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Individual Differences and the Psychology of Film Preferences Andrea Kallias A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy February 2012 Department of Psychology Goldsmiths College University of London Abstract A wealth of research has highlighted the importance of understanding individual differences in the uses and effects of the mass media. However, significantly less attention has been paid to the role of individual differences in the area of film use and preferences. This thesis sought to provide more insight into the area of movie consumption, whilst investigating the links between individual differences, movie- watching motives and film preferences. The thesis also sought to amalgamate some of the more common methods of analysing individual differences with a new measure, namely the Uses of Film Inventory, a self-report questionnaire which was designed to assess individual’s choices for specific genres of films. The investigation aimed to make a contribution to research in two areas. The first was within the field of individual differences research, by providing a more methodical understanding of how film preferences can be accounted for as a function of important psychological needs. The second is within the applied field of media psychology, by providing researchers with an understanding of both the uses and effects of the mass media, as well as interpretative methods in understanding consumer behaviour in film. The theoretical chapter comprised of a thorough literature review of the theoretical and methodological foundations to the scientific understanding of the psychological determinants of individual differences in film preferences. The experimental chapters explored several possibilities in which established personality traits and movie- watching motives may be linked to preferences for a variety of film genres. Overall, it was concluded that when all of the psychological measures were considered, a number of variables could account for the role in predicting movie preferences. Thus, taken as a whole, this thesis demonstrates that a number of personality variables and movie-watching motives can, to some degree, predict film preferences. However, it must also be acknowledged that although these variables are an important factor in predicting consumer choice in film, other factors must be essential. Thus, further research is essential to answer the outstanding questions generated by this relatively new field of research. Acknowledgments I owe my deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Dr Tomas Chamorro-Premuzic, for his unflinching encouragement, invaluable guidance and continuing support throughout. Tomas has always been a pleasure to work with, and somebody who has never failed to keep me motivated and enthusiastic about my work. His wisdom, knowledge and commitment to the highest standards continue to inspire me. Words are inadequate in offering my thanks, and I could not have imagined having a better supervisor. I would also like to extend my gratitude to my loving friends and family, without whom I could not have survived the process. Many thanks also go to all those who have participated in my studies and contributed to my research. Finally, yet importantly, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my parents. Words cannot express how thankful I am for their love, support and understanding during the long years of my education. I am forever indebted for their encouragement and always allowing me to be as ambitious as I wanted. Table of Contents CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND ORGANISATION Introduction 10 Organisation of thesis 13 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW Film Preferences 15 Uses and Gratifications 19 Understanding individual differences in other media types 21 Personality and the Media 26 Personality Predictors of Movie Preferences 28 Personality Predictors of Media Use Motives 31 Sensation Seeking as a predictor of Media Use and Preferences 33 Personality and Preferences for Violent Movies 37 The Big Five and the Media 39 Gender Differences in Film Preferences and Uses 43 Demographics and the Understanding of Media Use 45 Developing a Taxonomy for Entertainment Genres 47 Movie -Watching Motives: Psychological Dimensions of Film Uses 50 Using Movie Uses to Profile Movie Preferences 63 Summary and Outline of Research Questions 66 CHAPTER 3: FILM PREFERENCES AND THE USES OF FILM INTRODUCTION 71 STUDY 1 74 METHOD 75 Design and Participants 75 Measures and Procedure 75 RESULTS 78 Factor Analysis 78 Descriptive Statistics 86 Correlational Analysis 88 GENERAL DISCUSSION 89 CHAPTER 4: THE BIG FIVE, FILM PREFERENCES AND USES OF FILM INTRODUCTION 97 STUDY 2 99 METHOD 100 Design and Participants 100 Measures and Procedure 100 RESULTS 102 Descriptive Statistics 102 Correlational Analysis 103 STUDY 3 105 METHOD 107 Design and Participants 107 Measures and Procedure 107 RESULTS 109 Descriptive Statistics 109 Correlational Analysis 110 Regression 113 GENERAL DISCUSSION 115 CHAPTER 5: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES AND MOVIE-WATCHING MOTIVES AS PREDICTORS OF FILM PREFERENCES INRODUCTION 123 STUDY 4 124 METHOD 126 Design and Participants 126 Measures and Procedure 126 RESULTS 129 Descriptive Statistics 129 Correlational Analysis 130 Regression 132 STUDY 5 133 METHOD 136 Design and Participants 136 Measures and Procedure 136 RESULTS 140 Descriptive Statistics 140 Correlational Analysis 141 Regression 145 STUDY 6 147 METHOD 151 Design and Participants 151 Measures and Procedure 151 RESULTS 156 Descriptive Statistics 156 Correlational Analysis 157 Regression 161 GENERAL DISCUSSION 163 CHAPTER 6: INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES, USES OF FILM AND FILM PREFERENCES INTRODUCTION 176 STUDY 7 177 METHOD 181 Design and Participants 181 Measures and Procedure 181 RESULTS 187 Descriptive Statistics 188 Correlational Analysis 189 Regression 193 GENERAL DISCUSSION 196 CHAPTER 7: CONCLUSIONS SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 207 LIMITATIONS 220 IMPLICATIONS 224 REFERENCES 228 APPENDIX A 259 APPENDIX B 261 APPENDIXC 264 CHAPTER 1: Introduction and Organisation Introduction There is continuing debate as to the structure of both theories of personality and of film preference, and the thesis sought to investigate the two together. The area of media use and preference is little researched and has so far produced inconclusive data (Finn, 1997). Thus, the thesis sought to explore the relationship of established measures of individual differences with different dimensions of film preferences, specifically, why and how individuals choose to consume films. The direct links between several individual differences and film preferences were therefore investigated. The measurement of movie-watching motives, namely the Uses of Films Inventory (UFI; Chamorro-Premuzic, 2009), was also used in the hope to enhance the predictive power of individual differences. Practical applications of any personality theory are sought-after, especially in the media. Moreover, the media plays a big part in people’s lives, and for that reason, it is surprising that there is a general lack of research into the psychology of movie consumption. The selection and use of the mass media has become (particularly in Western cultures) a fundamental element of most individuals’ social environment (Robinson, 1981). Despite the widespread popularity of movies however, there are clear individual differences in movie preference and choices, which most people will have experienced firsthand. Understanding individual differences in other media types have been comparatively researched more frequently. For example, preference for and emotional use of music, 10 has been found to relate to personality traits (Chamorro-Premuzic, Fagan & Furnham, 2010), as have art preferences (Zuckerman, 2006), television viewing and even television remote control use (Weaver, 2000). Nonetheless, research on preference for movies and movie-watching motives is rare. Accordingly, many questions remain, particularly regarding the relationship between individual differences and different uses of film in everyday life, specifically, whether different people watch movies in different or similar ways and why they may choose to do so (Kerrigan, 2010). The questions of why and how people experience films in everyday life is an important one given that film is an ever-present aspect of all human cultures and has been associated with broad psychological functions. The study of how and why individuals consume the movies they watch through the application of personality theory would therefore seem a plausible field of research. For example, if individuals scoring high on the Openness to experience dimension have a propensity to prefer novel/complex films over feel-good/less complex films, one may expect them to watch films in intellectual rather than emotional ways, thus implying higher levels of cognitive processing. These differences may be noticeable in preferences for artistic/foreign movies, as their complexities are more likely to suit those who seek intellectually stimulating experiences. Extraverts, on the other hand, may consume movies to increase their arousal, or to achieve specific emotional states (Greenwood, 2008). More specifically, individuals high in Extraversion may be expected to watch films more for hedonic purposes as they are generally more likely (than individuals low in Extraversion) to experience intense positive emotions. Accordingly, the associations between individual difference variables, different dimensions of movie- watching motives and film preferences will be investigated