Public design of case study

- focusing on park creation

Public Administration

Issues in Urban Policy

Prof. Kim HunMin

0578213 이동하 0978331 조연주

0978324 정예빈 0678067 김해람 Table of Contents

I. Introduction

II. Methodology

III. International Trend in Park design

1. Nature

2. People

3. Accessibility

IV. The histories of parks creation project that in Seoul

V. Successful urban parks in Seoul metropolitan area

1. Paris Park

2. Park

3. Seounyudo Park- Contemporary Sensation

4. Haneul Park (Sky Park)-the revival of Nanjido

VI. Conclusion

1. Parks currently built now

2. The elements that parks in Seoul should have

References

I. Introduction

We will look into the park composition policies in Seoul metropolitan area. Korea has developed economically so fast and Seoul was the center of such development. Land price has risen up and we felt the space was always not enough even for housing or offices. The most important value for the land usage was efficiency. The city went gray and packed with skyscrapers.

Metropolitan area has expanded, which made more difficult to reach green area.

Seoul citizens are enjoying affluent lives than ever before. We became to consider quality of lives as well as wealth. People got to have more leisure time and they wish to utilize it meaningfully. Citizens started to demand more green area to stay for their leisure. According to the Statistics of Seoul city government in 2008, the area of park per capita is 5m2. It’s almost only two thirds of recommended extent by UN affiliated organization FAO, which is 9m2. Elective local government officers listened to the demand of citizens more carefully to get citizens’ support.

Seoul city government and Gu-offices(구청) are building up parks around housing area more and more. Especially Seoul city government proceeds Design Seoul projects and tries to repair ecological axis in Seoul metropolitan area.

Many parks are being constructed fast and simultaneously. Some of them received favorable evaluation. Sometimes, however, we can see inconsistency between projects and notice elective officers focuses on making parks in very short time for just looking better. We need standards and basic concepts to create parks, which can enable citizens to feel intimacy to their city and community. We research the successful stories in foreign countries about making parks and find out what value they pursued for parks construction. We will also study Seoul cases containing what they did well or bad in specific situations of Seoul. And the direction or philosophy will be suggested to create better parks.

II. Methodology

First of all, we need to define what the park is. The definition of park could be various (Table 1). It could contain urban forest, tree-lined street, stream area, green fields in School campuses or mountains and hills in urban area. We will set the limit of park definition into urban forest. Especially, green field nearby streams is important but they will be excluded for detailed and specific research focusing on urban forest, which means Cheongae-cheon or Yangjae-cheon will not be covered in this research.

We will do documentary research with academic articles and landscaping architecture magazines and also research local government web pages to find out what is world trend of park construction in foreign countries. We will also look for what projects have done in Seoul and current projects, which are in process in Seoul in city government websites and domestic articles.

Institute Urban Forest Definition

USDA Forest Urban National Forests within 80km from city center with population over Service 1 million Space a part of artificial environment offering habitat for various wild DeGraaf(1974) animals in cities Shafer & Moeller Part of urban ecosystem consists of water, soil, wild animals nearby dense (1979) human residential area. Urban Forest in the US occupies 69 million acres, which contains street Glegg(1982) trees, school forest, urban parks, stream park, cemetery park and so forth. Miller From small community in rural area to metropolitan area with dense population. Urban forest near urban area with plants. (1988, 1997) Japan Ministry of Agriculture, Within 20km from city area with population over 100 thousand Forestry and Fisheries(1987) Japan MAFF green area difficult to secure consecutive existence (1999) Forestation Forest related to Urban environment protect and used for recreation Center(1983) under development pressure from the city. Japan Ministry of huge extent of forest near city or city suburb functions to protect wild construction animals and improve atmosphere of the cities. guideline(1993) Japan Urban Urban forest to protect wild animals and plants habitat Park Law Ordinances(1993)

Korea Forest Forest located in the city or gun according to administrative distribution Service(1997) Forest and field in city according to administrative categorization in YongHa Kim limited sense of the term (1998) Trees and forest spread out of the city according to administrative categorization in broad sense of the term ByeongSeol Open space and Green area created naturally or artificially with plants, soil Byeon et al. and water in urban area (2002) revised designated by National land usage plan law article 30 (국토의계획및이용에 urban park law 관한법률제 30 조) to protect nature environment in urban area, improve city scenery and prevent pollution and disaster (2003) Table 1: Park Definitions in Laws

source: The Policy Improvement for Urban Forests

III. International Trend in Park design

While many countries have struggled with bad economic and social circumstances during many years, they kept focusing on welfare of citizens. In this situation, construction of park is one of the most important welfare policies. The number of people who enjoy leisure time in their holidays has constantly increased. Except for nature parks in suburban area, artificial parks in the center of the city are also required by various people working and living in the city, from the poor to rich, young to older people.

Ruth suggested three international trends for ideal park construction in urban area in his article, which are Nature, People and Accessibility (Ruth.v.Rusell 2005). And we will use these major trend keywords as a framework to analyze parks in Seoul.

Figure 1. standards to analyze ideal parks

1. Nature

Many parks are constructed focusing on protecting and using nature resources like trees or a damp area around river. Contrast to the past when most parks are made by demolishing nature ground and then filling it with artificial things, nowadays, parks are constructed protecting natural resources. When parks are designed, protecting nature is considered as the most important part of design. Eco-friendly is also major concept in managing and construction of park.

Not only well protected nature, but building facilities running by environmentally friendly energy like, sun and wind energy is also important trends.(이훈범, 2006) National park pursues protecting nature. If we just want to protect nature from the people, closing the park would be the most effective way to protect nature. To improve practical using of park by opening to people, not just protecting them from people, parks need environment-friendly structure.

Here are some desirable park location standards as follows. The first one is closeness from neighborhood: linear green spaces designed to be accessible for people on foot and by bicycles. The second one is recycling unused or underutilized built environments as linear parks: for example, railroad beds, abandoned roads, utility pole rights of way, the underneath of highway overpasses, etc. In summary, protecting small size of green area in park and using environmental friendly facilities are major stream in world class parks. 2. People

People are major factor when we consider park formation. The most important goal of park should be increasing welfare of people who enjoy it. This concept is related to people’s lives and includes quality of urban life, special needs of young generation, leisure time, demographic and cultural diversity (Ruth. V. Rusell, 2005). Park should function as tools to improve quality of life positively. We tend to think of parks as decorations to make landscape look better. Parks should be a place for recreation of people who use there rather than decoration. Parks can contain programs and events to gather people and form community.

For example, Central park, one of the most famous parks around world, is located in middle of the New York City and it stretches north from mid-town for over fifty blocks and is the size of a small European kingdom. There are millions of joggers running around the park. And also many museums and other facilities in the park improve life quality and happiness of citizens.

The park is customer oriented and users create new way to use of park actively. In other words, people participate in creating park together. Central park, in New York city, shows how park can increases social welfare of people well.

3. Accessibility

In the past, parks were located in the suburban area reflecting an historical philosophy of parks as a social service. Is it still viable priority? It shows that recently parks are being constructed in the inner city. While land acquires for future new parks to take place inexpensive and convenient. For example, Buttes Chaumon park in Paris which is located in the center of the city, provides the pleasure of life, place to gather people and clean air pollution of the city. Paris citizens tried to change the place where had been filled with trash to the park filled with flowers, birds, trees and people who enjoy reading books and chatting each other. This kind of park makes view of gray and dark city better and people tried to find any place for green so the deserted and barren cities can be turn to the green room for citizen although this is not easy to find out. Park in the middle of city filled with trees and grass can release and heal stress of citizens who are suffering from hard working and air pollution. Also green zone of city diminishes air pollution in cities and people are exhausted from thousands of cars and factories around the city. In conclusion, nowadays many cities are trying to make park near residential area even if securing large enough space is difficult.

IV. The histories of parks creation project that in Seoul

It is usually considered that parks creation project in Korea has started to operate recently. The reason is that with the industrialization starting from 1960s, people only have thought about economic growth, devoted almost everything to economic growth and have no money to spend on resting place and also have no time to think about rest itself. So it looks like that we are interested in and start park creation projects only recently. But it’s not true. Although the park creation projects were not so active before modern times, there existed parks absolutely.

Beyond doubt there had been policies and management for parks with park creation projects.

In history, we can find resolutions of nowadays’ problems. In the same manner, tracing the history for most of parks creation project in Seoul, we are able to check its context and identity. Therefore, we will find how we can develop this context for further policies and projects.

And also, we will study the law and regulation in force which is related with parks. With these studies, we will be able to draw problems and the way of park creation projects.

In the Dynasty, there were few public parks. In Korea, however, 70% of land is mountain so we can expect there was low demand for parks. Instead there was a public office for managing mountains (박인재, 이재근, 2002). But particular legislation for park didn’t exist. There were only private parks, for example, Biwon for kings.

The initial modern park in Seoul (and also in Korea) is . It was created by King

Kojong at 1887. And Dokrip park, Jungdong citizen park were created because the royal family wanted to change environment when the Joseon Dynasty was threatened by Japan. In addition also for the foreign resident, several parks were created. (박인재, 이재근, 2002) The first policy for park creation is “Joseon city place law (조선시가지계획령)” by Japan when they ruled Korea at 1934 and as a result, at 1940 140 parks were planned but policy enforcer had made them shrines which are Japanese temples. (박인재, 이재근, 2002) Also, since forest business was taken charge by industrial section, park creation project was closely related with industry and a method for ruling colony.

After getting independence, Korean War and 4.19 revolutions took place and government couldn’t pay attention to park creation. In addition, the regulation of architecture in which allow shantytown was allowed in park as temporary buildings which were used by refugees if park would not be constructed within 3 years from planning and they would be demolished when park would be created. So the planned park areas were crowded with shanty town. (박인재, 이재근,

2002) In those days, there were so many things that the government had to solve and park creation project was in low priority.

Looking back the parks that were created until this point of time, these parks were not in accord with three points of world trend.

At 1962, after Park Jung Hee became president, the Korean economy started to improve and the policy for park creation was also improved. Finally City plan law(도시계획법) was legislated. But park creation was just a small part of it. At 1967, the law only for park was made which was named “Park law (공원법)” and other laws, for example Forest law (산림법), Country forestation temporary action law (국토녹화촉진에관한임시조치법) were made too. With these laws, organizations for parks became larger. At 1980, Park law was separated to Natural park law (자연

공원법) and City park law(도시공원법). It was very important opportunity to promote park making.

President Park was interested in making green space (called “녹화사업”) so 675 parks with the total area of 141.47km2 was created. At this time, City Park was just land that we couldn’t develop for houses or factory but it is worth noticing that area of parks was larger.

Around 1986~1988, there was big event, the Olympic and Asian games. For these international events, commemorative parks and others memorial areas were created. These were good examples of ‘parks for citizens’ because around parks, there were many apartments. But we assess that there was a lack of considerate ecosystem.

Going into 1990s, Seoul and other local governments have developped creative park policy. (김현식, 1998) At 1993, in the amended reformed City park law, Gym Park was included, so City park law’s boundary became larger. Also, it means that function for citizens was more included. Between 1998 and 2001, a plan for public and Forestation was main object. So and Sunyudo park were created. Sunyudo Park was made upon former landfill. The most important thing was when creating parks, private lands which are included in parks area can be compensated. Public’s right became being respected. And also, a lot of programs which public can participate had increased. Many parks which were located near residential area were created, for example, Yeouidopark, GilDong Eco Park. On the other hand, though considered consideration for ecosystem was not strong enough.

At 2004, budget for urban green space increased from 1% to 4.5% as compared with before the era of elected mayor (김현식, 1998). And Green city bureau (푸른 도시국) was established for operation of parks and development of marketing programs. Also, it was in charge of preservation of wild animals and plants and ecology tasks. We can find that attention for environment when making parks had increased.

In Korea, park was not for citizens and there were no philosophies. It was just for an ideological mean. Going in to 1990’s, at last, policy-makers and citizens have thought about park as place to relax. As time goes by, policies which consider citizen’s situation are made and many programs that citizens can participate have increased. And also gradually, ecology is considered when parks are created.

V. Successful urban parks in Seoul metropolitan area

In 2009, November The Korean Institute of Landscape Architecture and its affiliated organization, The Association for Research on Landscape Architecture Design surveyed number of landscape architecture design professionals as an effort to commemorate two hundredth volume of magazine: . Thereafter, the best top ten places were selected and were included in the article as the title of “Ten Places and Five Perspectives”. From an objective and somewhat subjective point of view five parks in Seoul metropolitan city were carefully chosen which is considered as significant to the development of park creation in Korea.

Moreover, comparing four urban parks listed with the world trend ideology on park that is predominant over the world currently, some of parks were consistent with the criteria of world park’s ideology and some even outstanding . It is cited in chronological order.

1. Paris Park

Paris Park was established in the year of 1986 as a monumental project for the centennial anniversary of Korea-France relations. Paris Park is located in the center of the Mok-dong apartment housing area, a core of the southwest region of Seoul. The construction began in 1986 and was officially opened in 1987 1st of July. In the year of 2004, the overall part of the park was gone through repair.

The three main philosophy of the park was a pursuit of aesthetic value of sculpture, an emphasis of everyday life, and experimentation on Koreaness. These three philosophies were considered as both experimental and provoking because most of urban parks in Korea was never designed but planned monotonously before the 1980’s. Most of urban parks in Korea had uniform structure and content, in a sense that parks in urban area should only provide green area to the public and that was the only and final purpose of park creation in 70s and 80s. Green grass in a given broad area, tall and big trees, small and same looking pavilions, benches and few exercise facilities were all that needed to form a park. In this sense, Paris Park can be regarded as changing paradigm in urban park formation in Korea (배정환, 2006). From the year of 1987 park was designed as one of the backgrounds of landscape architecture in a city view.

The park sets along a north-south axis which starts at the bottom of the left and ending at the top of the right of the fan shaped site. The park is consisted of three big parts: Seoul Madang, Paris Madang, and Hanbul Madang including the maintenance office. Seoul Madang symbolizes the host country, Korea and is located at the north end of the axis. Throughout the whole place it has red and blue artificial granite to represent Yin-Yang (Taegeuk) symbol which is traditionally Korean. Paris Madang symbolizing the guest nation France covers the end of southern part of the axis. It consists of the French special concept of squares, a contemporary style main door and the central yard. Finally, Hanbul Madang horizontally covers the central part of the park and the main symbolic road crosses through the maintenance office.

Paris Park has an intention of delivering a symbolic message to the citizens of Korea and its visitors. The message of the park is to confirm and strengthen the positive relationship between Korea and France after establishing diplomatic ties. Therefore, these symbolic park and its monuments that were situated in the place should had been somewhat authoritative (Park,

Joon-Seo, 2009). However, the challenge is to maintain symbolic meaning of these authoritative monuments and not losing the real intention of park: providing shelter in practical manner to the residence at the same time. In this sense, Paris Park is not exactly corresponds to urban park trend.

It seems the park was neither nature nor people oriented created in the standard and perspective of contemporary people. However, considering the fact that this whole project was planned in the mid and late 1980’s, it is still evaluated not as perfect but one of successful urban park built in that time.

2.

Yeouido Park was originally built as a plaza. Previous name was 5.16 or Yeouido plaza and It is a historical place where people gathered to have political demonstration. After Korean society achieved democracy, city government decided to create park here and reopened on 5th

July 1999. It functions very well as a green area for relax in grey skyscrapers forest of Yeouido financial business district. Daily visitors are almost from 25,000 to 50,000 according to a season. It is one of the biggest number than any other parks in Seoul. However, park design of Yeouido park has been criticized because of its greed.(Choi Jung

Min, 2005) Yeouido park tried to contain too many themes(Korean traditional style structures, asphalt paved ground, eco-friendly ponds and etc.) in it and they’re not intimately connected. City government understood the citizens’ needs of green area well but divided into too much small spaces. And this space lost the original and historical function as a plaza and functions of each space are well-planned by architectures. Citizens became to enjoy the structure passively and couldn’t make new community or creative way to use the space like before. Yeouido park lost the value of people according to the World Trend standard.

We can understand why Yeouido park was built like above, though. It was constructed over 10 years ago. At that time, securing green area was considered more important thing than keeping historical place. And public officers’ beauty sense was not much higher than the common people to choose the plan with philosophical design. Yeouido park design was chosen because it was considered beautiful for people of the day even though experts didn’t agree with it. And at that time many private companies suggested to develop underground of the park to build a shopping mall but city government kept the land open space without buildings, which was huge enough development in thinking space usage.

3. Seounyudo Park- Contemporary Sensation

Seounyudo Park is a primary landscape architecture that has brought change in the modern Korean landscape design, especially in the interior part. When designing Seounyudo Park at first, architects had faced numerous challenges in applying new concept of views and design of parks in the era of new paradigm of park creation. Those challenges were adapting cultural and natural environment to overcome dualism of human and nature, doing alternative experimentation to resolve crisis of traditional urban parks, adapting strategy of reusing post industrial site, and respecting time and recollection of memory by transcending form-oriented design. It basically was opening a sensational attraction ‘the sublime’, as an alternative to traditional landscape architecture beauty which depended on the beauty and the picturesque form of art (Bae Jeong-

Hwan, 2006). This was very sensational and modern.

Seonyudo Park was opened on April 26th, 2002 of seventeen months of construction. It is situated at the downstream of , so it provides the best view in Seoul- the panoramic view of Han River, the mountains surrounding the city, and the World Cup Park. Seonyudo Park has significant meaning in a sense that it was made utilizing the previous filtration plant on

Seonyubong, a hill. Since 1970, the Seonyu Water Purification Plant had been running for 23 years.

Therefore, it becomes Korea’s first recycling ecological park. The park emerged as the place for green lives through the renovation of the past water-purification plant structures. The place contains the past memories of filtration plant, offering spaces of repose and the education for environmental ecology. The design concept focused on following the way of nature by employing materials that are reflective to the passage of time in its aging process. By implementing those ideas Seonyudo Park received a number of awards which are the best architecture and landscape architecture award presented by Korea and world organizations including the best design award provided by American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) in 2004.

According to the official statistics of Seoul eight thousand people visit to Seonyudo Park daily in average. It is supposed that not solely because of the interior architecture design of the place but the public finally meeting the place where it reflects their likeliness and preference of parks, Seonyudo Park could be favored by the majority of public and represent Contemporary

Park. This can be a counterevidence that the public’s choice and taste already have been surpassed that of landscape architects’ professional knowledge in its field (Bae Jeong-Hwan, 2006).

However, urban park design in Seoul should not be relieved by the successful park design of

Seonyudo. In order to truly develop the park creation project in Korea is to create a park by rediscovering and reinterpreting situations and condition of given urban area in its culture.

Seounyudo Park can be highly evaluated in following the nature ideology of world trend, or went beyond the standard form of world trend of park. It did not demolish existing filtration plant facilities; instead, it incorporated the facilities into part of the park planning. This process can be evaluated as preserving the existing nature. It turned out to be successful because this ugly looking, giant structures was greatly harmonized which could have harm the landscape view of the park instead. In addition, Seounyudo Park can be evaluated as people oriented; it provides various kinds of museums, theatres, playgrounds, gardens and cafes where people with all different ages can enjoy and benefit.

4. Haneul Park (Sky Park)-the revival of Nanjido

The symbolic theme of Haneul Park would be ‘revival’. In the landfill area called Nanjido, soils and natural environment was completely abandoned. In 1993, the landfill was closed and the waste was covered with a 1-meter layer of soil mainly to block the odors by the Seoul

Metropolitan Government. In order to rejuvenate and revive a given area of 192,000m2, which is the most abandoned part of the landfill area (site 2), the Landfill Recovery Project was initiated.

Park needed to be artificially made through planting a grassy field. Accordingly, this park demonstrates how nature starts its life in a barren field.

Haneul Park is located in the highest point within the World Cup Park system. The most conspicuous characteristic of Haneul Park is its extensive pasture. The X-shaped park is divided into four areas along the ridgeline for the purpose of drainage. On the north and south sides, tall grass such as eulalia and cogongrass is planted, while short grass such as sunflowers and buckwheat is planted on the east and west sides. A natural ecosystem was finally established through releasing 30 thousand butterflies across the park. There are also five wind power generators installed in Haneul Park for the usage of nonpolluting energy resource for the street lamps at World Cup Park and the guard post. The main road steps to the summit of the hill are designed in the form of zigzag diamond structure to resemble flying kite somewhere like windy place like here.

Haneul Park, just as the name given for the park which means sky, is considered very exotic and special. When climbing up the park vertically, visitors can feel the sense of superiority and disparity of being at the highest point, above countless of apartments, buildings, automobiles, road, and smog etc. It feels obvious that park’s intention was to satisfy visitors by providing beautiful views of Seoul and its surrounding. However, it is important to know that its real intention was to deliver a symbolic message how nature revives in an abandoned and barren place. In the spot, the nature is only and the powerful subject. Nothing but the nature provokes visitor’s attention. One can feel law and rough image at the place which differentiates Haneul Park from all other urban parks below the surface of Seoul. That is what makes the place conspicuous and wondrous.

In strictly speaking, Haneul Park has low accessibility, because we have to climb up countless of stairs to reach the top. However, we have to consider one of the most important aspects of Parks in Seoul city, Korea that mountain can be very useful source when forming a park because 75% of Korea is covered with mountains. Therefore, part of the mountain or the whole mountain can be transformed into park. Knowing the fact, Haneul Park is also park designed on a hill of the mountain which maybe low in accessibility but definitely has numerous merits.

VI. Conclusion

1. Parks currently built now

The 4th elective mayor, Oh Sehoon had planed that Seoul city government would repair destroyed ecological axis by expanding green area up to 330m2 near residential areas. To achieve the goal, Green bureau released annual plan every year. According annual plan in 2010, Seoul city governments proceed 4 major park creation projects: Jungnang Camping Forrest, Green arboretum, Gyeongchoon closed line or Gyeongeui closed line area parks.

Jungang Camping Forrest and Green arboretum in Guro-gu are being created on greenbelt area. Because those areas were undeveloped before park creation, it is doubtful to say as repairing ecological system. Furthermore, partial land of Green arboretum was designated for

Boguemjari(보금자리) housing projects. The size of project reduced. Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs is making a Yongsan Park after removal

US army base camp. City governments and many national institutions are getting involved to make new land mark in Seoul such as Central park of New York. Recently media reports conflicts between institutions because they wish to push ahead according to their interest. Attention of citizens is needed to avoid wasting resources and land.

2. The elements that parks in Seoul should have

As shown above parks today are becoming, parks should exist not only for beautiful site of city for but place which can make close interaction between the citizen who use it. This characteristic of park can be defined as three words, global trend, which are nature, people and accessibility. Parks located in center of many high buildings and having great and huge – green zone can be used as place which can provide leisure of life and emotional stability to people who use it giving back real happiness of life. This is ideal and desirable form of park we should aim for.

Korea has made constant effort to increase the number of resting place, park in the industrial and urbanization process. Despite an increased reservation of green belt compared to the 60s and 70s, park businesses are still in process, many difficulties and problems remain.

First of all, considering limits related to nature we can find out that limits in two areas about protecting nature and environmental friendly parks. To improve exclusive green zone parks which have many trees should be increased and also the already existed green zone in the parks should be enlarged and well protected. Not only protecting and increasing green zone in park, parks run by eco-friendly facilities which can protect the nature. Many parks are building under the policy named as eco-friendly parks, however, this is questioned if this policy is really effective to make eco-friendly parks because many kinds of parks are mostly just showing off parks which are composed of artificial works that are not related to protecting environment even something can destroy nature remained. In summary, real nature in the parks means huge and well-protected green track of land, however, this is still deficiency part of parks of Korea.

Secondly, missing part of parks of Korea is related to people. Park policy of Korea has only focused on supply of parks as many as it can however, effort of managing parks as place for people by using it practically actively wasn’t enough because of short historical background of park which just has drastically developed since 70s. So, The policy of park just was limited to make better view of city not providing parks that have practical form to be used actively by people. To overcome this limitation, tiny place of city in city is used place for green by planting many trees and flowers and parks have to have more freely used-place for people who enjoying it then this problem can be solved. Also developing many programs and events which can offer to people who enjoy the parks making their own way to use is in priority. It is important task to study way to make parks as place for community.

Finally, considering in point of park inner city(accessibility), many park business of Seoul city has been processed under the title of increasing green zone in the city and now, this policy is proved showing the number of parks like hide park asnd huge park in the city. However, if considering form of housing in Korea accessibility of park is still low. So, green zone which can be used comfortably and easily by people should be increased. For this improvement, the way of turning tiny place and play ground of school to green zone has to be studied.

As we show the limitation and direction to be developed, park policy of Korea has increased quality of citizen and this way should go on. Also, Parks have to be built containing nature, people and history in long run view rather than just following the trend of park.

References Articles - Ruth V. Russell, Puvblic park and recreation trends: a status report, department of recreation and park administration Indiana University, pp. 3-4 김현식, 도시정책의 전개와 과제, 국토개발 연구원, 1998, pp. 156-58 김효수, 신문을 통해 본 조경의 정책과 인식 변화에 관한 연구: 1990-2005년 사이의 조선일보 기 사를 중심으로, 서울시립대, 2006 pp. 59-60, 64-65, 69, 74-75 김인호 외 2인, 효율적인 도시숲 조성 및 보전․관리를 위한 제도 개선 방안, 서울 그린트러스트, 2003, pp. 24-25 이범호, 문제는 보호야, 바보야. 중앙일보. 2006/p1-2 강태호, 공원녹지 관리의 중앙, 지방 정부의 역할/p1-2

Periodicals - Paul F. J. Eagles, International trends in park tourism, world park congress, September 9-18, 2003, pp. 2-4 박인재 외 1인, 서울시 도시공원의 변천에 관한 연구, 한국 정원 학회지 제20권 제4호 통권 제42 호, 2002, pp. 105-6 환경과 조경, 환경과 조경 편집부, 제 200호, 2004, pp. 50-61, pp. 80-82, pp. 112-16, pp.124-26

Official Release Copies - Seoul Green Bureau Work plan in 2010 (2010년 서울시 푸른도시국 업무계획)

Websites - Seoul Green Bureau Parks of Seoul http://parks.seoul.go.kr / http://parks.seoul.go.kr/eng/ Seoul Green Bureau http://www.seoul.go.kr/info/organ/subhomepage/green/index.html YongSan Park creation committee (용산공원조성 추진기획단) http://www.park.go.kr Seoul city government http://www.seoul.go.kr Jungnang-gu office http://www.jungnang.seoul.kr Guro-gu office http://www.guro.go.kr