ASM Handbook Volume 15: Casting (#05115G) W ASM Handbook

Volume 15 Casting

Prepared under the direction of the ASM International Handbook Committee

Editorial Committee Srinath Viswanathan, University of Alabama, Chair Diran Apelian, Worcester Polytechnic Institute Raymond J. Donahue, Mercury Marine Babu DasGupta, National Science Foundation Michael Gywn, ATI Inc John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc Raymond W. Monroe, Steel Founders’ Society of America Mahi Sahoo, CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory Thomas E. Prucha, American Foundry Society Daniel Twarog, North American Die Casting Association

Steve Lampman, Project Editor Charles Moosbrugger, Editor Eileen DeGuire, Editor Madrid Tramble, Senior Production Coordinator Ann Britton, Editorial Assistant Diane Whitelaw, Production Coordinator Kathryn Muldoon, Production Assistant Scott D. Henry, Senior Product Manager Bonnie R. Sanders, Manager of Production

Editorial Assistance Elizabeth Marquard Heather Lampman WPR Indexing Service

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the written permission of the copyright owner.

First printing, December 2008

This book is a collective effort involving hundreds of technical specialists. It brings together a wealth of information from worldwide sources to help scientists, engineers, and technicians solve current and long-range problems. Great care is taken in the compilation and production of this Volume, but it should be made clear that NO WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING, WITHOUT LIMITATION, WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, ARE GIVEN IN CONNECTION WITH THIS PUBLICATION. Although this information is believed to be accurate by ASM, ASM cannot guarantee that favorable results will be obtained from the use of this publication alone. This publication is intended for use by persons having technical skill, at their sole discretion and risk. Since the conditions of product or material use are outside of ASM’s control, ASM assumes no liability or obligation in connection with any use of this information. No claim of any kind, whether as to products or information in this publication, and whether or not based on negligence, shall be greater in amount than the purchase price of this product or publication in respect of which damages are claimed. THE REMEDY HEREBY PROVIDED SHALL BE THE EXCLUSIVE AND SOLE REMEDY OF BUYER, AND IN NO EVENT SHALL EITHER PARTY BE LIABLE FOR SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES WHETHER OR NOT CAUSED BY OR RESULTING FROM THE NEGLIGENCE OF SUCH PARTY. As with any material, evaluation of the material under end-use conditions prior to speciﬁcation is essential. Therefore, speciﬁc testing under actual conditions is recommended.

Nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a grant of any right of manufacture, sale, use, or reproduction, in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or system, whether or not covered by letters patent, copyright, or trademark, and nothing contained in this book shall be construed as a defense against any alleged infringement of letters patent, copyright, or trademark, or as a defense against liability for such infringement.

Comments, criticisms, and suggestions are invited, and should be forwarded to ASM International.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

ASM International

ASM Handbook Includes bibliographical references and indexes Contents: v.1. Properties and selection—irons, steels, and high-performance alloys—v.2. Properties and selection—nonferrous alloys and special-purpose materials—[etc.]—v.21. Composites

1. Metals—Handbooks, manuals, etc. 2. Metal-work—Handbooks, manuals, etc. I. ASM International. Handbook Committee. II. Metals Handbook. TA459.M43 1990 620.1’6 90-115 SAN: 204-7586

ISBN-13: 978-0-87170-711-6 ISBN-10: 0-87170-711-X

ASM InternationalW Materials Park, OH 44073-0002 www.asminternational.org

Printed in the United States of America

Multiple copy reprints of individual articles are available from Technical Department, ASM International. © 2008 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. ASM Handbook Volume 15: Casting (#05115G) www.asminternational.org

Dedicated to the memory of JOSEPH R. DAVIS (1954–2007) Editor, Metals Handbook, 1982–1991 © 2008 ASM International. All Rights Reserved. ASM Handbook Volume 15: Casting (#05115G) www.asminternational.org

Foreword

In this revision of ASM HandbookW Volume 15 on casting, ASM International is indebted to the volunteer efforts of the Volume 15 Editorial Committee and over 150 participants who helped as authors or reviewers. Their professional commitment and efforts represent a continuing devotion to the practice of metalcasting and the publication of peer consensus information on it. Special thanks are extended to Srinath Viswanathan, University of Alabama, for recruiting an outstanding Editorial Committee with Diran Apelian, Worcester Polytechnic Institute; Babu DasGupta, National Science Foundation, Raymond J. Donahue, Mercury Marine; Michael Gywn, ATI Inc.; John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc.; Raymond W. Monroe, Steel Founders’ Society of America; Thomas E. Prucha, American Foundry Society; Kumar Sadayappan and Mahi Sahoo, CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory; Edward S. Szekeres, Casting Consultants Incorporated; and Daniel Twarog, North American Die Casting Association. We thank them and the other contributors for this publication.

Dianne Chong President ASM International

Stanley C. Theobald Managing Director ASM International

Policy on Units of Measure

By a resolution of its Board of Trustees, ASM International has units would be presented in dual units, but the sheet thickness specified adopted the practice of publishing data in both metric and customary that specification might be presented only in inches. U.S. units of measure. In preparing this Handbook, the editors have Data obtained according to standardized test methods for which the attempted to present data in metric units based primarily on Syste`me standard recommends a particular system of units are presented in the International d’Unite´s (SI), with secondary mention of the corresponding units of that system. Wherever feasible, equivalent units are also pre- values in customary U.S. units. The decision to use SI as the primary sys- sented. Some statistical data may also be presented in only the original tem of units was based on the aforementioned resolution of the Board of units used in the analysis. Trustees and the widespread use of metric units throughout the world. Conversions and rounding have been done in accordance with IEE/ For the most part, numerical engineering data in the text and in tables ASTM SI-10, with attention given to the number of significant digits in are presented in SI-based units with the customary U.S. equivalents in the original data. For example, an annealing temperature of 1570 F con- parentheses (text) or adjoining columns (tables). For example, pressure, tains three significant digits. In this case, the equivalent temperature stress, and strength are shown both in SI units, which are pascals (Pa) would be given as 855 C; the exact conversion to 854.44 C would with a suitable prefix, and in customary U.S. units, which are pounds not be appropriate. For an invariant physical phenomenon that occurs at per square inch (psi). To save space, large values of psi have been con- a precise temperature (such as the melting of pure silver), it would be verted to kips per square inch (ksi), where 1 ksi = 1000 psi. The metric appropriate to report the temperature as 961.93 C or 1763.5 F. In some tonne (kg Â 103) has sometimes been shown in megagrams (Mg). Some instances (especially in tables and data compilations), temperature values strictly scientific data are presented in SI units only. in C and F are alternatives rather than conversions. To clarify some illustrations, only one set of units is presented on art- The policy of units of measure in this Handbook contains several work. References in the accompanying text to data in the illustrations are exceptions to strict conformance to IEEE/ASTM SI-10; in each instance, presented in both SI-based and customary U.S. units. On graphs and the exception has been made in an effort to improve the clarity of the charts, grids corresponding to SI-based units usually appear along the left Handbook. The most notable exception is the use of g/cm3 rather than and bottom edges. Where appropriate, corresponding customary U.S. kg/m3 as the unit of measure for density (mass per unit volume). units appear along the top and right edges. SI practice requires that only one virgule (diagonal) appear in units Data pertaining to a specification published by a specification-writing formed by combination of several basic units. Therefore, all of the units group may be given in only the units used in that specification or in dual preceding the virgule are in the numerator and all units following the vir- units, depending on the nature of the data. For example, the typical yield gule are in the denominator of the expression; no parentheses are required strength of steel sheet made to a specification written in customary U.S. to prevent ambiguity.

Preface

From the preceding Volume 5 (1970) of the 8th Edition Metals Handbook on sand casting is expanded relative to the previous edition with the and the 9th Edition Metals Handbook Volume 15 (1988) on casting, this intention of providing a reference that may be helpful as a Handbook provides an update on the continuing advances in casting communication tool between product designers and metalcasters in technologies and applications. Casting, as both a science and practical developing successful and economical products. tool in art and technology, is enormously varied in scope. It is impossible to capture the full scope of casting technology in one volume. This Volume consists of 18 sections. The first section introduces the historical development of metal casting, as well as to the advantages of The main focus of this Volume is on the products and processes of castings over parts produced by other manufacturing processes, their foundry (shape) casting, although primary (ingot or continuous casting) of applications, and the current market size of the industry. This includes steel and aluminum are also covered. In addition, continuous casting of an article on “Metalcasting Technology and the Purchasing Process” copper is described in an article, as copper continuous casting was a written by Al Spada and the technical staff of the American Foundry precursor to steel and aluminum continuous casting in some respects. Society. Then, the principles and practice of melt processing are Some of the articles on melt processing, such as the articles on “Electric described in the next three sections followed by a section on principles Arc Furnace Melting” and “Steel Melt Processing,” also briefly describe of solidification including nucleation kinetics, fundamentals of growth, primary production of cast metal. transformation behavior, and microstructure development. Solid-state processing of casting, such as heat treat treatment and hot isostatic Shape casting of metal is dominated by cast iron, which constitutes pressing, are also introduced. This is followed by a section on the just over 70% of the worldwide production of castings on a tonnage “Modeling and Analysis of Casting Processes.” basis (See Table 2 in the first article “History and Trends of Metal Casting”). This is followed by steel, copper-alloy, and aluminum-alloy Like the previous edition, traditional subjects such as patterns, castings, which make up about 25% on the worldwide tonnage of molding and casting processes, foundry equipment, and processing casting production. Magnesium and zinc are on the order of 1% or less. considerations are extensively covered in the next sections. As noted, The dominance of just a few alloys in shape casting is due to the fact coverage on sand casting has been consolidated and expanded. For that successful and economic shape casting typically involves alloy example, the major method of shell molding is described in an compositions near a eutectic. The lower melting points and narrower article—based on an update of a still largely valid 1970 handbook freezing range of near-eutectic compositions promote better castability. (Volume 5) article. New updates are also provided on processes growing in use, such as squeeze casting, lost-foam casting, semisolid Since the 1988 edition of Volume15, several developments have metal forming, and low-pressure casting. The latter is particularly occurred (see Table 5 in the first article “History and Trends of Metal important in producing quality products, as described by John Casting”). Of these developments, computer technology continues to Campbell in the article “Filling and Feeding Concepts.” shorten development time and help simulate the casting process. Automation and robotic technology also has improved the productivity Finally, the last five sections describe the major types of cast alloys in and process control of casting. In terms of processes, semisolid term of processing and the properties and characteristics of cast ferrous processing, squeeze casting, lost-foam, vacuum molding, and various and nonferrous alloys. Emphasis is placed on cast iron, cast steel, dies casting technologies continue to improve and finds new aluminum, copper, and zinc. The last section covers the quality aspects applications. These important topics are updated in this Volume. For of cast products and the processing of castings. nonferrous alloys, high-pressure die casting of aluminum is a major It is hoped that this Handbook is a useful work of peer-consensus area of expansion and update in this volume. reference information for the producers, designers, and buyers of In addition, coverage on sand casting is expanded and consolidated in castings. Many thanks are extended to all the contributors and the this Volume with major articles on “Green Sand Molding,” No-Bake editors who worked on this Volume. This publication would not have Sand Molding,” and “Shell Molding and Shell Coremaking.” Bonded been possible without their commitment and effort. sand mold casting, although well-established for many years, is the most widely used method of casting on a tonnage basis. Improvement Srinath Viswanathan in methods and materials continue to provide better yields, University of Alabama productivity, and product quality. The sand system is also a major Chair, Volume 15 Editorial Committee factor in the economics of large-volume, production casting. Coverage

Ofﬁcers and Trustees of ASM International (2007–2008)

Dianne Chong Trustees Digby D. Macdonald President and Trustee Sue S. Baik-Kromalic Penn State University The Boeing Company Honda of America Subhash Mahajan Roger J. Fabian Christopher C. Berndt Arizona State University Vice President and Trustee Swinburne University of Technology Charles A. Parker Bodycote Thermal Processing Brady G. Butler Honeywell Aerospace Lawrence C. Wagner University of Utah Megan M. Reynolds Immediate Past President and Trustee Danniel P. Dennies Washington State University Texas Instruments Inc (retired) The Boeing Company Mark F. Smith Paul L. Huber Leigh C. Duren Sandia National Laboratories Treasurer and Trustee Worcester Polytechnic Institute Jon D. Tirpak Seco/Warwick Corporation Pradeep Goyal ATI Stanley C. Theobald Pradeep Metals Ltd. Secretary and Managing Director ASM International

Members of the ASM Handbook Committee (2007–2008)

Larry D. Hanke The Timken Company Toby V. Padﬁeld (2004–) (Chair 2006–; Member 1994–) Jon L. Dossett (2006–) ZF Sachs Automotive of America Materials Evaluation and Engineering Inc. Consultant Charles A. Parker (2007–) Kent L. Johnson David U. Furrer (2006–) Honeywell Aerospace (Vice Chair 2006–; Member 1999–) Rolls-Royce Corporation Elwin L. Rooy (2007–) Engineering Systems Inc. Lee Gearhart (2005–2008) Elwin Rooy & Associates Viola L. Acoff (2005–) Moog Inc. Karl P. Staudhammer (1997–) University of Alabama Ernest W. Klechka (2006–) Los Alamos National Laboratory David E. Alman (2002–2008) Lloyd Register Capstone Inc. Kenneth B. Tator (1991–) National Energy Technology Laboratory Alan T. Male (2003–) KTA-Tator Inc. Tim Cheek (2004–) University of Kentucky George F. Vander Voort (1997–) DELTA (v) Forensic Engineering William L. Mankins (1989–) Buehler Ltd. Lichun Leigh Chen (2002–) Metallurgical Services Inc. Technical Materials Incorporated Dana J. Medlin (2005–2008) Sarup K. Chopra (2007–) South Dakota School of Mines and Technology Nook Industries Joseph W. Newkirk (2005–) Craig Clauser (2005–) University of Missouri-Rolla Craig Clauser Engineering Consulting Incorporated Cory J. Padﬁeld (2006–) Craig V. Darragh (1989–) Hyundai America Technical Center Inc. Chairs of the ASM Handbook Committee

J.F. Harper R.W.E. Leiter T.D. Cooper (1923–1926) (Member 1923–1926) (1962–1963) (Member 1955–1958, (1984–1986) (Member 1981–1986) W.J. Merten 1960–1964) D.D. Huffman (1927–1930) (Member 1923–1933) D.J. Wright (1986–1990) (Member 1982–) L.B. Case (1964–1965) (Member 1959–1967) D.L. Olson (1931–1933) (Member 1927–1933) J.D. Graham (1990–1992) (Member 1982–1988, C.H. Herty, Jr. (1966–1968) (Member 1961–1970) 1989–1992) (1934–1936) (Member 1930–1936) W.A. Stadtler R.J. Austin J.P. Gill (1969–1972) (Member 1962–1972) (1992–1994) (Member 1984–1985) (1937) (Member 1934–1937) G.J. Shubat W.L. Mankins R.L. Dowdell (1973–1975) (Member 1966–1975) (1994–1997) (Member 1989–) (1938–1939) (Member 1935–1939) R. Ward M.M. Gauthier G.V. Luerssen (1976–1978) (Member 1972–1978) (1997–1998) (Member 1990–2000) (1943–1947) (Member 1942–1947) G.N. Maniar C.V. Darragh J.B. Johnson (1979–1980) (Member 1974–1980) (1999–2002) (Member 1989–) (1948–1951) (Member 1944–1951) M.G.H. Wells Henry E. Fairman E.O. Dixon (1981) (Member 1976–1981) (2002–2004) (Member 1993–) (1952–1954) (Member 1947–1955) J.L. McCall Jeffrey A. Hawk N.E. Promisel (1982) (Member 1977–1982) (2004–2006) (Member 1997–) (1955–1961) (Member 1954–1963) L.J. Korb Larry D. Hanke (1983) (Member 1978–1983) (2006–2008) (Member 1994–)

Authors and Contributors

University of Birmingham, UK Alan P. Druschitz Kevin R. Anderson Paul G Campbell University of Alabama at Birmingham Mercury Marine Metaullics Systems Division Pyrotek, Inc. Cor van Ettinger Princewill N. Anyalebechi Robert D Carnahan Gieterij Doesburg Padnos College of Engineering & Computing, Thixomat Inc. Henry “Ed” Fairman Grand Valley State University Sujoy Chaudhury Cincinnati Metallurgical Consultants Diran Apelian Honeywell International, Inc. Edward W. Flynn Metal Processing Institute, Worcester K. K. Chawla General Motors Polytechnic Institute University of Alabama At Birmingham Jim Frost Lars Arnberg Leigh Chen ACIPCO (American Cast Iron Pipe Norwegian University Of Science & Company) Technology Technical Materials Incorporated Yeou-Li Chu Richard Fruehan Henry Bakemeyer Carnegie Mellon University Die Casting Design and Consulting Ryobi Die Casting Craig D. Clauser Rafael Gallo Bryan Baker Foseco Metallurgical Vulcan Engineering Co. Craig Clauser Engineering Consulting Incorporated Charles-Andre´ Gandin Stewart A Ballantyne Steve L. Cockroft Centre de Mise en Forme des Mate´riaux Allvac Allegheny Technologies Company The University of British Columbia (CEMEF) Scott A. Balliett Chris Cooper George Giles Latrobe Specialty Steel Company Vulcan Engineering Co. Morganite Crucible Inc Christoph Beckermann James D. Cotton Peter C. Glaws University Of Iowa, The The Boeing Co. The Timken Company Michel Bellet Randall Counselman Martin E. Glicksman Ecole des Mines de Paris, Centre de Mise en University of Florida Forme des Mate´riaux (CEMEF) Oldenburg Group Incorporated Jonathan A. Dantzig George Goodrich Joe Bigelow Stork Climax Research Services CONTECH U. S. LLC. University of Illinois-Urbana Atef Daoud Frank E. Goodwin Ron Bird International Lead Zinc Stainless Foundry & Engineering Central Metallurgical Research and Development Institute, Cairo, Egypt Lee Gouwens Malcolm Blair Craig V. Darragh CMI Novacast Inc. Steel Founders Society of America The Timken Company Ronald Graham William Boettinger Babu DasGupta ATI Wah Chang NIST National Science Foundation Patrick Grant James A. Brock Sr. Bob Dawson Oxford University Alcoa Honeywell Aerospace MCOE Daniel E.Groteke Harold D. Brody Raymond Decker Q.C. Designs Inc. University Of Connecticut Thixomat Incorporated Mustafa Guclu Craig C. Brown Raymond J Donahue Stanley Associates Inc. Stork Technimet, Inc. Mercury Marine Richard Gundlach Zach Brown Daniel Dos Santos Stork Climax Research Services CONTECH U.S. LLC Gießerei Institut der RWTH Aachen Nikhil Gupta Andreas Buhrig-Polackzek Jon Dossett Polytechnic University Gieberei-Institut, Germany Metallurgical Consultant Mike Gwyn Willam A. Butler Jean Marie Drezet ATI, Inc. General Motors (Retired) Ecole Polytechnique Fe´de´rale de Lausanne John Hall John Campbell

Hall Permanent Mold Machines Makhlouf M. Makhlouf Intermet-PCPC Qingyou Han Metal Processing Institute, Worcester Robert Pischel Polytechnic Institute Purdue University FOSECO Metallurgical Inc. William L. Mankins Larry D. Hanke David R. Poirier Metallurgical Services Incorporated Materials Evaluation and Engineering Inc University of Arizona Stephen J. Mashl Justin Heimsch David Poweleit Bodycote HIP Andover Madison Kipp Corporation Steel Founders’ Society of America Ragnvald H. Mathiesen Juan Carlos Heinrich William L. Powell Norwegian University of Science and The University of New Mexico Technology ThyssenKrupp-Waupaca (Retired) Gregg Holman Robert J. McInerney Thomas E. Prucha Wah Chang BuhlerPrince American Foundry Society Robert A. Horton Scott McIntyre Peter Quested Precision Metalsmiths Incorporated Grede Foundrie Industry and Innovation Division, National Physical Laboratory, UK Donald J. Hurtuk Brad McKee Wayne Rasmussen H.C. Starck Inc. Deloro Stellite Inc. Consultant Alain Jacot Harold T. Michels Martin Reeves Laboratoire de Simulation des Mate´riaux Copper Development Association Striko-Dynarad John L. Jorstad Tony Midea Allen Richardson J.L.J. Technologies, Inc. Foseco Metallurgical Inc. SPX Corporation Ursula R. Kattner Paul H Mikkola Pradeep Rohatgi N I S T/Metallurgy Division Metal Casting Technology Incorporated University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee Seymour Katz Asbjrn Mo Elwin L. Rooy S. Katz Associates SINTEF Materials and Chemistry Elwin Rooy and Associates Jay S. Keist Raymond W. Monroe Gary Ruff Worcester Polytechnic Institute Steel Founders’ Society of America SMW Automotive Corporation Graham Keough Y.V. Murty Kumar (Muthukumarasamy) Sadayappan Consarc Corporation Cellular Materials International, Inc. CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory Matthew Krane Laurentiu Nastac Mahi Sahoo Purdue University Concurrent Technologies Corporation CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory Mary Beth Krusiak David V. Neff Kenneth Savage Sand Technology Co. LLC Metaullics Systems Division Pyrotek, Inc. Magnesium Elektron T.A. Kuhn Charles Nelson Gary Scholl Alcoa Primary Metals Morris Bean and Company Metal Casting Technology Incorporated Wilfried Kurz Itsuo Ohnaka Ted Schorn Ecole Polytechnique Federale De Lausanne Osaka Sangyo University, Japan (EPFL) Switzerland Enkei America, Inc. Cory Padﬁeld Selcuk Kuyucak Benjamin F. Schultz American Axle & Manufacturing CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory University of Wisconsin-Milwakee Qingyue Pan Vic La Fay David Schwam SPX Corporation Hill & Grifﬁth Company Case Werstern Reserve University Charles A. Parker Robin A. Lampson William D. Scott Honeywell Aerospace Retech Systems LLC AAA Alchemy Kent Peaslee David Lee John Serra Missouri University of Science and Technology Howmet Corp. (Missouri S&T) Carpenter Brothers Inc. Ben Q. Li Pehlke, Robert D. Sumanth Shankar University of Michigan Dearborn Univ of Michigan McMaster University Alan Luo John H. Perepezko Geoffrey K. Sigworth General Motors R&D Center University of Wisconsin, Madison Alcoa Primary Metals Dan Maas Ralph Perkul Steve Sikkenga Ex-One Foundry Solutions and Design LLC Cannon-Muskegon Corporation James F. Major Gordon H. Peters Brian V. Smith Alcan International Ltd

General Motors Corporation, Powertrain University of Illinois Srinath Viswanathan Division Michael L Tims University of Alabama Birmingham Jerry Sokolowski Concurrent Technologies Corporation Robert C. Voigt University of Windsor David W. Tripp Penn State University Al Spada TIMET Vaughan R. Voller American Foundry Society Rohit Trivedi University of Minnesota Karl Staudhammer AMES Laboratory Tom Waring Los Alamos National Laboratory Paul Trojan ME Elecmetal Doru M. Stefanescu University of Michigan-Dearborn Sufei Wei The Ohio State University John Troxler Centrifugal Casting Machine Company Incorporated Ingo Steinbach Rolls Royce David White RWTH-Aachen, ACCESS e. V. Nao Tsumagari Schaefer Furnace Karthik Subbiah American Showa, Inc. Lawrence Whiting SPX Product Solutions Group Daniel Twarog CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory Erin H. Sunseri North American Die Casting Association Richard Williams Iowa State University Derek E. Tyler FOSECO Metallurgical Inc. Tony Suschil Olin Metals Thin Strip (retired) Greg G.Woycik Foseco Inc Don Tyler Woycik Consulting Richard Sutherlin General Aluminum Manufacturing Company Oscar Yu ATI Wah Chang Stephen Udvardy RTI International Metals, Inc. Edward S.Szekeres North American Die Casting Association Keith Zhang Casting Consultants Incorporated Juan J. Valencia Teck Cominco Metals Ltd. Brian G. Thomas Concurrent Technologies Corporation

Contents

Applications and Specification Guidelines...... 1 Acid Melting Practice ...... 91 Raymond W. Monroe, Steel Founders’ Society of America; Basic Melting Practice ...... 95 Thomas E. Prucha, American Foundry Society; Daniel Twarog, Newer Technologies...... 98 North American Die Casting Association Cupola Furnaces...... 99 Progressive Refinements in Cupola Equipment ...... 99 History and Trends of Metal Casting...... 3 Cupola Construction and Operation ...... 100 History of Metal Casting ...... 4 Charge Materials ...... 103 Metal Casting Methods...... 8 Cupola Control Principles ...... 106 Production Trends ...... 9 Control Tests and Analyses...... 106 Market Trends...... 14 Specialized Cupolas ...... 107 Metalcasting Technology and the Purchasing Process ...... 16 Induction Furnaces ...... 108 The Purchasing Process ...... 16 Types of Furnaces ...... 109 Define Requirements and Develop a Purchasing Plan...... 17 Electromagnetic Stirring ...... 109 Requesting and Evaluating Quotations/Bids ...... 21 Power Supplies ...... 111 Select a Supplier and Negotiate Contract Terms ...... 22 Water Cooling Systems ...... 111 Contract Fulfillment and Continuous Improvement ...... 22 Lining Material ...... 113 Considerations in Purchasing Metal Castings ...... 22 Melting Operations ...... 116 Vacuum Induction Melting ...... 116 Process Description ...... 119 Principles of Liquid Metal Processing ...... 29 VIM Metallurgy ...... 122 Chemical Thermodynamics and Kinetics ...... 31 Production of Nonferrous Materials ...... 124 Chemical Thermodynamics ...... 31 Electroslag Remelting ...... 125 Chemical Kinetics ...... 35 ESR Furnaces ...... 128 Kinetics of Alloys Additions ...... 35 Ingot Solidification...... 129 Thermodynamic Properties of Iron-Base Alloys ...... 41 Process Variations ...... 129 Purification of Ferrous Melts...... 41 Steel ESR ...... 131 Thermodynamics of Ferrous Systems ...... 45 Superalloy ESR ...... 132 Multicomponent Iron-Carbon Systems ...... 50 Vacuum Arc Remelting...... 132 Structural Diagrams ...... 51 Process Description ...... 134 Thermodynamic Properties of Aluminum-Base Solidification ...... 135 and Copper-Base Alloys ...... 56 Process Variables...... 137 Activities and Thermal Properties ...... 56 Superalloy VAR ...... 137 Ineraction Coefficients ...... 56 Titanium VAR ...... 139 Thermal Properties for Hypothetical Standard State ...... 58 Skull Melting ...... 139 Phase Diagrams ...... 58 Vacuum Arc Skull Melting ...... 139 Gases in Metals ...... 64 Furnaces ...... 140 Cast Iron...... 64 Induction Skull Melting ...... 142 Aluminum and Its Alloys ...... 67 Electron Beam Melting ...... 142 Copper and Its Alloys ...... 70 Process Description ...... 143 Magnesium and Its Alloys ...... 71 Drip Melting ...... 145 Overcoming Gas Porosity ...... 73 Cold Hearth Melting ...... 149 Inclusion-Forming Reactions ...... 74 Plasma Melting and Heating ...... 149 Inclusion Types ...... 74 Plasma Torches ...... 149 Physical Chemistry ...... 75 Furnace Equipment ...... 151 Control of Inclusions ...... 76 Atmosphere Control ...... 151 Inclusions in Ferrous Alloys ...... 77 Melting Processes ...... 151 Inclusions in Nonferrous Alloys ...... 81 Crucible Furnaces ...... 155 Applications ...... 155 Melting and Remelting ...... 85 Furnace Types...... 156 Electric Arc Furnace Melting ...... 87 Design and Operation...... 158 Power Supply ...... 87 Reverberatory and Stack Furnaces ...... 160 Arc Furnace Components ...... 88 Furnace Types...... 161 Weighing and Chemical Analysis ...... 91 Reverberatory Furnace Practice ...... 163 Scrap and Alloy Storage...... 91 Molten Metal Circulation ...... 165

Molten Metal Processing and Handling ...... 171 Rapid Solidification Effects...... 296 Transfer and Treatment of Molten Metal—An Introduction ...... 173 Solidification Microstructure Selection Maps ...... 297 Launders...... 174 Summary ...... 297 Tundishes ...... 174 Non-Plane Front Solidification ...... 299 Molten-Metal Pumps ...... 175 Cellular Microstructures ...... 300 Pouring and Dosing ...... 178 Dendrite Growth ...... 301 Degassing ...... 185 Nonplanar Eutectic Growth...... 304 Aluminum Foundry Degassing ...... 185 Summary ...... 305 Degassing of Magnesium ...... 188 Eutectic Solidification—An Introduction ...... 307 Degassing of Copper Alloys ...... 189 Binary Eutectic Phase Diagram ...... 307 Molten-Metal Filtration ...... 194 Eutectic Structures ...... 307 Sources of Inclusion...... 194 Solidification of Eutectic Alloys—Aluminum-Silicon ...... 312 Removal of Inclusions ...... 196 The Aluminum-Silicon Equilibrium Phase Diagram...... 312 Filter Characteristics ...... 197 Classification of the Aluminum-Silicon Eutectic Structure . . . 313 Types of Molten-Metal Filters...... 199 Microstructure of the Aluminum-Silicon Eutectic ...... 313 In-Mold Filtration ...... 199 Theories of Solidification of the In-Furnace Filtration of Molten Aluminum ...... 201 Aluminum-Silicon Eutectic ...... 313 Filtered Metal Quality ...... 204 Theories of Chemical Modification of the Steel Melt Processing ...... 206 Aluminum-Silicon Eutectic ...... 315 Furnaces and Refractories ...... 206 Solidification of Eutectic Alloys—Cast Iron...... 317 Converter Metallurgy ...... 208 Structure of Liquid Iron-Carbon Alloys ...... 317 Ladle Metallurgy ...... 212 Nucleation of Eutectic in Cast Iron ...... 317 Aluminum Fluxes and Fluxing Practice...... 230 Nucleation of Primary Phases in Cast Iron ...... 320 Aluminum Fluxing...... 231 Growth of Eutectic in Cast Iron...... 320 Categories of Fluxes ...... 233 Cooling Curve Analysis ...... 327 Foundry Practices ...... 235 Peritectic Solidification ...... 330 Modification of Aluminum-Silicon Alloys ...... 240 Peritectic Solidification...... 330 Heat Treated Castings ...... 241 Peritectic Reaction ...... 331 Porosity and Shrinkage Formation ...... 242 Peritectic Transformation and Direct Precipitation ...... 332 Modification Mechanisms ...... 243 Primary Metastable Precipitation of Beta ...... 333 Eutectic Nucleation ...... 244 Peritectic Cascades ...... 334 Eutectic Grain Structure ...... 245 Peritectic Transformations in Multicomponent Systems ..... 335 Recommended Foundry Practices ...... 247 Microsegregation ...... 338 Growth of Silicon Eutectic ...... 249 Solidification Models ...... 338 Effect of Other Elements ...... 249 Binary Isomorphous Systems, k > 1: Summary ...... 250 Titanium-Molybdenum ...... 339 Grain Refinement of Aluminum Casting Alloys ...... 255 Binary Eutectic Systems, k > 1: Hypoeutectic Measurement of Grain Size...... 255 Aluminum-Copper Alloys ...... 340 Mechanisms of Grain Refinement ...... 255 Binary Eutectic Systems: Hypoeutectic Boron as a Grain Refiner ...... 257 Aluminum-Silicon Alloys ...... 344 Best Practices for Grain Refinement...... 258 Binary Peritectic Systems: Copper-Zinc a-Brass ...... 344 Benefits of Grain Refinement ...... 260 Multicomponent, Multiphase Eutectic Systems: Concluding Remarks ...... 260 Hypoeutectic Al-Si-Cu-Mg Alloys ...... 345 Refinement of the Primary Silicon Phase in Hypereutectic Multicomponent Multiphase Steel: Fe-C-Cr ...... 345 Aluminum-Silicon Alloys ...... 263 Multicomponent, Multiphase Nickel-Base Superalloy...... 345 Importance of Primary Silicon Refinement ...... 263 Macrosegregation ...... 348 Accomplishing Primary Silicon Refinement ...... 263 Macrosegregation Induced by Flow of the Liquid ...... 348 Macrosegregation Induced by Movement of the Solid ...... 351 Principles of Solidification ...... 267 Interpretation and use of Coolng Curves—Thermal Analysis ..... 353 Diran Apelian, Worcester Polytechnic Institute Quantitative Thermal Analysis ...... 353 Thermodynamics and Phase Diagrams ...... 269 Deviation from Equilibrium ...... 354 Thermodynamics ...... 269 Differential Thermal Analysis ...... 354 Phase Diagrams ...... 271 Determining Liquidus and Solidus Temperature ...... 355 Solidification ...... 272 X-Ray Imaging of Solidification Processes and Microstructure Nucleation Kinetics and Grain Refinement ...... 276 Evolution...... 357 Thermodynamics of Solidification ...... 276 X-Ray Imaging ...... 357 Nucleation Phenomena ...... 278 In-House Laboratory X-Ray Imaging of Inoculation Practice ...... 280 Solidification Processes ...... 357 Grain Refinement Models ...... 281 X-Ray Imaging Studies of Solidification Processes Master Alloy Processing...... 285 with Synchrotron Radiation ...... 358 Transport Phenomena During Solidification ...... 288 Further Reading...... 360 Fundamentals ...... 288 The Oxide Film Defect—The Bifilm...... 362 Transport and Microstructure ...... 290 Bifilms ...... 362 Summary ...... 292 Entrainment ...... 363 Plane Front Solidification ...... 293 Furling ...... 364 Transients and Steady State ...... 294 Unfurling ...... 364 Morphological Stability ...... 295 Reliability and Reproducibility of Mechanical Properties . . . . 367

Central Role of Bifilm Defects in Fracture ...... 368 Conservation of Solute ...... 425 Shrinkage Porosity and Gas Porosity...... 370 Equations Cast in Advection-Diffusion Form ...... 427 Shrinkage Porosity ...... 370 Basic Equations for Mass and Momentum Conservation . . . . 427 Gas Porosity ...... 372 Modeling the Momentum in the Solid + Liquid Factors Affecting Porosity Formation...... 373 Mushy Region ...... 428 Castability—Fluidity and Hot Tearing...... 375 Modeling Turbulence ...... 428 Fluidity...... 375 Phenomena Restraining or Driving Flow ...... 429 Hot Tearing...... 376 Dealing with Fronts and Free Surfaces ...... 429 Semisolid Metal Processing ...... 379 Simulation of Electromagnetic Effects in Castings...... 431 Flow Behavior of SSM...... 379 Summary ...... 432 Semisolid Microstructural Formation ...... 380 Direct Modeling of Structure Formation ...... 435 Semisolid Processes: Thixocasting versus Rheocasting...... 381 Introduction...... 435 Spray Casting...... 382 Direct Microstructure Simulation Using the Principles ...... 382 Phase Field Method...... 436 Atomization and the Droplet Spray ...... 383 Direct Grain Structure Simulation Using the Deposition and Grain Mulitplication ...... 384 Cellular Automation Method ...... 438 Microsegregation ...... 385 Coupling of Direct Structure Simulation at Macrosegregation and Coarsening ...... 385 Macroscopic Scale ...... 441 Summary ...... 385 Summary ...... 443 Rapid Solidification ...... 386 Modeling of Microsegregation and Macrosegregation ...... 445 Microstructural Modification ...... 386 Microsegregation ...... 445 Solidification During Casting of Metal-Matrix Composites ...... 390 Microsegregation with Diffusion in the Solid ...... 445 Incorporation of Reinforcements ...... 391 Continuum Model of Macrosegregation ...... 446 Reinforcement-Metal Wettability ...... 391 Modeling of Stress, Distortion, and Hot Tearing ...... 449 Solidification Processing of MMC ...... 391 Governing Equations ...... 449 Solidification Fundamentals ...... 392 Thermomechanical Coupling...... 451 Modeling of Particle-Pushing Phenomenon ...... 394 Numerical Solution ...... 451 Nanocomposites...... 395 Model Validation...... 453 Conclusions...... 395 Example Applications ...... 454 Solidification Research in Microgravity...... 398 Hot-Tearing Analysis ...... 456 Availability of Reduced Gavity: Past, Present, and Future . . . 398 Conclusions...... 458 Solidification Research in Microgravity ...... 399 Practical Issues In Computer Simulation of Casting Processes . . . . 462 Key Solidification Experiments ...... 399 Setting Simulation Objectives, Modeling, and Selection The Future of Microgravity Solidification...... 400 of Simulation Code ...... 462 Homogenization ...... 402 Modeling of Shape and Phenomena ...... 462 Sources of Inhomogeneity...... 402 Initial and Boundary Conditions and Physical Properties . . . . 463 Benefits of Homogenization Treatment...... 402 Enmeshing ...... 464 Characterization Methods ...... 402 Evaluation of Simulation Results...... 465 Computational Modeling ...... 403 Estimation of Structure and Properties ...... 466 Heat Treatment...... 404 Optimization ...... 466 Designations of Heat Treatment ...... 404 Thermophysical Properties...... 468 Solution Heat Treatment...... 404 Sources and Availability of Reliable Data ...... 468 Quenching ...... 405 Limitations and Warning on the Use of Data ...... 468 Aging ...... 405 Methods to Determine Thermophysical Properties ...... 468 Emerginhg Heat Treating Technologies ...... 406 Specific Heat Capacity and Enthalpy of Transformation. . . . . 470 Microstructural Changes due to Heat Treatment Enthalpy of Melting, Solidus, and Liquidus Temperatures . . . 470 of Cast Alloys ...... 406 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion ...... 471 Hot Isostatic Pressing of Castings...... 408 Density...... 471 History of HIP...... 408 Surface Tension...... 471 Reasons for Using HIP...... 409 Viscosity...... 474 Overview of a HIP System ...... 409 Electrical and Thermal Conductivity ...... 474 Effect of HIP on Mechanical Properties ...... 411 Emissivity...... 474 Effect of Inclusions on As-HIPed Properties ...... 412 Typical Themophysical Properties Ranges of Effect of HIP on the Shape and Structure of Castings ...... 413 Some Cast Alloys ...... 477 Problems Encountered in HIP ...... 414 Summary ...... 477 Economics of HIP ...... 415 Summary ...... 415 Principles and Practices of Shape Casting ...... 483 Shape Casting Processes—An Introduction ...... 485 Modeling and Analysis of Casting Processes...... 417 Patterns and Patternmaking ...... 488 Srinath Viswanathan, University of Alabama Types of Patterns...... 488 Numerical Methods for Casting Applications ...... 419 Additional Features of Patterns ...... 490 Fundamentals of CFD ...... 419 Pattern Allowances ...... 491 Numerical Solution of the Fluid-Flow Equations ...... 420 Pattern Materials ...... 492 Grid Generation for Complex Geometries...... 420 Selection of Pattern Type ...... 494 Casting Applications ...... 422 Trends in Pattern Design and Manufacture ...... 495 Modeling of Transport Phenomena and Electromagnetics ...... 425 Casting Practice—Guidelines for Effective Production Conservation of Thermal Energy ...... 425 of Reliable Castings ...... 497

Rule 1: Good-Quality Melt ...... 497 Green Sand versus Dry Sand Cores ...... 593 Rule 2: Liquid Front Damage ...... 497 Cores in Permanent Mold Castings ...... 593 Rule 3: Liquid Front Stop...... 499 Cores in Investment Castings ...... 594 Rule 4: Bubble Damage ...... 500 Designing to Eliminate Cores ...... 595 Rule 5: Core Blows ...... 501 Coring versus Drilling ...... 596 Rule 6: Shrinkage Damage ...... 501 Shell Molding and Shell Coremaking ...... 598 Rule 7: Convection Damage ...... 502 Applicability ...... 599 Rule 8: Segregation ...... 503 Properties and Selection of Shell Sands ...... 599 Rule 9: Residual Stress...... 504 Resins ...... 600 Rule 10: Location Points ...... 505 Preparation of Resin-Sand Mixtures ...... 601 Filling and Feeding System Concepts ...... 506 Sand Reclamation ...... 603 Entrainment Defects in Gravity-Poured Castings ...... 506 Control Testing of Resin-Sand Properties ...... 603 Traditional Filling Designs ...... 506 Patterns and Core Boxes...... 604 Prepriming Techniques ...... 507 Production of Molds and Cores ...... 604 Naturally Pressurized Filling System ...... 508 Mold Assembly ...... 607 Filters...... 511 Casting Process ...... 610 Performance of Alternative Filling Systems ...... 511 Dimensional Accuracy ...... 611 Recommended Foundry Practice ...... 512 Causes and Prevention of Casting Defects ...... 614 Processing and Finishing of Castings ...... 513 Comparisons with Green Sand Molding ...... 615 Shakeout and Core Knockout ...... 513 Slurry Molding...... 617 Cleaning Operations...... 516 Plaster Molding ...... 617 Automating Gate Removal and Grinding ...... 517 Applications ...... 617 Flame Cutting ...... 519 Plaster Mold Compositions ...... 617 Blast Cleaning of Castings ...... 519 Patterns and Core Boxes ...... 618 Inspection ...... 520 Mold-Drying Equipment ...... 618 Metals Cast in Plaster Molds ...... 618 Expandable-Mold Casting Processes with Conventional Plaster Mold Casting...... 619 Permanent Patterns...... 523 Match Plate Pattern Molding ...... 620 John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc The Antioch Process...... 620 Introduction—Expendable Mold Processes Foamed Plaster Molding Process ...... 621 with Permanent Patterns ...... 525 Ceramic Molding...... 622 Aggregates and Binders for Expendable Molds ...... 528 Applications ...... 622 Mold Media ...... 528 Shaw Process...... 622 Foundry Sands...... 529 Unicast Process ...... 624 Clays for Green Sand Molding ...... 535 No-Bond Sand Molding...... 628 Inorganic Binders ...... 538 Magnetic Molding ...... 628 Organic Binders...... 539 Vacuum (V-Process) Molding ...... 628 Other Expendable Mold Media ...... 546 Green Sand Molding ...... 549 Expandable-Mold Casting Processes with Sand Molding ...... 549 Expendable Patterns ...... 635 System Control and Formulation ...... 551 John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc Inﬂuence of Molding Equipment ...... 552 Introduction—Expendable Mold Processes with Maintaining Sand System Quality ...... 553 Expendable Patterns ...... 637 Molding Methods...... 554 Lost Foam Casting ...... 640 Green Sand Media Preparation ...... 558 Process Technique ...... 640 Molding Problems ...... 560 Processing Parameters ...... 642 Mold Finishing ...... 560 Advantages of Lost Foam Casting ...... 645 Shakeout...... 561 Casting Quality ...... 645 Sand/Casting Recovery...... 562 Investment Casting ...... 646 Sand Reclamation ...... 564 Pattern Materials ...... 646 No-Bake Sand Molding ...... 567 Patternmaking ...... 648 No-Bake Sand Processing ...... 567 Pattern and Cluster Assembly ...... 650 CO2 -Cured Sodium Silicate ...... 569 Ceramic Shell Mold Manufacture ...... 651 Air-Setting Sodium Silicates ...... 572 Manufacture of Ceramic Cores ...... 654 Air-Setting Organic Binders ...... 573 Pattern Removal ...... 654 Gas-Cured Organic Binders...... 576 Mold Firing and Burnout ...... 654 Sand Reclamation and Reuse ...... 577 Melting and Casting...... 655 Coremaking ...... 581 Postcasting Operations ...... 656 Binders for Sand Coremaking ...... 581 Inspection and Testing ...... 656 Basic Principles of Coremaking...... 582 Design Advantages of Investment Castings...... 657 Core Sands and Additives...... 583 Design Recommendations ...... 657 Compaction...... 584 Applications ...... 657 Curing of Compacted Cores ...... 585 Special Investment Casting Processes...... 657 Core Coatings (Core Washes) ...... 587 Replicast Molding...... 662 Assembly and Core Setting...... 588 Process Details ...... 662 Design Considerations ...... 589 Process Capabilities ...... 663 Coring of Tortuous Passages ...... 592

Centrifugal Casting ...... 665 Die Casting Tooling ...... 734 John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc Die Casting Machines and Dies...... 734 Centrifugal Casting ...... 667 Product Design and the Process...... 735 Centrifugal Casting Methods...... 667 Tooling and Metal Flow ...... 737 Equipment ...... 669 Heat Removal ...... 740 Molds...... 670 Materials Selection for Tooling ...... 742 Defects in Centrifugal Castings ...... 670 Automation in High-Pressure Die Casting ...... 747 Applications ...... 671 Die Casting Cycle ...... 747 Horizontal Centrifugal Casting ...... 674 Automatic Pouring...... 748 Equipment ...... 674 Injection Process ...... 749 Casting Process ...... 675 Solidiﬁcation and Heat Removal ...... 751 Applications ...... 678 Casting Extraction and Insert Loading ...... 753 Vertical Centrifugal Casting...... 680 Automatic Spray ...... 754 Mold Design ...... 680 Finishing Automation...... 755 Process Details ...... 684 Die Casting Internal Quality Check Automation ...... 757

Permanent Mold and Semipermanent Semisolid Casting ...... 759 Mold Processes ...... 687 John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc Semisolid Casting — Introduction and Fundamentals ...... 761 Permanent Mold Casting ...... 689 Advantages of SSM Processing ...... 761 Gravity Casting Methods ...... 690 SSM Processing Routes ...... 762 Advantages and Disadvantages ...... 690 Thixocasting ...... 764 Applications ...... 691 Bar-Making Processes ...... 764 Casting Design ...... 691 Billet Sawing and Volume Control ...... 766 Mold Design ...... 692 Reheating and Billet Handling...... 767 Mold Materials ...... 693 Rheological Tests ...... 768 Mold Coatings...... 695 Basics of Semisolid Tooling Design...... 769 Mold Life ...... 697 Casting Process and Parameters...... 770 Mold Temperature ...... 697 Rheocasting ...... 773 Control of Mold Temperature ...... 698 Methods ...... 773 Dimensional Accuracy ...... 698 Thixomolding...... 777 Surface Finish ...... 699 Process Description ...... 777 Low-Pressure Die Casting ...... 700 Emerging Developments...... 778 Conventional Low-Pressure Casting ...... 700 Mechanical Properties and Microstructure ...... 780 Counterpressure Casting ...... 704 Vacuum Riserless/Pressure Riserless Casting ...... 706 Cast Irons...... 783 Low Pressure Counter Gravity Casting ...... 709 Thomas E. Prucha, American Foundry Society Mold Filling ...... 709 Introduction to Cast Irons ...... 785 Classiﬁcation of Cast Irons ...... 785 High-Pressure Die Casting...... 713 Composition of Cast Irons ...... 788 John L. Jorstad, J.L.J. Technologies, Inc Solidiﬁcation of Cast Irons ...... 791 High-Pressure Die Casting ...... 715 Graphite Morphologies ...... 792 Die Casting Alloys and Processes ...... 715 Matrix Structure Development...... 794 Advantages of High-Pressure Die Casting...... 716 Physical Properties of Cast Irons ...... 794 Disadvantages of High-Pressure Die Casting...... 717 Thermal Properties...... 795 Product Design for the Process ...... 717 Conductive Properties...... 797 Metal Injection ...... 717 Magnetic Properties ...... 800 Hot Chamber Die Casting ...... 719 Acoustic Properties ...... 801 Melting Process ...... 719 Heat Treatment ...... 802 Injection Components...... 719 Welding of Cast Irons ...... 805 Distinctions Between Hot and Cold Chamber Processes . . . . . 720 Machining and Grinding...... 806 Gate and Runner Design...... 721 Coatings ...... 809 Temperature Control ...... 721 Materials Selection ...... 809 Ejection and Postprocessing ...... 722 Cast Iron Foundry Practices ...... 812 Cold Chamber Die Casting ...... 724 Cast Iron Melting Practice ...... 812 Machine Components...... 724 Gray Iron Foundry Practice...... 815 Process Parameters...... 725 Ductile Iron Foundry Practice ...... 820 Squeeze Casting ...... 727 Compacted Graphite Iron Foundry Practice...... 826 Squeeze Casting ...... 727 Malleable Iron Foundry Practice ...... 829 Casting and Tooling Design for Squeeze Casting ...... 727 Foundry Practice for High-Nickel Ductile Irons ...... 830 Factors Affecting Squeeze-Cast Products ...... 728 Foundry Practice High-Silicon Ductile Irons ...... 830 Squeeze-Cast Applications ...... 729 Foundry Practice for High-Silicon Gray Irons ...... 830 Commonly Used Alloys, Properties, and Microstructures . . . . 730 Foundry Practice for High-Alloy White Irons ...... 831 Vacuum High-Pressure Die Casting ...... 732 Gray Iron Castings ...... 835 Conventional Die Casting ...... 732 Classes of Gray Iron ...... 835 Vacuum Die Casting ...... 732 Applications ...... 835 High-Vacuum Die Casting ...... 732 Castability...... 835

Microstructure ...... 836 Pouring Stream Protection ...... 921 Section Sensitivity ...... 837 Molds for Continuous Casting of Steel...... 922 Prevailing Sections...... 838 Productivity Improvements ...... 923 Test Bar Properties ...... 839 Quality Improvements ...... 924 Specifications ...... 840 Horizontal Continuous Casting ...... 924 Properties ...... 841 Future Developments ...... 924 Fatigue Limit in Reversed Bending ...... 843 Shape Casting of Steel ...... 926 Pressure Tightness ...... 844 Castability of Steel...... 926 Impact Resistance ...... 846 Melting Furnaces ...... 928 Machinability ...... 846 Metlting Practice ...... 930 Wear ...... 848 Pouring Practice ...... 933 Resistance to Wear ...... 848 Foundry Factors in Design ...... 934 Elevated-Temperature Properties ...... 849 Design Factors...... 936 Dimensional Stability ...... 849 Avoidance of Hot Spots ...... 938 Effect of Shakeout Practice...... 850 Thin-Wall Steel Castings ...... 943 Alloying to Modify As-Cast Properties...... 851 Tolerances ...... 946 Heat Treatment ...... 851 Size of Cores ...... 947 Physical Properties...... 853 Casting in Graphite Molds ...... 948 Ductile Iron Castings ...... Steel Castings Properties ...... 949 Classes and Grades of Ductile Iron ...... 856 Carbon Steels ...... 949 Factors Affecting Mechanical Properties...... 857 Low-Alloy Steels...... 950 Hardness Properties ...... 859 Wear-Resistant Steels...... 950 Tensile Properties ...... 859 Corrosion-Resistant Steels...... 951 Shear and Torsional Properties ...... 861 Heat-Resistant Steels ...... 952 Compressive Properties ...... 861 Common Alloys ...... 953 Fatigue Properties ...... 862 Carbon and Low-Alloy Mechanical Properties ...... 953 Fracture Toughness ...... 865 Mechanical Properties of Wear-Resisting Steels ...... 960 Physical Properties...... 867 Mechanical Properties of Corrosion-Resisting Steels ...... 961 Austempered Ducfile Iron (ADI) ...... 869 Mechanical Properties of Heat-Resisting Steels ...... 966 Compacted Graphite Iron Castings ...... 872 Ferrite in Cast Stainless Steels ...... 968 Graphite Morphology ...... 872 Carbon and Low-Alloy Heat Treatments ...... 970 Chemical Composition ...... 872 High-Alloy Heat Treatment...... 971 Castability...... 873 Corrosion-Resistant Applications ...... 972 Mechanical Properties and Corrosion Resistance ...... 874 Heat-Resistant Applications ...... 973 Applications ...... 879 Selection and Evaluation of Steel Castings ...... 975 Malleable Iron Castings...... 884 Design ...... 975 Melting Practices ...... 884 Manufacturing ...... 980 Microstructure ...... 885 Nondestructive Examination ...... 982 Current Production Technologies ...... 887 Purchasing ...... 986 Applications ...... 888 Research and Development ...... 986 Ferritic Malleable Iron ...... 889 Pearlitic and Martensitic Malleable Iron ...... 890 Casting of Nonferrous Alloys...... 987 White Iron and High-Alloyed Iron Castings...... 896 Nonferrous Casting — An Introduction ...... 989 Nickel-Chromium White Irons ...... 896 Nickel Alloys ...... 989 High-Chromium White Irons...... 899 Titanium Alloys ...... 989 High-Alloy Graphitic Irons ...... 904 Lead...... 990 High-Silicon Irons for High-Temperature Service ...... 904 Dross, Melt Loss, and Fluxing of Light Alloy Melts...... 992 Austenitic Nickel-Alloyed Gray and Ductile Irons ...... 906 Dross Formation ...... 992 High-Silicon Irons for Corrosion Resistance ...... 907 Influence of Melter Type on Dross Generation ...... 993 Influence of Charge Materials on Melt Loss ...... 994 Steel Castings ...... 909 Influence of Operating Practices on Melt Loss ...... 994 Raymond W. Monroe, Steel Founders’ Society of America; Economic Implications of Dross ...... 998 Thomas E. Prucha, American Foundry Society In-Plant Enhancement or Recovery of Dross Metallics...... 998 Steel Ingot Casting ...... 911 Ways to Reduce Dross Formation ...... 999 Pouring Method...... 911 Aluminum Alloy Ingot Casting and Continuous Processes...... 1001 Ingot Design ...... 912 Ingot Forms ...... 1001 Hot Tops ...... 913 Molten-Metal Processing ...... 1001 Ingot Molds and Stools ...... 913 Ingot Casting Processes ...... 1002 Ingot Solidification...... 914 Continuous Processes ...... 1004 Ingot Stripping ...... 916 Solidification in the DC Process ...... 1006 Solidification Simulation...... 916 Postsolidification Processes ...... 1007 Steel Continuous Casting...... 918 Safety...... 1007 Historical Aspects of Continuous Casting of Steel ...... 918 Aluminum Shape Casting ...... 1009 General Description of the Process ...... 918 Melting and Melt Handling...... 1009 Plant Layout ...... 919 Casting Process Selection ...... 1010 Near-Net Shape Casting ...... 919 Pressure Die Casting of Aluminum ...... 1013 Tundish Metallurgy ...... 920 Premium Engineered Castings ...... 1016

Copper Continuous Casting ...... 1019 Direct Chill Casting ...... 1112 History ...... 1019 High-Temperature Alloys ...... 1112 Vertical Continuous Casting ...... 1020 Welding ...... 1112 Horizontal Continuous Casting ...... 1022 Cobalt and Cobalt Alloy Castings...... 1114 Strip Casting ...... 1023 Physical Metallurgy ...... 1114 Wheel Casting...... 1024 Foundry ...... 1116 Ohno Continuous Casting Process ...... 1024 Postcasting Treatment ...... 1117 Casting of Copper and Copper Alloys...... 1026 Applications ...... 1117 Castability...... 1026 Nickel and Nickel Alloy Castings...... 1119 Melting and Melt Control ...... 1027 Compositions ...... 1119 Fluxing of Copper Alloys ...... 1029 Structure and Property Correlations ...... 1121 Degassing of Copper Alloys ...... 1032 Melting Practice and Metal Treatment ...... 1123 Deoxidation of Copper Alloys...... 1035 Foundry Practice ...... 1124 Grain Refining of Copper Alloys ...... 1037 Pouring Practice ...... 1124 Filtration of Copper Alloys ...... 1037 Gating Systems ...... 1124 Melt Treatments for Group I to III Alloys ...... 1038 Risers ...... 1125 Production of Copper Alloy Castings ...... 1039 Welding ...... 1125 Casting Process Selection ...... 1040 Heat Treatment ...... 1125 Gating ...... 1041 Specific Applications ...... 1126 Feeding ...... 1044 Titanium and Titanium Alloy Castings ...... 1128 Casting of Zinc Alloys ...... 1049 Historical Perspective of Casting Technology ...... 1129 Control of Alloy Composition ...... 1049 Physical Metallurgy ...... 1129 Melt Processing ...... 1049 Alloy Ti-6Al-4V ...... 1132 Die Casting of Zinc Alloys ...... 1051 Casting ...... 1134 Other Casting Processes for Zinc Alloys...... 1054 Postcasting Practice ...... 1137 Product Applications ...... 1138 Nonferrous Alloy Castings...... 1057 Zirconium and Zirconium Alloy Castings ...... 1143 Mahi Sahoo, CANMET Materials Technology Laboratory Zirconium Reactivity Considerations ...... 1143 Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Castings ...... 1059 Melting Processes ...... 1144 Chemical Compositions ...... 1059 Casting Processes...... 1144 Effects of Alloying and Impurity Elements ...... 1059 Processing...... 1145 Structure Control ...... 1063 Physical Properties of Zirconium Castings ...... 1147 Modification and Refinement of Impact Properties of Zirconium Castings ...... 1147 Aluminum-Silicon Alloys ...... 1066 Synthesis and Processing of Cast Metal-Matrix Foundry Alloys for Specific Casting Applications ...... 1069 Composites and Their Applications ...... 1149 Heat Treatment ...... 1071 Classification of MMCs ...... 1149 Welding ...... 1077 Solidification Processing of MMCs and Possible Properties of Aluminum Casting Alloys ...... 1077 Effects of Reinforcement on Solidification...... 1150 Copper and Copper Alloy Castings...... 1085 Property Motivation for Using MMCs ...... 1155 Alloying Additions...... 1085 Components of MMCs Currently in Use...... 1156 Alloying Systems and Specifications ...... 1087 Development of Select Cast MMCs ...... 1160 Physical Metallurgy ...... 1088 Research Imperatives ...... 1162 Types of Copper Castings...... 1091 Properties ...... 1091 Quality Assurance, Nondestructive Evaluation, Heat Treatment ...... 1091 and Failure Analysis...... 1165 Welding ...... 1091 Babu DasGupta, National Science Foundation Cupronickels ...... 1091 Approaches to Measurement of Metal Quality...... 1167 Zinc and Zinc Alloy Castings ...... 1095 Metal Cleanliness Assessment Techniques ...... 1167 Alloying Additions...... 1095 Nondestructive Testing of Components ...... 1174 Physical Metallurgy ...... 1096 Liquid Penetrant Inspection...... 1174 Die Casting and Aging ...... 1097 Radiographic Inspection ...... 1174 Specialty Alloys ...... 1097 Fluoroscopic Inspection and Automated Finishing of Die Castings ...... 1098 Defect Recognition ...... 1174 Metalworking and Machining ...... 1098 Ultrasonic Inspection ...... 1174 Joining ...... 1099 Eddy Current Inspection ...... 1175 Applications for Zinc Die Castings ...... 1097 Process-Controlled Resonant Testing (Contributed by Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys ...... 1099 Quasar International, Inc.) ...... 1175 Magnesium Alloys ...... 1100 Leak Test ...... 1177 General Applications ...... 1102 Electrical Conductivity Measurement ...... 1177 Melting Furnaces and Auxiliary Pouring Equipment ...... 1102 Casting Fracture Characteristics ...... 1178 Melting Procedures and Process Parameters ...... 1103 General Fracture Examination ...... 1178 Sand Casting ...... 1106 Fracture Features ...... 1179 Investment Casting...... 1109 Casting Failure Analysis Techniques and Case Studies ...... 1183 Permanent Mold Casting ...... 1109 Introduction...... 1183 Die Casting...... 1109 Background Information ...... 1183

Planning and Sample Selection ...... 1184 Ownership ...... 1213 Preliminary Examination ...... 1184 Maintenance Responsibility...... 1213 Material Evaluation ...... 1184 Common Failure Mechanisms ...... 1213 Data Analysis and Report Preparation ...... 1187 Maintenance Interval ...... 1213 Case Studies ...... 1187 Maintenance Records ...... 1214 Common Defects in Various Casting Processes ...... 1192 Preventive Maintenance Program...... 1214 Case Studies ...... 1199 Repair ...... 1214 Repair Welding of Castings ...... 1203 Alterations ...... 1214 Repair Welding of Ferrous Castings...... 1203 Storage—Physical Protection, Cataloging, and Tracking.... 1215 Repair Welding of Nonferrous Castings ...... 1205 Quality Planning Tools and Procedures ...... 1207 Reference Information...... 1217 Advanced Product Quality Planning (APQP)...... 1207 Metric Conversion Guide...... 1219 Maintenance, Repair, Alterations, and Storage of Patterns Abbrieviations & Symbols...... 1222 and Tooling...... 1213 Index...... 1225

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Publication title Product code ASM Handbook Volume 15: Casting 05115G

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