Notes Introduction 1 Charles Maier, ‘The Politics of Productivity: Foundations of American Inter- national Economic Policy after World War II’, International Organization, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1977, pp. 607–33. 2 For example, Robert Cox, Production, Power and World Order: Social Forces in the Making of History, New York: Columbia University Press, 1987; and Kees van der Pijl, The Making of An Atlantic Ruling Class, London: Verso, 1984. 3 Respectively, Henry Pelling, Britain and the Marshall Plan, London: Macmillan, 1988; Anthony Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987. 4 See, respectively, Michael Hogan, The Marshall Plan: America, Britain, and the Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1947–1952, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987; Alan Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–1951, London: Methuen, 1984, and Imanuel Wexler, The Marshall Plan Revisited: the European Recovery Programme in Economic Perspective, London: Greenwood, 1983. 5 In particular Robert Cox, ‘Labor and Hegemony’, International Organization, Vol. 31, No. 3, 1977, pp. 385–424, and Production, Power and World Order; Mark Rupert, Producing Hegemony: the Politics of Mass Production and American Global Power, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995. 1 International Politics, Domestic Politics and the Marshall Plan 1 Peter Gourevitch, ‘The Second Image Reversed: the International Sources of Domestic Politics’, International Organization, Vol. 32, No. 4, 1978, p. 911. 2 James N. Rosenau, Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier: Exploring Governance in a Turbulent World, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997, p. 3. 3 Ibid., p. 4. 4 James A. Caporaso, ‘Across the Great Divide: Integrating Comparative and International Politics’, International Studies Quarterly, Vol. 41, No. 4, 1997, pp. 563–4, referring to Kenneth Waltz, Man, the State, and War, New York: Columbia University Press, 1959, and Waltz, Theory of International Politics, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1979. 5 Robert Keohane, After Hegemony, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984, p. 31. 6 John Lewis Gaddis, The Long Peace: Inquiries Into the History of the Cold War, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987, pp. 60–1. 7 Robert Cox, ‘Labor and Hegemony’, International Organization, Vol. 31, No. 3, 1977, p. 387. 140 Notes 141 08 Antonio Gramsci, Selections from Prison Notebooks, Quintin Hoare and Geoffrey Nowell Smith (eds and trans), London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1971, p. 57. 09 Susan Strange, States and Markets, 2nd edn, London: Pinter, 1994, pp. 24–5. 10 Robert A. Dahl, ‘The Concept of Power’, Behavioural Science, Vol. 2, 1957, pp. 202–3. 11 Steven Lukes, Power: A Radical View, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1974. 12 Peter Bachrach and Morton Baratz, ‘Two Faces of Power’, American Political Science Review, Vol. 56, 1962, pp. 947–52, and ‘Decisions and Non- decisions: an Analytical Framework’, American Political Science Review, Vol. 57, 1963, pp. 632–42. 13 E. E. Schnattschneider, The Semi-Sovereign People: A Realist’s View of Demo- cracy in America, (reissued edn), Hinsdale, Illinois: Dryden Press, 1975, p. 69, emphasis in original. 14 Lukes, Power, p. 23. 15 Robert Cox, ‘Towards a Post-hegemonic Conceptualisation of World Order: Reflections on the Relevancy of Ibn Khaldun’, in James Rosenau and Ernst- Otto Czempiel (eds), Governance without Government: Order and Change in World Politics, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992, p. 140. 16 Ibid. 17 Gramsci, Prison Notebooks, p. 161. 18 Anthony Tuo-Kofi Gadzey, The Political Economy of Power: Hegemony and Economic Liberalism, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1994, p. 29. 19 Stephen Gill, ‘Epistemology, ontology and the “Italian school” ’, in Stephen Gill (ed.), Gramsci, Historical Materialism and International Relations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, p. 22. 20 See Mark Rupert, Producing Hegemony: The Politics of Mass Production and American Global Power, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, p. 39. 21 Randall D. Germain and Michael Kenny, ‘Engaging Gramsci: International Relations and the New Gramscians’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 24, No. 2, 1998, p. 5. 22 Edward A. Comor, Communication, Commerce and Power: The Political Economy of America and the Direct Broadcast Satellite, 1960–2000, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998, pp. 201–2. 23 Robert Putnam, ‘Diplomacy and Domestic Politics: The Logic of Two-Level Games’, Appendix in Peter Evans, Harold Jacobson and Robert Putnam (eds), Double-Edged Diplomacy: International Bargaining and International Politics, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1993, p. 459. 24 Ibid., p. 436. 25 Caporaso, ‘Across the Great Divide’, p. 567. 26 This is one of the criticisms of the ‘new Gramscians’ made by Germain and Kenny in ‘Engaging Gramsci: International Relations Theory and the New Gramscians’, p. 19. 27 John Gimbel, The Origins of the Marshall Plan, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1979; Joseph M. Jones, The Fifteen Weeks (February 21–June 5, 1947): An Inside Account of the Genesis of the Marshall Plan, New York: Viking, 1955; Charles Kindleberger, Marshall Plan Days, Boston: Allen & Unwin, 1987; 142 Notes Harry Price, The Marshall Plan and Its Meaning, New York: Cornell University Press, 1955. 28 Fred Block, The Origins of International Economic Disorder, Berkeley: University of California, 1977; Joyce and Gabriel Kolko, The Limits of Power; the World and United States Foreign Policy, 1945–1954, New York: Harper & Row, 1972; Kees van der Pijl, The Making of an Atlantic Ruling Class, London: Verso, 1985. 29 Kolko and Kolko, The Limits of Power, pp. 359, 376 and 712. 30 Block, The Origins of International Economic Disorder, p. 91. 31 Alan Milward, The Reconstruction of Western Europe, 1945–51, London: Methuen, 1984, pp. 465–6, 469. 32 Charles Maier, ‘The Politics of Productivity: Foundations of American International Economic Policy after World War II’, International Organiza- tion, Vol. 31, No. 4, 1977, pp. 607–33, and ‘The Two Postwar Eras and the Conditions for Stability in Twentieth-Century Western Europe’, American Historical Review, Vol. 96, No. 1, 1981, pp. 327–67; Geir Lundestad, ‘Empire by Invitation? The United States and Western Europe, 1945–1952’, Journal of Peace Research, Vol. 23, No. 3, 1986, and Lundestad, The American ‘Empire’, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990; G. John Ikenberry, ‘Rethinking the Origins of American Hegemony’, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 104, No. 4, 1989, pp. 375–400. 33 Maier, ‘The Politics of Productivity’, p. 630. 34 Lundestad, ‘Empire by Invitation?’, p. 263, and The American ‘Empire’, p. 56. 35 Ikenberry, ‘Rethinking the Origins of American Hegemony’, p. 376. 36 Ibid., p. 392. 37 Ibid., pp. 391, 399. 38 Ibid., p. 394. 39 Maier, ‘The Politics of Productivity’, p. 607. 40 Maier, ‘Two Postwar Eras’, p. 345. 41 Maier, ‘The Politics of Productivity’, p. 615. 42 Peter Burnham, The Political Economy of Postwar Reconstruction, Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990, pp. 97–8. 43 Maier, ‘Two Postwar Eras’, p. 347. 44 The terms ‘hard’ or ‘militant’ left will be used at times for the sake of ease of analysis, denoting those on both the communist and non-communist ‘far left’ of the movement. These two terms are unsatisfactory in that they can be interpreted in a value-laden way, and so ‘far left’ will be used most often. However, they are used in other studies of the 1945 Labour govern- ment, for example, Jonathan Schneer, ‘Hopes Deferred or Shattered: The British Labour Left and the Third Force Movement, 1945–49’, Journal of Modern History, Vol. 56, No. 2, 1984, p. 214. 45 Jean-Francois Bayart, The State in Africa: the Politics of the Belly, London: Longmans, 1993, pp. 21–3. 46 While it is of course difficult to give an exhaustive and/or definitive list of literature falling within the neo-Gramscian approach, examples would include: Robert Cox, ‘Social Forces, States and World Orders; Beyond International Relations Theory’, Millennium, Vol. 10, 1981, pp. 126–55, and ‘Gramsci, Hegemony, and International Relations’, Millennium, Vol. 12, 1983, pp. 162–75, and Production, Power and World Order, New York: Columbia Notes 143 University Press, 1987; Stephen Gill, American Hegemony and the Trilateral Commission, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990, and Gill (ed.), Gramsci, Historical Materialism and International Relations, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993; Craig Murphy, International Organization and Industrial Change: Global Governance since 1850, Cambridge: Polity Press, 1994; Rupert, Producing Hegemony. See also Germain and Kenny, ‘Engaging Gramsci’. 47 Cox, Production, Power and World Order, p. 214. 48 Ibid., p. 215. 49 Murphy, International Organization and Industrial Change, p. 238, citing Gramsci, Selections from Prison Notebooks, p. 161. 50 Van der Pijl, The Making of an Atlantic Ruling Class, p. 138. 51 Ibid., p. 146. 52 Ibid., p. 150. 53 Ibid., p. 154. 54 Rupert, Producing Hegemony, p. 44. 55 Ibid., p. 46. 56 Ibid., p. 58. 57 Anthony Carew, Labour Under the Marshall Plan: The Politics of Productivity and the Marketing of Management Science, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987; Dennis MacShane, International Labour and the Origins of the Cold War, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992; Federico Romero, The United States and the European Trade Union Movement, 1944–51, University of North Carolina Press, 1992; Peter Weiler, British Labour and the Cold War, Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988. 58 MacShane, International Labour and the Origins of the Cold War, p. 162. 59 Weiler, British