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Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. Higher quality 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. Bell & Howell Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. HOORAY FOR HOLLYWOOD: GENDER AND SEXUAL NON-CONFORMITY LN THE CLASSICAL HOLLYWOOD ERA by Brett Leslie Abrams submitted to the Faculty of the College of Arts and Sciences of The American University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy [Education] in History i I Chair:lir: / a . Vanes«a Schwartz Q . >0ttglas GfomeryC # y{JrHL. 1 ___ Rodger SKreitmatter Dean or the College of Arts and Sciences Date 2000 The American University Washington, D.C. 20016 »• ^ • «»■ • -• ?3I7 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. UMI Number: 9983652 Copyright 2000 by Abrams, Brett Leslie All rights reserved. __ ___ <S> UMI UMI Microform9983652 Copyright 2000 by Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. © COPYRIGHT by Abrams, Brett Leslie 2000 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. HOORAY FOR HOLLYWOOD: GENDER AND SEXUAL NON-CONFORMITY IN THE CLASSICAL HOLLYWOOD ERA by Brett Leslie Abrams ABSTRACT Most historical scholarship has asserted that the mainstream motion picture industry has reflected and created images that promote very traditional gender roles and idealized versions of heterosexual romantic and sexual behavior. This study, however, takes issue with that belief. When filmic and extra-filmic representations of the motion picture industry in novels, motion pictures, and newspaper stories focusing on Hollywood between 1917 and 1941, a greater range of gender and sexual behavior appeared. A wide variety of these three media forms presented representations of people connected to the motion picture industry who adopted mannerisms of the opposite gender and exhibited romantic and sexual interest toward members of their biological sex. This dissertation argues that the depictions of nontraditional gender and sexuality played a significant role in Hollywood publicity. These images brought private activities into two public locations, a place in Hollywood and the mass media. The link between sexuality and both public locations reprivatized the image and offered audiences the thrill of receiving titillation and private information. ii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Hollywood developed a mystique as a special place, summarized in the phrase “dream factory of the masses.” This mystique, built by the movies and by the marketing of itself, occurred by showing motion picture celebrities in particular locations specifically associated with Hollywood or in places Hollywood “made” spectacular. Among the most prevalent locations were the nightlife locales, the celebrity home, the Hollywood party, and behind the scenes of the studio. This dissertation asks how these ambi-sextrous images help differentiate the representations of these Hollywood locations from the images of similar locations that also appeared in the mass media? The study also asks how these images of nontraditional gender and sexuality shaped the understanding of each of these locations and the mystique of the rich, exciting, and absurd Hollywood life style. This study observes that these images have implications for current celebrity and entertainment culture. These Hollywood images represent a precursor to the depictions of the private lives of celebrities that appear in abundance throughout current day mass media. Images of nontraditional sexuality in fictional characters is prevalent in today’s television programming. Like these Interwar Hollywood images, these televised depictions of gays and lesbians offer audiences peaks at the “exotic” while amusing them and enables these programs to distinguish themselves from other shows. iii Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS During the time that I have worked on this project, I have accumulated many debts. Each of the members of my dissertation committee, Douglas Gomery, Rodger Streitmatter, and my dissertation director, Vanessa Schwartz, deserve great thanks. Vanessa Schwartz has provided incisive and profound guidance. Her standards and expectations appear on each of these pages. My fellow students at American University also have offered invaluable assistance, particularly Debbie Doyle, Heidi Hackford, Uday Mohan, and Elizabeth Stewart. The American University History Department has provided significant help in several ways. Other scholars have done yeoman work in helping me understand and empathize with these representations, and I particularly want to thank Peter Hoefer, Patrick Loughney and Clay McShane. I also want to express my appreciation to the numerous librarians and archivists who helped with this project. I am grateful for the assistance that I received from the staffs at the Motion Picture Division of the Library of Congress, the Rosenbach Museum, the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, the Billy Rose Theatre Collection at the New York Public Library, the Los Angeles City Archives, and the American University Interlibrary Loan Department. My heartfelt thanks go to those people who have made my life rich and kept it sane during this process. My parents have provided financial and moral support. Many iv Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. friends have lent their ears and minds as I have worked through various issues. Joining Mr. Hoefer and my department friends among the amazingly helpful are Deborah Garcia, Cameron Fletcher, Tom Drymon, Daniel Emberley, Bill Hillegeist, Joel Denker, Jon-Carl Lewis, Jim O’Laughlin, Michael Seto, and Tim Tate. My deepest gratitude goes to Ira Tattelman, the man who gives me things that I can not put down on this page. V Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS....................................................................................................iv Chapter I. INTRODUCTION TO AMBI-SEXTROUS IMAGERY IN THE REFLECTIONS OF HOLLYWOOD..................................................................1 II. HOLLYWOOD NIGHTLIFE: CROSS DRESSING AND GENDER HIJINKS..................................................................................................................38 III. THE PUBLIC HOLLYWOOD PARTY: SPLENDOR AND DATING 96 IV. THE PRIVATE HOLLYWOOD PARTY: SECRET ROMANCE AND MARRIAGE............................................................................................. 121 V. THE HOLLYWOOD STAR HOME: CHIC BACHELORS AND ODD BED FELLOWS........................................................................................155 VI. HOLLYWOOD BEHIND THE SCENES: GLAMOUR AND MYSTERY IN THE WORKPLACE..................................................................212 VII. RECALLING POLYMORPHOUS IMAGERY FROM THE MARGINS............................................................................................................ 261 BIBLIOGRAPHY....................................................................................................................270 vi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO AMBI-SEXTROUS IMAGERY IN THE REFLECTIONS OF HOLLYWOOD We drank a couple of more rounds while Sammy told the girls what pals we had been in New York, and it was funny to see how he could carry himself

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