap. I, sec. 2. 100 LPDICI; cap. I, sec. 3. 101 LPDICI; cap. I, sec. 2. 102 LPDICI; cap. II, sec. 3. 103 Ley 17/2002, de 19 de diciembre, de Fomento y Coordinación General de la Investigación Científica, Desarrollo e Innovación Tecnológica (I + D + i) en Castilla y León (LFCGICDIT). Available (in Spanish) from: http://www.juridicas.com/base_datos/CCAA/cl-l17-2002.html.

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der the provisions of this new law the inter-de- Galicia partmental committee (presided over by the Cas- tile-Leon Minister for Education and Culture) pro- Galician legislation on research and technologi- vided for in the previous legislation was replaced cal development (Ley de Fomento de Investiga- by a coordination committee (Comisión de Coor- ción y de Desarrollo Tecnológico)107 provides for dinación de Ciencia y Tecnología),104 composed the creation of a research and technological de- of the President and Vice-President of the go- velopment plan (Plan Gallego de Investigación y vernment, and of ministers (or representatives) of Desarrollo Tecnológico), which describes a series departments holding portfolios that included are- of coordinated and funded programmes that as such as agriculture, economy and finance, edu- comply with Galician scientific policy.108 This plan cation, development, industry, the environment, is implemented by an inter-departmental com- health, and any other area that was in any way af- mittee (Comisión Interdepartamental de Ciencia fected by scientific and technological develop- y Tecnología)109 and by a secretary (Secretaría Ge- ment. The Comisión de Coordinación de Ciencia neral del Plan) responsible for issuing reports on y Tecnología is responsible for drawing up draft the plan to parliament.110 regional R&D+I strategy projects and for placing them before the Castile-Leon government for ap- Galicia also has created an advisory council (Con- proval. These projects include: research support sejo Asesor de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecno- programmes that provide for the establishment of lógico),111 which acts as the link between social scientific and technological infrastructures, basic agents, the scientific community, and those res- and applied research programmes, and the pro- ponsible for scientific and technological policy. motion of thematic networks; and human resour- The Consejo Asesor proposes aims and recom- ce programmes aimed at training, integrating and mends key programmes to the Comisión Inter- encouraging the mobility of scientists and tech- departamental, and also issues any reports re- nology experts.105 quired by the latter. The Secretaría General del Plan is also required to maintain a register112 of The new law also provides for an advisory coun- centres, institutes and researchers. cil (Consejo Asesor de Ciencia y Tecnología)106 with the function of advising the Castile-Leon govern- La Rioja ment on science and research issues and of issuing reports on draft regional R&D strategy pro- The Rioja legislation on research and technologi- jects. cal development (Ley de Investigación y Desarro-

104 LFCGICDIT, art. 4. 105 LFCGICDIT, art. 2. 106 LFCGICDIT, art. 5. 107 Ley 12/1993, de 6 de agosto, de fomento de investigación y de desarrollo tecnológico de Galicia (LFIDTG). Available (in Spanish) from: http:// www.juridicas.com/base_datos/CCAA/ga-l12-1993.html. 108 LFIDTG, cap. 2. 109 LFIDTG, cap. 3. 110 LFIDTG, cap. 4. 111 LFIDTG, cap. 5. 112 LFIDTG, cap. 8.

82 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

llo Tecnológico)113 has as its purpose the foster- tific research and technological innovation. It is ing, coordination and dissemination of research presided over by the Madrid Autonomous Com- and technological development, and simultane- munity Minister for Education and Culture, and is ously aims at integrating, insofar as possible, its composed of representatives of all the Madrid re- actions within EU Framework Programmes. gional government departments. The consultative body of the Comisión Interdepartamental is the The law provides for the creation of an interde- Consejo de Ciencia y Tecnología,120 which provi- partmental committee (Comisión Interdeparta- des advice in relation to various aspects of the mental de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológi- actions of the former. Of particular note is the re- co),114 responsible for drawing up research and gional scientific research and technological de- technological development plans (Planes de In- velopment plan (Plan Regional de Investigación vestigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico) for the Rio- Científica e Innovación Tecnológica),121 and the ja region.115 proposals for measures to promote a scientific culture. The research directorate (Dirección Ge- The law also provides for the creation of a rese- neral de Investigación)122 is responsible for draw- arch and technological development council (Con- ing up the draft regional plan project, which, once sejo Riojano de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecno- it has been heard by the Consejo de Ciencia y Tec- lógico)116 and a technical committee (Comisión nología, must be approved by the Comisión In- Técnica),117 with advisory functions in relation to terdepartamental. the determination of action programmes. Valencia Madrid Valencian research and development legislation Madrid regional legislation on scientific research (Ley de Fomento y Coordinación de la Investiga- and technological development (Ley de Fomen- ción Científica y del Desarrollo Tecnológico)123 pro- to de la Investigación Científica y la Innovación vides for the creation of an inter-departmental com- Tecnológica)118 provides for the creation of an in- mittee (Comisión Gestora Interdepartamental)124 ter-departmental committee (Comisión Interde- which, in coordination with the Valencian govern- partamental de Ciencia y Tecnología)119 with the ment’s economic planning bodies, draws up the function of programming and coordinating scien- scientific research and technological development

113 Ley 3/1998, de 16 de marzo, de Investigación y Desarrollo Tecnológico de La Rioja (LIDTLR). Available (in Spanish) from: http://www. juridicas.com/base_datos/CCAA/lr-l3-1998.html. 114 LIDTLR, tít. I, cap. I, sec. I. 115 LIDTLR, título preliminar, cap. II. 116 LIDTLR, tít. I, cap. I, sec. II. 117 LIDTLR, tít. I, cap. I, sec. III. 118 Ley 5/1998, de 7 de mayo, de Fomento de la Investigación Científica y la Innovación Tecnológica de la Comunidad Autónoma de Madrid (LFI- CIT). Available (in Spanish) from: http://www.juridicas.com/base_datos/CCAA/ma-l5-1998.html. 119 LFICIT, art. 4. 120 LFICIT, art. 5. 121 LFICIT, cap. 3. 122 LFICIT, art. 6. 123 Llei 7/1997, de foment i coordinació de la investigació científica i del desenvolupament tecnològic de la Comunitat Valenciana (LFCICDT). Avai- lable (in Spanish) from: http://www.juridicas.com/base_datos/CCAA/va-l7-1997.html. 124 LFCICDT, art. 9.

83 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

plan (Plan Valenciano de Investigación Científica y - The research bodies to which these apply and Desarrollo Tecnológico),125 which has as its main their respective powers. purpose the promotion of innovative knowledge - The functions and organisation of the Schwei- and scientific and technological development. The zerischer Wissenschafts- und Technologierat. plan is structured according to programmes of ac- - Subsidies for research. tions to be implemented, together with budgetary - The planning and coordination of research. details. The Comisión Gestora Interdepartamental evaluates each annual plan, which can be exten- The legislation applies to research bodies that ob- ded providing the prior approval of the Valencian tain funds from the state, including scientific aca- government is obtained. demies and other institutions recognised by the Swiss Federal Council, research centres in uni- The Valencian government selects a number of versities and state polytechnic colleges. members of the Comisión Gestora Interdeparta- mental to create a Standing Committee126 with the The law also applies to the National Science Foun- organic structure, staff, and means to act as se- dation (Schweizerische Nationalfonds der Wis- cretariat for the region’s R&D plans.127 This secre- senschaftlichen Forschung),130 whose members tariat is responsible for drafting the plan project, are appointed by the Swiss Federal Council. This as also for its technical administration on behalf body acts as the government’s consultative body of the Comisión Gestora Interdepartamental. in all matters concerning science, research and technology policies. It is also responsible for sub- The law also provides for the creation of an ad- sidising research initiatives, in compliance with visory council (Consejo Asesor de Ciencia y Tec- the guidelines of the Swiss Federal Council. nología), charged with advising the Comisión Gestora Interdepartamental and issuing recom- The Swiss Federal Council, acting on the advice mendations and expert reports.128 of the Science and Technology Council (Schwei- zerischer Wissenschafts- und Technologierat),131 Switzerland sets aims for Swiss policy in matters of research, and also approves pluriannual programmes pre- Swiss Confederation legislation on research129 es- sented by research bodies. tablishes, interalia: The United Kingdom132 - The basic principles and aims of research in the Confederation. The United Kingdom has no specific legislation

125 LFCICDT, art. 2, 3 & 4. 126 LFCICDT, art. 9.2. 127 LFCICDT, art. 10. 128 LFCICDT, art. 11. 129 Bundesgesetz vom 7 Oktober 1983 über die Forschung (Forschungsgesetz, FG), updated in 1999 and 2003. Available (in German, French and Italian) from: http://www.admin.ch/ch/d/sr/c420_1.html. 130 Website (in German, French and English): http://www.snf.ch/. 131 Website (in German, French and English): http://www.swtr.ch/swtr_ger/index.htm. 132 For an excellent description of the United Kingdom research system and its results, see DIXON et al., 2001; HMT / DTI / DES, 2004; RESEARCH COUNCILS, 2004.

84 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

Figure 10 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Switzerland

Government Federal ➡ Science & Technology Council Department of Internal Affairs

State Secretary for Research & Education

Swiss Science Agency National Science Found

Universities (9) Federal Technology Institutes (2) National Research Institutes (4)

Political-administrative entities Ministries Funding agent Executing agents Advisory body

underpinning its science and technology policy. agents. The United Kingdom also has a Council It does have, however, a complex system of over- for Science and Technology,133 as also a Govern- lapping organisations that is responsible for pro- ment Chief Scientific Adviser, who presides over moting science, research and technological in- a committee that makes recommendations aimed novation. at tackling priorities. Moreover, each government department is recommended to have a Scientific The government’s approach to implementing pro- Advisory Committee and a Departmental Chief jects is based largely on recommendations issued Scientific Adviser. by different government bodies and by other institutions. The Office of Science and Technology,134 in con- junction with the Prime Minister’s Strategic Unit One of the recommendations adopted by the go- and the Cabinet Ministerial Committee on Scienti- vernment and all its departments has been in re- fic Policy, perform evaluations of actions and de- gard to laying a solid scientific foundation for its cide on modifications. Finally, the United Kingdom development policy, based on complementing the has also created a Foresight Directorate, which as- efforts of the different departments and their sesses the future scenario in a range of disciplines.

133 Website: http://www.cst.gov.uk/. 134 Website: http://www.ost.gov.uk/index_v4.htm.

85 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

Figure 11 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in the United Kingdom

Chief Scientific Adviser

Council for Science & Northern Ireland Assembly; Northern Ireland Executive; Cabinet Technology Northern Ireland Office Scottish Parliament; Scottish Executive; Scotland Office Select Parliamentary National Assembly for Wales; Welsh Assembly Parliament Committees Government; Wales Office

Environ- Office of the Culture, Trade & Education ment, Food Other Defence Health Transport Deputy Media & Industry & Skills & Rural Depart- (MOD) (DH) (DfT) Prime Sports (DTI) (DfES) Affairs ments Minister (DCMS) (DEFRA)

Office of Science & Technology (OST)

General Director of the Research Councils Science Budget

Research Councils Political-administrative entities Ministries Funding agent Advisory bodies

The United Kingdom also has its Royal Society,135 Research and innovation are financed via a dual as well as a number of other scientific and tech- system, consisting of funding from universities nical societies and academies that foster exce- and from the Research Councils.137 The govern- llence in scientific research. ment departments which contribute most to funding research are the Department of Trade and In- In 2002 domestic expenditure on research and dustry and the Department of Education and Skills, development was €31,505m (one third public ex- which between them, contributed some €4,000m penditure) representing 1.89% of GDP.136 to R&D in the 2004-2005 academic year.

135 Website: http://www.royalsoc.ac.uk/. 136 Data taken from: http://www.statistics.gov.uk. 137 Website: http://www.rcuk.ac.uk/.

86 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

Figure 12 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Scotland

Chief Scientific Royal Society Adviser of Edinburgh

Council for Science Gabinet Government & Technology

Select Parliamentary Parliament Committees Ministry for Other Ministries Science

Chief Scientific Office of Adviser Science & Technology Scottish Science Advisory Committee

United Kingdom Scotland

Political-administrative entities Ministries Funding agent Advisory bodies

Scotland138 Chief Science Adviser, Scientific Advisory Com- mittees, and the Department of Trade and Industry. Responsibility for science and research in Scot- land is shared, with some powers devolved from In order to implement its functions in the science the United Kingdom government, and others re- field, the Scottish Executive has appointed a Mi- served to the Scottish Executive. For example, nister for Science and has created a Scottish Scien- higher education powers have been transferred, ce Advisory Committee,139 which is attached to whereas the Research Councils still remain under the Royal Society of Edinburgh.140 This commit- the auspices of the central government. A dual tee includes representatives of the scientific com- system is used for funding research at higher edu- munity and others sectors affected by scientific cation centres. The Scottish government coope- advances. The Scottish Executive has also ap- rates in a pre-established manner with the British pointed a Chief Scientific Adviser, who presides government’s Office of Science and Technology, over the Scottish Science Advisory Committee.

138 A description of Scottish science strategy can be found in SCIENCE POLICY UNIT, 2001. 139 Website: http://www.scottishscience.org.uk/main_files/terms.htm. 140 Website: http://www.ma.hw.ac.uk/RSE/.

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This Committee identifies priority areas and mo- Tecnología);145 an advisory committee (Comisión nitors the actions of the different Scottish Execu- Asesora para el Plan Nacional de Ciencia, Tec- tive departments on matters concerning science nología e Innovación);146 and finally, a national and technology. agency for promoting science, technology and innovation (Agencia Nacional de Promoción Cien- tífica y Tecnológica).147 3.3. Other countries In 2002 expenditure on research and development Argentina in Argentina was €419m, representing 0.52% of GDP.148 Argentine legislation on science and technology (Ley de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación),141 dat- Brazil ing from 2001, establishes aims for scientific and technological policy, and also describes the res- Brazilian legislation on incentives to innovation ponsibilities of the state, the structure of the sys- and scientific and technological research149 esta- tem, and the planning, funding and evaluation of blishes measures to promote research within the R&D activities. country’s productive fabric. The Ministry of Scien- ce and Technology150 is ultimately responsible for The legislation provides for the following: a scien- science and technology. ce and technology bureau (Gabinete Científico y Tecnológico - GACTEC), attached to the Ministry The main public research players are the science of Education, Science and Technology;142 a se- and technology institutes (Instituições Científicas cretary for science, technology and production e Tecnológicas), which are public bodies charged innovation (Secretaria de Ciencia, Tecnología e with research activities. The above-mentioned le- Innovación Productiva - SECYT),143 whose remit gislation establishes guidelines for their activities is to act as executive secretary and support body in promoting research and innovation. for the Gabinete Científico y Tecnológico; a federal council (Consejo Federal de Ciencia, Tec- In 2000 expenditure on research and development nología e Innovación);144 an inter-institutional coun- in Brazil amounted to €5,073m, representing cil (Consejo Interinstitucional de Ciencia y 0.97% of PIB.151

141 Ley 25.467, de 29 de agosto de 2001, de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación. Available (in Spanish) from: http://www.ina.gov.ar/internas/pdf/ tecnologia.pdf. 142 Further information on the Argentine science, technology and innovation system available (in Spanish) from: http://www.me.gov.ar/index1.html. 143 Ley de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, art. 8 & 9. 144 Ley de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, art. 8, 10 & 11. 145 Ley de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, art. 8, 14 & 15. 146 Ley de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, art. 8, 16 & 17. 147 Ley de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación, art. 12 &13. 148 Data based on information available (in Spanish and English) from: http://www.indec.gov.ar/. 149 Lei nº 10.973, de 02.12.2004, sobre incentivos à inovação e à pesquisa científica e tecnológica no ambiente produtivo e dá outras providências. Available (in Portuguese) from: http://www.mct.gov.br/legis/leis/10973_2004.htm. 150 Website (in Portuguese): http://www.mct.gov.br/. 151 Data based on information available from: http://www.ibge.gov.br/ .

88 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

Figure 13 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Argentina

Argentine President ➡

Ministry of Education, Other Ministries Science & Technology Federal Council for Science, Technology & Innovation Science & Technology Bureau

Inter-institu- Secretary for Science, Technology tional Council & Production Innovation for Science & Technology Advisory Inter-institutional National Agency for the Committee for Council for Science Promotion of Science the National & Technology &Technology Plan

Political-administrative entities Ministries Funding agent Advisory bodies

Canada the research results of universities and research groups. Canada has a National Research Council / Con- seil National de la Recherche,152 responsible for In 2002 domestic expenditure on research and putting in place the essential science and tech- development in Canada was €15,103m, repre- nology structural elements at the federal level. In senting 1.94% of GDP.153 2002-2003 the Canadian government invested a total of Canadian $5,100m on R&D. The Cana- Quebec dian National Research Council programme in- volves a range of research groups and includes The legislative basis for R&D is provided by the an industrial research aid programme aimed at Loi sur le Ministère du Développement Écono- promoting research and technological innovation. mique et Régional et de la Recherche, which da- More specifically, the National Research Council tes from 2003.154 Responsible for science and works with universities to promote spin-offs from technology in Quebec is the Ministère du Déve-

152 Website (in English and French): http://www.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/. See also NRC – CNRC, 2004. 153 Data on Canada and Quebec based on information available (in English and French) from: http://www40.statcan.ca/ 154 Loi sur le Ministère du Développement Economique et Régional et de la Recherche. Available (in French and English, respectively) from: http://www.canlii.org/qc/legis/loi/m-30.01/20050915/tout.html and http://www.canlii.org/qc/laws/sta/m-30.01/20050915/whole.html.

89 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

Figure 14 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Canada

Parliament

Ministry for Industry

Social Sciences and Humanities National Research Council Research Council of Canada

Canadian Natural Sciences & Canadian Institutes of Health Engineering Research Councils Research

Canadian Innovation Centre

Universities Research Bodies

Political-administrative entities Ministries Funding agent Executing agents

loppement Économique de l’Innovation et de seil de la Science et de la Technologie),156 com- l’Exportation155 (whose name was taken from the posed of fifteen members representing the re- former Ministère du Developpement Économi- search sector, universities, professions, labour, que et Régional et de la Recherche after reor- government, private enterprise, and social ganisation of the Quebec government in February agents. Its President is appointed by the Que- 2005). This ministry, in cooperation with the uni- bec government. The council’s main function is versity, research, industrial and governmental to advise the ministry on any matters affecting sectors, is responsible for proposing research, general scientific and technological develop- science, technology and innovation policies to ment in Quebec. Funding for projects comes the government. Policy must be approved by the from a range of specialist funding bodies, each Quebec government and is subsequently eva- administered by its own board of administra- luated with a view to assessing the efficacy of tors. actions. In 2002 domestic expenditure on research and The above-mentioned law provided for the cre- development in Quebec was €4,355m, repre- ation of a science and technology council (Con- senting 2.65% of GDP.

155 Website (in French and English): http://www.mdeie.gouv.qc.ca/. 156 Website (in French, English, and Spanish): http://www.cst.gouv.qc.ca/.

90 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

Figure 15 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Quebec

National Assembly - Parliament

➡ Science & Technology Council

Ministry for Economic Development, Ministry for Education, Leisure & Sport Innovation & Exports

Research Evaluation Industrial Reserach Canadian Innovation Funds for Financing Technology (Valorisation-Recherche Centre of Quebec Centre Research (3) Transfer Centres Québec) (CRIQ)

Universities

Research Industry Centres

Political-administrative entities Ministries Other entities Funding agent Executing agents Advisory body

China157 department responsible for science and technology (the Ministry of Science and Technology)159 is The 1993 Law on the Progress of Science and also responsible for general, overall management Technology158 lays down general guidelines for the and coordination of scientific and technological direction to be taken by research and technolo- activity in Chinese territory, and is, moreover, res- gical development so as to ensure progress in the ponsible for promoting cooperation and exchan- People’s Republic of China. ge with the governments of other countries and with international organisations. This law provides no details on the structure of the government bodies that are responsible for The law specifically indicates that the state is oblig- managing, planning, fostering, monitoring and fi- ed to provide support to local authorities and to nancing research and technological development. minority communities in their efforts to promote It does, however, indicate that the government science and technology.

157 General information on science and technology in China available (in English) from: http://www.chinaembassy.nl/eng/kj/t137976.htm. 158 Law on the Progress of Science and Technology in the People’s Republic of China (Adopted at the Second Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Eighth National People’s Congress on July 2, 1993, promulgated by Order No.4 of the President of the People’s Republic of China, and effective as of October 1, 1993). Available (in English) from: http://www.most.gov.cn/eng/policies/regulations/t20041228_18309.htm. 159 Website (in English): http://www.most.gov.cn/eng/. (in Chinese http://www.most.gov.cn/index.htm.

91 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

Figure 16 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in China

Council of State

Ministry for Science & Technology

Chinese Scientific & Tech. Chinese Science Chinese Rural Tech. National Centre for Information Institute & Tech. Transferència Development Centre International Cooperation (ISTIC) Transfer Centre

Funds for Technological Technological Business SME Innovation Incubators

National Scientific Nationalised Technological & Tech. Universities Companies Companies Industrial Parks (53)

Political-administrative entities Ministries Other entities Funding agent Executing agents Coordinating or cooperating bodies

Japan measures necessary to implement science and technology directives. An annual report on achie- Japan has a framework law governing science and vements in terms of the implementation of di- technology160 which lays down the broad outlines rectives and the promotion of science and tech- for a science and technology policy and which also nology is, however, a mandatory provision of the makes a general mention of the responsibilities of law. the state and local authorities for development. The law also makes specific mention of the fact that The government is also obliged to draw up a basic research should not be undervalued and Science and Technology Basic Plan to establish that research autonomy should be encouraged. directives for promoting R&D and for providing the necessary equipment for implementing pro- The same law provides for subsequent develop- jects.161 The law also provides for the creation of ment of legislative, fiscal, financial and any other a Science and Technology Policy Council, which

160 Unofficial English version available at: http://www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/english/law.html. Japanese version available from: http://www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/ renkei/ninmei.pdf. 161 Japanese version of the Science and Technology Basic Plan (2001-2005) available from: http://www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/renkei/honbun.pdf. An unofficial English version available from: http://www8.cao.go.jp/cstp/english/basicplan01-05.pdf.

92 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

Figure 17 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Japan

Prime Minister

Minister of State for Scientific & Technological Policy

Deputy Minister Parliamentary Secretary

Council for Science & Technology Policy

Director General’s Bureau of Science Nuclear Safety Committee & Technology Policy

Atomic Energy Committee

Ministry for Public Ministry for Ministry of Ministry of Management, Ministry for Ministry of Ministry Education, Lands, Agriculture, Hume Affairs, Health, Labour Economy, Trade & of the Culture, Science Infrastructures Forestry & Post & & Welfare Industry Environment & Technology & Transport Fisheries Telecomms

National Universities & National Research Laboratories Institutes

Political-administrative entities Ministries Executing agents Advisory bodies the government is required to consult in relation Mexico to the formulation of the Basic Plan. The Mexican Ley de Ciencia y Tecnología163 and In 2002 domestic expenditure on research and the Ley Orgánica del Consejo Nacional de Cien- development in Japan amounted to €139,949m, cia y Tecnología164 describe the instruments avail- representing 3.3% of GDP.162 able to the Federal Government in regard to the

162 Data based on information taken from: http://www.stat.go.jp/english/index.htm 163 Available (in Spanish) from: http://www.cddhcu.gob.mx/leyinfo/pdf/242.pdf. 164 Available (in Spanish) from: http://www.cddhcu.gob.mx/leyinfo/pdf/243.pdf.

93 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

Figure 18 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Mexico

Federal Government ➡

National Science & Technology Council

General Council for Scientific National Register Scientific & Technological Research & Technological of Scientific & Technological Consultation Forum Development Institutes & Businesses

Network of Research Higher Education Research Centres Businesses Groups

Political-administrative entities Other entities Executing agents Advisory bodies promotion of scientific and technological rese- tion in the science and technology area for the go- arch. The national science and technology sys- vernment. tem is configured, interalia, by: state policy in regard to science and technology; federal and state A national council (Consejo Nacional de Ciencia science and technology programmes; guideline y Tecnología)166 is responsible for drawing up this principles; legal, administrative and economic ins- pluriannual programme and for structuring the truments; government departments and bodies; science and technology system. social and private sectors; local authorities; and the National Network of Research Groups. A consultation forum (Fórum Consultivo Científi- co y Tecnológico)167 has also been created, to act A general council (Consejo General de Investiga- as an autonomous Advisory body for the govern- ción Científica y Desarrollo Tecnológico) – comment. This forum also encourages input by mem- posed of ministers holding relevant portfolios and bers of the scientific and productive communities. the Director of the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACYT) – is responsible for ap- In 2001 expenditure on experimental research and proving the Programa Especial de Ciencia y Tec- development in Mexico was €2,739m, represen- nología 2001-2006,165 which defines lines of acting 0.40% of GDP.168

165 See legislation (in Spanish): http://www.conacyt.mx/juridico/anexos/11471Vobo_pecyt.pdf 166 Website (in Spanish): http://www.conacyt.mx/. 167 Website: http://www.foroconsultivo.org.mx/. 168 Data based on information (in Spanish) taken from: http://www.inegi.gob.mx/inegi/default.asp and http://www.conacyt.mx/.

94 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

Figure 19 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in South Korea

President Prime Minister Ministry of Science &Technology

Ministry of Finance & the Economy

Presidential Advisory Council National Science & Ministerial Advisory Council for Science & Technology Technology Council for Science & Technology

Research Bodies

Political-administrative entities Ministries Funding agent Executing agents Advisory bodies

South Korea Of approximately ninety South Korean laws on science and technology, worthy of particular men- The Ministry for Science and Technology169 is res- tion are the laws governing the promotion of scien- ponsible for formulating policy and science and ce and technology (1967) and the promotion of technology programmes for South Korea. The pro- basic scientific research (1989), as also the spe- grammes of other government departments are cial law governing scientific and technological in- taken into account in this formulation process via novation (1997), which led to the implementation three mechanisms. The first of these is a National of a five-year scientific and technological innova- Science and Technology Council.170 presided over tion plan for the period 1997-2002. by the Prime Minister, which coordinates and in- tegrates inter-departmental actions. The second The United States of America172 mechanism is a Ministerial Advisory Council for Science and Technology, presided over by the Mi- There is no specific legislation in the Unites Sta- nister for Finance and the Economy. Finally, the- tes that covers the overall structure of its scienti- re is a Presidential Advisory Council for Science fic policy, thus no law specifically designates the and Technology,171 consisting of thirteen repre- different agencies that are in charge of generally sentatives from private enterprise, universities, re- overseeing scientific activity in the country. How- search centres, and the public. Members are ap- ever, there are a number of provisions in the form pointed for one year, meet every month, and of Acts that govern a range of matters related to present a report to the President at least every six science and technology, as also a number of bo- months. dies with powers in this field.

169 Websites (in Korean and English, respectively): http://www.most.go.kr/most/main.jsp and http://www.most.go.kr/most/english/index.jsp. 170 Website (in Korean) available at: http://www.nstc.go.kr/index.php. 171 Website (in Korean and English) available at: http://www.pacst.go.kr/index.jsp. 172 For information on research and innovation in the United States, see COSEPUP, 2001; SHAVELSON & TOWNE, 2002.

95 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

Figure 20 Diagrammatic organisation of research in the United States of America

National Science President Congress Council

National Science Office of the President Foundation

Dept. of Agriculture Dept. of Commerce Dept. of Energy

Office of Science & Agricultural Economic Research Office for Atmospheric Scientific & Technologi- Science Office Technology Research Services Services & Ocean Research cal Information Office

Higher Education Scientific & Techno- Research Institutes Research Centres Businesses Centres logical Parks

Political-administrative entities Ministries Funding agent Executing agents Advisory body

The Government Performance and Results Act of ing and the Institute of Medicine. These bodies, 1993173 states that all federal agencies are ultima- jointly or separately, prepare reports and issue re- tely accountable to the Director of the Office of commendations to the federal government, and Management and Budget. Moreover each agency’s also implement measures to promote science strategic plan and programme of activities is sub- and technology. ject to approval by Congress. Agency plans are required to specify aims and indicate how these In 2001 expenditure on research and development are to be achieved, and must also provide a pre- in the United States amounted to €306,463m, re- liminary analysis of their current situation. presenting 2.71% of GDP.

The various agencies include, in addition to fe- Venezuela deral government departments and bureaux, the National Science Foundation.174 Also influential are A law governing science, technology and inno- the various National Academies,175 including the vation176 was approved in Venezuela in July 2005. National Research Council, the National Academy It defines the national science, technology and in- of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineer- novation system as including all public and pri-

173 Available from: http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/npr/library/misc/s20.html. 174 Website: http://www.nsf.gov/. 175 Website: http://www.nationalacademies.org/nrc/. 176 Ley Orgànica del 12 de julio de 2005, de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación (Gaceta Oficial N° 38.242 del 03-08-05). Available (in Spanish) from: http://www.asambleanacional.gov.ve/ns2/leyes.asp?id=655..

96 SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SYSTEMS: LEGISLATION AND BODIES

Figure 21 Diagrammatic representation of the organisation of research in Venezuela

Venezuelan Executive

Ministry for Science & Technology

State Research Centre for National Centre for National Science & National Science, Experimental Agro-industrial Information Technology Technology Council Technology & Innovation Fund Production

Research Institutes (FUNVISIS, Universities Research Centres Industry INIA, IVIC, INZIN ICASI)

Political-administrative entities Ministries Funding agent Executing agents vate bodies that generate scientific and technical is made available through a national fund (Fondo knowledge and that develop innovative proces- Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación).177 ses, as also individuals involved in planning, ad- Of note is the endeavour to improve the compe- ministering, implementing and applying measu- titivity of Venezuelan researchers in relation to res that enable effective linkages to be created grants offered by Spain and the European Union. between science/technology and Venezuelan society. The Ministry for Science and Technology is This Venezuelan law places particular emphasis wholly responsible for implementing policies in on ethics, good faith, decentralisation, respect for this area and is required to draw up a national plan plurality in fostering scientific careers, and the fos- (Plan Nacional de Ciencia, Tecnología e Innova- tering of talent. ción) that defines the aims to be achieved. 3.4. The situation in Catalonia The law also provides for the creation of both a national information system (Sistema Nacional de Catalonia to date has no general legislation that Información Científica y Tecnológica) and an ob- regulates science and technology in its territory. servatory for record-keeping and evaluation, and The Directorate General of Universities and the moreover, refers to a private enterprise contribu- Directorate General of Research of the Catalan tion to training, research and development in the Government’s Departament d’Universitats, Re- range of 0.5% to 20% of the total cost. Finance cerca i Societat de la Informació (DURSI)178 provi-

177 Website (in Spanish): http://www.fonacit.gov.ve/. 178 Website (in Catalan, Spanish and English): http://webtest1.gencat.net/dursi/AppJava/home.jsp?area=0.

97 CONEIXEMENT I SOCIETAT 09 ARTICLES

de an impetus to research by financing research talan Government in January 2005, the plan marks groups (in addition to university and research cen- out a series of strategic aims in relation to rese- tre teaching staff), awarding general and mobility arch and innovation and includes a range of ac- grants, and providing funds for operation and for tions designed to promote research and techno- the recruitment of academics and researchers (the logical development. Funding has also been ICREA and Jaume Serra i Húnter Programmes). earmarked for a range of transversal and com- The Catalan law governing universities (Llei d’U- plementary actions. The Catalan budget for spend- niversitats de Catalunya) covers certain aspects ing on research and innovation amounts to some of the research activities of teaching staff. The €180m for 2005. Fundació Catalana per a la Recerca i la Innova- ció,179 which has as its main aim the fostering of Legislation is currently being planned that is aim- scientific and technological research, implements ed at fostering science, research and technolo- a range of actions particularly aimed at dissemi- gical innovation. Similar to the kind of legislation nating scientific and technological knowledge. existing in other countries, the new law will include key provisions for the following: a research and A research and innovation plan (Pla de Recerca i innovation council (Consell de Recerca i Innova- Innovació 2005-2008),180 has been drawn up jointly ció); an inter-departmental research and techno- by DURSI and the Department of Trade and In- logical innovation committee (Comissió Interde- dustry. Catalonia’s inter-departmental council (Con- partamental de Recerca i Innovació Tecnològica); sell Interdepartamental de Recerca i Innovació a research and innovation plan (Pla de Recerca i Tecnològica) has coordinated the work on this plan Innovació); an agency to coordinate research cen- and channelled the contributions of all the other tres; and finally, measures to foster scientific know- government departments. Approved by the Ca- ledge generation and technological development.

References

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