Fingerprinting Apoptotic Cell Surfaces

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Fingerprinting Apoptotic Cell Surfaces Fingerprinting Apoptotic Cell Surfaces: Alterations of Glycocalyx and Membrane Composition Den Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultäten der Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg zur Erlangung des Doktorgrades vorgelegt von Sandra Franz aus Chemnitz Als Dissertation genehmigt von den Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultäten der Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg Tag der mündlichen Prüfung: 13.04.2007 Vorsitzender der Prüfungskommision: Prof. Dr. E. Bänsch Erstberichterstatter: Prof. Dr. L. Nitschke Zweitberichterstatter: Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. J. R. Kalden Drittberichterstatter: Prof. Dr. W. Jahnen-Dechent Danksagung Herrn Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. J. R. Kalden möchte ich herzlich für die Betreuung der Arbeit und die Bereitstellung eines Arbeitsplatzes am Institut für klinische Immunologie und Rheumatologie danken. Ich erhielt vielseitige Einblicke in diese spannende Wissen- schaftsgebiet. Ebenso möchte ich mich bei Herrn Prof. Dr. G. Schett für die Möglichkeit bedanken, meine Dissertation am Institut für Klinische Immunologie und Rheumatologie fortzuführen und erfolgreich zu beenden. Herzlichen Dank auch an Herrn Prof. Dr. L. Nitschke für die Bereitschaft meine Arbeit von Seiten der Naturwissenschaftlichen Fakultät II zu vertreten. Besonders bedanken möchte ich mich bei Herrn Prof. Dr. Martin Herrmann für die Bereitstellung des sehr interessanten Themas, seine intensive Unterstützung, die vielen Anregungen und zahlreichen sehr ergiebigen Diskussionen. Ich durfte mich stets in allen Themenbereichen seiner Arbeitsgruppe einbringen und erhielt die Möglichkeit auf zahlreichen Kongressen meine Ergebnisse zu präsentieren. Ebenfalls herzlich danken möchte ich Herrn Prof. Dr. W. Jahnen-Dechent für die Übernahme des Drittgutachtens. Mein Dank gilt auch Herrn Dr. R. E. Voll, Herrn Prof. Dr. H.-M. Jäck und Herrn Prof. Dr. L. Nitschke für die guten Kooperationen, die zahlreichen wissenschaftlichen Diskussionen und für das stete Interesse am Verlauf meiner Arbeit. Der DFG möchte ich für die Förderung durch ein Promotionsstipendium im GRK 592 "Lymphozyten: Differenzierung, Aktivierung und Deviation" danken. In diesem Zusammenhang möchte ich mich ganz besonders bei Herrn Prof. Dr. H.-M. Jäck für die ausgezeichnete wissenschaftliche Ausbildung durch das GRK 592 bedanken. Ebenso möchte ich Herrn Dr. M. Lutz und Herrn Dr. A. Pahl für die Übernahme meiner Betreuungskommission und die vielen hilfreichen Disskussionen danken. Ein ganz herzliches Dankeschön an die ehemaligen, alten und neuen Mitarbeiter der AG Herrmann: Pitti, Karina, Uwe, Tom, Udo, Benni, Luis, Ahmed, Silke, Andi, Alex, Gerhard, Birgit, Rüdiger, Kerstin, Connie, Christina für die tolle Zusammenarbeit (bis in die Nacht vor dem Facs vereint!), den guten Austausch, die stete Hilfsbereitschaft und auch die schöne Stunden außerhalb des Labors. Ebenso herzlichen Dank an die Mitarbeiter und Freunde an der Medizinischen Klinik III für die schöne Zeit, die gute Zusammenarbeit und Hilfe; insbesondere an Marlies, Marvin, Dirk, Beate, Sven sowie an die „Vollis“ Babsi, Damian, Silke, Vilma, Kirsten, Sabine, Eva. Bedanken möchte ich mich auch bei den Kollegiaten des GRK 592, besonders für die vielen außerordentlichen Stammtische mit dem „harten Kern“. Mein besonders herzlicher Dank gilt meinem Freund Matthias und meinen Eltern für ihre unermüdliche Unterstützung und dass sie mir immer den Rücken frei gehalten haben. Contents 1 Zusammenfassung 3 2 Introduction 11 2.1 Cell death by necrosis 12 2.2 Cell death by apoptosis 13 2.3 Clearance of apoptotic cells 16 2.4 Cell death and autoimmunity 20 2.5 Scope of the thesis 22 3 Results 23 3.1 During execution of apoptosis various cell populations with distinct morphological features are consecutively generated 23 3.2 Staining with certain lectins change morphology and membrane integrity of dying cells 25 3.3 The non lytic lectins GSL II, NPn, and UEA I bind differentially to viable and dying cells 27 3.4 Cell shrinkage precedes exposure of additional lectin binding sites during apoptosis 29 3.5 Loss of membrane integrity further increases the lectin binding sites 32 3.6 PS exposure precedes lectin binding in the time course of apoptosis 35 3.7 Lectins recognising epitopes from immature glycoproteins show increased binding to shrunken, late apoptotic cells 35 3.8 Before shrinkage apoptotic cells lose sialic acid epitopes of mature glycoproteins as detected by siglec binding 37 3.9 Loss of sialic acid during apoptosis is not blocked in the presence of sialidase inhibitor 38 3.10 Inhibition of glycoprotein processing in viable cells results in surface glycosylation similar to that of shrunken apoptotic cells 40 3.11 During apoptosis a relocation of ER and Golgi membranes toward cell surfaces can be observed 42 3.12 After shrinkage apoptotic cells expose the ER-resident chaperon calnexin 42 3.13 PS exposure precedes lectin binding and calnexin exposure in the time course of apoptosis 47 3.14 In apoptosing Ag8.H transfectants, dysfunctional immunoglobulin µ chains get access to the cell surface 47 3.15 CT-B binds to freshly isolated neutrophils but not to eosinophils 51 3.16 During the ageing process of PMN, GM1 disappears from the surfaces of full size apoptotic cells and resurfaces on shrunken apoptotic cells 51 3.17 During apoptosis intracellular ganglioside GM1 is relocated to the plasma membrane of neutrophil granulocytes 53 3.18 Exposure of NPn binding sites, calnexin, and GM1 on apoptosing PMN is abrogated when apoptotic membrane blebbing is blocked 55 3.19 In late stages of apoptosis KDEL receptor transgenic HeLa cells expose ER membrane on their surfaces 56 3.20 Exposure of immature glycoproteins is not sufficient to promote clearance of viable cells 59 4 Discussion 61 4.1 NPn, GSL II, and UEA I are suitable lectins for analysing the glycosylation status of dying cells 61 4.2 After shrinkage apoptotic cells expose immature glycoproteins 63 4.3 Before shrinkage apoptotic cells lose mature glycoproteins 67 4.4 During apoptosis internal membranes are translocated to the cell surface to substitute plasma membrane that are shed during the blebbing process 70 4.5 Carbohydrates of immature glycoproteins as “back-up-eat-me” signal of apoptotic cells that have escape early PS dependent clearance? 73 4.6 Hypothesis how apoptotic cells keep their silence and avoid immunogenicity 74 5 Materials 77 5.1 Cells and culture conditions 82 5.2 Animals 83 5.3 FITC labelling 84 5.4 Induction of apoptosis and necrosis 84 5.5 Detection of Apoptosis and Necrosis 84 5.6 Flow cytometry and microscopy analysis 86 5.7 Analysis of cell surface glycosylation 87 5.8 Analysis of surface sialic acid levels in the presence of sialidase inhibitor 88 5.9 Inhibition of glycoprotein processing 88 5.10 Cell labelling with ER-Tracker and Golgi-Stain 88 5.11 Detection of calnexin exposure 89 5.12 Detection of exposure of immunoglobulin µ chains on Ag8.H transfectants 89 5.13 Detection of GM1 exposure on neutrophil granulocytes 90 5.14 Inhibition of apoptotic membrane blebbing 90 5.15 Live-cell imaging of KDEL receptor-GFP transgenic HeLa cells undergoing apoptosis 91 5.16 Phagocytosis assays 91 5.17 Statistical analysis 92 6 References 93 7 Figure Index 105 8 Abbreviation Index 107 1 Zusammenfassung Die Clearance apoptotischer Zellen ist ein fein abgestimmter Prozess, der auf komplexen Interaktionen zwischen Phagozyten und sterbenden Zellen basiert. Im Idealfall detektieren die Phagozyten apoptotische Zellen in einer frühen Phase des Zelltods und nehmen sie sofort auf, so dass ein Übergang der apoptotischen Zellen in die sekundäre Nekrose vermieden wird. Andernfalls würde aus den sekundär nekrotischen Zellen verändertes intrazelluläres Material freigesetzt, welches dann zu Entzündungen und Autoimmunerkrankungen führen kann. Die wichtigsten Aufgaben einer apoptotischer Zelle während des Clearance-Prozesses sind: (I) der Umgebung ihr Sterben zu signalisieren und ihre Oberfläche für die stille Erkennung und Beseitigung durch Phagozyten zu markieren, und (II) die Ionenselektivität ihrer Plasmamembran aufrecht zu erhalten bis sie phagozytiert wurde. Für ihre Beseitigung sezernieren apoptotische Zellen so genannte „Find-me“ Signale, welche die Phagozyten zu ihrem Wirkungsort dirigieren und exponieren „Eat- me“ Signale, welche den Phagozytoseprozess initiieren. Das am besten bekannte „Eat-me“ Signal ist Phosphatidylserin (PS), das in der frühen Phase der Apoptose vom inneren zum äußeren Blatt der Zytoplasmamembran verlagert wird. Verschiedene Phagozyten-Rezeptoren (der Vitronektin Rezeptor [αvβ3 Integrin], der β2-Glycoprotein-I [β2-GPI] Rezeptor sowie die Rezeptor- Tyrosin Kinase Mer) binden an PS über das jeweils dazugehörige Brückenmolekül (milk-fat-globue-EGF-factor 8 [MFG-E8], β2-GPI, growth-arrest specific gene 6 [gas6]). Die apoptotischen Zellen werden dann unmittelbar von den Phagozyten aufgenommen. Es entkommen jedoch auch einige apoptotische Zellen dieser frühen PS abhängigen Clearance. In diesem Fall treten sie in späte Phasen der Apoptose ein, die durch das Schrumpfen der Zellen und den Verlust von Plasmamembran aufgrund des umfangreichen Abschnürens von Blebs (von Plamamembran umschlossene Vesikel) 3 1 Zusammenfassung charakterisiert sind. Es ist bekannt, dass apoptierende Zellen die Ionenselektivität ihrer Plasmamembran für eine lange Zeit aufrechterhalten. Demzufolge müssen sie diesen massiven Verlust an Plasmamembran ausgleichen. Die hierfür verantwortlichen Mechanismen sind allerdings unbekannt. Um sekundäre Nekrose und Autoimmunität zu vermeiden muss zudem eine zweite Reihe an Signalen
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