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The Structure Biology and Application of Phytohemagglutinin (PHA) in Phytomedicine: with Special Up-To-Date References to Lectins

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The Structure Biology and Application of Phytohemagglutinin (PHA) in Phytomedicine: with Special Up-To-Date References to Lectins Journal of Paramedical Sciences (JPS) Vol 4 (Winter 2013) Supplement ISSN 2008-4978 The structure Biology and Application of Phytohemagglutinin (PHA) in Phytomedicine: With special up-to-date references to lectins Abolfazl Movafagh1,*, Kiandokht Ghanati 2, Davar Amani 3, Seyed Mohammad Mahdavi4, Mehrdad Hashemi5, Davood Zare Abdolahi1, Hossein Darvish1, Milad Gholami1, Leyla HaghNejad1, Sara Mosammami1, Shamsi Safari1, Reyhaneh Darehgazani1, Mahnoosh Rahimi1, Nilofar Safavi Naini1, Mehdi Ghandehari Motlagh6, Mahdi Zamani7 1Department of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. 2Research Departmant of The International Branch of Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences & Health Services. Tehran, Iran. 3Department of Immunology, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. 4Faculty of Paramedical Sciences, Proteomics Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. 5Department of Genetics, Islamic Azad University,Tehran Medical Branch, Tehran, Iran. 6School of Dentistry, Pediatric Dentistry, Tehran University of Medical Sciences. Tehran, Iran. 7Department of Medical Genetics, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. *Corresponding Author: email address: [email protected] (A. Movafagh) ABSTRACT Lectins first discovered more than 100 years ago in plants, they are now known to be present throughout nature. Phytohemagglutinin (PHA), the lectin extract from the red kidney bean (Phaseolus Vulgaris), contain potent, cell agglutinating and mitogenic activities. They play a role in biological recognition phenomena involving cells and proteins towards medical applications. The present article is a brief review of the history of lectin in nature. By reviewing the web-based search for all types of peer review articles published, was initiated using ISI web of Sciences and Medline / PubMed, and other pertinent references on websites about lectins. Here, we present a brief account of 100-plus years of lectin research and show how these proteins have become the focus of intense interest for biologists and in particular for the research and applications in medicine. Phytohemagglutinin, has been widely used for mitotic stimulation to human lymphocytes, cell arrest, or apoptosis, potential sources for developing novel pharmaceutical preparation and intensive interest for health care services, biologist and phytomedicine research can be considered. Keywords: Lectins; PHA; Significant role; Cell; Biology; Medicine. INTRODUCTION were rendered immune to a lethal dose of ricin or Toward the end of the 19th century, evidence abrin by repeated small, subcutaneous injections started to accumulate for the presence in nature of the lectin and that anti-ricin did not protect the of proteins possessing the ability to agglutinate animals against the toxic effects of abrin, nor did erythrocytes. Such proteins were referred to as anti-abrin protect against ricin. This provided hemagglutinins, or phytoagglutinins, because clear evidence for the specificity of the immune they were originally found in extracts of plants. response. Immunity to the toxins is transferred It is generally believed that the earliest from a mother to her offspring by blood during description of such a hemagglutinin was by Peter pregnancy and by milk after birth. By studying Hermann [1]. This hemagglutinin, which was the inhibitory effect of the anti-ricin immune also highly toxic, was isolated by Stillmark from serum on the agglutinating activity of ricin, there seeds of the castor tree (Ricinus communis) and is a quantitative relationship between the amount was named ricin. Subsequently, H Hellin, at of antiserum and that of antigen, it could Tartu University, Stonia demonstrated the neutralize and on this basis performed the first presence of a toxic hemagglutinin, abrin, in quantitative determination of an antibody in extracts of the jequirity bean (Abrus vitro. These studies thus demonstrated the precatorius). Ricin and abrin soon became specificity of the antibody response, the commercially available, to employ them as phenomenon of immunological memory, and the model antigens for immunological studies. Mice transfer of humoral immunity from a mother to Journal of Paramedical Sciences (JPS) Vol 4 (Winter 2013) Supplement ISSN 2008-4978 her offspring. More recently research concluded pea, Lotus tetragonolobus, agglutinated that, reversed micelles were used to extract lectin specifically blood type O erythrocytes. Olavi from red kidney beans and factors affecting Mäkelä (1957), examined in 1954–1956 extracts reverse micellar systems (pH value, ionic from seeds representing 743 plant species and strength and extraction time) were studied. The 165 genera, all of the family Leguminosae, and optimal conditions were extraction at pH 4–6, detected hemagglutinating activity in more than back extraction at pH 9–11, ion strength at one-third of them; close to one-tenth of the 0.15 M NaCl, extraction for 4–6 minutes and hemagglutinins exhibited blood type specificity. back extraction for 8 minutes [1] . Although several of the latter were specific Most lectins are non-enzymatic in action and either for blood type O or type A, or both type A non-immune in origin. Lectins occur and B erythrocytes, and one, from Dolichos ubiquitously in nature. They may bind to a biflorus, reacted much better with A1 soluble carbohydrate or to a carbohydrate moiety erythrocytes than with A2, only the extract from that is a part of a glycoprotein or glycolipid. Griffonia simplicifolia (previously known as They typically agglutinate certain animal cells Bandeiraea simplicifolia) exhibited almost and/or precipitate glycoconjugates [2]. exclusively type B specificity. Since then, additional hemagglutinins specific for blood Sugar binding and blood type specificity types A and O (but not B) have been discovered, In 1919, James B. isolated from jack bean as well as several for other blood types, such as (Canavalia ensiformis) a crystalline protein that N (Vicia graminea lectin), T (Peanut agglutinin, he named concanavalin A and in this way PNA) and Tn (the lectins of Vicia villosa and obtained a pure hemagglutinin for the first time. Moluccella laevis). However, nearly two decades passed before [3] The blood type–specific hemagglutinins played a reported that concanavalin A agglutinates cells crucial role in early investigations on the such as erythrocytes and yeasts and also structural basis of the specificity of the antigens precipitates glycogen from solution. They further associated with the ABO blood group system. In showed that hemagglutination by concanavalin the 1950s, Walter Morgan and Winifred. A was inhibited by sucrose, demonstrating for Watkins found that the agglutination of type A the first time the sugar specificity of lectins. red cells by lima bean lectin was best inhibited With much foresight, they suggested that the by α-linked N-acetyl-D-galactosamine and that hemagglutination induced by concanavalin A of type O cells by the lectin of L, tetragonolobus might be a consequence of a reaction of the plant was best inhibited by α-linked L-fucose. They protein with carbohydrates on the surface of the concluded that α-N-acetyl-D-galactosamine and red cells. α-L-fucose are the sugar determinants conferring Already the early results indicated some A and H(O) blood group specificity, selectivity in the ricin-induced agglutination of respectively. Both conclusions have been red cells from different animals. This substantiated by subsequent investigations [6]. observation was corroborated and further The pioneering work of Watkins and Morgan extended by Karl Landsteiner the discoverer of was among the earliest evidence for the presence the human A, B, and O blood groups in 1900. of sugars on cell surfaces and their potential Nearly a decade later he reported that the relative roles as identity markers, an accepted theme in hemagglutinating activities of various seed modern glycobiology. It took a while, however, extracts were quite different when tested with before the counter receptors for surface sugars, red blood cells from different animals [4]. that is, the endogenous lectins that recognize Because of this specificity, Landsteiner these sugars, were identified, the first being the concluded that the actions of plant mammalian hepatic asialoglycoprotein receptor . hemagglutinins resemble antibody reactions in The ability of plant agglutinins to distinguish all essentials. between erythrocytes of different blood types led The 1940s C. Boyd and Karl O. found that crude [7] to propose for them the name lectins, from extracts of the lima bean, Phaseolus limensis, the Latin legere. This term was generalized by and the tufted vetch, Vicia cracca, agglutinated all to embrace every sugar-specific agglutinins of blood type A erythrocytes but not blood type B nonimmune origin, irrespective of source and or O cells, whereas an extract of the asparagus blood type specificity [8]. Journal of Paramedical Sciences (JPS) Vol 4 (Winter 2013) Supplement ISSN 2008-4978 the limitation of only T-lymphocyte stimulation Mitogenic stimulation of lymphocytes and by PHA. Therefore, Pokeweed mitogen (PWM) agglutination of cancer cells which was known to stimulate T and B- Two major discoveries made in the early lymphocytes, and some other mitogens such as 1960s were instrumental in bringing lectins into Concavalin A(Con-A), lipopolysaccharide the limelight. The
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