Notes

Introduction

1 Charles Maier, ‘The Politics of Productivity: Foundations of American Inter- national Economic Policy after World War II’, International Organization, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1977, pp. 607–33. 2 For example, Robert Cox, Production, Power and World Order: Social Forces in the Making of History, New York: Columbia University Press, 1987; and Kees van der Pijl, The Making of An Atlantic Ruling Class, London: Verso, 1984. 3 Respectively, Henry Pelling, Britain and the Marshall Plan, London: Macmillan, 1988; Anthony Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987. 4 See, respectively, Michael Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987; Alan Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–1951, London: Methuen, 1984, and Imanuel Wexler, The Marshall Plan Revisited: the European Recovery Programme in Economic Perspective, London: Greenwood, 1983. 5 In particular Robert Cox, ‘Labor and Hegemony’, International Organization, Vol. 31, No. 3, 1977, pp. 385–424, and Production, Power and World Order; Mark Rupert, Producing Hegemony: the Politics of Mass Production and American Global Power, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.

1 International Politics, Domestic Politics and the Marshall Plan

1 Peter Gourevitch, ‘The Second Image Reversed: the International Sources of Domestic Politics’, International Organization, Vol. 32, No. 4, 1978, p. 911. 2 James N. Rosenau, Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier: Exploring Governance in a Turbulent World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 3. 3 Ibid., p. 4. 4 James A. Caporaso, ‘Across the Great Divide: Integrating Comparative and International Politics’, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 4, 1997, pp. 563–4, referring to Kenneth Waltz, Man, the State, and War, New York: Columbia University Press, 1959, and Waltz, Theory of International Politics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979. 5 Robert Keohane, After Hegemony, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984, p. 31. 6 John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace: Inquiries Into the History of the Cold War, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987, pp. 60–1. 7 Robert Cox, ‘Labor and Hegemony’, International Organization, Vol. 31, No. 3, 1977, p. 387.

140 Notes 141

08 Antonio Gramsci, Selections from Prison Notebooks, Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith (eds and trans), London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1971, p. 57. 09 Susan Strange, States and Markets, 2nd edn, London: Pinter, 1994, pp. 24–5. 10 Robert A. Dahl, ‘The Concept of Power’, Behavioural Science, Vol. 2, 1957, pp. 202–3. 11 Steven Lukes, Power: A Radical View, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1974. 12 Peter Bachrach and Morton Baratz, ‘Two Faces of Power’, American Political Science Review, Vol. 56, 1962, pp. 947–52, and ‘Decisions and Non- decisions: an Analytical Framework’, American Political Science Review, Vol. 57, 1963, pp. 632–42. 13 E. E. Schnattschneider, The Semi-Sovereign People: A Realist’s View of Demo- cracy in America, (reissued edn), Hinsdale, Illinois: Dryden Press, 1975, p. 69, emphasis in original. 14 Lukes, Power, p. 23. 15 Robert Cox, ‘Towards a Post-hegemonic Conceptualisation of World Order: Reflections on the Relevancy of Ibn Khaldun’, in James Rosenau and Ernst- Otto Czempiel (eds), Governance without Government: Order and Change in World Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, p. 140. 16 Ibid. 17 Gramsci, Prison Notebooks, p. 161. 18 Anthony Tuo-Kofi Gadzey, The Political Economy of Power: Hegemony and Economic Liberalism, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994, p. 29. 19 Stephen Gill, ‘Epistemology, ontology and the “Italian school” ’, in Stephen Gill (ed.), Gramsci, Historical Materialism and International Relations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 22. 20 See Mark Rupert, Producing Hegemony: The Politics of Mass Production and American Global Power, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 39. 21 Randall D. Germain and Michael Kenny, ‘Engaging Gramsci: International Relations and the New Gramscians’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 24, No. 2, 1998, p. 5. 22 Edward A. Comor, Communication, Commerce and Power: The Political Economy of America and the Direct Broadcast Satellite, 1960–2000, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998, pp. 201–2. 23 Robert Putnam, ‘Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games’, Appendix in Peter Evans, Harold Jacobson and Robert Putnam (eds), Double-Edged Diplomacy: International Bargaining and International Politics, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993, p. 459. 24 Ibid., p. 436. 25 Caporaso, ‘Across the Great Divide’, p. 567. 26 This is one of the criticisms of the ‘new Gramscians’ made by Germain and Kenny in ‘Engaging Gramsci: International Relations Theory and the New Gramscians’, p. 19. 27 John Gimbel, The Origins of the Marshall Plan, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1979; Joseph M. Jones, The Fifteen Weeks (February 21–June 5, 1947): An Inside Account of the Genesis of the Marshall Plan, New York: Viking, 1955; Charles Kindleberger, Marshall Plan Days, Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987; 142 Notes

Harry Price, The Marshall Plan and Its Meaning, New York: Cornell University Press, 1955. 28 Fred Block, The Origins of International Economic Disorder, Berkeley: University of California, 1977; Joyce and Gabriel Kolko, The Limits of Power; the World and United States Foreign Policy, 1945–1954, New York: Harper & Row, 1972; Kees van der Pijl, The Making of an Atlantic Ruling Class, London: Verso, 1985. 29 Kolko and Kolko, The Limits of Power, pp. 359, 376 and 712. 30 Block, The Origins of International Economic Disorder, p. 91. 31 Alan Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–51, London: Methuen, 1984, pp. 465–6, 469. 32 Charles Maier, ‘The Politics of Productivity: Foundations of American International Economic Policy after World War II’, International Organiza- tion, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1977, pp. 607–33, and ‘The Two Postwar Eras and the Conditions for Stability in Twentieth-Century Western Europe’, American Historical Review, Vol. 96, No. 1, 1981, pp. 327–67; Geir Lundestad, ‘Empire by Invitation? The United States and Western Europe, 1945–1952’, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1986, and Lundestad, The American ‘Empire’, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990; G. John Ikenberry, ‘Rethinking the Origins of American Hegemony’, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 104, No. 4, 1989, pp. 375–400. 33 Maier, ‘The Politics of Productivity’, p. 630. 34 Lundestad, ‘Empire by Invitation?’, p. 263, and The American ‘Empire’, p. 56. 35 Ikenberry, ‘Rethinking the Origins of American Hegemony’, p. 376. 36 Ibid., p. 392. 37 Ibid., pp. 391, 399. 38 Ibid., p. 394. 39 Maier, ‘The Politics of Productivity’, p. 607. 40 Maier, ‘Two Postwar Eras’, p. 345. 41 Maier, ‘The Politics of Productivity’, p. 615. 42 Peter Burnham, The Political Economy of Postwar Reconstruction, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990, pp. 97–8. 43 Maier, ‘Two Postwar Eras’, p. 347. 44 The terms ‘hard’ or ‘militant’ left will be used at times for the sake of ease of analysis, denoting those on both the communist and non-communist ‘far left’ of the movement. These two terms are unsatisfactory in that they can be interpreted in a value-laden way, and so ‘far left’ will be used most often. However, they are used in other studies of the 1945 Labour govern- ment, for example, Jonathan Schneer, ‘Hopes Deferred or Shattered: The British Labour Left and the Third Force Movement, 1945–49’, Journal of Modern History, Vol. 56, No. 2, 1984, p. 214. 45 Jean-Francois Bayart, The State in Africa: the Politics of the Belly, London: Longmans, 1993, pp. 21–3. 46 While it is of course difficult to give an exhaustive and/or definitive list of literature falling within the neo-Gramscian approach, examples would include: Robert Cox, ‘Social Forces, States and World Orders; Beyond International Relations Theory’, Millennium, Vol. 10, 1981, pp. 126–55, and ‘Gramsci, Hegemony, and International Relations’, Millennium, Vol. 12, 1983, pp. 162–75, and Production, Power and World Order, New York: Columbia Notes 143

University Press, 1987; Stephen Gill, American Hegemony and the Trilateral Commission, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990, and Gill (ed.), Gramsci, Historical Materialism and International Relations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993; Craig Murphy, International Organization and Industrial Change: Global Governance since 1850, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994; Rupert, Producing Hegemony. See also Germain and Kenny, ‘Engaging Gramsci’. 47 Cox, Production, Power and World Order, p. 214. 48 Ibid., p. 215. 49 Murphy, International Organization and Industrial Change, p. 238, citing Gramsci, Selections from Prison Notebooks, p. 161. 50 Van der Pijl, The Making of an Atlantic Ruling Class, p. 138. 51 Ibid., p. 146. 52 Ibid., p. 150. 53 Ibid., p. 154. 54 Rupert, Producing Hegemony, p. 44. 55 Ibid., p. 46. 56 Ibid., p. 58. 57 Anthony Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan: The Politics of Productivity and the Marketing of Management Science, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987; Dennis MacShane, International Labour and the Origins of the Cold War, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992; Federico Romero, The United States and the European Trade Union Movement, 1944–51, University of North Carolina Press, 1992; Peter Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988. 58 MacShane, International Labour and the Origins of the Cold War, p. 162. 59 Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, p. 9. 60 Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan, p. 2. 61 Ibid. 62 Ibid., pp. 2–3.

2 The Marshall Plan

01 Foreign Relations of the United States (hereafter FRUS), Vol. III, 1947, Washington: Department of State, 1972, ‘Remarks by the Honourable George C. Marshall, Secretary of State, at Harvard University on 5 June 1947’, p. 237. 02 Ibid. 03 George F. Kennan, Memoirs, 1925–1950, New York: Pantheon Books, 1967, p. 337. 04 Ibid. 05 FRUS, Vol. III, 1947, p. 237. 06 The Public Papers and Addresses of Franklin D. Roosevelt, 1940 Volume, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1941, p. 672. 07 FRUS, Vol. III, 1947, p. 239. 08 Bruce Reed and Geoffrey Williams, Denis Healey and the Policies of Power, London: Sidgewick & Jackson, 1971, p. 72. 144 Notes

09 Conversation between Marshall and British Ambassador, 30 June 1947; text in NA RG 59, Office of European Affairs, cited in David Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe: Western Europe, America and Postwar Reconstruction, London: Longman, 1992, p. 86. 10 Excerpts of Acheson speech in Documents on American Foreign Relations, Boston: World Peace Foundation, 1947, pp. 159–63, cited in Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe, pp. 79–80. 11 FRUS, Vol. III, 1947, pp. 197–8, letter from Dean Acheson to the Acting Secretary of State to the Secretary of War (Patterson), 5 March 1947. 12 Ibid., pp. 198–9, Memorandum by the State Department Member, State– War–Navy Co-ordinating Committee (Hilldring), 17 March 1947. 13 For a detailed account of the origins and drafting of the Marshall Plan, see John Gimbel, The Origins of the Marshall Plan, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1979, and Joseph M. Jones, The Fifteen Weeks (February 21–June 5, 1947): an Inside Account of the Genesis of the Marshall Plan, New York: Viking, 1955. For documents relating to the origins of the Marshall Plan, see FRUS, Vol. III, 1947, pp. 197–249, especially the Memorandum by Charles Kindleberger on the ‘Origins of the Marshall Plan’, 22 July 1948, pp. 241–7. 14 FRUS, Vol. III, 1947, pp. 210–11, Report of the Special ‘Ad Hoc’ Committee of the State–War–Navy Co-ordinating Committee, 21 April 1947, Annex ‘A’ to Appendix ‘A’, Memorandum of Request to Working Group on Economic Aid (Food and Finance), 21 March 1947. See also Fred Block, The Origins of International Economic Disorder, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977, p. 82. 15 Michael Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987. 16 FRUS: The Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945, Washington: Department of State, 1955, Tripartite Dinner Meeting, 10 February 1945, p. 923. 17 Hogan, The Marshall Plan, p. 22. 18 Conservative Party Manifesto, 1945, in F. W. S. Craig (ed.), British General Election Manifestos, 1918–1966, Chichester: Political Reference Publications, 1970, pp. 91 and 89. 19 David Ellwood, ‘The Marshall Plan and the Culture of Growth’, paper pre- sented at The Marshall Plan and its Consequences: a 50th Anniversary Conference, University of Leeds, 23–24 May 1997. 20 Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe, p. 161. 21 John Lewis Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War 1941–1947, New York: Columbia University Press, 1972, p. 18. 22 Cordell Hull, The Memoirs of Cordell Hull: Volume I, New York: Macmillan, 1948, p. 81. 23 John Gerard Ruggie, ‘International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order’, in Stephen D. Krasner (ed.), International Regimes, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983, p. 209. 24 George Kennan, Memoirs, p. 325. 25 FRUS, Vol. III, 1947, p. 219, referring to Department of State Bulletin, 11 May 1947, p. 919. 26 Ibid., p. 230, Memo from Clayton to Under Secretary of State Acheson, 27 May 1947. Notes 145

27 FRUS, Vol. III, 1947, Policy with Respect to American Aid to Western Europe: Views of the Policy Planning Staff, from the Director of the Policy Planning Staff (Kennan) to the Under Secretary of State (Acheson), 23 May 1947, p. 225. See also Kennan, Memoirs, p. 336. 28 FRUS, Vol. III, 1947, pp. 205–6, Report of the Special ‘Ad Hoc’ Committee of the State–Navy–War Co-ordinating Committee, Enclosure, ‘Policies, Procedures and Costs of Assistance by the United States to Foreign Countries’, 21 April 1947. 29 Wilson D. Miscamble, George F. Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy, 1947–1959, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992, p. 39, refer- ring to the departmental regulation formally establishing the PPS, which is printed in Department of State Bulletin, Washington: U.S. Dept of State, 18 May 1947, p. 1007. 30 Miscamble, George F. Kennan, p. 40, citing PPS Records, Box 32, Minutes of Meeting, 8 May 1947. 31 Miscamble, George F. Kennan, p. 40. 32 Melvyn Leffler, ‘The United States and the Strategic Dimensions of the Marshall Plan’, pp. 277–306, Diplomatic History, Vol. 12, No. 3, Summer 1988, p. 279, referring to Joint War Plans Committee 474/1, ‘Strategic Study of Western and Northern Europe’, 13 May 1947, CCS 092 USSR (3-27-45), section 20, Records of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Record Group 218, US National Archives. 33 Leffler, ‘Strategic Dimensions of the Marshall Plan’, p. 278. 34 Paul Hoffman, Peace Can Be Won, London: Michael Joseph, 1951, p. 91. 35 Ibid., p. 76. 36 John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace: Inquiries Into the History of the Cold War, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987, pp. 60–1. 37 Ibid., p. 61. 38 Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe, p. 86. 39 Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, 1946–1948, Vol. VI, London: Keesing’s, 1948, p. 8659. 40 FRUS, Vol. III, 1947, Memorandum of conversation by the First Secretary of the Embassy in the UK (Peterson), of the first meeting of Under Secretary of State for Economic Affairs (Clayton) and ambassador with British cabinet members, 24 June 1947, p. 271. 41 Ibid., Memorandum of second meeting of Clayton with British cabinet ministers, 25 June 1947, p. 277. 42 Ibid., Memorandum of first meeting, ‘Recapitulation of Main Points of Discussion’, 24 June 1947, p. 274. 43 Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, Vol. VI, p. 8683. 44 Ellwood, Rebuilding Europe, p. 86. See also Alan Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe 1945–51, London: Methuen, 1984, pp. 61–6; Hogan, The Marshall Plan, pp. 45–53, and Imanuel Wexler, The Marshall Plan Revisited. The European Recovery Program in Economic Perspective, London: Greenwood, 1983, pp. 10–12. 45 Michael Hogan in discussion in Stanley Hoffman and Charles Maier (eds), The Marshall Plan: A Retrospective, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, 1984, p. 22. 46 FRUS, Vol. III, 1947, ‘Summary of Discussion on Problems of Relief, Rehabilitation and Reconstruction of Europe’, 29 May 1947, p. 235. 146 Notes

47 FRUS, Vol. III, 1947, Caffery to Secretary of State Marshall, 18 June 1947, 16.00 hrs, p. 258. 48 FRUS, Vol. III, 1947, Caffery to Secretary of State Marshall, 18 June 1947, 23.00 hrs, p. 260. 49 Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, 1946–1948, Vol. VI, p. 8684. 50 Ibid. 51 Ibid. 52 Ibid., p. 8712. 53 Anthony Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987, p. 11. 54 Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, 1946–1948, Vol. VI, p. 8955. 55 Wexler, The Marshall Plan Revisited, p. 25. 56 Congressional Record, 8 March 1948, p. 2285, cited in Robert Dahl, Congress and Foreign Policy, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1950, p. 25. 57 Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, 1948–1950, Vol. VII, p. 9388. 58 Ibid., p. 9389. 59 Geoffrey Roberts, ‘Moscow and the Marshall Plan: Politics, Ideology and the Onset of the Cold War, 1947’, Europe-Asia Studies, Vol. 46, No. 8, 1994, p. 1373. 60 Caroline Kennedy-Pipe, Stalin’s Cold War: Soviet Strategies in Europe, 1943 to 1956, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995, p. 109. 61 Scott Parrish, ‘The Turn Toward Confrontation; The Soviet Reaction to the Marshall Plan, 1947’, p. 15, from Scott Parrish and Mikhail Narinsky, New Evidence of the Soviet Rejection of the Marshall Plan, 1947, Two Reports, Working Paper No. 9, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, March 1994. 62 Anna Di Biagio, ‘The Marshall Plan and the founding of the Comin- form, June–September, 1947’, in F. Gori and S. Pons, The Soviet Union and Europe in the Cold War, 1943–53, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996, pp. 209–10. 63 Di Biagio, ‘Founding of the Cominform’, p. 210. 64 Dixon Diary, 2 July 1947, Pierson Dixon Papers, cited in Geoffrey Warner, ‘From “Ally” to Enemy: Britain’s Relations with the Soviet Union, 1941–8’, in Gori and Pons, The Soviet Union and Europe in the Cold War, p. 305. 65 Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, 1946–48, Vol. VI, p. 8659. 66 Di Biagio, ‘Founding of the Cominform’, p. 210. 67 Ibid. 68 Andrew Gamble, Britain in Decline: Economic Policy, Political Strategy and the British State 4th edn, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994, p. 108. 69 See Caroline Anstey, ‘The Projection of British Socialism: Foreign Office Publicity and American Opinion, 1945–50’, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 19, No. 3, 1984, pp. 417–51. 70 E. Halifax to E. Bevin, 18 February 1946, including comments by I. Berlin and J. Balfour on a memorandum by Joseph E. Davies. FO 115/4270. Cited in Anstey, ‘The Projection of British Socialism’, p. 433. 71 Gamble, Britain in Decline, p. 108. 72 Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th Series, London: HMSO, Vol. 430, col. 526, November 1946. Notes 147

73 W. Gallman to G. Marshall, 2 February 1947, 841.00/2-2-47. Records of the Department of State, National Archive, Washington, cited in Anstey, ‘The Projection of British Socialism’, p. 434. 74 Anstey, ‘The Projection of British Socialism’, p. 434. 75 W. Gallman to G. Marshall, 3 February 1947, 841.00/2-3-47, cited in Anstey, ‘The Projection of British Socialism’, p. 435. 76 Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, pp. 312–13. 77 Kennan, Memoirs, Appendix C, ‘Excerpts from Telegraphic Message from Moscow of February 22, 1946’, p. 557. 78 Kennan, Memoirs, pp. 294–5. 79 See ‘Report by Joint Intelligence Sub-Committee on Russia’s strategic inter- ests and intentions’, JIC (46)1(0), 1 March 1946, reprinted as document No. 78 in Documents on British Policy Overseas, Series I, Vol. VI, London: HMSO, 1991, pp. 297–301. 80 For further information on the role played by the British in moving the US towards a firmer stance with the Russians, see Terry Anderson, The United States, Great Britain and the Cold War, 1944–1947, Columbia, 1981. 81 Parrish, ‘The Turn Toward Confrontation: The Soviet Reaction to the Marshall Plan, 1947,’ p. 26. 82 Ibid., p. 29. 83 Di Biagio, ‘Founding of the Cominform’, p. 209.

3 The Scale and Impact of the Marshall Plan

01 ‘Foreign Assistance Act, 3 April 1948’, in the Royal Institute of International Affairs’ Documents on European Recovery and Defence, March 1947–April 1949, London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1949, p. 31. 02 Ibid. 03 Imanuel Wexler, The Marshall Plan Revisited: The European Recovery Program in Economic Perspective, London: Greenwood Press, 1983, p. 250, referring to OEEC figures. 04 Ibid., p. 93. 05 Ibid., p. 252. 06 First Report to Congress on the Mutual Security Program, 31 December 1951, pp. 62–3, cited in ibid., p. 87. 07 ‘Foreign Assistance Act, 3 April 1948’, in Documents on European Recovery and Defence, p. 51. 08 Paul Hoffman, Peace Can be Won, London: Michael Joseph, 1951, pp. 79–80. 09 Anthony Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987, p. 14, referring to Wexler, The Marshall Plan Revisited, pp. 100–7. 10 Wexler, The Marshall Plan Revisited, p. 114. 11 Michael Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 155. 12 Robert Cox, Production, Power and World Order: Social Forces in the Making of History, New York: Columbia University Press, 1987, p. 214. 148 Notes

13 Robert Pollard, Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold War, 1945–1950, New York: Columbia University Press, 1985, p. 166. 14 Hogan, The Marshall Plan, p. 427. 15 Alan Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe 1945–51, London: Methuen, 1984, pp. 69–70. 16 Ibid., p. 80. 17 Foreign Relations of the United States, (hereafter FRUS), Vol. III, 1947, Caffery to Secretary of State, Paris, 26 August 1947, p. 380. See also the correspon- dence from pp. 356–435. 18 Hogan, The Marshall Plan, p. 438. 19 Ibid., p. 87. 20 FRUS, Vol. III, 1947, Clayton to Lovett, 25 August 1947, p. 377. 21 Wexler, The Marshall Plan Revisited, p. 25. Wexler notes that shortly after this the specific total of $17 billion was removed. 22 Keesing’s Contemporary Archives, 1948–50, Vol. VII, London: Keesing’s, 1950, p. 9403. 23 Ibid., p. 9537. 24 Seymour Harris, The European Recovery Program, Harvard, MA: Harvard University Press, 1948, p. 158. 25 Ibid. 26 Foreman-Peck, A History of the World Economy, p. 246. 27 Foreign Assistance Act, in Documents on European Recovery and Defence, p. 44. 28 Harris, The ERP, p. 12. 29 Ibid. 30 See, for example, John Saville, The Labour Movement in Europe, London: Faber and Faber, 1988, pp. 101–3. 31 Price, The Marshall Plan and Its Meaning, p. 104. 32 David Ellwood, ‘From “Re-eductation” to the Selling of the Marshall Plan in Italy’, in N. Pronay and K. Wilson (eds), The Political Re-education of Germany and Her Allies after World War II, London: Croom Helm, 1985, p. 226. 33 Peter Burnham, The Political Economy of Postwar Reconstruction, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990, p. 5. 34 John Saville, ‘Labour and Foreign Policy 1945–1947: a Condemnation’, Our History Journal (Journal of the History of the Communist Party), No. 17, May 1991, p. 30. 35 Teddy Brett, Steve Gilliatt and Andrew Pople, ‘Planned Trade, Labour Party Policy and US Intervention: The Success and Failures of Post-War Reconstruction’, History Workshop, No. 13, 1982, pp. 130–42. 36 David Coates, The Labour Party and the Struggle for Socialism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975, p. 62. 37 Ibid., p. 68 38 Alan Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe 1945–51, London: Methuen, 1984, p. 469. 39 Burnham, The Political Economy of Postwar Reconstruction, p. 111. 40 Ibid., p. 72. 41 Wexler, The Marshall Plan Revisited, p. 87, citing First Report to Congress on the Mutual Security Program, 31 December 1951, pp. 62–3. 42 Anthony Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987, p. 98. Notes 149

43 Jim Tomlinson, ‘Correlli Barnett’s History: the Case of Marshall Aid’, Twentieth Century British History, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1997, p. 225. 44 Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan, p. 14. 45 Ibid., p. 99. 46 Labour Party Manifesto, 1945, ‘Let Us Face the Future’, in F. W. S. Craig (ed.), British General Election Manifestos, 1918–1966, Chichester: Political Reference Publications, 1970, p. 104. 47 Conservative Party Manifesto, 1945, in ibid., pp. 87–8. 48 In Craig British General Election Manifestos, p. 104. 49 Parliamentary Debates, (Hansard), 5th series, Vol. 411, col. 1788, 14 June 1945, London: HMSO. 50 James Byrnes, Speaking Frankly, London: William Heinemann, 1947, p. 79. 51 Public Record Office (hereafter PRO), PREM, 4/21/3, Eden to Churchill, 22 August 1941. 52 Trades Union Congress Report, 1943, p. 339. 53 Denis MacShane, International Labour and the Origins of the Cold War, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992, p. 285. 54 Labour Party Annual Conference Report, 1946, p. 169. 55 Ibid., p. 167. 56 Saville, ‘Labour and Foreign Policy, 1945–1947’, p. 23. 57 MacShane, International Labour, p. 284. 58 See Richard Fletcher, ‘British Propaganda Since World War II – A Case Study’, Media, Culture and Society, Vol. 4, April 1982, pp. 97–109; W. Scott Lucas and C. J. Morris, ‘A Very British Crusade: The Information Research Department and the Beginning of the Cold War’, in Richard Aldrich (ed.), British Intelligence, Strategy and the Cold War, 1945–51, London: Routledge, 1992, pp. 85–110; Lyn Smith, ‘Covert British Propaganda: the Information Research Department: 1947–1977’, Millennium, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 67–83; Wesley Wark, ‘Coming in from the Cold: British Propaganda and Red Army Defectors, 1945–1952’, The International History Review, Vol. 19, No. 1, 1987, pp. 48–72; Peter Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1988, pp. 207–19. 59 Wark, ‘British Propaganda and Red Army Defectors’, p. 49. 60 Ibid., pp. 50–1. 61 Philip Taylor, ‘The Projection of Britain Abroad, 1945–51’, in Michael Dockrill and John Young (eds), British Foreign Policy, 1945–56, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989, p. 22, citing E. Bevin, ‘Future foreign publicity policy’, 4 January 1948, PRO, CAB 129/23, CP (48) 8. 62 Ibid., p. 23. 63 Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, p. 216, citing Christopher Mayhew (head of the IRD) to Bevin, 9 July 1948, Mayhew Papers, Private Collection. 64 Daily Telegraph, ‘Newsletter of the Defence of Democracy Trust Against All Forms of Totalitarianism’, 24 April 1948, cited in Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, p. 217. 65 Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, pp. 218–19. 66 Saville, ‘Labour and Foreign Policy, 1945–1947’, p. 32. 67 Denis Healey, The Time of My Life, London: Penguin, 1990, p. 75. This com- ment is made in reference to continental European socialists, but applies equally well to British. 150 Notes

68 Kenneth O. Morgan, Labour People. Leaders and Lieutenants, Hardie to Kinnock, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987, p. 154.

4 The Government/Union Alliance in Postwar Britain

01 Patrick Seyd, The Rise and Fall of the Labour Left, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987, p. 2. 02 Ibid. 03 David Butler and Gareth Butler, British Political Facts, 1900–1985 6th edn, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1986, p. 226. 04 Henry Pelling and Alastair Reid, A Short History of the Labour Party 11th edn, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996, p. 91. 05 Clement Attlee, The Labour Party in Perspective, London: Victor Gollancz, 1937, p. 227. 06 Peter Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1988, p. 189. 07 James Hinton, Labour and Socialism: A History of the British Labour Movement 1867–1974, Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1983, p. 161. 08 David Coates, The Labour Party and the Struggle for Socialism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975, p. 190. For more detailed information on the Labour left’s attitude towards foreign policy, see Michael Gordon, Conflict and Consensus in Labour’s Foreign Policy, 1914–1965, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1969; Jonathan Schneer, Labour’s Conscience, Boston: Unwin Hyman, 1988. 09 Labour Party Annual Conference Report, (hereafter LPACR), 1946, p. 151. 10 Ibid., pp. 152–7. 11 Ibid., p. 157. 12 Hutchinson, MP for Rusholme, Manchester, Parliamentary Debates, (Hansard), 5th series, London: HMSO, Vol. 419, col. 1322, 21 February 1946. 13 Jonathan Schneer, ‘Hopes Deferred or Shattered: The British Labour Left and the Third Force Movement, 1945–49’, Journal of Modern History, Vol. 56, No. 2, 1984, p. 198. 14 Parliamentary Debates, (Hansard), 5th series, Vol. 430, col. 526, 13 November 1946. 15 Ibid., cols. 591–2; Tribune, 22 November 1946. 16 LPACR, 1947, p. 179. 17 Trades Union Congress Report, (hereafter TUCR), 1946, p. 469. 18 Ibid., p. 416. 19 National Union of Railwaymen (NUR) files, Modern Records Centre (MRC), Warwick University, MSS 127/NU/PO/1/10 AGM, 7 July 1947, resolution No. 32, proposed by the Polmadie Branch. 20 Ibid. Other very similar critical resolutions were forwarded by the Warrington Branch, and the Glasgow No. 9 Branch. 21 NUR files, MRC MSS 127/NU/PO/1/11 AGM 7 July 1947. 22 Denis Healey, The Time of My Life, London: Penguin, 1990, p. 75. 23 Ibid. 24 LPACR, 1946, p. 174. 25 Healey, The Time of My Life, p. 75. Notes 151

26 Seyd, The Rise and Fall of the Labour Left, p. 7. 27 Schneer, Labour’s Conscience, p. 2. 28 G. Norris, ‘Communism and British Politics, 1944–48’, unpublished MA thesis, University of Warwick, 1981, p. 105. 29 Ibid. 30 Schneer, ‘The British Labour Left’, p. 220. 31 Norris, ‘Communism and British Politics, 1944–48’, p. 106. 32 Tony Cliff and Donny Gluckstein, The Labour Party, a Marxist History, 2nd edn, London: Bookmarks, 1996, p. 284. 33 Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), 5th series, Vol. 446, col. 566, 23 January 1948. 34 Schneer, ‘The British Labour Left’, pp. 213–14. 35 Martin Harrison, Trade Unions and the Labour Party Since 1945, London: Allen & Unwin, 1960, p. 224. 36 Norris, ‘Communism and British Politics, 1944–48’, p. 105. 37 Alan Bullock, Life and Times of Ernest Bevin, Vol. 3, Foreign Secretary, 1945–51, London: Heinemann, 1983, p. 215. 38 See James Durcan et al., Strikes in Post-War Britain: A Study of Stoppages of Work due to Industrial Disputes, 1946–73, London: Allen & Unwin, 1983, especially Table 6.1. 39 Richard Hyman, ‘Praetorians and Proletarians’, in Jim Fyrth (ed.), Labour’s High Noon, The Government and the Economy 1945–51, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1993, pp. 179–80. 40 For information see British Labour Statistics, Historical Abstract 1886–1968, London: HMSO, 1971, Table 197. 41 See John Sheldrake, Industrial Relations and Politics in Britain 1880–1989, London: Pinter, 1991, p. 44; and Eric Wigham, Strikes and the Government 1893–1981, 2nd edn, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1982, Chap. 6. 42 Hyman, ‘Praetorians and Proletarians’, p. 181. 43 Cliff and Gluckstein, The Labour Party, p. 234; see also Justin Davis Smith, The Attlee and Churchill Administrations and Industrial Unrest, 1945–1955: A Study in Consensus, London: Pinter, 1990; Keith Jeffrey and Peter Hennessy, States of Emergency: British Government and Strikebreaking since 1919, London: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1983. 44 Davis Smith, The Attlee and Churchill Administrations and Industrial Unrest, p. 43. 45 Ibid., p. 50. 46 For information see Richard Croucher, Engineers at War, 1939–45, London: Merlin Press, 1982; James Hinton, ‘Coventry Communism’, History Workshop, Issue 10, 1980, pp. 90–118, and Hinton, Shop Floor Citizens, Aldershot, Hants: Elgar, 1994. 47 For instance, regular publications from the shop stewards in the engineer- ing industry were The Conveyor, The Aeroplane and The New Propeller. 48 Robert Taylor, The Trade Union Question in British Politics, Oxford: Blackwell, 1993, p. 45. 49 Vic Allen, Power in Trade Unions, London: Longman, 1954, and Allen, Trade Union Leadership, London: Longman, 1957. 50 Joseph Goldstein, The Government of British Trade Unions, London: Allen & Unwin, 1952, p. 271. 152 Notes

51 Henry Pelling, A History of British Trade Unionism, 5th edn, London: Macmillan, 1992, p. 326. 52 Ibid., p. 224. 53 Hyman, ‘Praetorians and Proletarians’, p. 166. 54 Ken Coates, ‘The Vagaries of Participation’, in Ben Pimlott and Chris Cook (eds), Trade Unions in British Politics, London: Longman, 1982, p. 171. 55 Pelling, A History of British Trade Unionism, p. 225. 56 Coates, ‘The Vagaries of Participation’, p. 173. 57 Ibid. 58 See, for example, the biographical information in Robert Taylor, The Trade Union Question in British Politics, Oxford: Blackwell, 1993, Appendix 1, pp. 348–60. 59 Coates, ‘The Vagaries of Participation’, p. 174. 60 Ibid. 61 Thus providing an example of the tendency towards oligarchy that Michels had described in the Socialist Political Party, in that as it gains a sense of responsibility it reacts ‘with all the authority at its disposal against the revo- lutionary currents which exist within its own organization … [and] becomes increasingly inert as the strength of its organization grows; it loses its revo- lutionary impetus, becomes sluggish, not in respect of action alone, but also in the sphere of thought.’ Robert Michels, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy, New York: Dover, 1959, p. 371. 62 Taylor, The Trade Union Question in British Politics, p. 38. 63 Attlee, The Labour Party in Perspective, p. 65. 64 TUCR, 1948, p. 337. 65 LPACR, 1947, p. 146. On the wages policy, and Deakin’s role in particular, see Vic Allen, Trade Union Leadership, London: Longman, 1957, p. 131. See also Hugh Clegg, A History of British Trade Unions, 1934–1951, Vol. III, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994, pp. 363–5; and Leo Panitch, Social Democracy and Industrial Militancy: the Labour Party, the Trade Unions and Incomes Policy, 1945–1974, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976. 66 Pelling, A History of British Trade Unionism, p. 230. 67 Ibid. 68 Davis Smith, The Attlee and Churchill Administrations and Industrial Unrest, p. 94. 69 Cited in ibid. 70 TUCR, 1948, pp. 337–8. 71 Hinton, Labour and Socialism, p. 166. 72 Attlee, The Labour Party in Perspective, p. 64. 73 Noreen Branson, History of the Communist Party of Great Britain, 1941–1951, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1997, p. 183. 74 Croucher, Engineers at War, p. 370. 75 Healey, The Time of My Life, pp. 74–5. 76 Branson, History of the CPGB, 1941–1951, p. 183. 77 Ibid., p. 184. 78 Healey, The Time of My Life, p. 75. See also the Morgan Phillips circular cited, note 92. 79 See, for example, Hinton, ‘Coventry Communism’, pp. 90–118. Notes 153

080 Willie Thompson, The Good Old Cause: British Communism, 1920–1991, London: Pluto Press, 1992, p. 76. 081 Figures taken from Branson, History of the CPGB, 1941–1951, Appendix 1, p. 252. 082 LPACR, 1946, pp. 169–73, 174. 083 The Times, 8 and 9 February 1948. 084 Branson, History of the CPGB, 1941–1951, p. 179. 085 Healey, The Time of My Life, p. 75. 086 Thompson, The Good Old Cause, p. 78. 087 Branson, History of the CPGB, 1941–1951, p. 157. 088 Ibid., citing World News and Views, 22 October 1947. 089 Ibid. 090 Ibid., citing ‘For Britain Free and Independent: Report of the 20th Congress’, p. 38. 091 Thompson, The Good Old Cause, p. 79. 092 Manchester Guardian, 22 December 1947, p. 3. 093 Branson, History of the CPGB, 1941–1951, p. 177. 094 Ibid., p. 178. 095 Trades Councils were associations of members from a variety of unions operating within a geographic area and were one area where communist members were very active. 096 Gordon, Conflict and Consensus in Labour’s Foreign Policy, p. 139. 097 ‘Cards on the Table’, p. 112 in Denis Healey, When Shrimps Learn to Whistle, London: Penguin, 1990. 098 Ibid., p. 111. 099 For more information on this, see Schneer, Labour’s Conscience, pp. 136–9; Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, pp. 219–28. 100 See, for example, TUCR, 1948, pp. 305–6 of the General Council’s Report, and the resolution on p. 532. 101 Schneer, Labour’s Conscience, p. 136. 102 Cited in The TUC and Communism, London: TUC, 1955, p. 3. See also TUCR, 1949, pp. 274–5. 103 Branson, History of the CPGB, 1941–1951, p. 185. 104 Taylor, Trade Union Question in British Politics, p. 43. 105 Arthur Deakin, Democracy versus Communism, London: TGWU, 1948, pp. 5, 10. 106 Clegg, History, Vol. III, 1934–1951, p. 308. 107 Vic Allen, Trade Unions and the Government, London: Longman, 1960, pp. 260 and 263–4. 108 Benjamin Roberts, National Wages Policy in War and Peace, London: Allen & Unwin, 1958, p. 62. 109 Jim Tomlinson, ‘Labour and the Trade Unions, 1945–51’, in Nick Tiratsoo (ed.), The Attlee Years, London: Pinter, 1991, p. 91. 110 Allen, Trade Unions and the Government, p. 312. 111 Coates, ‘Vagaries of Participation’, p. 177. 112 Pelling, A History of British Trade Unionism, p. 236. 113 Ibid. 114 Clegg, History, III, p. 318. 115 Ibid., pp. 318–19. 154 Notes

116 Allen, Trade Unions and the Government, p. 265. 117 Attlee, The Labour Party in Perspective, pp. 62–3. 118 Political and Economic Planning Report on ‘British Trade Unionism’, London, PEP, 1948, p. 170. 119 Kenneth Knowles, Strikes: A Study in Industrial Conflict, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1952, p. 95. 120 Ferdynand Zweig, The British Worker, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1952, p. 182. 121 Ibid., pp. 182–3. 122 Lewis Minkin, The Labour Party Conference, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1978, p. 24. 123 Hyman, ‘Praetorians and Proletarians’, p. 166. 124 TUCR, 1946, p. 269. 125 Taylor, The Trade Union Question in British Politics, p. 39. 126 Kenneth O. Morgan, Labour in Power 1945–1951, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984, p. 79. 127 As Richard Hyman points out, ‘If a union is to be effective in wielding power for its members and against the employer, the possibility exists that this organisation power will be exerted over them, possibly on behalf of external interests. Precisely because the secure existence of unionism appears to require at least the acquiescence of governments and major employers, these “significant other” can influence union representatives to eschew policies which may invite repression, and event to transmit their own imperatives back down to the membership.’ The Political Economy of Industrial Relations: Theory and Practice in a Cold Climate, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1989, p. 40.

5 The Trade Union Response to the Marshall Plan

001 For general information on the international trade union movement, see Gary K. Busch, The Political Role of International Trade Unions, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1983; Robert Cox, ‘Labour and Transnational Relations’, special issue of International Organization, Vol. 25, No. 3, 1971, pp. 554–84; Lewis Lorwin, The International Labour Movement, New York: Harper, 1953; John P. Windmuller, American Labor and the International Labor Movement, 1940 to 1953, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1954, and Windmuller, The International Trade Union Movement, Deventer: Kluwer, 1980. 002 In 1945, the American Federation of Labor (AFL) was the larger of the two trade union national centres in the US, the other being the more recently established Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO). These were rivals until the mid-1950s when they merged. See, for example, Windmuller, The International Trade Union Movement. 003 Trades Union Congress Report, (hereafter TUCR), 1945, p. 101. 004 Arthur Deakin, ‘The International Trade Union Movement’, International Affairs, Vol. 26, No. 2, April 1950, p. 168. 005 Victor Isaac Silverman, ‘Stillbirth of a World Order: Union Inter- nationalism from War to Cold War in the US and Britain, 1939–49’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of California, 1990, p. 150. Notes 155

06 Vic Allen, Trade Union Leadership, London: Longman, 1957, p. 290. 07 Joseph Goulden, Meany, New York: Atheneum, 1972, p. 125. 08 Betty Wallace, World Labour Comes of Age, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1945, p. 143. 09 TUC files, Modern Records Centre (hereafter MRC), University of Warwick, MSS 292/910/2, doc. Ref. R.1853, ‘History of the World Federation of Trade Unions’. 10 Report of the World Trade Union Conference Congress, 1945, p. 111. 11 Constitution of the World Federation of Trade Unions, published by the WFTU, no date, ‘Preamble – aims and methods’, pp. 7–9; also printed in TUCR, 1945, p. 109. 12 Windmuller, American Labor and the International Labor Movement, p. 62. 13 Silverman, ‘Stillbirth of a World Order’, p. 279, citing OSS, ‘Memorandum for the President’, 13/5/45, Declassified Documents Retrospective, 316E Fiche 803, pp. 5, 9. 14 Richard Hyman, ‘Praetorians and Proletarians’, in Jim Fyrth (ed.), Labour’s High Noon, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1993, p. 177. 15 Jeffrey Harrod, Trade Union Foreign Policy: A Study of British and American Trade Union Activities in Jamaica, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1972, p. 46. 16 MacShane, International Labour, pp. 126–7. 17 Peter Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1988, p. 136. 18 Silverman, ‘Stillbirth of a World Order’, p. 116. 19 Allan Bullock, Ernest Bevin: Foreign Secretary, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983, pp. 58–9. 20 Sir Roderick Barclay, Ernest Bevin and the Foreign Office, London: Roderick Barclay, 1975, p. 80. 21 Bernard Hennessy, ‘British Trade Unions and International Affairs 1945–53’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1953, pp. 162–3. 22 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/900/5, ‘Labour Attaches 1946–60’, letter to TUC Inter- national Department, 24 February 1949; memo of interview, at the Ministry of Labour, between Tewson, Ernest Bell (head of TUC International Depart- ment), and H. Watkinson, MP (Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Labour), 30 October 1952. 23 Denis Healey, The Time of My Life, London: Penguin, 1990, Chaps 2 and 4. 24 Anthony Carew, ‘The Schism within the World Federation of Trade Unions: Government and Trade Union Diplomacy’, International Review of Social History, Vol. 29, No. 3, 1984, pp. 298–9. 25 Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, p. 299; see also Public Record Office, Kew, London, (hereafter PRO), Foreign Office files (hereafter FO) 371/67613 for information regarding Gee’s post and activities. 26 Healey was also good friends with Ernest Bell, the head of the TUC’s International Department, with whom he had been a student at Oxford. Healey, The Time of My Life, p. 73. 27 Labour Party Archive at the National Labour History Archive, Manchester, Labour Party International Department, Denis Healey files, Box on Anti- Communist Propaganda 1947–50. 28 Labour Party Archive, Manchester, Labour Party International Department, Denis Healey files, Articles Box 1947–50, File for 1949, PR 704/G. 156 Notes

29 Peter Weiler, ‘The United States, International Labor, and the Cold War: The Breakup of the World Federation of Trade Unions’, Diplomatic History, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1981, p. 13, citing Cleon Swayze to Paul Nitze, 23 July 1947, 851.504/7-2347, Decimal Files, Department of State, US, National Archives. 30 Busch, The Political Role of International Trade Unions, p. 58. 31 Victor Reuther, The Brothers Reuther and the Story of the UAW, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976, p. 330. 32 Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, p. 103. 33 For information, see TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.1/2 ‘Notes on ERP’ by Lincoln Evans at the TUC, no date; also Anthony Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987, p. 82. 34 Weiler, ‘The United States, International Labor, and the Cold War’, p. 14; Radosh, American Labor, pp. 310–25; Reuther, The Brothers Reuther, p. 412. For more information see Richard Fletcher, ‘How CIA Money Took the Teeth out of British Socialism’, in Philip Agee and Louis Wolf (eds), The CIA in Western Europe, Secaucus, NJ: 1978, pp. 188–200; Sallie Pisani, The CIA and the Marshall Plan, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991. For a more general approach, see Trevor Barnes, ‘The Secret Cold War: the CIA and American Foreign Policy in Europe, 1946–1956: Part 1’, Historical Journal, Vol. 24, No. 2, 1981, pp. 399–415. 35 Busch, The Political Role of International Trade Unions, pp. 64–5. 36 Reuther, The Brothers Reuther, p. 412 37 Hennessy, ‘British Trade Unions and International Affairs’, p. 226. 38 A comprehensive trawl of the TUC files did not throw up any references to discussions on the ERP before 16 December 1947, apart from the refer- ence to the proposed meeting of the Independent League of European Co- operation. Tewson was initially on the list of British committee members to be invited to the conference, along with Harold Butler, Harold Macmillan and four others, TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.1/1, ‘Independent League of European Co-operation: Action to be Taken on Marshall’s Offer’, 23 June 1947. 39 TUCR, 1947, pp. 427 and 487–9. 40 International Transportworkers’ Federation (ITF) files, MRC, MSS 159/1/ 12/7 ‘Document MPC (Marshall Plan Conference) 5’, referring to ITF General Council meeting, 25–27 November 1947. 41 Ibid. 42 Carew, Labour under the Marshall Plan, pp. 73–4. 43 Ibid., p. 73, based on an article in Bolshevik, 15 November 1947, reported by British ambassador to Moscow, 17 December 1947, PRO, FO 371/71648. 44 TUC files, MRC, MSS 292/901/8, First meeting of the Special Committee on the Economic Situation (E.S.C.) and the International Committee (I.C.), ‘Relief and Rehabilitation of Europe’, 16 December 1947. The state- ment was approved and released by the TUC’s General Council the follow- ing day. 45 Ibid. 46 WFTU, Information Bulletin, No. 3 (53), 15 February 1948. 47 Labour, TUC, December 1947, p. 105 48 Robert Putnam, ‘Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games’, Appendix in Peter Evans, Harold Jacobson and Robert Putnam Notes 157

(eds), Double-Edged Diplomacy: International Bargaining and International Politics, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993, p. 455. 49 TUCR, 1948, p. 79. 50 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.1/1 memo, joint meeting of E.S.C. and I.C., 16 December 1947. 51 A fairly comprehensive examination of trade union demands for East–West trade can be found in Hennessy, ‘British Trade Unions and International Affairs’, pp. 226 and 354–5. 52 Public Record Office (hereafter PRO), Kew, FO 800/493, Bevin to British ambassador in Washington, 23 December 1947. The ‘dissentient’ vote belonged to Bert Papworth from the TGWU, who was also an Executive Committee member of the CFGB. 53 Foreign Relations of the United States, (hereafter FRUS), 1947, Vol. III, Washington: Department of State, memo of conversation between Secretary of State Marshall and Bevin, held on 17 December 1947, p. 816. 54 Hennessy, ‘British Trade Unions and International Affairs’, p. 227. 55 The Marshall Plan is not an issue that often arises in the trade union archival holdings, except in terms of resolutions being sent in from their membership expressing either support or concern over Marshall Aid, or resolutions sent from the unions to the TUC. For example, in the case of the NUR, the files of the Political Office of the General Council contain hardly any direct references to the Marshall Plan. 56 TUC, MRC MSS 292/564.1/1 Secretary of London branch of Sign and Display Trade Union to TUC, 31 July 1947. 57 Coventry Trades Council files, MRC, MSS 5/1/3, p. 106, Executive Committee meting of 7 August 1947. 58 Coventry Trades Council, MRC, MSS 5/1/3, p. 111, Delegates meeting 21 August 1947. 59 Coventry Trades Council, MRC, MSS 5/1/3, p. 117 Special delegates meeting of 2 September 1947. 60 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.1/1 Horsham and District Trades Council to TUC, 4 February 1948, and Barrow and District Trades Council to Tewson, 20 March 1948. 61 World News and Views, the CPGB’s paper, 14 June 1947, cited in Branson, History of the CPGB, 1941–1951, p. 153. 62 Labour Monthly, July 1947, p. 194. 63 Branson, History of the CPGB, 1941–1951, p. 154.

6 The Marshall Plan and the Split in the International Trade Union Movement

01 Gary Busch, The Political Role of International Trades Unions, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1983, p. 66; see also Anthony Carew, ‘The Schism within the World Federation of Trade Unions: Government and Trade Union Diplomacy’, International Review of Social History, Vol. 29, No. 9, 1984, p. 335; Peter Weiler, ‘The United States, International Labor, and the Cold War: The Breakup of the World Federation of Trade Unions’, Diplomatic History, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1985, p. 22. 158 Notes

02 Dennis MacShane, International Labour and the Origins of the Cold War, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992, p. 282. 03 Richard Saville, ‘Politics and the Labour Movement in the Early Cold War’, Our History Journal, Journal of the History Group of the Communist Party, No. 15, April 1990, p. 31; Victor Isaac Silverman, ‘Stillbirth of a World Order: Union Internationalism from War to Cold War in the US and Britain, 1939–49’, unpublished PhD thesis, University of California, 1990, p. 327. 04 Morton Schwartz, ‘Soviet Policy and the World Federation of Trade Unions, 1945–49’, unpublished PhD thesis, Colombia University, 1963, p. vi. 05 Documents on British Policy Overseas, series I, Vol. VI, Doc. 47, Roberts in Moscow to Bevin in London, 31 October 1945, London: HMSO, 1991, p. 187. 06 Vic Allen, Trade Union Leadership, London: Longman, 1957, p. 292. 07 Ibid. 08 Victor Reuther, The Brothers Reuther and the Story of the UAW, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976, pp. 330–1. 09 Walter Citrine, Two Careers: A Second Volume of Autobiography, London: Hutchinson, 1967, p. 238. 10 TUC files, Modern Records Centre (hereafter MRC), University of Warwick, MSS 292/901/8 I.C. minutes, 21 January 1948, ‘Report of November 1947 Paris Executive Bureau of WFTU’. 11 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/901/8 joint E.S.C. and I.C. meeting (No. 1), 16 December 1947. 12 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/918/1 copy of December 1947 issue of the Soviet publication Trade Unions. 13 Ibid. 14 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.1/1 Maidenhead and District Trades Council to Vincent Tewson, 24 November 1947. Similar resolutions were sent in from the Crayford branch of the AEU to the TUC on 4 February 1948, and the Secretary of the Barrow and District Trades Council to TUC on 20 March 1948. 15 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.1/1 letter from Irving Brown of the AFL to Tewson, 29 December 1947. 16 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.18/1, cited in memo on the ‘ERP International Trade Union Machinery’, March 1949. 17 Busch, The Political Role of International Trades Unions, p. 67. A similar point was made by the WFTU once the CIO had left it, in Free Trade Unions Remain in the WFTU, Paris: WFTU, 1949, p. 41. 18 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.1/1 note from A.E.C. of phone call from Gee, 31 December 1947. 19 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.18/1 memo on the ‘ERP International Trade Union Machinery’, March 1949. 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid. 22 Carew, ‘The Schism within the World Federation of Trade Unions’, p. 307. 23 Public Record Office (hereafter PRO), Kew, FO 800/493, cable from Bevin to British ambassador in Washington, 23 December 1947. 24 Ibid. Notes 159

25 Trades Union Congress Report (hereafter TUCR), 1948, pp. 441–51; TUCR 1949, pp. 329–39. The vote for the 1949 resolution from the Amalgamated Union of Foundry Workers was combined with that for a resolution wel- coming the TUC’s withdrawal from the WFTU from the National Union of General and Municipal Workers, (p. 327). The resolution supporting the TUC’s policy received 6 258 000 votes, while that against only received 1 017 000 votes, (p. 339). 26 TUCR, 1948, p. 446. 27 Allen, Trade Union Leadership, pp. 306–7; TUCR, 1948, pp. 446–51. 28 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.18/1 memo on the ‘ERP International Trade Union Machinery’, March 1949. 29 Ibid. 30 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/901/8 meeting of the International Committee, 17 February 1948. 31 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.18/1 report of phone call from Oldenbroek, leader of the International Transport Workers Federation to the TUC, 19 February 1948. 32 PRO, FO 371/71806, cable from Bevin to the British ambassador to Washington, 19 February 1948. 33 Labour, London: TUC, March 1948, p. 197. 34 Cable from US ambassador to London to Lovett, 21 February 1948, quoted in Carew, ‘Schism’, p. 314. 35 Keesings Contemporary Archives, 1946–8, Vol. VI, London: Keesings, 1948, p. 9294. 36 Busch, The Political Role of International Trades Unions, p. 67. 37 PRO, FO, 371/72855, UNE 2315/387/93, note from W. Braine at the British embassy in Rome to Herbert Gee, the Labour Official at the FO, 14 May 1948. 38 Busch, The Political Role of International Trades Unions, p. 68. 39 Ibid. 40 TUC, CIO, NVV, Free Trade Unions leave the WFTU, London: TUC, 1949, Forward, p. 3. 41 WFTU, Free Trade Unions Remain in the WFTU, Paris: WFTU, 1949, pp. 13, 2 and 5. 42 Keesings Contemporary Archives, 1948–50, Vol. VII, p. 10760. 43 Keesings Contemporary Archives, 1950–52, Vol. VIII, p. 11231. 44 Carew, ‘The Schism within the World Federation of Trade Unions: Govern- ment and Trade-Union Diplomacy’; Weiler, ‘The United States, Inter- national Labor, and the Cold War: The Breakup of the World Federation of Trade Unions’. 45 Busch, The Political Role of International Trades Unions; Lewis Lorwin, The International Labour Movement, New York: Harper, 1953; John Windmuller, American Labor and the International Labor Movement 1940–1953, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1954. 46 Michael Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987; Imanuel Wexler, The Marshall Plan Revisited: The European Recovery Program in Economic Perspective, London: Greenwood, 1983. 47 Wexler, The Marshall Plan Revisited, p. 39. 160 Notes

48 Carew, ‘The Schism within the World Federation of Trade Unions: Government and Trade-Union Diplomacy’, pp. 319 and 319–35. 49 Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, p. 118. 50 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.11/1 ‘Declaration of the ERP Trade Union Con- ference’, 10 March 1948. 51 Ibid. 52 Ibid. 53 Ibid. 54 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.11/1 ‘Resolution on Continuing Machinery, International Trade Union Conference on the ERP’, 9–10 March 1948. 55 Reported in the TUC publication, Labour, June 1948. 56 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.18/1 report of phone call from Oldenbroek of the ITF to the TUC, 19 February 1948. 57 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.11/1 report of 3rd ERPTUAC meeting, 29 June 1948. 58 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.18/1 memo of meeting between Schevenels and Marjolin, 24 March 1949. 59 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.18/2 Bevin to Tewson, 11 October 1948 and TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.11/1, report of 5th ERPTUAC meeting, 22 January 1949. 60 Kees van der Pijl, The Making of an Atlantic Ruling Class, London: Verso, 1984, p. 150. 61 Thomas Finletter to Averell Harriman, 2 August 1948, papers of the Mutual Security Agency, RG 286/53A405/Box 1/File: Special Representative’s Office, 1948, cited in Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, p. 119. 62 See WFTU, Free Trade Unions Remain in the WFTU. 63 Hogan, The Marshall Plan, p. 202. 64 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.151/3 minutes of 4th ERPTUAC meeting, 22 September 1948 and 292/564.11/1 report of the 4th ERPTUAC meeting. 65 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.151/3 press statement by AFL, ‘A.F. of L. Opposes Schevenels in TUAC Post’, 2 February 1949. 66 Article by Lois Starch in the New York Times, 28 January 1949, see TUC file MRC, MSS 292/564.151/3. 67 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.151/3 letter from Tewson to Green of AFL, 28 January 1949 and Jouhaux to Green, 2 March 1949. 68 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.18/2 Bevin to Tewson, 11 October 1948. 69 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.1/1 minutes of ERPTUAC meeting 29 June 1948. 70 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.1/1 see comments by Harriman at ERPTUAC meeting of 29 June 1948 and press release by ECA, 5 July 1948. 71 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.1/1 calendar of meetings for 1948. 72 Cited in Harry Price, The Marshall Plan and Its Meaning, New York: Cornell University Press, 1955, p. 247. 73 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.11/2 ‘Report of Activities’ of the ERPTUAC, April 1950. 74 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.151/4. Copies of the bulletins can be found in the file 292/564.171/1. 75 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.11/2 ‘Report of the Activities’ of the ERPTUAC, April 1950. 76 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.11/2 report of the 7th ERPTUAC Meeting, 20 April 1950. Notes 161

77 Ibid. 78 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.11/1 ‘Declaration of the ERP Trade Union Conference’, 10 March 1948. 79 These clauses of the Foreign Assistance Act can be found in full in the Royal Institute of International Affairs, Documents on European Recovery and Defence, March 1947–April 1949, London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1949, pp. 40, 50–1 and 54. 80 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.11/1 draft report of 2nd meeting of the ERPTUAC, London, 23 April 1948. 81 Compare the above with the ‘Report of the Second Meeting of the ERPTUAC’ London, 23 April 1948. 82 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.18/2 Nordahl to Tewson, 19 May 1948. 83 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.1/2 text of Bland Bill. 84 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.11/1 Report of Joint Meeting of ERPTUAC Emergency Committee and International Trade Secretariats, 12 March 1949. 85 TUCR, 1948, p. 181. 86 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/901/8 International Committee document 5/3, 20 April 1948, World Federation of Trade Unions: Part III, Press Statements, pp. 11–14. 87 WFTU, Free Trade Unions Remain in the WFTU, Paris: WFTU, 1949, pp. 13, 2 and 5. 88 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/901/9 International Committee document 5/3, 23 May 1950, WFTU ‘Disruptive Activity’. 89 WFTU, Free Trade Unions Remain in the WFTU, p. 39. 90 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/910/9 Minutes of ICFTU Executive Board, 25–27 May 1950. 91 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/564.1/3 Resolution on the Marshall Plan, adopted by the ERPTUAC, 31 January 1951. 92 Ibid.

7 The Anglo-American Council on Productivity

01 Anthony Carew, ‘The Anglo-American Council on Productivity (1948–52): The Ideological Roots of the Post-War Debate on Productivity in Britain’, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 26, No. 1, 1991, pp. 49–69. 02 Anthony Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan: The Politics of Productivity and the Marketing of Management Science, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987, Chap. 9. 03 Jim Tomlinson, ‘The Failure of the Anglo-American Council on Productivity’, Business History, Vol. 33, No. 1, January 1991, p. 83. 04 Alec Cairncross, Years of Recovery: British Economic Policy, 1945–51, London: Methuen, 1985, p. 499. 05 Paul Hoffman, Peace Can Be Won, London: Michael Joseph, 1951, p. 89. 06 Ibid. 07 TUC files, Modern Records Centre (hereafter MRC), University of Warwick, MSS 292/552.31/1 Minutes of 1st Meeting of AACP, 25 August 1948. 08 Charles Maier, ‘The Politics of Productivity: Foundations of American Inter- national Economy Policy after World War II’, International Organization, Vol. 31, 1977, pp. 607–33. 162 Notes

09 Hoffman, Peace Can Be Won, p. 76. 10 Ibid., p. 91. 11 Ibid. 12 Peter Burnham, The Political Economy of Postwar Reconstruction, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990, p. 99; Carew, ‘The Anglo-American Council on Productivity’, p. 53. 13 TUC files, MRC, MSS 292/552.372/1 AACP (UK Section), Report of the Council, T. J. Hutton, 14 December 1949. 14 TUC files, MRC, MSS 292/552.372/1 ‘Productivity – Policy respecting Publicity’, T. J. Hutton, 13 December 1949. 15 Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947, Vol. III, Washington: Department of State, 1972, US ambassador in London to Secretary of State, 11 August 1948, p. 1116. 16 For information on the economic situation, see Cairncross, Years of Recovery, and George Worswick and Peter Ady (eds), The British Economy, 1945–1950, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952. 17 For information on the production campaign, see Paul Addison, Now the War is Over, London: BBC and Jonathan Cape, 1985, pp. 185–9. 18 The Federation of British Industries was the predecessor to the current Confederation of British Industries, and as such was a respected pressure group in British politics as the largest employers’ organization. The British Employers Confederation was a smaller and less high-profile organization. 19 Figures collated from TUC files, MRC MSS 292/552.31/1 minutes of 4th Meeting of AACP (UK Section), 13 January 1949. 20 TUC files, MRC, MSS 292/552.31/1 minutes of 3rd Meeting of AACP (UK Section), 14 December 1948. 21 TUC files, MRC, MSS 292/552.31/1 Report of the 1st Session of the AACP, p. 5. 22 TUC files, MRC, MSS 292/552.31/1 Final Report of the AACP, published pam- phlet, London: AACP, 1951. 23 L. Rostas, Comparative Productivity in British and American Industry, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1948, preface p. ix. Emphasis in the original. 24 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.31/1 Report of 1st Session of AACP, p. 3. 25 Ibid. 26 W. Campbell Balfour, ‘Productivity and the Worker’, British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 4, No. 3, 1953, p. 262. 27 Jim Tomlinson, ‘Human Relations and Productivity, 1947–51’, in Nick Tiratsoo and Jim Tomlinson, Industrial Efficiency and State Intervention, London: Routledge, 1993, p. 90. 28 Carew, ‘The Anglo-American Council on Productivity (1948–52)’, p. 52. Emphasis in the original. 29 TUC, MRC MSS 292/552.31/1 Final Report of the AACP. 30 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.31/1 Report of the 3rd Session of the AACP, October 1950, published pamphlet by the AACP, appendix. 31 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.31/1 Meeting of Joint Secretaries of UK Section, 20 December 1951. 32 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.31/1 minutes of 5th Meeting of AACP UK side, 1 February 1949. 33 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.31/1 minutes of 1st meeting of TUC General Council members of AACP, 13 December 1948. Notes 163

34 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.3/1 confidential memo from Sir Norman Kipping to Tewson and Burton, 31 January 1949. 35 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.37/2a letter from E. Harries, Organization Department of the TUC, to Sir Thomas Hutton of the AACP. He notes that when the Amalgamated Union of Foundry Workers complained about the selection of workers for the Ironfoundry productivity team being imposed on them, the trade association representing the employers replied, ‘We are *** well paying, so we are *** well saying.’ 36 Carew, ‘The Anglo-American Council on Productivity: (1948–52)’, p. 56. For more information on selection of teams, see TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.37/2a. 37 Carew, ‘The Anglo-American Council on Productivity (1948–52)’, p. 55. See also Balfour ‘Productivity and the Worker’ on this. 38 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.31/1 National Production Advisory Council on Industry, (TUC General Council Side), 6/7, 9 May 1949. 39 Ibid. 40 Ibid. 41 Joseph Goldstone, unpublished MA thesis p. 7, held in the TUC Library, Congress House, Box HD21. 42 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.31/1 Notes on discussion 29 October 1948, 1st Session of AACP. 43 Ibid., p. 8. 44 Grey Ironfounding Productivity Team Report, London: AACP, 1950, p. 4, TUC Library Box HD21. 45 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.372/2b Observations on the Grey Ironfounding Productivity Team Report, Amalgamated Union of Foundry Workers, Manchester, circa 1950, p. 3, emphasis in the original. 46 Ibid., emphasis in the original. 47 Ibid., p. 8. 48 Noreen Branson, History of the Communist Party of Great Britain, 1941–1951, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1997, appendix II. 49 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.372/2a Production Committee 1, 2 November 1950. 50 Ibid. 51 Ibid. 52 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.372/2a Tewson to Gardner, 9 November 1950. 53 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.372/2a Hutton to Tewson, 13 November 1950. 54 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.3/5 Croydon Trades Council to TUC, 4 September 1948. 55 Trades Union Congress Report, (hereafter TUCR), 1948, p. 370. These com- ments were made by Haynes of the Amalgamated Union of Operative Bakers, Confections and Allied Workers, who was also the President of the Birmingham Trades Council. 56 FBI, MRC, MSS 200/F/3/D3/7/47 Observations on the Grey Ironfounding Productivity Team Report, AUFW, 1950, p. 3. 57 Labour Monthly, No. 30, September 1948, p. 266. 58 Comments by Margaret Hudson in World News and Views, 14 August 1948, pp. 342–3, cited in Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, p. 255. 59 Balfour, ‘Productivity and the Worker’, p. 265. 164 Notes

60 Ibid. 61 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.372/2a Memo on Consultants’ Report, 16 November 1950. 62 William Gomberg Papers, British Library of Political and Economic Science, at the London School of Economics, Coll. Misc. 579. 63 Ibid. 64 TUC, MRC, MSS 292/552.372/2a Memo on Consultants’ Report, 16 November 1950. 65 Carew ‘The Anglo-American Council on Productivity’, p. 64. 66 Ibid. 67 Tomlinson, ‘The Failure of the AACP’ p. 85, emphasis in the original. 68 Stephen Broadberry and Nicholas Crafts, ‘British Economic Policy and Industrial Performance in the Early Post-War Period’, Business History, Vol. 38, No. 4, 1996, pp. 83–4. 69 Peter Stirk, ‘Americanism and Anti-Americanism in British and German Responses to the Marshall Plan’, in Peter Stirk and David Willis (eds), Shaping Postwar Europe: European Unity and Disunity, 1945–1957, London: Pinter, 1991, pp. 30–1. 70 Jim Tomlinson, ‘A Missed Opportunity? Labour and the Productivity Problem, 1945–51’, in Geoffrey Jones and Maurice Kirby (eds), Competitive- ness and the State: Government and Business in Twentieth-Century Britain, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1991, p. 46. 71 Jim Tomlinson, ‘Productivity Policy’, in Helen Mercer, Nick Rollings and Jim Tomlinson (eds), Labour Governments and Private Industry, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992, p. 48. 72 Ibid., p. 50. 73 Tomlinson, ‘Human Relations and Productivity, 1947–51’ in Tiratsoo and Tomlinson, Industrial Efficiency and State Intervention, p. 96. 74 Broadberry and Crafts, ‘British Economic Policy and Industrial Performance in the Early Post-War Period’, p. 79. 75 Nicholas Crafts, ‘ “You’ve never had it so good?”: British Economic Policy and Performance, 1945-60’, in Barry Eichengreen (ed.), Europe’s Postwar Recovery, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 254. He also points out that the Conservatives, on returning to power in 1951, followed the same policy toward the trade unions. 76 Carew, ‘The Anglo-American Council on Productivity’, p. 67. 77 Graham Hutton, We Too Can Prosper, published for the British Productivity Council, London: Allen & Unwin, 1953, p. 18. 78 Ibid., p. 202. 79 Richard Crossman, ‘Towards a Philosophy of Socialism’, in Richard Crossman (ed.), New Fabian Essays, London: Turnstile Press, 1952, p. 4. 80 The Labour Party’s analysis anticipated views of authors such as Lash and Urry, who have pointed out that the need to modernize British industry arose because management structures were weak. British industry had developed in such a way that it had organized quickly at the bottom, that is in terms of the development of labour into trade unions, but had only orga- nized slowly at the top in terms of management structures (Scott Lash and John Urry, The End of Organized Capitalism, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987, p. 42). Chandler points out that, while a new type of managerial hierarchy Notes 165

emerged in Germany and the US in late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, this did not occur in Britain, where industry continued to be run by owners through a system of personal enterprize rather than a profes- sional managerial class (Alfred Chandler, Strategy and Structures: Chapters in the History of the Industrial Enterprise, Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1962, p. 28). This situation was compounded by the development of relatively small markets compared with those of the US. 81 Kenneth O. Morgan, Labour People: Leaders and Lieutenants, Hardie to Kinnock, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987, p. 175. 82 Stirk, ‘Americanism and Anti-Americanism’, p. 31. 83 Steven Fielding, ‘ ‘‘To Make Men and Women Better Than They Are”: Labour and the Building of Socialism’, in Jim Fyrth (ed.), Labour’s Promised Land? Culture and Society in Labour Britain 1945–51, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1995, p. 19, referring to an article in the Daily Herald, 30 April 1945. 84 Ibid., p. 22, referring to the Daily Herald, 23 October 1944. 85 Labour Party Annual Conference Report, 1948, p. 130. 86 Ibid., p. 131. 87 William Crofts, Coercion or Persuasion? Propaganda in Britain after 1945, London: Routledge, 1989, pp. 27 and 73. 88 Ibid., p. 73. 89 TUCR, 1948, speech by Chancellor of the Exchequer Cripps, p. 362. 90 TUC files, MRC, MSS 292/552.31/1 Report of the 2nd Session of the AACP, p. 9. 91 TUC, Labour, November 1949, pp. 500–2. 92 Stirk, ‘Americanism and Anti-Americanism’, p. 31. 93 Carew, ‘The Anglo-American Council on Productivity (1948–52)’, p. 54. See also TUC, MRC, MSS 292/659 and 292/552.1, Report of the AACP Full Council, 26–29 October 1948. 94 Maier, ‘The Politics of Productivity’, p. 627. 95 Stirk, ‘Americanism and Anti-Americanism’, p. 32. 96 Jim Tomlinson, ‘The “Americanisation” of Productivity, 1948–51’, in Tiratsoo and Tomlinson, Industrial Efficiency and State Intervention, Chap. 7. See also Kees van der Pijl, The Making of an Atlantic Ruling Class, London: Verso, 1984; and Stirk, ‘Americanism and Anti-Americanism’.

8 State Power, Labour and the Marshall Plan in Britain

01 Anthony Payne and Andrew Gamble, ‘Introduction’, in Payne and Gamble (eds), Regionalism and World Order, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996, p. 7. 02 Randall Germain and Michael Kenny, ‘International Relations Theory and the New Gramscians’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 24, No. 1, 1998, p. 18. 03 Michael Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987, p. 444. 04 Robert Putnam, ‘Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games’, Appendix in Peter Evans, Harold Jacobson and Robert Putnam, Double-Edged Diplomacy: International Bargaining and Domestic Politics, 166 Notes

Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993, pp. 431–68; Jean-Francois Bayart, The State in Africa: the Politics of the Belly, London: Longman, 1993, pp. 21–3. 05 G. John Ikenberry, ‘Rethinking the Origins of American Hegemony’, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 104, No. 4, 1989, p. 391. 06 Keith Middlemas, Politics in Industrial Society: The Experience of the British System Since 1911, London: Andre Deutsch, 1979; James Hinton, Labour and Socialism, London: Wheatsheaf, 1983; Richard Hyman, Industrial Relations: A Marxist Introduction, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1975, and The Political Economy of Industrial Relations: Theory and Practice in a Cold Climate, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1989. 07 Middlemas, Politics in Industrial Society, p. 18. 08 Ibid., p. 20. 09 Ibid., p. 21. 10 Hyman, Industrial Relations, p. 143. 11 David Marquand, John Macintosh and David Owen, Change Gear! Towards a Socialist Strategy, supplement to Socialist Commentary, October 1967, p. xv, quoted in Radhika Desai, Intellectuals and Socialism: ‘Social Democrats’ and the Labour Party, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1994, p. 155. 12 Charles Maier, ‘The Politics of Productivity: Foundations of American International Economic Policy after World War II’, International Organiza- tion, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1977, p. 615. 13 While generalizations are regarded as useful, counterfactuals are less so. See, however, Niall Ferguson (ed.), Virtual History: Alternatives and Counter- factuals, London: Papermac/Macmillan, 1998. 14 Craig Murphy, International Organization and Industrial Change: Global Governance since 1850, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994, p. 237. 15 Harold van B. Cleveland, ‘If There Had Been No Marshall Plan’, in Stanley Hoffman and Charles Maier (eds), The Marshall Plan: A Retrospective, Boulder, Colarado: Westview Press, 1984, p. 64. 16 See Harold Jacobson, ‘The United States and the UN System: the Hegemon’s Ambivalence about its Appurtenances’, in Robert Cox (ed.), The New Realism: Perspectives on Multilateralism and World Order, London: Macmillan for the United Nations University Press, 1997, p. 167. 17 Paul Hoffman, Peace Can Be Won, London: Michael Joseph, 1951, p. 130. 18 Robert Wood, From Marshall Plan to Debt Crisis. Foreign Aid and Development Choices in the World Economy, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986, p. 29. 19 Charles A. Cerami (ed.), A Marshall Plan for the 1990s. An International Roundtable on World Economic Development, New York: Praeger, 1989. Bibliography

Manuscript collections

Modern Records Centre, University of Warwick Amalgamated Union of Engineering Workers (Foundry Section), MSS 41 Coventry Trades Council Papers, MSS 5 Federation of British Industries’ Papers, MSS 200 International Transport Workers’ Federation Papers, MSS 159 Iron and Steel Trades Confederation, MSS 36 David Michaelson Papers, MSS 233 National Union of Railwaymen Papers, MSS 127 Transport and General Workers’ Union Papers, MSS 126/T & G Trades Union Congress Papers, MSS 292

Public Record Office, Kew Foreign Office FO 371 General Correspondence FO 800 Private Collections – includes Bevin papers Ministry of Labour LAB 10 Industrial Relations Department

National Labour History Archive, Manchester Labour Party files

International Institute of Labour History, Amsterdam European Recovery Programme Trade Union Advisory Council papers

Private papers Ernest Bevin papers, Churchill College, Cambridge University Lord Citrine papers, The British Library of Political and Economic Science, London School of Economics William Gomberg papers, The British Library of Political and Economic Science, London School of Economics

Published documents

British Labour Statistics, Historical Abstract 1886–1968, London: HMSO, 1971 Documents on British Policy Overseas, Series I, Vol. VI, London: HMSO, 1991 Documents on European Recovery and Defence, March 1947–April 1949, London: Royal Institute of International Affairs, 1949 Foreign Relations of the United States, Washington D.C.: Department of State, var- ious volumes

167 168 Bibliography

Keesings’ Contemporary Archives, London: Keesings, various volumes Labour Party Annual Conference Reports, London: Labour Party, various volumes Parliamentary Debates (Hansard), London: HMSO, various volumes

Trade union publications

Constitution adopted by the World Federation of Trade Unions, Paris: WFTU, 1945 Free Trade Unions Leave the WFTU, London: TUC, 1949 Free Trade Unions Remain in the WFTU, Paris: WFTU, 1949 Information Bulletin, Paris: World Federation of Trade Unions, various years The International Transport Workers’ Journal, London: ITF, 1948 Labour, London: Trades Union Congress, various years Labour News Bulletin, Paris: ERPTUAC, August 1949 onwards Metalworker, Shop Stewards publication, 1949 onwards Observations on the Grey Ironfounding Productivity Team Report, Manchester: Amalgamated Union of Foundry Workers, circa 1950 Official Report of the Free World Labour Conference and of the First Congress of the International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, November–December 1949, London: Published by the TUC for the ICFTU, December 1949 Productivity Team Reports, London: AACP, various Reports of the AACP Sessions, London: AACP, various Spotlight: Uncensored News from the Dictatorship Countries, Brussels, International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, 1951–2 Trades Union Congress Reports, London: TUC, various volumes The Tactics of Disruption, London: TUC, March 1949

Unpublished works

Burnham, Peter, ‘The British State and Capital Accumulation 1945–1951’, PhD thesis, University of Warwick, 1987 Ellwood, David, ‘The Marshall Plan and the Culture of Growth’, paper presented at The Marshall Plan and its Consequences: a Fiftieth Anniversary Con- ference, University of Leeds, 23–24 May 1997 Hennessy, Bernard, ‘British Trade Unions and International Affairs 1945–53’, PhD thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1955 Parsons, Stephen, ‘Communism in the Professions: the Organisation of the British Communist Party among Professional Workers, 1933–56’, PhD thesis, University of Warwick, 1990 Norris, G., ‘Communism and British Politics, 1944–48’, MA thesis, University of Warwick, 1981 Schwartz, Morton, ‘Soviet Policy and the World Federation of Trade Unions, 1945–49’, PhD thesis, Colombia University, 1963 Silverman, Victor Isaac, ‘Stillbirth of a World Order: Union Internationalism from War to Cold War in the US and Britain, 1939–49’, PhD thesis, University of California, 1990 Wombwell, James, ‘Post-War Business-Labor Relations: The “Politics of Productivity” and the Anglo-American Council on Productivity’, paper Bibliography 169

presented at the Economic and Business History Society conference, Savannah, GA, 25 April, 1996

Books and articles

Adamthwaite, Anthony, ‘Britain and the World, 1945–9: The View from the Foreign Office’, International Affairs, Vol. 61, No. 2, 1985, 223–36 Addison, Paul, The Road to 1945: British Politics and the Second World War, London: Quartet Books, 1977 ———. Now the War is Over, London: BBC and Jonathan Cape, 1985 Allen, V. L., Power in Trade Unions, London: Longman, 1954 ———. Trade Union Leadership, London: Longman, 1957 ———. Trade Unions and the Government, London: Longman, 1960 Alcock, Anthony, History of the International Labour Organization, London: Macmillan, 1971 Ambrose, Stephen, Rise to Globalism: American Foreign Policy Since 1938, (5th edn), New York: Penguin, 1988 Anstey, Caroline, ‘The Projection of British Socialism: Foreign Office Publicity and American Opinion, 1945–50’, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 19, No. 3, 1984, 417–51 Attlee, Clement, The Labour Party in Perspective, London: Victor Gollancz, 1937 ———. As It Happened, London: Odhams Press, 1956 Augelli, Enrico and Craig Murphy, America’s Quest for Supremacy and the Third World: A Gramscian Analysis, London: Pinter, 1988 Bachrach, Peter and Morton, Baratz, ‘The Two Faces of Power’, American Political Science Review, Vol. 56, 1962, 947–52 ———. ‘Decisions and Non-decisions: An Analytical Framework’, American Political Science Review, Vol. 57, 1963, 641–57 Balfour, W. Campbell ‘Productivity and the Worker’, British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 4, No. 3, 1953, 257–65 Barclay, Sir Roderick, Ernest Bevin and the Foreign Office, London: Roderick Barclay, 1975 Barnes, Trevor, ‘The Secret Cold War: the CIA and American Foreign Policy in Europe, 1946–1956: Part I’, Historical Journal, Vol. 24, No. 2, 1981, 399–415 Barnes, Denis, and Eileen, Reid, ‘A New Relationship: Trade Unions in the Second World War’, in Ben Pimlott and Chris Cook (eds), Trade Unions in British Politics, London: Longman, 1982, pp. 149–68 Barnett, Correlli, The Lost Victory: British Dreams, British Realities 1945–1950, London: Pan Books, 1995 Bayart, Jean-Francois, The State in Africa: the Politics of the Belly, London: Longman, 1993 Bealey, Frank, The Social and Political Thought of the British Labour Party, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1970 Block, Fred, The Origins of International Economic Disorder, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1977 Branson, Noreen, History of the Communist Party of Great Britain, 1941–1951, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1997 170 Bibliography

Braverman, Harry, Labor and Monopoly Capital, New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974 Brett, Teddy, Steve Gilliatt and Andrew Pople, ‘Planned Trade, Labour Party Policy and US Intervention: The Success and Failures of Post-War Reconstruction’, History Workshop, Vol. 13, 1982 Broadberry, Stephen and Nicholas Crafts, ‘Explaining Anglo-American Productivity Differences in the Mid-Twentieth Century’, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, Vol. 52, No. 4, 1990, 375–402 ———. ‘British Economic Policy and Industrial Performance in the Early Post- War Period’, Business History, Vol. 38, No. 4, 1996, 65–91 Brown, William and Redver Opie, American Foreign Assistance, Washington, D.C.: Brookings, 1953 Bullock, Alan, The Life and Times of Ernest Bevin, Volume 1, Trade Union Leader, 1880–1940, London: Heinemann, 1960 ———. The Life and Times of Ernest Bevin, Volume 2, Minister of labour, 1940–1945, London: Heinemann, 1967 ———. Ernest Bevin, Foreign Secretary, 1945–1951, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985 Burawoy, Michael, The Politics of Production, London: Verso, 1985 Burnham, Peter, The Political Economy of Postwar Reconstruction, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990 ———. ‘Neo-Gramscian Hegemony and International Order’, Capital and Class, Vol. 45, 1991, 73–79 Busch, Gary K., Political Currents in the International Trade Union Movement: Volume 2, The Third World, London: The Economist Intelligence Unit, Special Report No. 75, 1980 ———. The Political Role of International Trade Unions, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1983 Butler, David and Gareth Butler, British Political Facts, 1900–1985 6th edn, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1986 Cairncross, Alec, Years of Recovery: British Economic Policy 1945–51, London: Methuen, 1985 ———. The British Economy since 1945: Economic Policy and Performance, 1945–1995 2nd edn, Oxford: Blackwell, 1995 Caldor, Angus, The People’s War: Britain 1939–45, London: Cape, 1969 Callaghan, John, Socialism in Britain, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1990 ———. ‘Towards Isolation: the Communist Party and the Labour Government’, in Jim Fyrth (ed.), Labour’s Promised Land? Culture and Society in Labour Britain 1945–51, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1995, pp. 88–99 Caparaso, James A., ‘Across the Great Divide: Integrating Comparative and Inter- national Politics’, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 4, 1997, 563–92 Caporaso, James and Stephen Haggard, ‘Power in the International Political Economy’ in Richard Stoll and Michael Ward (eds), Power in World Politics, Boulder, Col: Lynne Rienner, 1989, pp. 99–120 Carew, Anthony, ‘The Schism within the World Federation of Trade Unions: Government and Trade Union Diplomacy’, International Review of Social History, Vol. 29, No. 3, 1984, 297–335 ———. Labour Under the Marshall Plan. The Politics of Productivity and the Marketing of Management Science, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987 Bibliography 171

———. ‘The Anglo-American Council on Productivity (1948–52): The Ideological Roots of the Post-war Debate on Productivity’, Journal of Contemporary History, Vol. 26, No. 1, 1991, 49–69 Cerami, Charles A. (ed.), A Marshall Plan for the 1990s. An International Roundtable on World Economic Development, New York: Praeger, 1989 Chandler, Alfred, Strategy and Structures: Chapters in the History of the Industrial Enterprise, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1962 Citrine, Walter, Two Careers: A Second Volume of Autobiography, London: Hutchinson, 1967 Clarke, Richard, Anglo-American Economic Collaboration in War and Peace 1942–1949, (edited by Alec Cairncross), Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982 Clegg, Hugh, A History of British Trade Unions, Volume III, 1934–1951, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994 Cleveland, Harold van B., ‘If There Had Been No Marshall Plan … ’, in Stanley Hoffman and Charles Maier (eds), The Marshall Plan: A Retrospective, Boulder: Westview Press, 1984, pp. 59–64 Cliffe, Tony and Donny Gluckstein, The Labour Party: A Marxist History 2nd edn, London: Bookmarks, 1996 Coates, David, The Labour Party and the Struggle for Socialism, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975 Coates, Ken, ‘The Vagaries of Participation’, in Ben Pimlott and Chris Cook (eds), Trade Unions in British Politics, London: Longman, 1982, pp. 171–87 Comor, Edward, Communication, Commerce and Power: The Political Economy of America and the Direct Broadcasting Satellite, 1960–2000, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998 Cox, Robert, ‘Labor and Transnational Relations’, in Robert Keohane and Joseph Nye (eds), Transnational Relations and World Politics, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1971, pp. 204–34 ———. ‘Labor and Hegemony’, International Organization, Vol. 31, No. 3, 1977, 385–424 ———. ‘Social Forces, States, and World Orders: Beyond International Relations Theory’, Millennium, Vol. 10, 1981, 126–55 ———. ‘Gramsci, Hegemony, and International Relations’, Millennium, Vol. 12, 1983, 162–75 ———. Production, Power, and World Order: Social Forces in the Making of History, New York: Columbia University Press, 1987 ———. ‘Towards a Post-hegemonic Conceptualization of World Order: Reflections on the Relevance of Ibn Khaldun’, in James Rosenau and Ernst- Otto Czempiel (eds), Governance without Government: Order and Change in World Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, 132–59 ______. (ed.) The New Realism: Perspectives on Multilateralism and World Order, London: Macmillan for the United Nations University Press, 1997 Cox, Robert with Timothy Sinclair, Approaches to World Order, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996 Crafts, Nicholas, ‘“You’ve never had it so good?”: British economic policy and performance, 1945–60’, in Barry Eichengreen (ed.), Europe’s Postwar Reconstruction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 246–70 Craig, F. W. S. (ed.), British General Election Manifestos, 1918–1966, Chichester: Political Reference Publications, 1970 172 Bibliography

Crofts, William, Coercion or Persuasion? Propaganda in Britain after 1945, London: Routledge, 1989 Crossman, Richard, New Fabian Essays, London: Turnstile Press, 1952 Croucher, Richard, Engineers at War, London: Merlin Press, 1982 Cunningham, Michael, ‘“From the Ground Up”?: The Labour Governments and Economic Planning’, in Jim Fyrth (ed.), Labour’s High Noon: The Government and the Economy 1945–51, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1993, pp. 3–19 Dahl, Robert, Congress and Foreign Policy, New York: Harcourt, Brace and Co., 1950 ———. ‘The Concept of Power’, Behavioural Science, Vol. 2, 1957, 201–15 Davis Smith, Justin, ‘The Struggle for Control of the Airwaves: the Attlee Governments, the BBC and Industrial Unrest, 1945–51’, in A. Gorst, L. Johnman and W. Scott Lucas (eds), Post-War Britain, 1945–64: Themes and Perspectives, Pinter: London, 1989, pp. 53–67 ———. The Attlee and Churchill Administrations and Industrial Unrest, 1945–1955, London: Pinter, 1990 Deakin, Arthur, Democracy versus Communism, London: TGWU, 1948 ———. ‘The International Trade Union Movement’, International Affairs, Vol. 26, No. 2, April 1950, 167–71 Di Biagio, Anna, ‘The Marshall Plan and the Founding of the Cominform, June- September 1947’, in Francesca Gori and Silvio Pons, The Soviet Union and Europe in the Cold War, 1943–53, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996, pp. 208–221 Donahue, George, Focus on a Communist Front: the Truth about the World Federation of Trade Unions, London: Phoenix House, 1958 Durcan, James, William McCarthy and G. P. Redman, Strikes in Post-War Britain: A Study of Stoppages of Work due to Industrial Disputes, 1946–73, London: Allen & Unwin, 1983 Eichengreen, Barry (ed.), Europe’s Postwar Recovery, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995 Ellwood, David, ‘From “Re-education” to the Selling of the Marshall Plan in Italy’, in N. Pronay and K. Wilson (eds), The Political Re-education of Germany and Her Allies after World War II, London: Croom Helm, 1985, pp. 219–39 ———. ‘The Marshall Plan and the Politics of Growth’, in Peter Stirk and David Willis (eds), Shaping Post War Europe: European Unity and Disunity, 1945–1957, London: Pinter, 1991, pp. 15–26 ———. Rebuilding Europe: Western Europe, America and Postwar Reconstruction, London: Longman, 1992 Evans, Peter, Harold Jacobson and Robert Putnam (eds), Double-Edged Diplomacy: International Bargaining and Domestic Politics, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993 Fielding, Steven, ‘“To Make Men and Women Better than they Are”: Labour and the Building of Socialism, in Jim Fyrth (ed.), Labour’s Promised Land?: Culture and Society in Labour Britain, 1945–51, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1995 Fletcher, Richard, ‘How CIA Money Took the Teeth out of British Socialism’, in Philip Agee and Louis Wolf (eds), The CIA in Western Europe, Secaucus, NJ: 1978, pp. 188–200 ———. ‘British Propaganda Since World War II – A Case Study’, Media, Culture and Society, Vol. 4, April 1982, 97–109 Bibliography 173

Foreman-Peck, James, A History of the World Economy: International Economic Relations Since 1950 2nd edn, Hemel Hempstead, Herts: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1995 Fyrth, Jim (ed.), Labour’s High Noon: The Government and the Economy 1945–51, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1993 ———. (ed.), Labour’s Promised Land? Culture and Society in Labour Britain 1945–51, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1995 Gaddis, John Lewis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War 1941–1947, New York: Columbia University Press, 1972 ———. The Long Peace: Inquiries into the History of Cold War, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987 Gamble, Andrew, Britain in Decline: Economic Policy, Political Strategy and the British State 4th edn, London: Macmillan, 1994 Gamble, Andrew and Anthony Payne (eds), Regionalism and World Order, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996 Gardner, Richard, Sterling–Dollar Diplomacy: The Origins and Prospects of Our International Economic Order 2nd edn, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969 Germain, Randall and Michael Kenny, ‘Engaging Gramsci: International Theory and the New Gramscians’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 24, No. 1, 1998, 3–21 Gill, Stephen, American Hegemony and the Trilateral Commission, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990 ———. (ed.), Gramsci, Historical Materialism and International Relations Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993 ———. (ed.), Globalization, Democratization and Multilateralism, London: Macmillan for the United Nations University Press, 1997 Gilpin, Robert, War and Change in World Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981 ———. The Political Economy of International Relations, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1987 Gimbel, John, The Origins of the Marshall Plan Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1979 Godson, Roy, American Labor and European Politics: The AFL as a Transnational Force, New York: Crane, Russak & Co., 1976 Goldstein, Joseph, The Government of British Trade Unions, London: Allen & Unwin, 1952 Goodman, John and Terence Whittingham, Shop Stewards in British Industry, London: McGraw Hill, 1969 Gorden, Michael, Conflict and Consensus in Labour’s Foreign Policy, 1914–1965, Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1969 Gori, Francesca and Silvio Pons, The Soviet Union and Europe in the Cold War, 1943–53, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996 Goulden, Joseph, Meany, New York: Atheneum, 1972 Gourevitch, Peter, ‘The Second Image Reversed: the International Sources of Domestic Politics’, International Organization, Vol. 32, No. 4, 1978, 881–912 Gramsci, Antonio, Selections from Prison Notebooks, ed. and trans. by Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1971 Harris, Seymour, The European Recovery Program, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1948 174 Bibliography

Harrison, Martin, Trade Unions and the Labour Party Since 1945, London: Allen & Unwin, 1960 Harrod, Jeffrey, Trade Union Foreign Policy: A Study of British and American Trade Union Activities in Jamaica, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1972 Healey, Denis, ‘The International Socialist Conference, 1946–1950’, International Affairs, Vol. 26, No. 3, July 1950, 363–73 ———. The Time of My Life, London: Michael Joseph, 1989 ———. When Shrimps Learn to Whistle, Signposts for the Nineties, London: Penguin, 1991 Heaps, David, ‘Union Participation in Foreign Aid Programs’, Industrial and Labor Relations Review, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1955, 100–8 Hinton, James, ‘Coventry Communism’, History Workshop, Issue 10, 1980, 90–118 ———. Labour and Socialism: A History of the British Labour Movement 1867–1974, Brighton: Wheatsheaf, 1983 ———. Protests and Visions: Peace Politics in Twentieth Century Britain, London: Hutchinson Radius, 1989 ———. Shop Floor Citizens, Aldershot, Hants: Elgar, 1994 Hoffman, Paul, Peace Can Be Won, London: Michael Joseph, 1951 Hoffman, Stanley and Charles Maier (eds) The Marshall Plan: A Retrospective, Colorado: Westview Replica Press, 1984 Hogan, Michael, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987 Howell, David, British Social Democracy: A Study in Development and Decay, London: Croom Helm, 1976 Hulme, David and Michael Edwards, NGOs, States and Donors. Too Close for Comfort? Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997 Hutt, Allen, British Trade Unionism: A Short History 6th edn, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1975 Hutton, Graham, We Too Can Prosper, London: published for the British Productivity Council (formerly the AACP) by Allen & Unwin, 1953 Hyman, Richard, Industrial Relations: A Marxist Introduction, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1975 ———. The Political Economy of Industrial Relations: Theory and Practice in a Cold Climate, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1989 ———. ‘Praetorians and Proletarians: Unions and Industrial Relations’, in Jim Fyrth (ed.), Labour’s High Noon, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1993, pp. 165–194 Ikenberry, G. John, ‘Rethinking the Origins of American Hegemony’ Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 104, No. 4, 1989, 375–400 Jacobson, Harold, ‘The United States and the UN System: the Hegemon’s Ambivalence about its Appurtenances’, in Cox (ed.), The New Realism, pp. 165–85 Jeffery, Keith and Peter Hennessy, States of Emergency: British Governments and Strikebreaking since 1919, London: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1983 Jones, Bill, The Russia Complex: the British Labour Party and the Soviet Union, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1977 Jones, Joseph M., The Fifteen Weeks (February 21–June 5, 1947): An Inside Account of the Genesis of the Marshall Plan, New York: Viking, 1955. Bibliography 175

Kendall, Walter, The Labour Movement in Europe, London: Allen Lane, 1975 Kennan, George, Memoirs 1925–1950, New York: Pantheon, 1967 Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline, Stalin’s Cold War: Soviet Strategies in Europe, 1943 to 1956, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995 Keohane, Robert (ed.), After Hegemony, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1984 ———. Neorealism and Its Critics, New York: Columbia University Press, 1986 Kindleberger, Charles, Marshall Plan Days, Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987 Kolko, Joyce and Gabriel Kolko, The Limits of Power: the World and United States Foreign Policy, 1945–1954, New York: Harper & Row, 1972 Knowles, Kenneth, Strikes – A Study in Industrial Conflict, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1952 Krasner, Stephen D. (ed.), International Regimes, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983 LaFeber, Walter, America, Russia, and the Cold War 1945–1990 6th edn, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1991 Lash, Scott and John Urry, The End of Organized Capitalism, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987 Latham, Robert, The Liberal Moment: Modernity, Security, and the Making of Postwar International Order, New York: Columbia University Press, 1997 Leffler, Melvyn P., ‘The United States and the Strategic Dimensions of the Marshall Plan,’ Diplomatic History, Vol. 12, No. 3, 1988, 277–306 ———. A Preponderance of Power: National Security, the Truman Administration and the Cold War, Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 1992 Levinson, Charles, International Trade Unionism, London: Allen & Unwin, 1972 Lorwin, Lewis, The International Labour Movement, New York: Harper, 1953 Lucas, Scott W. and Catherine Morris, ‘A Very British Crusade: the Information Research Department and the Beginning of the Cold War’, in Richard Aldrich (ed.), British Intelligence, Strategy and the Cold War, 1945–51, London: Routledge, 1992, pp. 85–110 Lukes, Steven, Power: A Radical View, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1974 Lundestad, Geir, ‘Empire by Invitation? The United States and Western Europe, 1945–1952’, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1986, 263–77 ———. The American ‘Empire’, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990 MacShane, Denis, International Labour and the Origins of the Cold War, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992 Maier, Charles, ‘The Politics of Productivity: Foundations of American International Economic Policy after World War II’, International Organization, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1977, 607–33 ———. ‘The Two Postwar Eras and the Conditions for Stability in Twentieth- Century Western Europe’, American Historical Review, Vol. 96, No. 1, 1981, 327–67 ———. In Search of Stability: Explorations in Historical Political Economy, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987 Mercer, Helen, ‘The Labour Governments of 1945–51 and Private Industry’, in Nick Tiratsoo (ed.), The Attlee Years, London: Pinter, 1991, pp. 71–89 Mercer, Helen, Nick Rollings and Jim Tomlinson (eds), Labour Governments and Private Industry, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992 176 Bibliography

Michels, Robert, Political Parties: A Sociological Study of the Oligarchical Tendencies of Modern Democracy, New York: Dover, 1959 Middlemas, Keith, Politics in Industrial Society: The Experience of the British System Since 1911, London: Andre Deutsch, 1979 Miliband, Ralph, Parliamentary Socialism: A Study in the Politics of Labour 2nd edn, London: Merlin Press, 1972 Milward, Alan, The Reconstruction of Western Europe 1945–51, London: Methuen, 1984 Minkin, Lewis, The Contentious Alliance: Trade Unions and the Labour Party, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992 Miscamble, Wilson, George F. Kennan and the Making of American Foreign Policy, 1947–1950, Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1992 Morgan, Kenneth O., Labour in Power 1945–51, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985 ———. Labour People: Leaders and Lieutenants, Hardie to Kinnock, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987 Murphy, Craig, International Organization and Industrial Change: Global Governance since 1850, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994 ———. ‘Understanding IR: Understanding Gramsci’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 24, No. 3, July 1998, 417–25 Nichols, Theo, The British Worker Question, London: Routledge and Keegan Paul, 1986 Nicholson, Marjorie, The TUC Overseas: the Roots of Policy, London: Allen & Unwin, 1986 Northedge, F. S. and Audrey Wells, Britain and Soviet Communism: The Impact of a Revolution, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1982 Panitch, Leo, Social Democracy and Industrial Militancy: the Labour Party, the Trade Unions and Incomes Policy, 1945–1974, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976 Parrish, Scott, ‘The Turn Toward Confrontation: The Soviet Reaction to the Marshall Plan, 1947’, from Scott Parrish and Mikhail Narinsky, New Evidence on the Soviet Rejection of the Marshall Plan, 1947: Two Reports, Working Paper No. 9, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Centre for Scholars, 1994 Pelling, Henry, The Labour Governments, 1945–51, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1984 ———. Britain and the Marshall Plan, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1988 ———. A History of British Trade Unionism 5th edn, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1992 Pelling, Henry and Alastair Reid, A Short History of the Labour Party 11th edn, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996 Phillips, Jim, The Great Alliance: Economic Recovery and the Problems of Power 1945–51, London: Pluto Press, 1996 Pimlott, Ben, Hugh Dalton, London: Papermac/Macmillan, 1985 Pisani, Sallie, The CIA and the Marshall Plan, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1991 Pollard, Robert, Economic Security and the Origins of the Cold War, 1945–1950, New York: Columbia University Press, 1985 Price, Harry, The Marshall Plan and Its Meaning, New York: Cornell University Press, 1955 Bibliography 177

Putnam, Robert, ‘Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games’, Appendix in Evans, Jacobson and Putnam (eds), Double-Edged Diplomacy, pp. 431–68 Radosh, Ronald, American Labor and United States Foreign Policy, New York: Random House, 1969 Reed, Bruce and Geoffrey Williams, Denis Healey and the Policies of Power, London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1971 Reuther, Victor, The Brothers Reuther and the Story of the UAW, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1976 Roberts, Benjamin, National Wages Policy in War and Peace, London: Allen & Unwin, 1958 Roberts, Geoffrey, ‘Moscow and the Marshall Plan: Politics, Ideology and the Onset of the Cold War, 1947’, Europe–Asia Studies, Vol. 46, No. 8, 1994, 1371–86 Romero, Federico, The United States and the European Trade Union Movement, 1944–51, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1992 Rosenau, James N., Along the Domestic–Foreign Frontier: Exploring Governance in a Turbulent World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997 Rostas, L., Comparative Productivity in British and American Industry, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1948 Rostow, Walt W., ‘Lessons of the Plan’ in ‘The Marshall Plan and Its Legacy’, commemorative section, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 76, No. 3, 205–212 Ruggie, John Gerard, ‘International Regimes, Transactions, and Change: Embedded Liberalism in the Postwar Economic Order’, in Krasner (ed.), International Regimes, pp. 195–231 Rupert, Mark, Producing Hegemony: The Politics of Mass Production and American Global Power, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995 ———. ‘(Re-) Engaging Gramsci: a Response to Germain and Kenny’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 24, No. 3, July 1998, 427–34 Saville, John, The Labour Movement in Britain, A Commentary, London: Faber and Faber, 1988 ———. ‘Labour and Foreign Policy, 1945–1947’, Our History Journal, Journal of the History Group of the Communist Party, No. 17, May 1991, 18–32 Schattschneider, E. E., The Semi-Sovereign People: A Realist’s View of Democracy in America reissued edn, Hinsdale, Illinois: Dryden Press, 1975 Schneer, Jonathan, ‘Hopes Deferred or Shattered: The British Labour Left and the Third Force Movement, 1945–49’, Journal of Modern History, Vol. 56, No. 2, 1984, 197–226 ———. Labour’s Conscience: the Labour Left 1945–1951, Boston: Unwin & Hyman, 1988 Seyd, Patrick, The Rise and Fall of the Labour Left, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1987 Shaw, Eric, The Labour Party since 1945: Old Labour: New Labour, Oxford: Blackwell, 1996 Sheldrake, John, Industrial Relations and Politics in Britain, 1880–1989, London: Pinter, 1991 Showstack Sassoon, Anne, (ed.), Approaches to Gramsci, London: Writers and Readers, 1982 Smith, Lyn, ‘Covert British Propaganda: the Information Research Department: 1947–77’, Millennium, Vol. 9, No. 1, 67–83 178 Bibliography

Smith, Raymond and John, Zametica, ‘The Cold Warrior: Clement Attlee recon- sidered, 1945–7’, International Affairs, Vol. 61, No. 2, 1985, 237–252 Stirk, Peter, ‘Americanism and Anti-Americanism in British and German Responses to the Marshall Plan,’ in Stirk and Willis (eds), Shaping Postwar Europe, pp. 27–42 Stirk, Peter and David Willis (eds), Shaping Postwar Europe: European Unity and Disunity, 1945–1957, London: Pinter, 1991 Strange, Susan, States and Markets 2nd edn, London: Pinter, 1994 Taylor, Philip, ‘The Projection of Britain Abroad, 1945–51’, in Michael Dockrill and John Young (eds), British Foreign Policy, 1945–56, New York: St Martin’s Press, 1989, pp. 9–30 Taylor, Robert, The Trade Union Question in British Politics, Oxford: Blackwell, 1993 Thompson, Willie, The Good Old Cause: British Communism, 1920–1991, London: Pluto Press, 1992 Thomson, Don and Rodney Larson, Where Were You Brother? An Account of Trade Union Imperialism, London: War On Want, 1978 Tiratsoo, Nick (ed.), The Attlee Years, London: Pinter, 1991 Tiratsoo, Nick and Jim Tomlinson, Industrial Efficiency and State Intervention, London: Routledge, 1993 Toliday, Stephen and John Zeitlin (eds), Shop Floor Bargaining and the State: Historical and Comparative Perspectives, London: Routledge, 1993 Tomlinson, Jim, ‘The Labour Government and the Trade Unions, 1945–1951’, in Tiratsoo (ed.), The Attlee Years, pp. 90–105 ———. ‘A Missed Opportunity? Labour and the Productivity Problem, 1945–51’, in Geoffrey Jones and Maurice Kirby (eds), Competitiveness and the State, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1991, pp. 40–59 ———. ‘The Failure of the Anglo-American Council on Productivity’, Business History, Vol. 33, No. 1, 1991, 82–92 ———. ‘Productivity Policy’, in Mercer, Rollings and Tomlinson (eds.), Labour Governments and Private Industry ———. ‘Correlli Barnett’s History: the Case of Marshall Aid’, Twentieth Century British History, Vol. 8, No. 2, 1997, 222–38 Toynbee, Arnold, ‘A Turning-Point in the Cold War?’, International Affairs, Vol. 26, No. 3, 457–62 Truman, Harry S., Years of Trial and Hope, 1946–1953, London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1956 Tuo-Kofi Gadzey, Anthony, The Political Economy of Power: Hegemony and Economic Liberalism, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994 Van der Pijl, Kees, The Making of an Atlantic Ruling Class, London: Verso, 1984 ———. ‘Class Formation at the International Level’, Capital and Class, No. 9, 1979, 1–21 Wark, Wesley, ‘Coming in from the Cold: British Propaganda and Red-Army Defectors, 1945–1952’, International History Review, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1987, 48–72 Wallace, Betty, World Labour Comes of Age, London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1945 Warner, Geoffrey, ‘From “Ally” to Enemy: Britain’s Relations with the Soviet Union, 1941–8’, in Gori and Pons (eds), The Soviet Union and Europe in the Cold War, 1943–53, pp. 293–309 Bibliography 179

Wedin, Ake, International Trade Union Solidarity: the ICFTU 1957–1965, Stockholm: Prisma, 1974 Weiler, Peter, ‘The United States, International Labor, and the Cold War: The Breakup of the World Federation of Trade Unions’, Diplomatic History, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1981, 1–22 ———. ‘British Labour and the Cold War: the Foreign Policy of the Labour Governments, 1945–1951’, Journal of British Studies, Vol. 26, No. 1, 1987, 54–82 ———. British Labour and the Cold War, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988 ———. Ernest Bevin, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993 ———. ‘Britain and the First Cold War: Revisionist Beginnings’, Twentieth Century British History, Vol. 9, No. 1, 1998, 127–38 Wexler, Imanuel, The Marshall Plan Revisited: the European Recovery Programme in Economic Perspective, London: Greenwood, 1983 Wigham, Eric, Strikes and the Government 1893–1981 2nd edn, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1982 Windmuller, John P., American Labor and the International Labor Movement 1940–1953, Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1954 ———. Labor Internationals, Ithaca, NY: New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University, Bulletin 61, April 1969 ———. The International Trade Union Movement, Deventer: Kluwer, 1980 Wood, Robert, From Marshall Plan to Debt Crisis: Foreign Aid and Development Choices in the World Economy, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1986 Worswick, George and Peter Ady (eds), The British Economy, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952 Zeitlin, Jonathan, ‘From Labour History to the History of Industrial Relations’, Economic History Review, Vol. 40, 1987, 159–84 Zweig, Ferdynand, Productivity and Trade Unions, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1951 ———. The British Worker, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books, 1952 Index

Acheson, Dean, 22 anti-communism, 51–3, 66–7 Allen, Vic, 63, 74, 75, 93 and ERPTUAC, 106 Amalgamated Engineering Union and Foreign Office, 78, 82 (AEU), 64, 69, 73, 89 response to Marshall Plan, 21, 29, Amalgamated Union of Foundry 30, 31, 33 Workers (AUFW), 121–2 relationship with trade unions, 73, American Federation of Labor 78, 82–3, 87, 88–9 (AFL), 79 and Soviet Union, 50–3 and Bevin, 88–9, 96, 98 and WFTU, 80, 93, 96, 97, 98 anti-communism, 51, 72–3, see also foreign policy 85 Bidault, Georges, 30, 85 and international labour Bland Bill, 108–9 movement, 80, 81, 85, 95–8, Block, Fred, 11 99, 104–7, 110–11 Bonesteel, Charles, 32 supports Marshall Plan, 86 Branson, Noreen, 70, 71, 90 ‘American Way’, 30, 114 Bretton Woods, 25 Anglo-American Council on British Employers Confederation Productivity (AACP), 4, 112–31, (BEC), 115–16 134 British Labour government, xi, xii, and communists, 119, 123 xiii, 1, 14 criticism of, 123–6 anti-communism, 50–1, 66 discourse of productivity, 117–18, foreign policy, 49–50 123, 125–6 and Marshall Plan, 1–2, 14, 29, establishment and remit, 113–15, 145–53, 116–17 and modernization, 1, 126–31, The Foundations of High Productivity, 135 124 and organized labour/trade unions, productivity teams and reports, see trade unions 116–23, 124 and productivity, 112, 114–15, 128, TUC, see TUC 130–1, 134 We Too Can Prosper, 126 and Soviet Union, 35–6, 38, 49, Anglo-American Economic 51–3 Co-operation Agreement, 33 and strikes, 62–3, 66 Anstey, Caroline, 36 and United States, 12–13, 15, 46–7, Attlee, Clement, 49–50, 56, 57, 58, 133 66, 67, 71, 75, 79, 130 see also foreign policy Attlee government, see British Labour British Productivity Council, 126 government Broadberry, Steven, 125 Brown, Irving, 85, 96, 103 Balfour, W. Campbell, 123–4 Bullock, Alan, 61, 82–3 Barclay, Sir Roderick, 83 Burnham, Peter, 13, 46, 47, 114 Bayart, Jean-Francois, 141, 133 Busch, Gary, 95–6, 99, 100 Bevin, Ernest, 56–7, 80 Byrnes, James, 50

180 Index 181

Caffery, Jefferson, 31 convertibility crisis (1947), 46 Cairncross, Alec, 112 ‘corporate bias’, 134 ‘capitulation thesis’, xii, 35, 46 counterpart funds, 40–1, 48–9, 108 Caporaso, James, 7, 10 Cox, Robert, 8, 9, 15, 42 Cards on the Table, 71 Crafts, Nicholas, 125 Carew, Anthony, 16–18, 32, 41, 48–9, Cripps, Sir Stafford, 29, 113–14, 127, 87, 96, 101, 114, 118–19, 124, 130 130 Crossman, Richard, 35, 57, 59, 126 Carey, James, 94, 99, 103 Czech coup, 32, 38, 93 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 85 Office of Strategic Services (OSS), 81 Dahl, Robert, 8 Chester, George, 103 Dalton, Hugh, 56 Churchill, Winston, 37, 49–50, 79 Deakin, Arthur, 64, 65, 66, 73, 80, 83, Citrine, Walter, 50, 65, 76, 80–1 89, 93, 97, 99, 100, 116 Civil Service Clerical Association, Di Biagio, Anna, 33–4, 38 69, 72 Dixon, Pierson, 34 civil society, 10 dollar crisis/gap/shortage, 16, 25, 47, class, 113 compromise, 126, 134–5 dollar loans, 46 conflict/struggle, 13, 126, 134, 136 donor state, 133 relations, 15, 54 Douglas, Lewis, 33 structure, 15 Dutt, R. Palme, 90 Clayton, William, 25–6, 29, 32, 43 Clegg, Hugh, 73, 74, 75 Economic Co-operation Cleveland, Harold Van B., 138 Administration (ECA), 34, 40–1, cold war, 16, 21, 26, 27, 138 43, 45–6, 48, 106–7, 114–15, 116, and Marshall Plan, 3, 26, 38, 92 118, 122 and labour, 16–17, 73, 93 labour advisors, 85, 106 Cominform, 38, 69–70, 85, 87, 109 Office of the Special Representative Committee on European Economic (OSR), 104, 106 Co-operation (CEEC), 31–3, economic growth, 1, 5, 13–14, 23, 73, 42–3, 45 112, 134, 136–7 communism/communists, 13, 14, 17, Economic Information Unit, 128 26, 92–3, 104, 137 economic nationalism, 24 anti-communism, 1, 17, 35, 38, Eden, Anthony, 50 50–3, 104, 130, 133–4 Electrical Trades Union, 58, 69 anti-communist campaign in UK, Ellwood, David, 24, 29, 46 66–73 European Payments Union, 40 Marshall Plan and threat of, 24, European Recovery Programme, 26–7, 28 see Marshall Plan opposition to Marshall Plan, 22, 85, European Recovery Programme Trade 87, 109, 134 Union Advisory Committee Communist Party of Great Britain (ERPTUAC), 4, 92, 100–11, 134 (CPGB), 50, 59, 61, 67–72, 90–1, Evans, Lincoln, 116 100, 122, 123 extraversion, 14, 133 Comor, Edward, 9–10 Congress of Industrial Organizations Fabians, 126 (CIO), 80, 85, 86, 94, 100, 104 Federation of British Industries (FBI), Conservative Party (UK), 24, 56 115, 125 182 Index

Fenton, Frank, 103 Harriman Committee and Report, 87–8 Figgins, James, 65 Harrod, Jeffrey, 82 Finletter, Thomas, 160n Healey, Denis, 21, 52, 59, 68–9, 71, Fire Brigades Union, 69 83–4 Foot, Michael, 59 hegemony, xi, xii, 2–3, 7, 9, 10, 15, 132 Force Ouvrière, 55, 103, 104, 106 US, xii–xiii, 1, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12–13, Fordism, 130, 138 14, 16, 28, 46, 133, 136, 138 Foreign Assistance Act, 32, 39–41, 43, of labour leadership, 1, 14, 131, 135 45, 108–9 Hillman, Sidney, 80 Foreign Office, 34, 36, 51, 52, 88, Hinton, James, 56, 134 93 Hoffman, Paul, 28, 41, 106, 113–14, Information Research Department 116, 138 (IRD), 51–2, 84 Hogan, Michael, 12, 23–4, 30, 41, and the trade unions, 4, 78, 80, 82, 42–3, 100, 104, 132–3 83–4, 88–9, 93, 95, 98, 99 Holme, Stanley, 116 foreign policy (British), 49–50, Horner, Arthur, 65 criticism of foreign policy by the Hull, Cordell, 24–5 left, 3, 35–6, 54–61, 70, 86, human relations, 118 89–91 Hutton, Graham, 126 and the Marshall Plan, 1–2, 14, 29, Hutton, Sir Thomas, 116 45–53 Hyman, Richard, 62, 76–7, 82, 134, and Soviet Union, 35–6, 38, 49, 135 51–3 TUC and foreign policy, 82–4 Ikenberry, G. John, 12–13, 133 and United States, 12–13, 15, 133 incorporation, 134–5, 136 France, 41, 46, 85, 137 industrial action, see strikes Freedom First, 52 Information Research Department (IRD), 51–2, 84 Gaddis, John Lewis, 7, 24–5, 28, 36 International Bank for Reconstruction Gamble, Andrew, xi–xiii, 35 and Development (also World Gardner, Jim, 122 Bank), xii, 25 Gee, Herbert, 83–4 International Confederation of Free Germain, Randall, 9, 132 Trade Unions (ICFTU), 92, Gimble, John, 11 110–11, 134 globalization, 2 International Federation of Trade Golden, Clinton, 106 Unions (IFTU), 79 Goldstein, Joseph, 63–4 International Ladies Garment Workers Goldstone, Joseph, 120–1 Union, 124 Gomberg, William, 124 International Monetary Fund (IMF), Gourevitch, Peter, 6 xii, 25 Gramsci, Antonio, xii, 8, 9, 10, 15, International Trade Secretariats (ITSs), 132, 137 79, 107, 109 see also neo-Gramscians International Transport Workers Greece, 44, 58, 82 Federation (ITF), 79, 86 Green, William, 160n Italy, 46, 85

Hancock, Florence, 88 Jewell, Bert, 106 Harris, Seymour, 44–5 Jones, Joseph M., 11 Harriman, Averell, 27, 104, 106 Jouhaux, Leon, 103, 106 Index 183

Keep Left, 59–60, 71 reasons for, 22–8 Kennan, George, 20, 22, 32, 36–7 recipient states, 1, 6, 10, 39–45, Kenny, Michael, 9, 132 133, Keohane, Robert, 7 and Soviet Union, 3, 30–1, 33–4, 38 Kindleberger, Charles, 11 speech, 3, 19–22 Kipping, Sir Norman, 115–16 US hegemony, xii–xiii, 6–10, 133 Kolko, Gabriel and Joyce, 11–12 Meany, George, 80, 98 Korea, 46, 111 Middlemas, Keith, 134 Kupers, Evert, 100, 103, 107–8 Mikardo, Ian, 59 Milward, Alan, 12, 42, 46, 47 Labour attachés, 83 Minkin, Lewis, 76 labour movement, see trade unions Miscamble, Wilson, 27 labour, organized, see trade unions Molotov, V. M., 30, 33–4, 43, 85 Labour Party, 17, 54, 55–6, 136–7 ‘mobilization of bias’, 8, 136 anti-communism, 50–3, 70–3, Morgan, Kenneth O., 77 135 Morrison, Herbert, 59, 68–9, 127–8, election manifesto, 24, 49 130 left-wing rebellion over foreign multilateralism, 12, 20, 24–5, 42, 48 policy, 35–6, 55–61 Murphy, Craig, 15, 137 modernization, 126–31, 135 see also British Labour government Naesmith, Andrew, 116 Lawther, Will, 65, 116 National Union of General and Leffler, Melvyn, 27 Municipal Workers, 64 liberalism, embedded, 25 National Union of Miners (NUM), Lorwin, Lewis, 100 64–5, 69 Lundestad, Geir, 12 National Union of Railwaymen (NUR), 58, 64–5, 69 MacShane, Denis, 16–17, 50–1, 93 Nederlands Verbond van Maier, Charles, 1, 12, 13, 113, 130, 136 Vakverenigingen (NVV), 72–3, Marjolin, Robert, 103 100, 103, 107 Marshall, George C., 19–22, 25, 27, neo-Gramscians, 2–3, 7, 8, 9–10, 14, 106 15–16, 132, 139 Marshall Plan, 2–5, 6 neoliberalism, 16, 25 aid – scale and allocation of, 3, New Deal, 21, 23–4 43–5 Nordahl, Konrad, 108–9 aims of, 2, 28, 39–43 anti-communism, 52, 71, 134, 136 Office of Strategic Services (OSS), 81 in Britain, 1, 3, 46–53 Office of the Special Representative in and cold war, 3, 26, 38, 92 Europe (OSR), 104, 106 communism, 26–8 Oldenbroek, J. H., 159n educational campaign, 104–10 Organisation for European Economic European response, 3, 28–33 Co-operation (OEEC), 33, 42, ideological aspects, 23–4, 28, 136 102–4, 107 impact of, 15, 138–9 and international trade union Papworth, Bert, 69, 73 movement, 92–111 Pelling, Henry, 55, 74 literature on, 11–18 Phillips, Morgan, 70 and ‘politics of productivity’, 1, 13, Platts-Mills, John, 60 15, 131, 134, 126 Pollitt, Harry, 70 184 Index

Policy Planning Staff, see State scientific management, 15, 127, Department 129–30 postwar world order, xii, 1, 11, 12, 15, Seyd, Patrick, 54, 59 18, 25, 39, 111 Shishkin, Boris, 106 Potsdam Conference, 50 Silverman, Victor, 82 power, xii, 1, 8, 46 social consensus, 24 power relationship, 10, 132 social contract, 54, 66, 135–6 productive, 9 social forces, 7, 9, 15 state, 3, 136–7 Social Democratic parties, 15 Price, Harry, 11 socialism, British, 126–31 Pritt, D. N., 60 social reform, 66, 76 productivity, 14 social welfare, 24, 54, 121 AACP and, 112–31 Soviet Union, 27, 30–1, 35–6, 85 British Labour government and, and Marshall Plan, 3, 30–1, 33–4, 112, 114–15, 128, 130–1, 38 134 relations with US, 37–8 discourse of productivity, 5, 117–18, Special Branch, 119 123, 125–6, 130 Stalin, Joseph, 38 ‘politics of productivity’, 1, 4–5, 13, state, the, 8, 10, 136 15, 18, 113, 131, 134, 136 in Britain, 25, 54, 84, 135, 137 Profintern, see Red International of state–society relations, 135 Labour Unions states, propaganda, 51 donor, 133 AACP and, 112 recipient, 133 communist, 109 State Department, US, ERPTUAC, 4, 104–11 and the CEEC, 32, 43 IRD and, 51–3, 84 and international trade union labour and, 17 movement, 95, 98 Marshall Plan and anti-communist Policy Planning Staff (PPS), 20, 22, propaganda campaign, 4, 92 26–7 Putnam, Robert, 10, 133 State–War–Navy Co-ordinating Committee, 22–3, 26–7 Red International of Labour Unions Stirk, Peter, 127, 130 (RILU), also known as Profintern, strikes, 79 anti-Marshall Aid, 85 Reed, Philip, 116, 121 in Britain, 62–3, 66–7 Reuther, Victor, 85, 116 Roberts, Frank, 37 Tanner, Jack, 65, 116 Roberts, Geoffrey, 33 Tewson, Vincent, 65, 86, 99–100, Romero, Frederico, 16 102–3, 105–6, 108, 115–16, 122 Roosevelt, F. D., 21, 23 Third Force, 57–9 Rosenau, James, 6–7 Tomlinson, Jim, 74, 112, 118, 124–5 Ruggie, John Gerard, 25 Tracey, Herbert, 52 Rupert, Mark, 15–16 trades unions/union movements Rust, Bill, 70 (see also under names of individual unions) Saillant, Louis, 97, 99 American, 16 Schevenels, Walter, 105–6 Belgium, 96–7 Schneer, Jonathan, 59–60 Dutch, see NVV Index 185 trades unions/union movements – Truman administration, 15 continued attitude towards Soviet Union, 36–8 French, 85 Truman Doctrine, 21, 38, 90, 94 Italian, 85, 104, 108 Truman, Harry S., 37, 43 Norwegian, 108–9 two-level games, 10, 133 Soviet, 87, 93, 99 trades unions/union movement, Union of Shop, Distributive and British, 1, 3–4, 14 Allied Workers, 64 anti-communism and, 50–3, 64–5, United Automobile Workers, 116 67–73, 104, 130, 133–4, 135 United Nations, 56 far left in, 4, 14, 55, 60–1, 67–73, United States, 88, 89–91, 123, 131, 133–4 and Britain, 12–13, 15, 46–7, 133 and foreign policy, 16, 54–61, 82–4 hegemony, xii–xiii, 1, 6, 7, 10, 11, international role, 78–82 12–13, 14, 16, 28, 46, 133, 136, and Labour government, 1, 3–4, 138 54–5, 61–2, 64–7, 73–7, 84, 89, and Soviet Union, 27, 35–37 134–7 see also Truman and State leadership of, 1, 14, 17, 50, 53, 61, Department 63–5, 129–31, 137 and Marshall Plan, xiii, 2, 4, 14, 15, Van der Pijl, Kees, 11, 15–16 16–18, 28–9, 53, 73, 78, 84–91 wages policy, 66 organization of, 63–5 Wark, Wesley, 51–2 rank and file, 54–5, 59, 63–4, We Too Can Prosper, 126 89–91, 97 Webb, Sidney and Beatrice, 126 strikes, 62–3, 66–7 Weiler, Peter, 16, 52, 56, 82, 84, 85, Trades Union Congress, 15, 64, 65–6 101 AACP, 115–16, 120, 122–5, 129–31 Wexler, Imanuel, 40, 41, 100 anti-communism and, 50–3, 72–3, Williamson, Tom, 65, 67, 116 134 Windmuller, John, 100 ERP conference, 95–104 World Bank (also IBRD), xii, 25 ERPTUAC, 4, 101–11 World Federation of Trade Unions and the Foreign Office, 4, 78, 80, (WFTU), 15, 79–82, 85–7, 82, 83–4, 88, 89, 96, 98, 99 89, 91, 92–101, 109, 110–11, international role, 4, 78–82 134 and Marshall Plan, 86–9, 92–111, 133 Yalta, 23 WFTU, 15, 78–82, 92–100, 134 Transport and General Workers Zilliacus, Konni, 60 Union, 51, 63–4, 69, 73, 90 Zweig, Ferdynand, 75–6