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Confronting Allosemitism in Europe Jewish Identities in a Changing World

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Confronting Allosemitism in Europe Jewish Identities in a Changing World Confronting Allosemitism in Europe Jewish Identities in a Changing World Series Editors Eliezer Ben-Rafael, Yosef Gorny, and Judit Bokser Liwerant VOLUME 21 The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/jicw Confronting Allosemitism in Europe The Case of Belgian Jews By Eliezer Ben-Rafael LEIDEN | BOSTON Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ben Rafael, Eliezer. Confronting allosemitism in Europe : the case of Belgian Jews / by Eliezer Ben-Rafael. pages cm. — (Jewish identities in a changing world, ISSN 1570-7997 ; volume 21) Includes bibliographical references. Summary: “Only a few decades after the Holocaust, Belgian Jews, like most European Jewries, are under the attack of forces stemming from a variety of sources. How do they confront and stand these new hardships? Research done all over Europe from 2012 through 2013 tried to answer this question. Among the cases investigated, the Belgian Jewry is one of the most interesting. It is both versatile and representative, revealing essential components of the general experience of European Jews today. Conceptual considerations pave the way to the study of their plight that has been, by any criterion, anything but “usual”. Belgian Jews, it appears, are “like” many other Jewries in Europe but “a little more”. They highlight the question: is allosemitism at all surmountable?”—Provided by publisher. ISBN 978-90-04-27405-1 (hardback : alk. paper) — ISBN 978-90-04-27406-8 (e-book) 1. Antisemitism— Belgium—History—21st century. 2. Jews—Belgium—History—21st century. I. Title. DS146.B4B46 2014 305.892’40493—dc23 2014006678 This publication has been typeset in the multilingual ‘Brill’ typeface. With over 5,100 characters covering Latin, IPA, Greek, and Cyrillic, this typeface is especially suitable for use in the humanities. For more information, please see brill.com/brill-typeface. issn 1570-7997 isbn 978 90 04 27405 1 (hardback) isbn 978 90 04 27406 8 (e-book) Copyright 2014 by Koninklijke Brill nv, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill nv incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Nijhoff, Global Oriental and Hotei Publishing. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill nv provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, ma 01923, usa. Fees are subject to change. This book is printed on acid-free paper. Contents Preface vii PART A Predicaments 1 1 A Sinuous History 3 From the Beginning 3 Enlightment and Fragmentation 7 Contemporary Challenges 12 In Conclusion 15 2 Antisemitism and Allosemitism 18 Antisemitism 18 Self-Hatred and Other Responses 26 Allosemitism 30 Conclusions 34 3 Contemporary Perceptions and Attitudes of Europe’s Jews 36 The Pew Research Center’s Portrait of Jewish Americans 36 JPR and FRA’s Survey 37 Perceptions of Antisemitism 40 Experiences of Harassment and Discrimination 43 Conclusions 46 PART B Facing Hostility 49 4 Belgian Jews: A Long Story 51 Ever Since the First Clues 51 Belgian Jewry Today 55 Sources of Antisemitism 57 Expressions of Judeophobia 60 Conclusion 66 5 The Belgian Sample 68 The Sample 68 What Jewishness Means 71 Belgian Identification and the Perceptions of Social Reality 74 vi contents Perceptions of Antisemitism 75 Experiencing Antisemitism 77 Conclusion 81 6 Social Features and Perceptions 83 The Impact of Age Differences 83 Education 88 Gender 93 Marital Status 95 In Conclusion 97 7 Origins of Jewishness and Community 99 The Eda Dimension 99 The Impact of Conversion and Mixed Parenthood 102 The Ecological and Linguistic Divide 108 In Conclusion 115 8 Religiosity and Antisemitism 117 Religiosity as Differentiation 117 Age and Religiosity 125 In Conclusion 131 PART C The Challenge 133 9 Belgian Jewry Compared 135 Summarizing the Data 135 Belgian Jewry among Europe’s Jewries 144 What We Learn 146 10 Neo-Jewishness and Allosemitism 149 A Personal Afterword 155 Appendix 157 1 The Questionnaire (excerpts) 157 2 Conversion and Mixed Parenthood—Impacts on Jewish Religiosity and Identification 177 3 Organizational Structures and Institutions of Belgium Jewry 180 References 182 Index 189 Preface This work analyses Belgian Jews’ perceptions of, and reactions to, present-day anti- semitism in their country. The data on which this book is grounded are drawn from a large-scale research conducted under the auspices of the European Union Fundamental Rights Agency (FRA). The survey took place during 2012–2013 and was led by the London Institute for Jewish Policy Research and carried out by the Ipsos MORI Agency. It covered a number of European Union countries that included France, the UK, Germany, Italy, Hungary, Sweden, and Belgium. Laura Staetsky and Jonathan Boyd of the IJPR coordinated the work and a number of researchers were in charge of the ques- tionnaire’s elaboration, followed the development of the research work in each coun- try, and analyzed its findings. This team comprised Erik Cohen (for France), Laura Staetsky and Jonathan Boyd (for the UK), Sergio Della Pergola (for Italy), Lars Dencik (for Sweden), Andrej Koczak (for Hungary), Olaf Gloeckner (for Germany) and the author of this volume, Eliezer Ben-Rafael (for Belgium). I am also especially grateful to Laura Staetsky for her cooperation in the composition of the specific JPR report about Belgium, her statistical assistance and the figures that she elaborated and which appear in this volume. I am also very grateful to Yasmin Alkelay for her precious statis- tical support. The survey data were publicized in November 2013 by the FRA, and several publica- tions are now in process by the IJPR and members of the team; they will come out during 2014 and 2015. The data concerning the Belgium case are presented, analyzed, and concluded in this volume. I am grateful to the heads of the IJPR for inviting me to join the team, giving me an opportunity to participate in this very first attempt to study how European Jews as a whole are reacting to their present-day predicament. This project, that encompasses the strongest Jewries of Western Europe, was solely enabled thanks to the determina- tion of the FRA to endorse it, and the EU Authority’s consent to fund it. It is their wish and will that made this endeavor possible and they deserve the gratitude of all the participant-researchers, the author included. This volume is but one block in a construction currently being built for the study of Jews’ reactions to the present-day revival of allosemitism in Europe. However, the case which it discusses here specifically, that of Belgium, is both versatile and representa- tive, and reveals essential components of the general contemporary experience of European Jews. As such, this study carries an overall analytical and theoretical significance. ∵ viii preface Part A, that opens this volume, consists of historical, conceptual, and methodological considerations as well as an overview of the pan-European FRA research. Chapter 1 introduces readers to the history of Jews on European soil, in which Belgian Jews play a part. This brief description is enough to reveal that the Jewish plight on this conti- nent has been, by any criterion, everything but “usual.” From the earliest stages, Jews frequently confronted conflictual circumstances and rough relations with neighbors leading to discrimination and persecution. These difficulties were duplicated over cen- turies and, from “antisemitism” to “allosemitism,” impelled scholars to forge special concepts to analyze the singularity of Jews’ predicaments—and their metamorphoses through the ages—in this part of the world. Those notions draw on a scrutiny of the far-reaching roots of the hatred of Jews, that culminated in the mid-twentieth century in the infamous war waged by the Nazis, across Europe and beyond, against the very existence of Jews. Chapter 2 discusses the paradoxical European-Jewish reality in the post-Holocaust years. Just a few decades after the Nazi assault on Jewry and some respite from anti- Jewish harassment, hatred of the Jew again started spreading throughout Europe. Researchers now speak of neo-judeophobia, anti-israelism, new antisemitism, and allosemitism, to refer to anti-Jewish phenomena that are appearing in different places, and stem out from new circumstances. It is from there that Chapter 3 focuses on the issues tackled by the FRA survey that now assume great importance: to what extent do Jews feel they are again the targets of special animosity? And if so, how do they react to this revived hatred toward them? This chapter presents major general findings of the pan-European survey. Among other aspects, it addresses Jews’ attitudes toward Jewishness itself, their understanding and experiences of present-day hostility toward them, and their reactions to it. Part B then focuses on Belgian Jews in particular. Chapter 4 introduces the case by tracing the historical background of this Jewry up to its general present-day configu- ration. Further on, the chapter cites some of the public expressions of hostility toward Jews that have multiplied in recent years and have often taken on highly viru- lent forms. Chapter 5 delves into the analysis of the FRA Belgian data and the set of questions that it investigated. Hence, it elaborates on what Jewishness means to Jews in Belgium; how they describe their society’s major features at this time of economic and social difficulties for Europe as a whole; if and how they perceive present-day antisemitism in their surrounding; if and how they experience it personally; and how they describe the impact of this presence on their life and their plans for the future.
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