Recent developments which affect spelling
VALERIE YULE
On the possibility of removing the unnecessary difficulties in English spelling while leaving the basic appearance of English print intact
Introduction errour, aether, exotick, horrour and musick have been replaced in the printed word by demon, econ- Recent developments in English language include omy, error, ether, exotic, horror, music, and his the rise of many Englishes throughout the world omelette, mediaeval and programme have been and home dialects appearing in broadcasting, replaced in the USA by omelet, medieval and pro- which are increasing in salience rather than dimin- gram. In SMS texting, advertising spelling and ishing with globalisation; huge increases in the personal correspondence the process has contin- international vocabulary held in common by mod- ued, even to the extent of producing private ern languages, particularly technical and scientific codes with acronyms. ‘U’ is among the standard words; and the increases in alternatives in com- shortenings in Internet correspondence. munication. Two restricted English vocabularies Meanwhile, cognitive psychologists have shown as a way to increase the accessibility of English that a consistent spelling helps learners. In cross- language have received publicity; both are called cultural research such as that by Seymour et al. Globish, one by a Frenchman, Jean-Paul Nerrière, of 1500 words (2009), and one by an Indian of 4000 words with an accompanying Indianised spelling (Gogate, 2002). English is now even more the common language DR VALERIE YULE holds an of the world. Four hundred million people speak MA (Psychology) and PhD English as their first language. But how many of (Education), and a diploma these can read it? And how many spell it? One esti- in Education. She has been a mate is that two billion people use English as a teacher at all levels, from second language. How many of these can read it? preschool to adult and migrant literacy, and PhD How much does the English writing system supervision. She has held handicap spoken English as a lingua franca? academic positions at Lexicographers trawl through the Internet, on Melbourne, Monash and Facebook, Twitter and the like, for new vocabu- Aberdeen Universities in departments of Psychology lary. However, the standard dictionaries still rely and Education. She is a qualified clinical child as previously on the printed word for changes in psychologist, and has worked as a schools’ spelling. Now however they are unlikely to find psychologist chiefly but not only in disadvantaged changes, as they have in previous centuries, schools. She has authored nine books, 17 chapters in because no matter what spelling writers originally books, and over 300 articles, mostly on matters of use, their printed words are kept in line by education and children. Her current research is in literacy and imagination, on which she has spellcheckers. completed manuscripts entitled Inside Children’s The gradual dropping of surplus letters until now Minds, and The Future of Writing Systems. has been a feature of English spelling since Email: [email protected] Johnson. For example, his daemon, oeconomy,
doi:10.1017/S0266078411000393 62 English Today 107, Vol. 27, No. 3 (September 2011). Printed in the United Kingdom © 2011 Cambridge University Press (2003), British children lag three years in literacy with attempts at a solution, baulk at producing behind children in countries with consistent spel- spelling that will meet all the needs of readers, ling systems. Paulesu et al. (2001) show the greater writers, learners and overseas learners, and the handicap of English for dyslexics. I first discovered visual, phonemic and morphemic qualities it the extent to which many learners are disadvan- must have. taged by English spelling in the 1970s, when a Methods of teaching literacy have gone back to 10-year-old boy was struggling through a reading phonics after the unsuccessful experiment in test (Neale Diagnostic). I gave him a parallel ‘Whole Language’ tried to leave spelling out of form I had transliterated, and said, ‘Try that. No reading. However, phonics still has the drawbacks spelling traps.’ He began cautiously, but soon that made it a disliked method in the first place. Its speeded up and ended at a gallop. He looked at great handicap is that of the couple of thousand me in surprise and said: ‘But I could read that!’ unnecessarily exceptional spellings that make all and I thought, ‘You poor boy.’ Since then I have the others unpredictable. Without these, phonics found that people with handicaps find the could be the method of choice for beginning read- unnecessary difficulties in English spelling a ers and for dictionary pronunciation guides, with severe barrier. morphemic elements added later. Phonics has been shown to be essential in learn- Many teachers still deliberately neglect any sys- ing to read, except for those with exceptional mem- tematic teaching of spelling, on the grounds that ories or verbal ability, and the lack of consistency accuracy is not important, and children will absorb in English spelling causes others to struggle or correct spelling by reading. This neglects the fail. The cost of illiteracy and functional illiteracy importance of spelling for reading, and also the is high in English-speaking countries, and govern- world that the children will enter, where ‘spelling ments report the concern. It is known that dyslexics counts’ and is a quick test of the quality of employ- and backward and disadvantaged learners struggle ees. Even teachers may be among the many who much harder to become literate in English than nor- regard the printed word as outmoded by advances mally advantaged learners. It is a hard heart that in visual and audio communication, on the demands that they must continue to struggle – Internet and by electronic machines. When compu- and often give up. Since reading raises IQ and gen- ters first came in, there were attempts to make them eral knowledge, literacy for all is an important spell by rules, e.g. Hanna et al. at Stanford (1966 desideratum. So many people are handicapped in and 1971), who found that computers programmed different ways that the task should be as easy as with 120 or so rules spelled no better than high possible. It is not ‘dumbing down’ to give them a school students, because irregularities were unpre- better chance of literacy. It is demonstrated, not dictable. Then computers were programmed with a least by the Anglo phenomenon of spelling bees, whole dictionary, the Spellchecker, and the chance that even most literate people cannot spell (Yule, of spelling improvement for the sake of computers 2004a). was lost. The media are continually publishing the faults Today’s speech-to-writing mechanics may of present spelling and writers. They could over- postpone English spelling improvement. Modern come their reluctance to discuss what could be speech-to-writing programs have become far done about it, other than to ridicule and distort. more sophisticated than the early programs I Most people that I have asked would like tried to use in the 1960s. These encountered diffi- English spelling to be easier but believe this to culties in individual and dialect differences in be impossible at a practical level. There are speech, and the fact that phonemes may not corre- many reasons for this belief. They do not know spond to the sounds the machines pick up – for about how other modern languages have updated example, our pronunciation changes according their spellings, to a major or minor degree, or to a phoneme’s place in a word, and place in a they think that the mix of spelling systems text. Modern teaching programs have tried to enshrined in our present system makes English avoid facing a nub of illiteracy – the unnecessary a special case. The traditional idea of ‘reform’ difficulties in spelling – and it must be empha- of English spelling is still carried on by amateur sised that many of its difficulties are unnecessary. reformers – complete radical phonemic changes, Must English spelling improvement be the one which are impossible to implement for our global change that is impossible in this world of drastic lingua franca. Cognitive psychologists, who and large-scale changes? might be expected to follow up their analyses If we ditched some assumptions as fallacious, we of present shortcomings of our spelling system could take up that challenge. The challenge is to
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS WHICH AFFECT SPELLING 63 update English spelling in a way that can keep it Spelling Society, has put its findings on disk very close in appearance to present spelling and (2009). preserve our culture. Difficult? Let’s see what (d) What psychologists and educators now know else in science is difficult but still being achieved, about reading, writing and learning processes and what else could not be done in the past, but can be utilised to improve spelling (Yule, could be done now. 1986). For example, Goswami (2003), Stanovich (2000), and a bibliography compiled by Yule (2005a). The Australian government’s Nelson Report lists dozens of references. The Official recognition of the need for old ‘only phonemic’ reforms for spelling still spelling reform have their advocates who are ignorant of this The evidence is piling up that present spelling is a research, but it only requires psychologists to grave handicap to the English-speaking nations and be game enough to take the next step – by to the future of English as a lingua franca for the actually cutting out the unnecessary difficulties world: that their studies of spelling and its victims reveal. (a) Cross-cultural studies — e.g. Seymour, (e) What other countries do: P. H. K., Aro, M. & Erskine, J. M. (2003). i. See the achievements in Finnish literacy An international study of 700 primary school education, e.g Linnakyla (1993) and children in 15 European countries showed Lyytinen, Erskine et al (2009) on com- that children take much longer to establish parative dyslexia, and the educational basic reading and writing skills in English advantage of a completely consistent than in any other European language. Most of orthography (Wikipedia, 2010). the other children in the study had ‘mastered ii. Spelling reforms in other alphabetic the basic foundations of literacy’ within a languages with a mostly literate popu- year or less of starting school, but the lation. English has been too parochial to English-speaking sample took 2.5 years. observe that these reforms have been Seymour said: ‘It seems likely that the main updates, for example in Spain cause of the slow rate of progress in English (Oppenheimer, 2009), Portugal, the is linguistic and derives from difficulties cre- Netherlands and Germany, and not ated by the complex syllable structure and wholesale phonemic reforms as contem- inconsistent spelling systems’ (Seymour & plated by English reformers. The reforms Duncan, 2001). See also Aro & Wimmer are implemented by academies which (2003), Paulesu, Demonet, Fazio, McCrory, monitor research and authorise diction- et al. (2001), Ziegler & Goswami (2005) and aries, e.g. in the last year, the Académie A. Liberman (2008). Française (Sage, 2008), the Royal (b) Government anxieties about literacy, which Spanish Academy, the Real Academia have stimulated UK, USA and Australia to Española de la Lengua, and Portugal institute enquiries on the many causes of poor (Bennett, 2009) with La Gran Reforma literacy. Reports include those for the US del 2009 De La Ortografía Portuguesa, all (National Institute for Literacy, 2010), UK of these reforms covering many countries House of Commons Committee reports (2005 across the world, with many dialects. The and 2009) and the Australian National Inquiry Research Institute for the Languages of into the Teaching of Literacy (2005). Their Finland also develops its official spelling findings are similar. recommendations. English similarly needs an International English Spelling (c) ‘Whole language’ is now discredited as a learn- Commission (Yule, 2008) sponsored poss- ing method and Phonics is in, but Phonics ibly by UNESCO, to monitor, collate and methods are handicapped by the unnecessary implement research. difficulties in spelling which ‘Whole Language’ tried to overlook. The costs of lit- (f) Spelling Bees. See for example The Times of eracy include the costs of spelling. The costs London spelling bee (2010). These uniquely of literacy difficulties in Britain are estimated English-language institutions demonstrate that in a parliamentary report as £2,459.5m only a few can spell well in English. (2009–2010). A conference on the multiple Ironically spelling bees demonstrate also that costs of spelling, Spelcon08, sponsored by the words with simple spellings are rendered
64 ENGLISH TODAY 107 September 2011 problematic by the presence of words with for general reading too, although txt msges leave unpredictable spellings. out more letters than most ppl wd find helpful, and bring in too much private code and acronyms. My doctoral thesis (Yule, 1991) contains a network What can be done to remove the of experiments demonstrating the advantage for unnecessary difficulties in English readers, spellers, learners and ESL of dropping spelling? surplus letters in words, and the little disruption it causes present readers (Yule, 2005). These exper- This is such an important matter that a Nobel Prize iments can be replicated. The popular SMS texting awaits the discoverers of how to meet the different shows ordinary people’s willingness to change, needs, of readers, writers, learners, handicapped and the direction of change they prefer. Texting learners and ESL, and accommodate the visual has a basic phonics component and removes and phonic routes to using spelling, taking into surplus letters, as well as containing in-group cod- account the great amount of our vocabulary nowa- ing and acronyms. See, for example, Michael days shared by other languages and represented Gerson, ‘Don’t Let Texting Get U’ (2008). visually similar, and the need for our heritage of A third step is to make a pronunciation guide in print to remain accessible. It is a major intellectual dictionaries and for learners’ beginning spelling, challenge but should not be ducked for all that which is close to present spelling (Yule, 2009). A (Yule, 1994). Around 80 per cent of spelling modified form of the BBC Text Pronunciation needs no change. Bell (2004) and Liberman Guide is recommended, that does not include the (2009) have identified the exceptions. Most ‘schwa’ of indistinct vowels in casual speech, and assumptions about spelling change fall down shows irregular stress in words. Spelling is a con- when challenged – and challenging assumptions vention, like a stick-man sketch, recognisable by is the first requirement for any scientific progress. all, and not a photograph of speech, like the Our present spelling system could be improved in International Phonetic Alphabet. the way other democratic literate nations have Reduce all the rules of spelling, morphemic, improved their writing systems. We do not need phonemic and semantic, to one page. Then make a radical change. It is remarkable how easily little all other spellings obey those rules (Yule, 2009). changes could make the present system accessible Follow the example of the Académie Française in for those adults and children currently kept out 2008 (Sage, 2008), and allow up to four variant by unnecessary barriers. We can keep our heritage spellings for specific words in dictionaries, within of print accessible. the limits of the rules. Only seven vowels and Experiment can be made with five steps to four consonants need this variability in spelling reduce English spelling rules to one page, omit for reading without traps (recognition learning, about 150 less familiar spelling patterns, and yet very close to present spelling). Less variability keep the appearance of print basically as it is. would be possible for spelling for writing without One hundred words make up about half of every- traps (recall learning). day English text. Only 35 are irregular. Keep them. This is counter-intuitive – generally people ima- gine the most common tricky words should be Conclusion: implementation of the first to go. However, they make up to 12% of reforms the familiar appearance of text. Learners, freed from learning almost the entire dictionary, can It would be very easy to make our present writing cope with up to 35 spellings presented as special system easier for the disadvantaged. It would be ‘sight-words’: all, almost, always, among, come, easier than our continual and largely futile attempts some, could, should, would, do, does, half, know, to change individual failing learners. It would be of, off, one, only, once, other, pull, push, put, sufficient to change only 3% of letters in words their, they, two, as, was, what, want, who, why in ordinary text, and omit 6% as surplus because and international word endings -ion/-tion/-sion/ they do not help with meaning or pronunciation. zion. A sing-song which helps to learn them is The first trials of updating spelling can be exper- online (Yule, 2005a). iments in parallel reading books for learners, in A second step is to cut out surplus letters in which the text is repeated on the opposite page in words, that serve no purpose to show meaning or ‘Spelling without Traps’. The test is whether this pronunciation and often mislead (Yule, 2004b). is successful in leading on to reading normal text, This is the chief method used in txting that is useful whether it leads to better spelling by learners, and
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS WHICH AFFECT SPELLING 65 whether forms of Spelling without Traps become Yule, V. 1986. ‘Design of spelling to meet needs accepted in everyday spelling. The new French and abilities.’ Harvard Educational Review, 56, spellings are accepted in spellcheckers, which 278–97. —. 1991. ‘Orthography and reading: spelling and society.’ shows how English changes could also be Unpublished doctoral thesis. Monash: Monash University. implemented (Microsoft Office Natural Language —. 1994. ‘Problems that face research in the design of Team, 2010). Final implementation of reform English spelling.’ Visible Language, 28(1), requires an International English Spelling 26–47. Commission (Yule, 2008), but much can be done Ziegler, J. & Goswami, U. 2005. ‘Reading acquisition, in the interim. The Académie Française, for developmental dyslexia, and skilled reading across example, introduced 6000 new spellings as alterna- languages: a psycholinguistic grain size theory.’ Psychological Bulletin, 131(1), 3–29. tives in the premier French dictionary. Changes that are then taken up by the people themselves can accompany or replace spellings of the present Online references standard that are found less useful. All accessed 10 January 2010 to 10 February 2010. Researchers in literacy have a proactive and pre- Australian Government National Inquiry into the Teaching of ventive role in society. They can remove a great Literacy 2005. Online at
66 ENGLISH TODAY 107 September 2011 The Times Online. 2009. ‘The Times Spelling Bee (2009).’ —. 2005c. ‘Spelling research relevant to reform.’ Online Online at
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