BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF MATHS & PHYSICS

AN ASSESSMENT OF MISCONCEPTIONS IN THE USE OF SOLAR CELLS AS SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY. A CASE OF GUTU HIGH SCHOOL ‘A’ LEVEL STUDENTS

BY MARASHA TAPESANA

B1544992

SUPERVISOR: MR NDLOVU

A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR AN HONOURS BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN PHYSICS.

(BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION)

SEPTEMBER 2018

APPROVAL FORM

The undersigned certify that they have supervised the Student research project entitled,

An assessment of misconceptions in the use of solar cells as sources of electricity; A case of Gutu High School A Level students. Submitted in Partial fulfilment of the requirements of HONOURS BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN PHYSICS at Bindura University of Science Education.

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Student Signature Date

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Supervisor Signature Date

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Chairperson Signature Date

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External Examiner Signature Date

RELEASE FORM

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Name of Student : MARASHA TAPESANA

Reg number : B1544992

Dissertation Title : AN ASSESSMENT OF MISCONCEPTIONS IN THE USE OF SOLAR CELLS: A CASE OF GUTU HIGH STUDENTS

Degree Title : HONOURS BACHELOR OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN PHYSICS

Year This Degree Granted : 2018

Permanent Address : Gutu High School

Bag 901

Gutu

Cell: 0775 301 357

Permission is hereby granted to Bindura University of Science Education Library to produce single copies of this dissertation and to lend or sell such copies for private, scholarly or scientific research purpose only. The author reserves other publication rights and no extensive extracts from it may be printed or reproduced without the author’s written permission.

SIGNED......

DECLARATION

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I, MARASHA TAPESANA declare that: this is my original work and it had not been submitted to this or any other University.

Signature…………………………. Date……………………………………

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DEDICATION

This study is dedicated to my loving wife Beatrice Mabhiza, my mother and my children; Rutendo, Anotida Mufaro and Anashe Marasha. They always supported me throughout the study. Sometimes I had to sacrifice family time with them but were always appreciative.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I acknowledge the following people who rendered invaluable information as I was carrying my study;

 Mr Ndlovu my supervisor for the relentless support and guidance throughout.  Mr Mnyati and all the teachers of Gutu High School.  Mr Masinire the Administrator of Gutu Mission Hospital.  Mr Munamati for supplying me with helpful information about learners’ conceptions.  The pupils and all the people who were involved in the study in one way or another.

The research could not have been successful without the help of all these people.

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ABSTRACT

This study is an assessment of misconceptions of cells in pupils at Gutu High School. The researcher was interested in establishing if these misconceptions exist. The researcher also wanted to find out causes of these misconceptions and their effects to implementation of solar cells to communities in Gutu District. In this study learners at Gutu High were used as a sample to collect data. It was discovered, through literature review and the actual investigation that misconceptions really exist. It was found out that above 50% of the sample had misconceptions, and the misconceptions exist strongly in learners with a town background. The causal of these misconception were knowledge gap. Only 43% of the sample had better knowledge about solar. Another causal of the misconceptions was found out to be the syllabus coverage on solar cells. This study would add a lot of information to the existing board of knowledge regarding the same concept. As a result teachers at Gutu High could be helped in teaching solar energy and solar cells.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents APPROVAL FORM ...... i RELEASE FORM ...... i DECLARATION ...... ii DEDICATION ...... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... v ABSTRACT ...... vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... vii LIST OF TABLES ...... x LIST OF FIGURES ...... xi CHAPTER 1 ...... 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Introduction...... 1 1.2 Background ...... 1 1.3 Statement of the problem...... 3 1.4 Hypothesis...... 3 1.5 Research Questions...... 3 1.6 Assumptions ...... 4 1.6 Significance of study ...... 4 1.7 Limitations of the study...... 4 1.8 Delimitations of the study...... 5 1.9 Definition of terms (Dictionary of science, 2000) ...... 5 1.10 Summary...... 5 CHAPTER 2 ...... 7 REVIEW OF LITERATURE ...... 7 2.1 Introduction...... 7 2.2 Misconception on Solar PV Cell...... 7 2.4 How a solar cell work...... 10 2.5 Types of Solar Panels ...... 11 2.5.2 Advanced Mono Crystalline ...... 11 2.5.3 Poly Crystalline (polycrystalline c-Si) ...... 11

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2.5.4 Thin Film - Cadmium Telluride Thin-Film panels (CdTe) ...... 11 2.5.5 Thin Film - Other ...... 11 2.6 Solar PV cell usage in Gutu area ...... 13 2.7 Summary...... 15 CHAPTER 3 ...... 16 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ...... 16 3.1 Introduction...... 16 3.2 Approach...... 16 3.2.1 Qualitative research methodology...... 16 3.2.2 Quantitative research methodology...... 16 3.3 Population ...... 16 3.4 Sampling...... 17 3.4.1 The Sample...... 17 3.5.1 Observations ...... 18 3.5.3 Tests...... 18 3.5.3 Interviews...... 19 3.5.4 Questionnaires...... 19 3.6 Data presentation and analysis plan...... 19 3.7 Summary...... 19 CHAPTER 4 ...... 21 DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ...... 21 4.1 Introduction...... 21 4.2 Results from observations ...... 21 4.3 Results obtained from the second observations...... 22 4.4 Results from the pre-test ...... 23 4.5 Results from the questionnaires ...... 25 4.6 Results from the interviews...... 26 CHAPTER 5 ...... 27 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 27 5.1 Introduction...... 27 5.2 Summary...... 27 5.3 Recommendations ...... 28 REFERENCES ...... 29

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Appendix A: Questionnaire for pupils...... 31 Appendix B Interviews for the learners ...... 34 Appendix C Interview for science teachers at Gutu High school ...... 35 Appendix D Interview for the Gutu Mission Hospital Administrator ...... 36 Appendix E Pre-test questions ...... 37 Appendix F Post-test questions...... 38

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 4.1 Results of observation solar cell experiment……………………………….……21

Table 4.2 Results of observations made on the 13th June experiment…………...…………22

Table 4.3 Results for group B………………………………………………………………23

Table 4.4 Results for group A………………………………………………………………24

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 1.1 Photograph of solar system at Gutu Mission………..…………………………….3

Fig 2.1 Crystalline silicon panel………………………………………………….………12

Fig 2.2 Frameless thin-film panel………………………………………………………..12

Fig 2.3 Solar panel on a hut…………………………………………………………..…..14

Fig 4.1 Results from a questionnaire…………………………………………………….25

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

This chapter provides a background to the problem. The assessment of misconceptions on the use of solar cells in Gutu in the Advanced level learners at Gutu High School. Gutu is a district located in Masvingo province in Zimbabwe. The chapter presents the statement to the problem, the purpose of study, hypothesis research questions, assumptions, significance of study limitations delimitations.

1.2 Background

It is now a global issue of finding alternative energy sources. Gutu Mission is connected to the national grid controlled by ZESA. It also has some solar panels installed on rooftops of its learning area blocks, but are not fully utilised. These alternatives should nonetheless be smart and environmentally friendly. The threat of the global warming has necessitated scientists to look for these alternatives. Zimbabwe should embrace reduction of pollution to curb global warming. Hence with it should make use of these smart alternative source of energy. Solar energy is one smart energy which may be harnessed. According to Mueller (2016), solar photovoltaic (PV) cells are currently the fastest sources of electricity. There are very few solar projects in Zimbabwe which are operating at a large scale to produce electricity. In some countries, especially the developed countries, some institutions are installing solar panels as part of a quest to reduce carbon emissions, reduce energy costs, provide research opportunities and are seen as good corporate entities. So far the Arizona State University in the US has the largest current solar installation on a university campus and the University of Queensland is currently in the process of installing the largest rooftop solar system in Australia, (Pearce, 2011). Solar energy, among all other sources, would be critical in this research. Taping the sun’s ever beaming and renewable solar energy should be advancement in this modern world. It is a smart energy source.

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In Zimbabwe the use of solar cells is moving at a very slow pace than is expected despite the country having a remarkable hours of exposure to sunlight. Zimbabwe is said to be fortunate to have options for getting our children out of energy poverty by investing in additional energy sources and technologies such as solar, hydro and wind, (Chingarande, 2018). This article by Chingarande is a direct indication that solar energy is not implemented at a fast rate. The slow pace is can be attributed to barriers which may exist. Such barriers emanate rom lack of knowledge about solar cells, (Baron, 2016) Misconceptions may emanate from this lack of access to information. Despite the invention of first solar cell in 1949, it is only recently that Zimbabwe is beginning to explore into the solar energy as an alternative source. The Zimbabwe Herald newspaper of March 24 indicates that Zimbabwe was yet to sign the International Solar Alliance.

The Gwanda Solar Project has not yet commenced. This esteemed solar project was hoped to be the first big project in Zimbabwe. Feasibility studies were carried out and everything was in place to kick start the project. In its feasibility study on the use of PV cells in Zimbabwe, the SEPD, the subsidiary unit of the Power China Company, dispelled decades of long and unfounded scepticism about viability of solar power projects in the country, (Chingarande, 2018). This scepticism is as a result of deep rooted misconceptions among people. It is not surprising that in schools and hospitals with solar panels are still lying idle without being utilised.

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Fig 1.1 Photograph of solar system at Gutu Mission

The researcher was baffled by this observation that at Gutu Mission, both the school, Gutu High School and the Hospital, have solar systems which were donated but are not utilised. Instead the mission has resorted to connecting to the national grid for all electricity powering. This has so much prompted the researcher to find out what makes people shun the use of solar cells for their energy requirements. From the research carried out by UNICEF in Gutu, (2015), it was interestingly noted that there are barriers to harnessing solar energy and use it sufficiently and efficiently. Lack of information and knowledge being dominant to this hence these misconceptions. From the literature read by the researcher little has been done in terms of assessing these misconceptions in Zimbabwe let alone in Gutu District.

1.3 Statement of the problem

The study is to assess misconceptions in the use of solar cells as a source of electricity, in pupils doing ‘A’ level at Gut High School. A lot of homesteads schools and hospitals have installed solar panels but they are not in use. The question is why people install solar panels which they rarely use them. Gutu High School has installed solar panels but they are underutilised hence lying idle.

1.4 Hypothesis

Misconceptions on solar cells occur and are caused by lack of knowledge in people as well as the social background of the people. Most of the people cannot acknowledge the fact that solar panels come in different size and are made differently, it is not a one size fit all.

1.5 Research Questions

1. What is a solar cell, and what are different types of cells? 2. What are the misconceptions in the use of solar cells? 3. To what extend have solar cells been used in Zimbabwe? 4. Is the Zimbabwe climate conducive and supportive of the exclusive use solar cells? 5. To what extend does the Zimbabwe Advanced level Physics syllabus emphasise knowledge of solar cell?

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1.6 Assumptions

It is assumed that;

a. The selected population sample has been exposed to the concept of solar energy at lower levels other than A level b. Gutu High School has tried the use of solar cells as a source of electricity but the project was a failure c. Zimbabwe has quite a good exposure to sunlight which can sustain it to produce electricity at a larger scale.

1.6 Significance of study

This study is to uncover the misconceptions on the use of solar cells and their causes and effects to its implementation in communities as a source of electrical energy. The long-term goal of this research is to increase the knowledge and awareness of solar energy and inspire learners to do STEM careers, more especially on solar. The short-term goal of this research is to identify student misconceptions around solar cells and provide opportunities to the teacher that will help to address these misconceptions in addressing these, the researcher hopes that;

1. The government would revisit its approach to solar energy as a source of energy and implement solar cells extensively. 2. School curriculum to have a broad base on the topic of solar and solar cells to bridge the knowledge gap resulting in removing these misconceptions. 3. Households, let alone institutions would have a better understanding in the use of solar cells and use them effectively and benefit positively.

1.7 Limitations of the study

1. The populations sample used in the study limited the parameters of operations as a lot of ethical considerations were to be observed. 2. The number of participants was very few for a reliable study. 3. The area under study was also very small to give generalisations.

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1.8 Delimitations of the study

The time which was taken to carry the research, only six month, was too short to carry the research. Gutu high school is a small area to give a generalisation.

1.9 Definition of terms (Dictionary of science, 2000)

1. Misconception.

Wrong information or idea

2. Solar energy.

Radiant energy transmitted from the sun. Energy of from the sun’s electromagnetic radiation.

3. Solar cell. Cells which use a photovoltaic principle for converting the energy of the suns photons into electrical energy. 4. Photovoltaic cells. Same as solar cells above. Also abbreviated PV

5. Global warming. The gradual warming up of the earth principally caused by pollution from using fossil fuels. 6. Solar panel. A structure of transparent glass material which comprises many photovoltaic cells of specific type.

1.10 Summary

Chapter one has been dealing with research proposal with the background and research questions. The background was looking at what prompted the researcher to carry the study and how the idea on this topic started. Chapter one also looked at limitations and delimitations to the study.

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CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

In this chapter the researcher is looking at the literature review on the study. An in-depth look into whether the misconception really exist in Zimbabwe in general and Gutu in particular. This review is going to focus on how solar has been embraced in other countries and how they overcome the misconceptions. It is also significant to the researcher to know how far the misconceptions have impacted on the development of solar energy and its implementation in Gutu District at large

2.2 Misconception on Solar PV Cell To begin with, a couple of research studies which were recently carried out in Gutu confirm that these misconceptions really exist. In one of the researches these were identified as barriers. There are two main studies which were recently carried out. The UNICEF Zimbabwe and the OXFAM case study.

“ECONET has been installing solar fridges at its base stations close to rural clinics. This is a countrywide programme. However, there is need to assess the performance of the project in order to determine its uptake and any barriers and challenges it might be facing. At the time of the study, Zimbabwe did not have a policy on promotion of solar geysers in public institutions. Most of the solar heaters previously installed at some rural hospitals were no longer functional because of lack of service backup. Generally, marked growth of the solar market is in sharp contrast to other sub- sector markets such as biogas, improved cook-stoves and wind energy. Lack of innovation, awareness and sensitization about these technologies has been cited as a major barrier to their uptake.” (Magrath,2015).

The barriers cited above are regarded here as components of misconceptions construed in people. It means these misconceptions can detract developments in communities. The issue of these barriers could be linked to the background and schooling of the individuals, (Baron, 2016). If climate change and renewable energy technology is taught in schools it would expose the children

7 to understanding the technologies and issues early in life and they may act as the change agents to some of the traditional and cultural challenges. The role of children in communicating and innovating around technologies and techniques should well be understood in the context that will help to adapt to climate change and also to improve their well-being by having greater access to renewable energy technologies like solar energy. Through learning and awareness, children can play a role in changing cultural perceptions and influencing the adoption of these new technologies. In the OXFAM study, some of the barriers encountered in the shift to solar energy use were mainly because energy planning remains highly centralized without grassroots participation unlike other sectors such as health, command agriculture and education (Maganga, 2016). Because of this lack of involvement at the planning and development stage the few pilot projects and programmes that have been introduced have not been integrated or scaled-up and have remained closed interventions that have failed in growth beyond the project participants and project lifespan. Solar energy still remains a very abstract concept to explain and plan for at schools and more so in villages, ward and the district levels. This lack of awareness, hence misconceptions, has led to a disconnection between general development planning and energy planning. The participation and contribution of communities, including children, in how government supports and delivers essential services needs to be expanded.

In a study which was carried out in Taiwan Shing-Sheng et al (2017) notable observations were made. They discovered that energy literacy has been studied in many countries in the world for different purposes. Three traditional aspects on energy literacy were unveiled: cognitive, affective, and behavioural were taken for framing the energy literacy. Knowledge related to energy was of major concern in many studies. In some studies, the general public’s perceptions and knowledge about energy were compared with those of experts, with reasons for the differences examined. It was argued in the literature that misconceptions may result in biased communication, leading to the general public’s preference for or objection to specific energy options. According to Baron (2016) sometimes people tended to face misinformation about climate change and energy, which looks like science but in essence is propaganda, politically embedded in the context of information sources. Zimbabwe may not be spared from this political propaganda as politics leads economics and social issues. Misconceptions, i.e., knowledge or concepts that are not consistent with those accepted by the scientific community, caused by this or other reasons were then of major concern. In general, misconceptions related to energy are common and may lead to erroneous information,

8 misunderstandings, false interpretations of energy issues, and insufficient support for sustainability-oriented energy policies. However, an ideal framework for identifying and demonstrating misconceptions and corresponding sources was not found in their literature, (Shing- Cheng et al, 2017).

The issue of climate change is a worrying one. It makes energy issues essential. Solar energy is about decision making, hence energy literacy plays a crucial role. Well-informed and well- educated citizens form the basis for the design and implementation of smart energies. Cognitive knowledge is included in energy literacy. People have to have the right and appropriate cognition of solar energy. In the Taiwan study it was discovered that students’ knowledge about solar energy was dependent on how it is taught in schools. The depth of knowledge was found to be correlated to the depth of the concepts taught in schools. It was then concluded that misconceptions were so commonly held by most of the students in Taiwan, (Shing- Cheng et al, 2017). This indication firmly confirms how school syllabi play roles in advancing knowledge or lessen these misconceptions. Like in any other country the future of developing the correct energy knowledge depends on the current education status and extends of the depth of how energy is taught in schools, (Keredzi and Kithyoma, 2002). Zimbabwe is equally affected in this regard. The school syllabus does not give an in-depth examination on solar energy as a smart energy source.

2.3 Zimbabwe ‘A’ Level Physics Syllabus and its articulation of solar energy.

It is noted with interest that the ‘A’ level school syllabus in its preamble clearly indicates two important aspects among others, being;

1. It makes learners to investigate and solve problems in a sustainable manner and prepare them for further studies in Science and Technology. 2. Modern day economies, Zimbabwe included, are driven by Technology and Physics concepts form part of the basis. The study of Physics enables learners to be creative and innovative in industry and society that can promote the application of Physics in industrial processes for value addition.

This is interesting in that though there are other avenues through which learners are prepared in science and technology and become innovative, solar energy should be part of the integral strategy in Zimbabwe. It is not so as indicated by the syllabus. The syllabus gives little attention to solar

9 energy. Solar energy should be part and parcel of these applications in the industry and society. Manjengwa (2014) correctly put it that it is the syllabus which guides the extent to which knowledge should be imparted to learners in schools. There are seven areas covered in the whole syllabus as follows; General Physics, Newtonian Mechanics, Oscillations and Waves, Electricity and Magnetism, Electronics, Matter, Modern Physics (Zimbabwe ‘A’ Level Physics Syllabus, 2017-2022). Solar energy is not given the deserved attention and priority. In the syllabus it is only under General Physics where solar energy is discussed, by just passing, in the section of work, energy and power. As an opinion the researcher expected that solar energy and other alternative sources of energy, would cover a bigger section of the syllabus, in detail and depth, to remove these misconceptions. This means that Zimbabwe is going to stay for long with these misconceptions by learners in schools and even years after. Solar energy will not be much embraced at a larger scale in Zimbabwe now and in the near future. Most of the learners and even adults and teachers as revealed by literature do not have much understanding of how solar cells work.

2.4 How a solar cell work

The solar cell works by the photovoltaic effect, or the conversion of sunlight into electricity. Solar PV modules are solid-state semiconductor devices with no moving parts that convert sunlight into direct-current electricity. The basic principle underlying the operation of PV modules dates back more than 150 years, but significant development really began following Bell Labs’ invention of the silicon solar cell in 1954. The first major application of PV technology was to power satellites in the late 1950s. The confusion which may emerge is which of the two is used in production of electricity, (Herzog, 2000). Solar energy comprise light and heat. People may not understand which energy is more effective, heat and light. The first thing to understand is that solar cells come in different types and size. There are some products which are found on the market. According to Peace, (2011) there are a number of different photovoltaic panel technologies currently available on the market. These differ in efficiency, size, shape and appearance and may therefore be utilised in different situations depending on the particular circumstances. A lot of people cannot see these differences and just think solar cells are the same and are used in any situation and all situations. These solar PV cells types include;

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2.5 Types of Solar Panels

2.5.1 Mono Crystalline (monocrystalline c-Si)

These PV cell have been a proven technology and have been in use for over 50 years. Essentially these are the industry powerful panels. Their efficiency varies between 12-15% in real world conditions. They have a slow degradation rate, usually losing 0.25 - 0.5% of their generating capacity per year.

2.5.2 Advanced Mono Crystalline

These are modified differently to improve the efficiency of the mono crystalline technology. They have efficiencies as high as 19%. More power can therefore be generated from the same area of panels, which is important if space is limited.

2.5.3 Poly Crystalline (polycrystalline c-Si)

Similar to Mono Crystalline panels, but the silicon used is Multi-Crystalline which is easier to make. They are comparable to Mono Crystalline in performance and durability, with a slightly lower efficiency, generally 11-13%. A lot more panels are required to produce a given amount of electricity.

2.5.4 Thin Film - Cadmium Telluride Thin-Film panels (CdTe)

CdTe panels have been recently developed with an efficiency of up to 11.2%.

2.5.5 Thin Film - Other

These other panels have a lower efficiency of 5-6% so the panel is as big as nearly double the size of the other panel varieties. These include; Amorphous silicon Thin-Film panels (a-Si), Copper Indium Gallium Selenide Thin-Film panels (CIGS),

Thin film panels, whilst producing less energy per unit area are less prone to reduction in output due to temperature increase and therefore are more likely to produce close to their rated capacity in hot conditions. They are also usually more uniform in colour, which to

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some people provides a more aesthetically acceptable solution, (Peace, 2011).

Fig 2.1 Components of crystalline silicon panels consisting of a glass sheet on the topside with an aluminium frame providing structural support. Image source courtesy of www.riteksolar.com.tw

Fig 2.2 Layers of a common frameless thin-film panel (CdTe). Frameless panels have protective glass on both the front and back of the panel. Diagram not to scale. Image courtesy of www.homepower.com

It is the knowledge of these types of PV cells and panels which will be needed and relied upon by users for effective use of solar cells. A lot of people don’t have such information but only rely on wrong information, (Maganga, 2016). It is not surprising to find that even those people who claim to be technical about solar cells may lack the right information. They may move around robbing

12 households as they claim to know how to fix these solar cells when they are not functioning (Nhandara, 2015). People may pay them for services which they are not well versed with.

2.6 Solar PV cell usage in Gutu area

Solar cell usage in Gutu should be well embraced as the district is not well connected to the national grid. Most of the communities are not connected. These include shops clinics and schools. This means a lot has to be done in terms of providing sources of light and even heating and charging phones and for entertainment. Although Gutu district did not benefit from the nationwide Rural Electrification Agency (REA) programmes where solar kits were donated between 2006 and 2013, it had its own share from other programmes like the OXFAM programme. The European Union and Oxfam funded the RuSED project in Gutu over a four-year period from August 2011 to July 2015 (Oxfam, 2015). In Gutu, the project was done to promote the community’s increased uptake and access to solar powered renewable energy products. The UNICEF (2015) report indicates that REA installed 415 donated solar systems throughout Zimbabwe in rural schools and clinics between 2006 and 2013. Gutu benefitted from the RuSED program. The issue is whether these solar cells are still in use to help the communities as they were intended. It is a sad situation where one would find that these PV panels are installed but communities are not benefiting fully from them. Installation of solar facilities at several clinics had developed problems and had ceased to function due to lack of maintenance knowledge hence the energy problem is still haunting the area Maganga (2016) .

According to Maganga (2016) it was established that a lot of people in Gutu do not have enough information as to which energy source is expensive or cheap. Most of the people in the communities of Gutu use kerosene as a means of heating and lighting in their homes despite it being expensive than solar panels and its accessories. This is actually a barrier to usage of solar cells. They don’t take solar PV cells as an alternative source because they see them being expensive at the market. Contrary to this misinformation, in the Oxfam report it categorically states that life was not easy for several villagers who had to make a total expenditure of between $8 and $15 on candles and kerosene per month. The long run effect is that it makes a total of $100-$200 per year which was still not enough (Magrath, 2015). Yet the simple PV solar panel for the similar function would require not more than a $ 70 once off payment. Moreover, the production cost of PV cells

13 is steadily declining. This will make solar panels to be affordable with time. The UNICEF report that:

“PV system cost and performance have been steadily improving in recent years. PV manufacturing costs have fallen from about $30 per watt in 1976 to well under $10 per watt by the mid-1990s. Installed PV system costs today are about $8.00 to $12.00 per watt, depending on the level of solar installation at the site and other factors. These installed system costs are expected by some analysts to reach a range of from $3.00 to $6.00 per watt by 2010, and if this is achieved PV systems could achieve a sales level of over 1,600 MW per year by that time.” (UNICEF, 2016)

This report clearly shows that solar panels would get cheaper and cheaper with time. Noting that the report is quoting a period in the 1990s, the projection for this time in the 2018 they should be very cheap.

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Fig 2.3 This picture is courtesy of UNICEF. The solar panels used in rural areas for most of the households are too small.

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The above picture sums is all. It indicates one of the deeply rooted is a misconception from most rural communities which cannot be easily observed. If people would install bigger panels they would use them for other purposes like operating radios and charging their phones. This would improve their lives significantly. Kerosene and candles may have adverse effects to their health and their environment. The choice of energy for lighting, cooking and space-heating has a bearing on the vulnerability of children to respiratory related diseases; eye diseases as well as risks to burns. There are dirty energy sources such as wood that are likely to trigger asthmatic conditions among children according to the UNICEF (2017).

Long back, consumers did not have a strong incentive to substitute grid-based electricity by generating own power. The increase in distributed solar PV, combined with reduced costs in smart- home and battery technology, has begun to change this. So long as solar PV are installed they provide electricity practically for free. (OECD/IEA, 2016)

2.7 Summary

The literature review has confirmed that misconceptions really exist. People have misconceptions in use of PV cells. Though there are some institutions which have installations of solar panels in Gutu they are not being fully utilised due to manifestations of these misconceptions. These misconceptions emanate from lack of knowledge. People don’t have correct information on how to solar cells work let alone on how to repair them. They don’t have knowledge as to the real costs of different energy equipment that buying kerosene every time would in the long run cost them more. Buying solar panels is a once off payment and a long run investment. Solar panels can be used to generate energy for many and different purposes.

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CHAPTER 3

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

In this chapter the researcher explores the design and methods which were used in carrying out this study. It implores how data was collected. This research is both qualitative and quantitative in nature. The researcher basically used questionnaires, observations, interviews and written tests.

3.2 Approach

The researcher used both qualitative and quantitative approaches.

3.2.1 Qualitative research methodology

The researcher used qualitative research approach because it gives a clear picture of the research findings based on clearly described and explained information on misconceptions on use of solar cells. According to Strauss and Corbin (1990) qualitative research is that research that produces findings not arrived at by mean of statistical procedures or other means of quantification. Qualitative instruments were used to gather data in this study. These were questionnaires, observations and interviews. This methodology was used to compliment qualitative findings

3.2.2 Quantitative research methodology

Burns and Croves (1997) describe quantitative research as a systematic process that describes relationships and examines causes and effects variables. The researcher wanted to assess causes and effects of misconceptions of using solar cells amongst learners. Learners were given written tests. Pre-tests were executed and post-tests to show that provision of right information would change perception on solar cells.

3.3 Population

Best and Khan (1993) describe population as any group of individuals that have one or more characteristics in common which are of interest to the researcher. The researcher used the

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Advanced Level students at Gutu High School taking Physics as a subject. By A Level students it means both lower six and upper six students doing Physics. All the learners taking Physics at A Level are seventy one.

3.4 Sampling

Sampling is the selection of participants who are subject to the test and findings generalized to the population (Moyo, 1995). Sampling means participants would be selected from the population, and the number is smaller to the target population. A sample was chosen from the ‘A” level Physics students and only 30 learners were chosen to take part in the study. Gutu High School is a boarding school which enrols learners from different parts of Zimbabwe. The majority however come from Masvingo and Harare. This resulted in the researcher using quota sampling technic so that all the available represented provinces in the population are represented. Only six provinces were represented in the population and these were Masvingo, Midlands, Harare, Bulawayo Mashonaland central and Manicaland. In four of the provinces 4 learners were selected by picking marked papers but for Bulawayo and Manicaland all the learners were picked as they were few.

3.4.1 The Sample

The sample consisted of 30 learners between the age of 17 and 21. There were 10 girls and 20 boys who took part in the research.

3.5 Instruments used

Basically four instruments were used by the researcher in this study namely; observations, tests, interviews and questionnaires.

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3.5.1 Observations

First observations

On arrival at Gutu Mission in January 2018, it was observed that there are solar panels installed at Gutu Mission Hospital as well as at Gutu High School. These solar panels were just lying idle but in a working condition. The intriguing question was why they were not in use. At the school the solar panels were supposed to have been used for lighting purpose when the grid was off. However, they could not be used even during days of load shedding on the national grid. The panels are installed on the roof tops. These solar panels were meant to be used for lighting during absence of grid electricity.

Second observations

The first observations intrigued the researcher in wanting to understand whether learners at Gutu High appreciate solar cells usage. A series of simple experiments were executed with the learners involving use of cells to check how they appreciated use of solar cells. In the experiments on learners were provided with two types of cells. The conventional Dry Lachlanche cells and solar cells were to be used freely optional to the learners. The researcher had to record the observations of how learners appreciate in terms of readiness to use solar cells. This experiment was done on the 13th of June 2018. The same experiment was done for observations on the 22nd of September. This was done after the learners had some lessons on solar cells. The researcher did not tell the actual objective of the lesson so that there would not be any bias in the choice of cells to use. These observations were to give a relationship to the misconceptions which learners have on solar cell use. If the learners would always chose a specific type of cells for all the experimentations this would be linked to rooted bias and misconceptions against the other cell. All the 30 learners in the sample were involved.

3.5.3 Tests

Two tests were written, a pre-test and a post-test. These tests were to assess the knowledge of learners about solar cell the pre-test was given on the 27th of July. The post-test was given on the 19th of September after learners were taught about the use of solar cells. Before the learners were given the tests they were put into two groups of 15 each to work as a group all along. The groups were named A and B. After writing the preliminary test Group A was given in-depth notes on solar

18 cells to study and had a series of lessons on solar cells in particular. Group B had lessons on energy according to the syllabi, and nothing outside the syllabus scope was extended on solar cells discussions

3.5.3 Interviews

Interviews were carried out by the researcher with the following people;

1. The Sciences HOD at Gutu High School on the 14th of June 2. A science teacher on the 14th of July 3. The Hospital Administrator on the 21th of July. 4. Some of the learners from the sample on 26th of September

The questions for the interview were prepared and were based on the misconceptions of the use of solar cells. The interviewer also asked impromptu questions. The researcher focused on the experiences and knowledge of the interviewee. Some probing questions were asked and sometimes interviewees were allowed to go on and on narrating their ideas and knowledge on the aspect asked.

3.5.4 Questionnaires

Questionnaires were administered by the researcher to the learners on the 30th of September. The questionnaire was intended to find out how much information do learners have about solar cells as sources of information. It also intended to expose the extent to which the learners have misconceptions about solar. Correlations would be drawn from the questions asked.

3.6 Data presentation and analysis plan

The data was analysed in two ways; qualitatively and quantitatively. The data collected on interviews and observations was basically analysed qualitatively while the tests and questionnaires was treated quantitatively. Graphs and pie charts would be used where necessary.

3.7 Summary

The research design and methodology involved quite a number of aspects. These ranged from the approaches used the sampling and the instruments used. The study involved both qualitative and quantitative methods. From the population of seventy one students a sample of twenty was used.

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The quota sampling technique was used in sampling. Four instruments were used to collect data namely; interviews, observations, tests and questionnaires.

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CHAPTER 4

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

The data which was collected was displayed in different ways. These included statements, tables, charts and graphs. The data was first put separately in terms of the data collection instrument and thereafter analysed as a collective.

4.2 Results from observations

The first observations were too casual but were necessary to guide into the research and the results were only qualitative.

Table 4.1 The results of observed solar panels at both Gutu High School and the Mission hospital

Installations sites Size in wattage per panel Number of panels 1. Gutu High School labs 30 8 2. Gutu Mission hospitals 100 3

If these panels would be used properly they would operate small fridges and lights throughout the night as well as small size heaters for the hospital s basic needs. The panels for the school could be used to light all the classrooms for study and for sources of electricity in its laboratories.

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4.3 Results obtained from the second observations

Table 4.2 showing results of observations made on the 13th of June experiments.

No of learners CHOICE OF EXPER. 1 EXPER. 2 EPER. 3 MEAN % AGE CELLS VALUE SOLAR 11 9 6 8.77 29.23% CELLS DRY CELLS 19 21 24 21.33 71.1%

The results in Table 4.2 clearly show that learners were generally biased towards the dry cells. A very significant difference in terms of cell choice by percentage was noted with 71.% of the sample preferring to use the conventional dry cells instead of solar cells in the experiments.

From the two observations it is noted that the results of the first observation is confirmed in the second observation that people shun solar cells for other alternatives.

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4.4 Results from the pre-test

The pre-test and post-test results for the 20 learner are shown in the table below.

Table 4.3 Results for group B

Group B pre-test results Post-test results Names Mark/10 %mark Mark/10 %mark B1 6 60 5 50 B2 5 50 6 60 B3 4 40 5 50 B4 4 40 8 80 B5 5 50 4 40 B6 4 40 5 50 B7 5 50 6 60 B8 4 40 4 40 B9 7 70 5 50 B10 6 60 7 70 B11 5 50 5 50 B12 3 30 5 50 B13 4 40 4 40 B14 6 60 6 60 B15 7 70 3 30 B16 5 50 5 50 B17 6 60 7 70 B18 4 40 6 60 B19 4 40 5 50 B20 6 60 7 70 Average % 50% 6 55%

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Table 4.4 Results for group A

Group A pre-test results Post-test results names Mark/10 %mark mark/10 % mark A1 4 40 8 80 A2 3 30 8 80 A3 5 50 7 70 A4 3 30 8 80 A5 4 40 7 70 A6 4 40 5 50 A7 6 60 6 60 A8 4 40 5 50 A9 7 70 10 100 A10 6 60 10 100 A11 6 60 7 70 A12 4 40 7 70 A13 7 70 9 90 A14 6 60 6 60 A15 5 50 7 70 A16 6 60 9 90 A17 6 60 7 70 A18 8 80 9 90 A19 6 60 8 80 A20 7 70 8 80 Average % 53.5 % 75.5 %

The results from the tables show that Advanced level learners, at Gutu High in 2018, only had less than 50% of the expected knowledge on solar energy. As the learners were taken through some sessions on solar there was a remarkable improvement in knowledge. In the reviewed literature it was established that knowledge gap causes lots of misconceptions in the use of solar. The results also show than whin-depth knowledge on solar cells they could acquire knowledge. Learners in group A improved from an average of 53.5% to a remarkable 75.5%. These learners were taken through in-depth discussions and lessons on solar cells as compared to learners in group B who did not have in-depth knowledge.

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4.5 Results from the questionnaires

The questions in the questionnaire, Annexure A for the pupils wanted to test three aspects from the learners which are; knowledge gap, direct misconceptions and background experience with the solar cells. Questions were categorised in that respect.

Knowledge questions included questions 1, 4, 6, and 7. From the sample a 53% of learners showed that they had a knowhow of the solar cell.

From the questions which tested misconceptions, questions 2, 8, and 9; 47% of the sample got the questions correct meaning to say 53% of the learners had strong misconceptions about solar cells.

On background the researcher wanted to establish whether learners had experience with regards to using solar cells from their homes or somewhere else. The questions which would reveal that are 3, 5, 6 and 7. They are shown in the fig 4.1

Establishment chart for background information on solar cells

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rural based town based

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Fig 4.1. A chart showing results from a questionnaire

74% of the learners who come from rural background hand some ideas on how solar cells operate as compared to only 24 % of those from the towns. The literature has shown that in rural areas people use solar panels but they are small although they don’t have technical knowledge.

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Question 7 in Annexure A was a direct; have you ever used solar …? Most of the learners showed that they have never used the PV cells at any given point and time in their lives. From the observations above a very big percentage showed that they were not ready to use solar cells in the experiments. The reasons could be that they did not have enough confidence as they lacked background exposure to the cells.

4.6 Results from the interviews

The interview with the hospital administrator povided an insight into why the solar cells were not being used as a preferred source of electricity. Although the administrator indicated that he had worked for quite some time at the hospital he did not take the use of the solar cells as an alternative source. The admistrator was not aware of the power output which could be given out by the solar panels at the hospital. Neither did he enquire about what could be done to to utilise the solar panels. He however indicated that they could not rely on solar panels as they were constantly affected by weather patterns. The administrator showed lack of interest in trying to source donations which would improve solar efficiency. He rather indicated that they are better off with the national grid than installing more solar panels. Accordingly, Shing-shen (2017) had indicated in his study that knowledge and behavioural aspects play important part in underscoring the appreciation of solar usage. The interview with the adminstrator stressed this point as he did not show much of the knowledge about solar panels. Hence he did not embrace the use of solar cells at the hospital. The panels were in desolate state and lying idle. People should first of all have basic knowledge of the solar cells to appreciate their uses.

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CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

5.1 Introduction

This chapter gives the summary, the conclusion and recommentations of the study. The summary is a brief of the findings where the results are looked at in a nutshell. the findings in the literature review are given in a shot and how they tally with the data findings. The researcher gives his opinions on the conclusion as to whether the researcher was successful and if the results could be used to furthur studies in the same topic or note. After that the researcher gives recommentations for further research.

5.2 Summary

The study was to find out if misconceptions really exist in Gutu area and specifically at Gutu high school among the school pupils on solar cells. The researcher went on to assess what could be the causes of these misconceptions and to what extend do they affect implimentations of solar installations and usage in Zimbabwe.

Literature has revealed that misconceptions relly exist amongst people on the usage of solar cells. The research has shown that learners in Taiwan have a lot of misconceptions in using solar cells as confirmed by Shing-Cheng, (2017). Although in Zimbabwe there are no direct researches which were carried to find out if these misconceptions really exist there were related projects which were done. The OXFAM, the UNICEF and the one independent by Maganga, (2016) of Midlands State University on renewable energy indicated that misconceptions exist. The UNICEF and the OXFAM projects identified the miconceptions as barriers in implimenting solar projects in Gutu. It was identified that the misconceptions could be caused by knowledge gaps and background information. Peace, (2011), went on to ideentify different types of solar PV cells. These could not be realised by people as confrimed by the reasearcher during data collection. Most of the people think that solar Pv cells are the same and they can be used indiscriminately. This is wrong. This is a misconception.

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During data collection it was established that knowladge gap and people’s background play an important part in instilling these misconceptions. A high percentage of people who have a better appreciation of solar cells was found in people with rural background. This could be because they are not connected to the national grid so they only resort to use of small solar panels.

The knowledge gap is when people have a discrepancy in the expected knowledge with what they have. It was established from data presentation that the learners in the sample had knowledge below a 50%, abitrary unit. But when learners were taken through series of indepth engagements on solar cells they improved their knowledge remarkably. This means the scope of the syllabus does not go deeper in looking at solar cells. A lot of people in Zimbabwe are not well exposed to solar cells.

Misconceptions in solar cells reuslt in less appreciation of the use of solar cells. This was revealed by observations which were made to find out which cells learners woud prefer to use given options. Lot of learners preferred using the provided dry cells than solar cells. These results confirm why in schools and even in hospitals people may not use solar cells at all even if they work.

The research may not be used in isolation as it may not fully pass the test of a good scientific research. This was caused by the methods of data analysis. The researcher needed to have used instruments like the ANOVA and even other better instruments. The researcher did not have resources to do a thorough study and time was limited

5.3 Recommendations

The researcher wants to advice those who can take further research on this topic so that the subject is well attended to. I also would implore other researchers to look into the same topic and also advise the government of Zimbabwe to review the Science Syllabi on the concept of solar cells. This study could not be exclusively conclusive and should be regarded so.

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REFERENCES

Baron, R. (2016) Energy Transition after the Paris Agreement Policy and Corporate Challenges. In Proceedings of the 34th Round Table on Sustainable Development, Wind Europe Summit, Hamburg, Germany, accessed 28–29 August 2018

Chen, K et al. Assessing Multidimensional Energy Literacy of Secondary Students Using Contextualized Assessment. Int. J. Environ. Sci. Educ. 2015, 10, 201–218.

Oxfam (2015). Rural sustainable Energy Development (RuSED), accessed 23 September 2018. http://oxfaminzimbabwe.org/index.php/the-rural-sustainable-energy development-project/

Herzog , A. V et al (2000) Energy and Resources Group Renewable and Appropriate Energy Laboratory (RAEL) University of California, Berkeley, USA

Kerekedzi, S. and Kithyoma ,W. (2002), Renewable energy Strategies for Rural Africa: Is a PV- led Renewable Energy strategy the right approach for providing Modern Energy to the rural poor of Sub-Saharan Africa, Volume 30. Issue No. 11-12.

Maganga, T (2016). The link between access to renewable energy and development in Gutu district. Midlands state University: Zimbabwe.

Magrath. J (2015). Transforming Lives in Zimbabwe: Rural Sustainable energy Project, accessed 10 August 2016.

Manjengwa, J., Matema, C., Mataruka, J., Tirivanhu, D., Tamanikwa, M., and Feresu, S. (2014). Children and Climate Change in Zimbabwe. UNICEF/Institute of Environmental Studies, Harare.

Rural Electrification Agency. http://www.app.co.zw/docus/C.Nhandara%20-%20Rural%20 Electrification% 20Agency.pdf

UNICEF, 2015 Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe. Harare; Zimbabwe.

Pearce, D (2011). Research into the feasibility of solar panel installation at the Crawley campus. University of Queensland; Australia

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Sambo A. S (2005). Renewable Energy for Rural Development: The Nigerian Perspective. ISECO Journal of science and technology vision. Volume 1.

University of Queensland Solar Projects. Accessed September 11, 2018, http://www.uq.edu.au/sustainability/docs/energy/SolarProjectStL.pdf

IEA/OEC possible corrigenda on energy. Accessed on the 30th of August www.oecd.org/about/publishing/corrigenda.htm

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Appendix A: Questionnaire for pupils

I am student at Bindura University of Science Education carrying out a research on solar cells. You are kindly asked to respond freely to the questions. All the information is treated with confidentiality. So please don’t indicate your name or any form of identification on the questionnaire.

Instructions

Answer the following questions by indicating your answer in form of a tick in the right box or cancelling the wrong alternative. The answers can be more than one so tick any correct answer.

Part A

Male/ Female

Part B.

1. The following are cells which can be used as sources of electricity

a. Photovoltaic cells [ ] b. White blood cells [ ] c. Dry cell [ ] d. Red blood cells [ ]

2. Solar cells convert ______to ______

a. Heat to electrical [ ] b. Heat and light to electrical [ ] c. Electrical to potential [ ] d. Light to electrical [ ]

3. Which source of electricity is cheap to use in Zimbabwe?

a. ZESA grid. [ ] b. Photovoltaic cell [ ] c. Chemical Batteries [ ] d. Generators [ ]

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4. Current generated by solar cells depends on

a. Temperature [ ] b. Intensity of light [ ] c. Region of the place in Zimbabwe [ ] d. The angle at which the panel installed. [ ]

5. Does the dirty like dust on the solar panel affect power generated?

a. Yes [ ] b. No [ ] c. I don’t know [ ]

6. How does cloud cover affect power generated by solar cells?

a. No power generated at all [ ] b. Power is reduced relatively [ ] c. No effect [ ] d. Don’t know [ ]

7. Have ever used solar cells at.

Yes No

a. School [ ] [ ] b. Home [ ] [ ] c. Neighbour’s home [ ] [ ] d. Somewhere else [ ] [ ]

8. With the knowledge of solar cells you have would you be able to use solar energy as a preferred electricity source.

 Yes [ ]  No [ ]

9. Would you recommend use of solar cells as the ultimate source of electricity to your family members and friends?

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 Yes [ ]  No [ ]

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Appendix B Interviews for the learners

Prepared questions

1. Give all sources of electricity you know.

2. State the sources of electricity you mostly use at home.

3. Does use of solar cells have any advantages? Explain your answer.

4. Can we use solar cells to operate big machines for a long time?

5. Do solar cells generate electricity when it is cold?

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Appendix C Interview for science teachers at Gutu High school

Prepared questions.

1. How long have you been teaching science and which subject are you most comfortable teaching.

2. Which of the energy sources, among; wind hydro, solar fossils, take longest to teach in science classes. Explain your answer.

3. It can be observed that the school is connected to both the ZESA grid and the solar panels for its electricity needs. However, the school only relies only on the ZESA grid. Can you explain why the school does not use the installed solar panels?

4. When carrying out experiments involving electricity which sources are you most comfortable using.

5. In the Zimbabwe ‘A” level Physics Syllabus do you think the concepts covered exhaustively enough. Clarify your answer.

6. State any advantages you would have in using solar cells for electricity needs.

7. What are the problems associated with the installation and use of solar cells in homes.

8. In which part of Zimbabwe is installation and use of solar panels most convenient.

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Appendix D Interview for the Gutu Mission Hospital Administrator

Questions

1. How long have you worked at Gutu Mission Hospital as an administrator?

2. As a hospital what are the electricity demands requirements for its basic operations.

3. What is the wattage (power output) for each installed solar panel at this hospital?

4. How many solar panels of the same size would you need for sufficient electricity supply for the hospital?

5. What are the problems associated with the use of solar cells at the hospital?

6. What are the advantages of using solar cells to the hospital?

7. If you would get donations for on electricity demands for your hospital which source would you opt for apart from the erratic ZESA supply.

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Appendix E Pre-test questions

1. Name any two renewable sources of energy.

2. What is solar energy?

3. What are the major sources of electrical energy used in Zimbabwe?

4. State any two uses of solar energy.

5. State all the requirements needed to have electricity in the house from solar.

6. What is meant by kilowatt-hour (kWhr)

7. What form of energy in solar is converted to electricity?

8. What is the unit of electrical power?

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Appendix F Post-test questions.

1. State whether solar is a renewable energy. Support your answer.

2. State two forms of energy which constitute solar energy.

3. What is a photovoltaic cell?

3. What is the energy conversion which takes place in the PV cell?

4. State any big solar project in Zimbabwe?

5. What is a kilowatt- hour?

6. State any two advantages of using solar energy.

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